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CHAPTER 1
Tank History, Typical
Configurations,
Locating, Sizing,
and Selecting
Ira M. Gabin, P.E.
Dixon Engineering
1
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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting
2 Chapter One
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 3
4 Chapter One
(0.75 to 2 mil gal [2.8 to 7.6 ML] or more) are generally single-pedestal
or fluted-column tanks. Some fluted-column tanks have even larger
capacities.
In the late 1980s, composite-tank technology combined a concrete
pedestal with the steel-bowl geometry of the fluted-column tank. This
addressed one of the concerns of the fluted-column design—the large
steel surface area and resulting higher repainting costs. Built generally
to hold 0.75 to 2 mil gal (2.8 to 7.6 ML) of water, composite tanks are
now in use throughout the United States and Canada.
Other materials and technologies are available for specialized ap-
plications. However, the steel, glass-lined steel, concrete, and com-
posite tanks discussed in this chapter comprise the large majority of
tanks currently in use and being specified for new construction.
Reservoirs
A reservoir is a ground-supported, flat-bottom cylindrical tank with a
shell height less than or equal to its diameter. Reservoirs are one of the
most common types of water storage structure. They are used as a part
of the distribution system as well as to hold treated water for pumping
into the distribution system. Of the three types of steel water tanks, a
reservoir, because of its low height, is generally the most economical
to fabricate, erect, and maintain. See Figs. 1-4 and 1-5 for a photo and
a cross-sectional view of a welded-steel reservoir; see Figs. 1-6 and 1-7
for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a bolted-steel reservoir. Table
1-1 gives typical sizes of welded-steel reservoirs, and Table 1-2 gives
capacities of glass-coated, bolted-steel reservoirs and standpipes.
Storage reservoirs for potable water are covered by roof structures,
which may be either column supported or self-supporting. Standard
tank accessories may include shell and roof manholes, screened roof
vents, inside or outside ladders, and connections for pipes as required.
Standpipes
Standpipes are ground-supported, flat-bottom cylindrical storage
tanks that are taller than their diameter. They are usually built where
there is little elevated terrain and where extra height is needed to cre-
ate pressure for water distribution. See Figs. 1-8 and 1-9 for a photo
and a cross-sectional view of a welded-steel standpipe and Figs. 1-10
and 1-11 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a bolted-steel stand-
pipe. Table 1-3 gives capacities and sizes of typical welded-steel stand-
pipes.
Standpipe systems are often designed so that the water in the tank,
until it reaches a certain low level, maintains the system pressure.
When that low level is reached, pumps come on, valving is changed,
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 5
Inlet–outlet
Splash (optional) Tank bottom Shell manholes
Column
pad Base elbow crowned (two required)
bases
or valve pit at center
Sand pad
Compacted backfill
6 Chapter One
Overflow
Floor sloped toward pipe
outlet pipe
Inlet–outlet Splash
pad
7
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8
Nominal Height (ft)∗
Nominal 15 19 24 28 33 38 43 47 52 57 61 66 70 75 79 84 89 93 98 102 107 112 116 121
Diameter
(ft)∗ Capacity in Thousands of Gallons†
14 16 22 27 32 37 44 49 54 59 65 70 75 80 86 91 96 101 107 112 117 122 128 133 139
17 24 31 39 47 54 63 70 78 86 93 101 108 116 123 131 139 146 154 161 169 177 184 192 199
20 33 43 53 64 74 86 96 106 117 122 137 148 158 168 179 189 199 210 220 230 241 251 261 272
25 54 71 88 105 122 142 159 176 193 210 227 244 261 278 296 313 330 347 364
31 81 107 132 158 183 212 238 263 289 320 340 365 391 416 442
36 114 149 185 220 256 292 327 363 398 434 469 505
42 151 199 246 294 341 388 436 483 531 578
50 218 286 355 423 491 559 628 696
62 326 326 428 530 632 734 836
70 421 553 685 816 948
81 567 744 921 1,099
90 691 906 1,122 1,337
101 874 1,147 1,420
120 1,247 1,637
∗
To convert feet to meters, multiply by 0.3048.
†
Capacity in thousands of gallons. To convert gallons to cubic meters, multiply by 0.0037854.
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 9
FIGURE 1-8
Welded-steel
standpipe with
decorative
pilasters.
and water is pumped from the lower portion of the standpipe into the
system.
As with reservoirs, steel standpipes are covered with a roof struc-
ture and may be provided with ornamental trim. Standard accessories
may include shell and roof manholes, roof vent(s), a fixed outside
ladder, and connections or pipes as required. Inside ladders are not
recommended in locations where freezing weather can be expected.
10 Chapter One
Roof vent
Roof plate
Roof manholes
Overflow pipe
Tank bottom
crowned at center
Inlet– outlet
(optional)
Base elbow or Splash
Shell manholes valve pit pad
(two required)
Concrete
foundation Sand pad
Crushed rock or gravel
Compacted backfill
or undisturbed soil
Internal
overflow
funnel
Gravity
Roof access Top
ventilator
elbow
Overflow
pipe
Inlet–outlet
Splash
(optional)
pad
12 Chapter One
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 13
Butt-welded
tank shell
1⁄4-in. (6.4-mm)
Column
base lap-welded
bottom plate
FIGURE 1-12 Tank with column- and rafter-supported cone roof. (Source:
AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)
Capacity
Channel level
Radius rafter
One or more
supporting
columns
Butt-welded
tank shell
Column ¼-in. (6.4-mm)
base lap-welded
bottom plate
FIGURE 1-13 Column- and rafter-supported roof with knuckle. (Source: AWWA
Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)
14 Chapter One
Top
angle
Capacity level
Sp 1.2 0 D
= .8
he D . m
ric . m in.
0
al ax
ra .
di
us
Butt-welded
tank shell
1⁄4-in. (6.4-mm)
lap-welded
bottom plate
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 15
le
ck
u
Capacity level
Kn
Butt-welded
tank shell
1⁄4-in. (6.4-mm)
lap-welded
bottom plate
Elevated Tanks
An elevated steel water tank has two primary components: the tank it-
self and its supporting structure. Such tanks are ordinarily used where
there is insufficient elevated terrain to ensure distribution of water at
suitable pressure by gravity. These tanks are of welded construction.
Elevated tanks can be categorized into several different types. The
various diameters and head ranges for the tanks described in the re-
maining figures and tables in this chapter are only representative and
may vary with individual fabricators. Specific diameter/head range
combinations should be determined by the tank fabricator within the
limits indicated in the tables. Height should be specified by the pur-
chaser as the dimension between the top of the foundation and the top
capacity level of the tank. Further dimensions, which are a function of
the fabricator’s standard, should not be specified. To minimize cost,
desired operating ranges should be specified to fall within standard
available tank dimensions. However, individual operating needs may
dictate nonstandard operating ranges.
16 Chapter One
FIGURE 1-16
Double-ellipsoidal
tank. (Photo: Gay
Porter DeNileon,
AWWA)
top capacity level (TCL) in the roof several feet or meters above the
top of the cylindrical shell. Although in the past they were constructed
in capacities up to 1 mil gal (3.8 ML), today, double-ellipsoidal tanks
are typically constructed only in capacities of 200,000 gal (760,000 L)
or less. See Figs. 1-16 and 1-17 for a photo and a cross-sectional view
of a small-capacity elevated (double-ellipsoidal) tank. Table 1-4 gives
capacities and sizes of typical double-ellipsoidal elevated tanks.
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 17
Diameter
Head
range
Balcony or
stiffening girder
Purchaser to specify
As required
18 Chapter One
FIGURE 1-18
Medium-capacity
welded-steel
elevated tank.
(Photo: Gay Porter
DeNileon, AWWA)
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 19
Head
Range
Balcony or
Purchaser to specify
stiffening girder
As required
6 in. min.
20 Chapter One
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 21
Diameter
Head
range
Purchaser to specify
As required
22 Chapter One
FIGURE 1-22
Spherical
single-pedestal
tanks give pleasant
silhouette. (Photo:
Walter Baas,
AWWA)
Diameter
Head
range
Purchaser to specify
As required
23
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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting
24 Chapter One
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 25
26 Chapter One
Diameter
Head
range
Access
tube
Purchaser to specify
As required
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 27
Acquiring Land
r What is the cost of the tank site being considered? Is the land
even available?
r What is the cost of connecting water mains and permanent
electrical power at each site being considered?
Zoning
r Is a zoning map available, and are the potential sites zoned
to allow a tank project?
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
r Would the FAA allow a tank at the required height to be built
on the potential site?
r Are obstruction lights or FAA painting required on the tank
at the potential site?
Size of Site
Is the site large enough for
r Erection equipment, steel storage, staging operations, ground
assembly, and crane operations with a safe and adequate dis-
tance for items that may be dropped from the tank during
erection?
28 Chapter One
Diameter
Head
range
Purchaser to specify
As required
Fluted
column
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 29
30 Chapter One
Upper roof
cone
High water
line
Concrete
support dome
Concrete column
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 31
r If pile driving is required, will it disturb or cause failure of or
damage to neighboring foundations or other structures?
r Will pile driving, excavation, steel erection, or abrasive blast-
ing cause noise unacceptable to a neighbor such as a school,
hospital, or nursing home?
r Will the tank be in an area frequented by small children or
vandals and, if so, could this be mitigated by site fencing?
Environmental Assessment
r Has an environmental assessment been completed on the site?
r What agencies, forms, and permits may be required, and how
long will approvals take?
NIMBY (Not in My Backyard)
r Will the tank obstruct the view of historical landmarks or
other items of concern to the citizens?
r How sensitive are the neighbors to having a tank in close
proximity?
Determining answers to these questions can help you to better
analyze and compare costs of alternate sites, so you can select the
most desirable location for your new tank. Additionally, you will want
to understand and consider the following criteria during your site
selection.
Hydraulics
Other issues that affect site selection include the required pressure
at hydrants and residences, the required site elevation, compatibility
with the distribution system, the geographic size and location of the
demand area, and the tank’s proximity to the water supply. Rules of
thumb for required water pressure are shown in Table 1-10. Check the
local standards or codes for more specific requirements.
One hundred sixty-two US and Canadian water utilities re-
sponded to an AWWA network modeling survey that requested the
actual minimum and maximum distribution system pressures that
Pressure
Location (psi/kPa) Comments
At hydrants 35/241 20-psi (0.138-kPa) minimum at
during fire flow other fire hydrants not directly
conditions serving the fire
Residential 50–75/ Higher pressures may need to
0.345–0.517 use a pressure-reducing valve
32 Chapter One
60 60
62%
Percent
Percent
25% 110–129 psi
55%
34% 30–39 psi
40 40
20 20
23% 20–29 psi 15% 70–89 psi
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 33
or
Height (for 50 psi [345 kPa] minimum)
50 psi [345 kPa]
= = 115.4 ft [35.1 m]
(62.4 lb/ft3/144 sq in./sq ft)
34 Chapter One
Reservoir
115 ft (35 m)
tank is emptied during the day; water demand peaks sometime be-
tween 5 p.m. and 9 p.m.
Electric utilities charge more for electricity during their peak de-
mand period (see sample rates in Fig. 1-34). By overlaying the sample
electric rates on the water usage graph (Fig. 1-35), one can see that the
peak demands for electricity and water occur about the same time of
day. Using these data, one can make the following calculations:
Peak demand
Filling tank
Usage rate
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 35
$0.14
$0.12
Average cost per kilowatt-hour
$0.10
$0.08
$0.06
$0.04
$0.02
$0.00
Midnight 3:00 A.M. 6:00 A.M. 9:00 A.M. Noon 3:00 P.M. 6:00 P.M. 9:00 P.M. Midnight
Time
In this case, utility costs during peak demand are almost 75 percent
more than the cost of the average rate used to fill the tank, while even
nonpeak costs are about 60 percent more. These calculations should
be modified for your system using your local daily water usage and
utility rates. Regardless of the local factors, pumping during peak
$0.14
Peak demand
$0.12
Average cost per kilowatt-hour
Emptying
tank
$0.10
Constant pumping rate
$0.08
Filling tank
$0.06
Usage rate
$0.04
$0.02
$0.00
Midnight 6:00 A.M. Noon 6:00 P.M. Midnight
Time
36 Chapter One
Gravity flow One can save these peak-demand electricity costs by peak
shaving. To peak shave, start by locating a ground storage tank on the
side of a hill, or build an elevated tank or standpipe. A smaller pump
can then be used to pump the water up into the tank during the night
and early morning at a constant rate when electricity rates are much
lower. Then, during the demand period, water can be provided at the
needed pressure by using gravity flow. This avoids the much higher
electricity rates during this time period and allows use of a smaller,
less costly pump.
Because of these advantages, gravity flow is the preferred method
of providing water pressure. If possible, place the tank on a hill or
elevate it to take advantage of this method.
The ideal location: For any type of storage tank, the ideal location
is on a hill that is in the middle of the demand area and is owned by
the community.
Proximity to Users
When choosing a site for a new water-storage tank, the prospective
tank owner should consider the growth in residential demand (single-
family, multifamily, and high-rise structures) and commercial demand
(industry, schools, and hospitals). A new residential development on
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 37
the north side of the service area and a new tank on the south side
would result in very little water pressure for residents of the new
development. The ideal situation is to construct a new water-storage
tank in the service area before the area experiences population growth
and buildup. This way, you have a better chance to get the right piece
of land at the right time and at the right price.
Acquiring Land
When acquiring land, the prospective tank owner must consider the
availability and suitability of the land for a tank project; the costs for
the land, required support utilities, and the length of connections to
the existing distribution system; and the surrounding conditions.
NIMBY (not in my back yard!) One of the biggest issues that a water
utility can face when attempting to locate a new water-storage tank is
the public concern of NIMBY! Despite these concerns, even the most
appearance-conscious communities can agree to a mutually beneficial
solution to this stumbling block. The following are some successful
approaches to be used in overcoming public concern:
Zoning Regulations
Once a site has been located, check on the zoning of the selected site
to ensure that it is currently zoned for this use or can be rezoned.
Obtaining proper zoning for a water tank is typically more difficult in
a residential area than in an industrial area or in an area near public
facilities such as schools, government property, and airports.
Often, schools are built in the areas of population growth, and
the school yard may make a good site for a tank. There are many
aesthetically pleasing tank styles that limit access.
38 Chapter One
FAA Considerations
Forms must be completed and filed with the Federal Aviation Ad-
ministration (FAA) to establish whether a tank can be built on the
chosen site at the required height. The FAA is concerned about any
obstruction to its airspace 200 ft (61 m) above ground level and
any obstruction within an approach pattern to an airport runway.
Lengths of approach pattern vary depending on the size of the air-
port, the length of the runway, and the direction of the runway, as
follows:
r Large airport: No obstruction that exceeds a 100:1 surface
within 20,000 ft (6.1 km) of an airport having at least one
runway >3,200 ft (>975 m).
r Small airport: No obstruction that exceeds a 50:1 surface within
10,000 ft (3 km) of an airport whose longest runway is <3,200
ft (<975 m).
r Heliport: No obstruction that exceeds a 25:1 surface within
5,000 ft (1.5 km) of a heliport.
If the FAA determines that the tank will be in the approach pattern,
the tank may have to be equipped with aviation lighting or painted
in a special aviation warning paint scheme. The most common of the
aviation paint schemes is the red-and-white checked pattern found
on tanks near airports.
The following circulars, forms, and information regarding ob-
struction evaluation and airport airspace analysis are available on the
FAA Web site (https://oeaaa.faa.gov):
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 39
Size of Site
Tank constructors recommend that the distance from the edge of the
tank to the site boundary be a minimum of 50 to 75 ft (15.24 to 22.86 m).
A tank may be constructed on a smaller site, but it will require extra
handling and planning to stage materials in a disciplined sequence.
Eliminating space constraints enables the tank contractor to build the
tank more efficiently and can reduce costs up to a point.
Take into consideration the space needed for the following:
r Material storage during construction
r Erection and painting operations
r Support facilities such as pump houses, valve vaults, and
parking areas
r Future maintenance and repainting
r Placement of tank at safe distance from private property and
utilities.
40 Chapter One
Topography
The tank site can have a major influence on the cost of construction
and on design details for the foundation. The site should allow good
drainage away from the foundation(s), provide a level working sur-
face for construction, and have some type of erosion protection. Stand-
ing or ponding water on the site can add dewatering costs to the project
and may even require changes to the foundation design, leading to
added costs. Consider these added costs when evaluating sites.
Access to Site
Access to the tank site is an important aspect of site selection. Devel-
opers and residents often want the tank to be located in the back of
the development, away from the streets or even in off-road remote lo-
cations. This poses a problem getting the large trucks and equipment
required for construction to the tank site.
Other things that must be considered when assessing site ac-
cess are the distance from paved roads, permanent versus temporary
roads, accessibility by large trucks, and securing temporary easements
for site access during construction, if needed. The best site access is
via a permanent road up to the tank. The most economical means
of achieving this is to put the tank access road in with the original
subdivision roads.
Soil Conditions
A full soil investigation should be conducted before the final site is
chosen and certainly before it is purchased. The soil assessment will
determine whether the soil is adequate to support the tank and its
contents and what type of foundation must be designed. Some sites
may require deep foundations (piles or drilled piers) that could add
significant costs to the design and construction of the tank.
The soil investigation will provide needed information about the
following issues:
r Soil bearing capacity (how much of a load the can soil support)
r Site classification for seismic design
r Excessive or uneven settlement
r Water table elevations
r Rock elevations if present
r Site history
r Substrata conditions
r Slope stability
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 41
size of the site required. For example, with a 1:1 slope stability and
a 50-ft (15.24-m)-diameter foundation with the required soil bearing
15 ft (4.57 m) down, the minimum size of the hole for the foundation
would be 15 ft + 50 ft + 15 ft = 80 ft (4.57 m + 15.24 m + 4.57 m =
24.38 m). To this, one would have to add room for digging equipment
and room to store the excavated material on site.
The results of the soils investigation can affect the design and
costs of both the foundation and tank to such an extent that one could
actually save money on the overall project by paying more for a site
with better soil conditions. It is prudent to make the site purchase only
after you have received the results of the soil investigation.
Obstructions/Hazards
Obstructions that must be avoided include overhead power lines,
underground utilities, and existing structures. OSHA (Occupational
Safety and Health Administration) and many tank contractors spec-
ify safe minimum work distances required from power lines depend-
ing on what voltage the lines carry. Construction hazards may in-
clude abrasive blasting, painting, pile-driving vibration, noise, and
fire.
Waves and energy produced by AM antennas comprise one of
the least understood obstructions. AM antennas are typically the tall,
slender, red-and-white antennas that do not have dishes or whip an-
tennas hanging off of them; the entire structure acts as the broadcast
antenna. On the electromagnetic spectrum, AM waves are the longest
waves generated and can be from 656 to 1,968 ft (200 to 600 m) long.
These long waves carry energy. Metal objects used in tanks or tank
construction such as rebar, steel plate, and even crane lines can act
as receiving antennas that collect and store the AM wave energy. If a
grounded worker touches these energized metal objects, the collected
energy is released, possibly shocking the worker and making the work
site unsafe. Whether the AM antenna has any effect on your tank site
depends on how far the antenna is from your tank, what power it is
broadcasting at, and whether it is a directional or nondirectional an-
tenna. At the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Web site
(www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/amq.html), one can insert the latitude and
longitude of the centerline of the tank (also used in the FCC submit-
tal) and use the “Stations within a Radius” input. The Web site will
indicate if any AM antennas are present. If so, station details will
indicate whether the transmission location is directional or nondirec-
tional. Problems can be present for distances up to 0.6 mile (1 km) for
nondirectional and 1.9 miles (3 km) for directional antennas. If you
encounter an AM antenna that might be a problem and are seriously
considering the site in question, you may want to hire a specialist to
further examine the situation.
42 Chapter One
Current average daily use This is the amount of water used on average
in a 24-hour period. Calculate this by determining the average water
usage currently per person and multiply this by the number of people
that the new area currently serves.
Fire flow demand To the current average daily usage add an additional
one-half to one-third of the current average daily usage. This figure
varies depending on the local codes and standards. One should also
check the requirements of the Insurance Service Organization (ISO)
(www.iso.com) and other local standards and codes.
r Maintenance and piping breaks: As a contingency measure, con-
sider adding 10 percent, plus or minus, to provide extra stor-
age if the service area distribution piping has leaks.
r For future demand, project the future population for the ser-
vice area and then multiply that by the current average daily
water use in gallons (liters) per person. An alternate method
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 43
ire
Washin ampsh
g ton New H nt
North Vermoia
Minnesota
Montana ine
an Ma
Dakota nsylv
Orego
n Pen
n
South Massachusetts
i sc
ichiga
Idaho
ork
New Y
on
Dakota Rhode Island
Wyoming
si n
Connecticut
Indiana M
Iowa New Jersey
Nevad Nebraska
a OOhhiioo District of Columbia
Utah Illinois Delaware
Ca Colorado Maryland
lifor Kansas ia
nia Missouri Kentu
cky Virgin West
North Virginia
Ten nes see Carolina
Arizona New
as
Oklahoma South
ns
Mexico
Alabama
Missssippi
ka
Carolina
Ar
Georgia Water withdrawals
Lo
Texas
uis
in milion gallons
Hawaii
ian
per day
Flo
a
0 to 2,000
r id
Alaska
a
U.S.Virgin Islands 2,000 to 5,000
5,000 to 10,000
10,000 to 20,000
Puer to Rico 20,000 to 52,000
Source: US Geological Survey Circular 1268
Turnover Tanks sized to meet peak demand must also have adequate
turnover when demand for water is not at a peak. Unused water can
become stagnant, generating unwanted tastes and odors. In cold cli-
mates, lack of turnover can cause tank icing. Water turnover problems
can be solved by filling the tank to a lower capacity that matches the
reduction in demand or by adding a recirculation system. Addition-
ally, several mixing systems are available that can create a more uni-
form residual chlorine content, reduce stagnation, and help prevent
the generation of unwanted tastes and odors.
44 Chapter One
Soil bearing The tank foundation and ultimately the soil must sup-
port the weight of both the water and the tank. Each cubic foot of water
weighs 62.4 lb/ft3 . The calculation of the weight of a 1-ft2 column of
water from the bottom of the tank to its top capacity height can give
one an idea of the weight that must be supported. A sample calcula-
tion for a 40-ft (12-m) column of water would be 40 ft × 62.4 lb/ft3 =
2,496 lb/ft2 or about 2,500 lb/ft2 . So, if a 2,500-lb/ft2 soil bearing is not
available at the tank site, various foundation types could be evaluated
to support the column height of water needed. Deep foundations or
large mats may increase costs to the extent that it may actually be more
economical to either change the height of the tank or evaluate other
sites with higher soil bearing values.
Earthquake Typically, the taller and thinner the tank, the more that
earthquake may affect the design.
Wind The taller and wider a tank, the more wind may affect the
design.
Here are some examples of diameters (D) and heights (H) of
ground storage tanks with typical design conditions that might make
them more economical:
Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g 45
Aesthetics/Appearance
The aesthetic appeal of a new water-storage tank is often one of the
most talked-about elements of tank selection. The public may want
a tank that will blend into its surroundings, or be a highly visible
landmark for the community, or match the system’s existing tanks.
The tank owner and security personnel may want to place the tank
on a more visible site that can be readily secured and monitored. This
decision must be handled on a case-by-case basis.
Ornamental Tanks
Highly stylized ornamental tanks can provide community or com-
pany identity and advertisement, be more aesthetically pleasing, or re-
solve NIMBY issues. Unique, decorative tanks have been constructed
in many areas and, although more costly to construct, they are often
landmarks in which the community takes pride.
Economics
Although the initial cost of constructing a tank has a significant eco-
nomic impact, the tank’s operating cost, reliability, and maintenance
requirements must also be considered.
Special Needs
Sometimes communities have special needs or desires; for example, a
community may want to house the fire department in the base of the
46 Chapter One
Liability
To limit liability, tank owners seek methods to control access. Some
styles of tanks—such as single-pedestal spheroid, fluted-pedestal, and
composite elevated tanks—do not have exterior ladders, thereby effi-
ciently limiting access. On legged or ground tanks, ladder guards can
be installed that limit access to the ladders.
Life-Cycle Costs
Anticipated need for and scheduling of tank repainting and mainte-
nance are important considerations. The style of tank, its surface area,
and the type of surface all directly influence maintenance costs.
CHAPTER 2
Selecting and
Specifying
Appurtenances
William B. Harper, P.E., Andre Harper,
and Krista L. Harper, P.E.
Harper and Associates
47
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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances
48 C h a p t e r Tw o
Ground-Supported Tanks
Welded-Tank Shell Manholes
For safety and ease of interior access during construction activities and
maintenance inspections, at least two opposing shell manholes are
required on welded ground-supported tanks for ventilation during
interior coating operations. On tanks more than 100 ft (30.5 m) in
diameter, it may be desirable to have three or more shell manholes,
keeping the maximum circumferential spacing at 100 ft (30.5 m) or less.
AWWA D103 requires only one shell manhole on bolted tanks because
a tank panel can be removed to provide additional ventilation, but the
specifier may elect to provide additional manholes.
3/8
A A
Front elevation
Typical
3/8
Section A–A
1/4
Typical
FIGURE 2-1 Inward-opening shell manhole detail. (Source: AWWA Manual M42,
Steel Water-Storage Tanks)
Tank shell
plate
1/4
See Detail A
Machine flange
face full width
Weld before
machining
er
Detail A
et
m
ia
Roll reinforcing
d
C.
1/4-in. (6.4-mm)
hole on horizontal
centerline
Front elevation
A
Tank shell plate
Floor assembly plate Side elevation
A
Bolt holes
equally spaced 1/4
to straddle centerline
See Detail A
Isometric blowout Section A–A
50 C h a p t e r Tw o
Shell
Section A–A
3 ft (0.9 m)
Bottom plate
Note: Refer to API Section 650, Figure 3-8 Flush-Type Cleanout Fittings
and Tables 3-11, 3-12, and 3-13
(API) Standard 650 for details and design requirements. Although the
flush-type manhole is permitted in the AWWA standards, its use is not
recommended in high-seismic regions where the additional stiffness
of the reinforcing may cause stress concentrations or buckling in an
earthquake.
Reinforcing
The shell plates where the manholes are located shall be reinforced to
comply with AWWA D100 Section 3.13.2.5, and all portions of the
manholes (including reinforcing of the neck, the bolting, and
the cover) shall be designed to withstand the weight and pressure
of the tank contents.
Flush Manholes
Flush rectangular manholes (rectangular manholes mounted flush
with the bottom of the tank) having a minimum length of 24 in. (610
mm) in the short direction and a maximum length of 48 in. (1,220
mm) in the long direction are also available. Such manholes are useful
when a tank interior is being cleaned. Refer to AWWA D100 and API
Standard 650 for details and design requirements.
Reinforcing
The shell plates where the manholes are located shall be reinforced to
comply with AWWA D103 Section 3.11, and all portions of the man-
holes (including reinforcing of the neck, the bolting, and the cover)
shall be designed to withstand the weight and pressure of the tank
contents.
Pipe Connections
The number of tank-bottom or shell-piping connections should be
kept to a minimum. The earlier practice was to use a common in-
let/outlet drain connection through the tank bottom or on the tank
shell (Figs. 2-4 and 2-5). If a bottom connection is used, a removable
section of pipe 6 to 8 in. (150 to 200 mm) long may extend above the
outlet at floor level to serve as a silt stop. The drainpipe shall be re-
cessed to aid in draining the tank. Recent requirements concerning
minimum and maximum detention time during which the water re-
mains in the tank may require separate inlet and outlet connections.
Baffles and flow diverters are also used to control detention time.
1/4 (typ.)
52 C h a p t e r Tw o
Plan
Elevation
Silt Stop
If a removable silt stop is required, it shall be at least 4 in. (102 mm)
high, and the fitting or piping connection shall be flush with the tank
floor when the stop is removed. If a removable silt stop is not required,
then the fitting or connecting pipe, or both, shall extend above the floor
at least 4 in. (102 mm).
Drain Sump
To facilitate a more efficient and expedient removal of residual water
remaining on the tank bottom after draining the tank, a new drain
and a sump 3 ft (914 mm) in diameter by 6 in. (152 mm) deep shall be
installed. The drain sump shall be covered with a slip-type or hinged,
grated cover that can be easily removed or opened during mainte-
nance intervals.
Shell Connections
Shell connections are permitted as long as the purchaser makes ade-
quate provisions to protect the pipe from freezing or vandalism and
provides adequate pipe flexibility to account for shell rotation and de-
flections of the shell when the tank is filled and drained. These include
sample taps, disinfection fittings, and fire-hose fittings for the interior
and exterior.
Piping Flexibility
Special piping flexibility to accommodate seismic movements and set-
tlement in the piping system shall be provided to protect the connec-
tion to the shell. AWWA D100 defines the distance from the shell
intersection that through-the-tank-bottom piping connections may be
located on unanchored tanks designed for seismic conditions. Bot-
tom connections shall comply with AWWA D100 Section 13.5.1 as a
minimum. Underbottom connections are not recommended on tanks
in high-seismic zones. Tank sliding or uplift may impose additional
stress on the connection and tear the bottom. Sidewall connections,
which can readily be inspected after a seismic event, are preferred.
Overflows
A properly sized overflow is essential to protect the tank structure
from excessive water levels caused by rapid variations in distribution
system conditions. Exterior overflows are recommended. In colder
climates, ice buildup on an internal overflow may become a problem
and eventually break the overflow pipe. Overflow waters should be
directed beyond the exterior perimeter of the tank to prevent damage
to the tank grade or foundation during overflow. Most state stan-
dards recommend that the overflow on elevated tanks be extended
down the side of the tank to within approximately 12 to 24 in. (305
to 610 mm) above grade. Extending the overflow pipe prevents water
discharged from the pipe from freezing on the tower structure and
damaging it. In addition, most governing agencies require an air gap
between the overflow tank piping and final drainage system to pro-
tect against backflow. Figure 2-6 shows one type of overflow-pipe air
gap. Most states require a screen or flap/gate arrangement over the
end of the pipe connected to the tank and a removable grate on the
bottom portion of the pipe. The valve shall be a flanged passive check
opening with 2 in. (51 mm) of water and shall be able to withstand zero
backpressure. As distribution systems and pumping capacities are in-
creased, the vent and overflow capacities of existing tanks should be
54 C h a p t e r Tw o
FIGURE 2-6
Overflow air break
with flap valve.
(Source: AWWA
Manual M42, Steel
Water-Storage
Tanks)
Welded-Tank Overflow
An overflow protects the tank from overpressure, overload, and pos-
sible catastrophic failure should the pumps or altitude valve fail to
shut off when the tank is filled to capacity. A properly operated tank
should not overflow during normal operation. An overflowing tank
is an emergency, and the malfunction causing the overflow should be
determined and corrected as soon as possible.
The tank shall be equipped with an overflow of the type and
size specified by the purchaser. If a stub overflow is specified, it shall
project at least 12 in. (305 mm) beyond the tank shell. If an overflow
to ground is specified, it shall be placed down the side of the tank
shell and supported at proper intervals with suitable brackets. The
overflow discharge shall be located such that it will not be obstructed
by snow or ground clutter. The overflow to the ground shall discharge
over a drainage inlet structure or a splash block. It shall originate at the
top in a weir box or other appropriate type of intake. A top stiffener
shall not be cut or partially removed. The overflow pipe and intake
Bolted-Tank Overflow
The tank shall be equipped with an overflow of the type and size spec-
ified by the purchaser. If a stub overflow is specified, it shall project
at least 12 in. (305 mm) beyond the tank shell. If an overflow to the
ground is specified, it shall be brought down the outside of the tank
shell and supported at proper intervals with suitable brackets. The
overflow to the ground shall discharge over a drainage inlet struc-
ture or a splash block. It shall terminate at the top in a weir box or
other appropriate intake. A top stiffener shall not be cut or partially
removed. The overflow pipe and intake shall have a capacity at least
equal to the pumping rate as specified by the purchaser, with a wa-
ter level not more than 6 in. (152 mm) above the weir. The overflow
pipe shall terminate at the bottom with an elbow. Unless otherwise
specified by the purchaser, the overflow pipe shall be steel pipe with
screwed or welded connections if smaller than 4 in. (102 mm) in di-
ameter, or flanged or welded connections if 4 in. (102 mm) in diameter
or larger. The external overflow pipe shall have a minimum thickness
of 3/16 in. (4.76 mm). The purchaser shall specify the maximum flow
rate, in gallons or liters per minute, for which the overflow shall be de-
signed. Internal overflows are not recommended but may be provided
if specified by the purchaser. The internal overflow pipe shall have a
minimum thickness of 0.25 in. (6.35 mm).
56 C h a p t e r Tw o
Ladders
Safe access must be provided for authorized personnel who need to
reach upper shell areas and the top of the tank facility.
Exterior Vertical Ladders
Exterior ladders, cages, and platforms designed to meet OSHA stan-
dards are recommended (Fig. 2-7). Either the ladder should terminate
Flare out to
join top hoop
or platform
Tank shell
1/4
FIGURE 2-7 Exterior caged ladder details. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel
Water-Storage Tanks)
Hand rail
to match
roof
hand rail 42 in. (1.06 m)
Roof
1
2.5 in. × 2.5 in. × 3/8 in. 1 1/4 in. × 6 in. × 6 in. (6.4 mm
(63.5 mm × 63.5 mm × × 152 mm × 152 mm) plate
0.38 mm) angle, two each
Platform 8 in.
(203 mm)
30 in.
1.5-in. (38-mm) (762 mm)
pipe handrail min. 9 in.
along outer (228.6 mm)
stair perimeter Stair treads 3/16 in.
(0.1875 mm) plate,
shape as shown
30 in. (762 mm)
Plan view wide (typ. 53)
0.25 in. × 12 in. (6.3 mm ×
Wearpads 1/4 in. × 6 in. 305 mm) FB stairway
(1.3 mm × 152.4 mm) runner inside and outside
Stairway brace
58 C h a p t e r Tw o
Interior Ladders
Because of accelerated rates of corrosion and the potential for ice
buildup in areas where freezing temperatures occur, ladders inside
the tank container are not recommended. Ice buildup on an interior
ladder can impose loads on the tank wall plates that are sufficient
to pierce or rupture the tank container. Even in temperate climates,
corrosion can damage interior ladders, making them unsafe. The use
of stainless-steel ladders must include insulation (dielectric connec-
tions) separating the stainless steel from the carbon-steel tank, and all
stainless-steel components must be coated to prevent corrosion of the
carbon-steel tank.
Ladders are installed inside dry risers and access tubes. There they
are not subjected to corrosive conditions, and the access doors may
be locked to deter access. In general, all interior ladders shall meet
design criteria noted herein for exterior ladders.
Welded-Tank Ladders
Exterior tank ladder The contractor shall furnish a tank ladder on the
outside of the shell beginning 8 ft (2.4 m), or as specified, above the
level of the tank bottom and located to provide access to the roof
manway. The minimum clear width of step surface for rungs shall
be 16 in. (406 mm), and rungs shall be equally spaced 12 in. (280
mm) on center. The perpendicular distance from the centerline of the
rungs to the tank wall shall not be less than 7 in. (178 mm). Rung
size shall not be less than 3/4 in. (19 mm) in diameter or equivalent
section. The maximum spacing of supports attaching the ladder to
the tank shall not exceed 10 ft (3 m). The minimum design live load
shall be two loads of 250 lb (113.6 kg) each concentrated between
any two consecutive attachments to the tank. Each rung in the ladder
shall be designed for a single concentrated load of 250 lb (113.6 kg)
minimum. The design loads shall be considered to be concentrated
at such a point or points as will cause the maximum stress in the
structural ladder member being considered. Side rails may be of any
shape having section properties adequate to support the design loads
and providing a means of securely fastening each rung to the side rail
so as to develop the full strength of the rung and to lock each rung to
the side rails.
Interior tank ladder Inside tank ladders are not recommended for cold
climates where ice may form. If an inside ladder is required, it shall
Roof ladder For tanks with roofs, unless otherwise specified, the man-
ufacturer shall furnish access to roof hatches and vents. Such access
shall be reached from the outside tank ladder. A roof ladder is not
required on portions of standpipe or reservoir roofs having a slope
less than 2 inches per 12 inches of rise (2/12). A roof ladder shall be
provided on roofs having a slope greater than 2/12. For roof slopes
from 2/12 to 5/12, there shall be a nonskid walkway and a single
handrail. For a roof slope greater than 5/12, a ladder or stairway shall
be provided.
Bolted-Tank Ladders
Exterior ladders, cages, and platforms designed to meet OSHA stan-
dards are recommended. Either the ladder should terminate at least
8 ft (2.4 m) above grade, or a solid, locking door, provided to dis-
courage unauthorized access to the tank, should be installed on the
lower 8 to 20 ft (2.4 to 6.1 m) of the exterior ladder. Certain areas will
require a locking door and anti-climb screening at the bottom of the
ladder cage to discourage unauthorized access. The exterior ladder,
roof hatch opening, and interior ladder (if specified) should be located
close together to reduce the movement necessary by a climber on the
tank roof.
Interior tank ladder Inside tank ladders are not recommended for cold
climates where ice may form. If an inside ladder is required, the side
rails shall not be less than 2 × 3/8 in. (51 × 9.5 mm), with a spacing
between them of not less than 16 in. (406 mm). Rungs shall not be less
than 3/4-in. (19-mm) round or square bars spaced 12 in. (305 mm)
apart on centers.
Roof ladder For standpipes and reservoirs with roofs, unless other-
wise specified, the constructor shall furnish access to roof hatches and
vents. Such access shall be reached from the outside tank ladder. Refer
to AWWA D103 Section 5.4 for minimum requirements for roof lad-
ders based on the slope of the roof.
60 C h a p t e r Tw o
Exterior Interior
ladder ladder
Hatch
3 ft
(0.9 m)
Self-closing
gate
To roof
Self-closing
hinges
Plan view
FIGURE 2-9 Safety rail enclosure. (Note: For roof slope 2/12 or less, windy or
wet conditions may require additional safety lines for areas outside
enclosure.)
climber does not fall from the tank when the climber is dismounting
onto the roof.
62 C h a p t e r Tw o
FIGURE 2-10 Safe-climbing rail for an outside ladder. (Source: AWWA Manual
M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)
Roof Openings
At least two roof openings are required for personnel access and ven-
tilation during maintenance and rehabilitation activities on welded-
steel tanks.
Primary Opening
The first (primary) roof opening should be located near the tank side-
wall close to the exterior ladder. The previous minimum size for this
roof opening was 15 × 24 in. (380 × 610 mm), but OSHA now requires
a 30-in. (760-mm) square or round opening with a hinged cover and
locking hasp to facilitate access to the tank interior. With the advent
of diving inspections in tanks, which necessitate the use of a rubber
raft for inspecting the underside of the roof, it may be prudent to use
larger roof hatch assemblies. These can range in size from 48 to 60
in. (1,220 to 1,524 mm) and can be constructed of aluminum covers.
A curb at least 4 in. (100 mm) high and a 2.in. (50-mm) downward
cover overlap are mandatory on any roof opening to prevent rain or
snowmelt from entering the tank (Fig. 2-12). Bolted and gasketed roof
manways without the curb and overlap are allowed on bolted tanks.
Secondary Opening
The second roof opening should be located near the tank center or
180◦ circumferentially from the primary opening. Its diameter should
be at least 20 in. (500 mm). If the center vent is of adequate size, is
not obstructed, and has a removable cover, the vent may suffice as the
secondary opening. The secondary opening, whether the center vent
or a separate opening, should be designed with a removable cover to
64 C h a p t e r Tw o
3⁄16 3⁄16
Cover elevation
3⁄16
Typical
3⁄16
Curb elevation
Plan view
FIGURE 2-12 Roof manhole assembly details. (Source: AWWA Manual M42,
Steel Water-Storage Tanks)
Sampling hatch If specified by the owner, access through the roof for
a sampling hatch shall be provided at the location specified by the
designer. A suitable cover shall be provided over the access entry.
Overflow inspection hatch If specified by the owner, access through
the roof shall be provided to enable observation and inspection of the
interior overflow opening. A suitable cover shall be provided over the
access entry.
Vents
For closed-top tanks, venting must be provided to safeguard against
excess pressure or vacuum buildup during the maximum inflow or
outflow of water. Structural failures of tanks can be caused by inade-
quate venting. When the vents are being sized, the area to which the
overflow pipe contributes should not be considered part of the venti-
lation area. A minimum of one vent is required; this should be located
near the center of the roof. For larger-diameter tanks, several vents
should be located around the periphery as well as at the center of the
tank to facilitate crossflow ventilation.
The most common forms of tank vents are the mushroom, pan
(Fig. 2-13), and 180-degree types. Vents with pressure- and vacuum-
releasing pallets are recommended. A clog-resistant vent is shown in
Fig. 2-14. All vents should be screened to protect against the entry
of birds, animals, and insects. The screening should be stainless steel
or some other type of corrosion-resistant material. Some health au-
thorities require that shields be installed to keep dirt and debris from
blowing into the tank. In areas of snow buildup, the vents should be
protected or elevated to prevent them from being clogged by snow.
Special vent designs may be necessary to prevent vents from clogging
or freezing over, based on local conditions and operations.
(Outside diameter)
3/16
C
ov
er
A A
.
am
di
nt
Ve
Tank ro
of
di
am
(Inside diameter)
et
er
(Outside diameter)
(Hole in roof)
FIGURE 2-13 Pan deck vent detail. (Note: diam. = diameter.) (Source: AWWA
Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)
66 C h a p t e r Tw o
re
su
pres 1/2 - no. 13 × 15 flattened
Air expanded metal bird screen
Pres
PTFE gaskets (typical) sure
palle
Vacuum t
pallet
Screen
(brass material is normal)
Support bars
Air vacuum
Carbon–steel
body
Roof
Many older riveted tanks do not have vents; instead, they have
finial balls that provide limited or no ventilation area. These finial balls
should be replaced with vents when maintenance or repair work is
done on the tank. As distribution systems and pumping capacities are
enlarged, the vent and overflow capacities on existing tanks should
be reevaluated. Tanks have failed because of pressure or vacuum re-
sulting from inadequately sized or improperly maintained vents and
overflows. The maximum withdrawal rate is usually assumed to be
either the value that occurs when the pipes at grade level break or the
maximum rate pumped from low-elevation reservoir tanks.
Altitude Valves
In many water distribution systems, altitude valves are used to con-
trol the water level in tanks for which the high water level is at a lower
elevation than the pressure gradient of the system. Even some small
one-tank systems have been designed with an altitude valve on the
tank inlet/outlet line. Both of these are examples of improper use of al-
titude valves. Altitude-control systems can be designed and installed
with timers that force the altitude valve to open, allowing water to
flow into and out of the tank and ensuring more frequent turnover.
Altitude valves may malfunction even in good weather. Freezing
weather increases the likelihood of malfunction, with frozen pressure-
sensing lines giving the altitude valve false signals. This usually causes
the tank to overflow, but it may also cause the valve to remain closed,
keeping the water in the tank static. Putting electrical heat tape and
insulation on the control piping or heating the altitude valve enclosure
minimizes these problems.
Remote Readings
A pressure transducer in the tank can indicate the water level at a
remote readout some distance from the tank facility. The pressure
transducer must be installed so that it is completely isolated from all
inlet and outlet openings. Pressure transducers are sensitive enough
to sense pressure changes created by water movement through a line
that would cause a false reading. The pressure transducer can also
control flow in and out of the tank by actuating pumps or valves.
Pressure Gauges
If freeze protection is provided, economical Bourdon pressure gauges
may be connected directly to the tank or riser.
68 C h a p t e r Tw o
Cold-Weather Operations
Designing Tanks for Cold Weather
Proper design of a tank will prevent most freezing problems and, if
freezing does occur, will allow personnel to follow operating proce-
dures to easily deal with it.
Padlock
(by others) F C-max. opening
(Normal thread (normal thread engagement)
A-pipe thread engagement)
Size A B C D E F G H J K L M S T U V
2 in. 1 ⁄ 2 9 2 ⁄ 5 ⁄ 3 ⁄ 4 ⁄ 8 ⁄ ⁄ 3 4 ⁄ 6 1 ⁄ 1 ⁄ 5 ⁄
3 in. 2 ⁄ 3 8 ⁄ 2 ⁄ 5 ⁄ 4 ⁄ 5 ⁄ 7 ⁄ ⁄ 4 8 ⁄ 7 ⁄ 2 ⁄ 4 ⁄
4 in. 3 4 8 ⁄ 3 ⁄ 6 ⁄ 4 ⁄ 6 7 ⁄ 1 ⁄ 6 8 ⁄ 9 ⁄ 3 3 ⁄ 4 ⁄
70 C h a p t e r Tw o
of air into the tank, resulting in a vacuum in the tank that can collapse
(implode) the tank until there is a structural rupture to break the vac-
uum. Preliminary research indicates that fiberglass screen material is
resistant to freezing.
Riser
Air compressor
Aeration line
Air compressor
FIGURE 2-16 Tank riser bubbler system. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel
Water-Storage Tanks)
Circulating pumps Circulating pumps that do not heat the water have
been successful on tanks with small-diameter (6 to 12 in. [150 to
300 mm]) riser pipes in Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South
Dakota. A circulating system is shown in Fig. 2-17. A relatively small
(1.5-hp [1.1-kW]) pump draws water from the base elbow, pulling
water down the insulated riser or from the connecting pipe. The pump
discharges water into a line 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter that enters the
Bowl of tank
Drip ring
Insulated riser
Circulating line
Foundation
FIGURE 2-17 Pumped circulation system for small riser pipes. (Source: AWWA
Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)
72 C h a p t e r Tw o
riser at the base of the tank and discharges into the tank container.
This creates circulation in the riser.
Elevated Tanks
Steel Riser
In localities where freezing temperatures do not occur, the purchaser
may specify a small steel riser. In other locations and unless a small
pipe is specified, a steel riser not less than 36 in. (910 mm) in outside
diameter (OD) shall be furnished. Where the riser pipe supports a
considerable load, the riser diameter and thickness shall preferably
be determined by the constructor.
Cold Climates
The minimum riser diameter of 36 in. (910 mm) shall be increased in
cold climates unless the riser is heated to prevent freezing. The proper
diameter depends on the extent of the tank’s use and the temperature
of the water supplied. In extremely cold climates, a minimum diameter
of 72 in. (1,830 mm) is recommended.
Manhole
Large-diameter risers shall contain a manhole about 3 ft (0.91 m) above
the base of the riser. The manhole shall not be less than 12 × 18 in.
(305 × 457 mm), and the opening shall be reinforced or the riser plate
so designed that all stresses are provided for around the opening.
Safety Grill
A safety grill is intended to prevent a person from falling down the
riser and shall be exempt from the design loads specified in AWWA
D100 Section 3.1.6. When a safety grill is used in the top of the riser
during erection, it shall be removed if the tank is located in climates
where freezing is likely to occur. When grills are left in place, they
Expansion Joint
Where the riser is not load bearing, flexibility to accommodate differ-
ential movements of the tank and riser foundation must be included.
This flexibility may be provided by an expansion joint or by riser lay-
outs that have sufficient offset to be axially deformed without over-
stressing the riser, tank, or foundation.
Pipe Connection
The pipe connection shall be of the size specified by the purchaser,
and it is usually attached to the riser bottom at a point designated by
the purchaser. Connections to the tank or piping furnished by the tank
constructor shall be made by the purchaser.
Silt Stop
If a removable silt stop is required, it shall be at least 6 in. (152 mm)
high, and the fitting or piping connection shall be flush with the riser
floor when the stop is removed. If a removable silt stop is not required,
the connecting pipe shall extend at least 6 in. (152 mm), and preferably
about 2.59 ft (789 mm), above the riser floor.
Inlet Protection
In risers 36 in. (910 mm) in diameter or larger, the inlet pipe shall be
protected against the entry of foreign materials dropping from above.
This shall be done by terminating the inlet pipe or the top of the silt-
stop pipe with a tee, with the “run” of the tee placed horizontally, or
by placing over the silt-stop or inlet pipe a circular plate 8 in. (203 mm)
larger in diameter than the pipe and located horizontally above the
end of the pipe or silt stop at a distance equal to the diameter of the
pipe. The circular plate shall be attached to the pipe, silt stop, or riser
bottom with a suitable bracket or welded bars. Adequate clearance
shall be provided between the ends of the elbow or from the edge of
the circular plate to the wall of the riser pipe to permit proper flow
of water through the inlet pipe. Pipe connections to the riser shell are
permitted, as long as adequate protection against freezing has been
provided.
Overflow
An overflow protects the tank from overpressure, overload, and pos-
sible catastrophic failure should the pumps or altitude valve fail to
shut off when the tank is filled to capacity. A properly operated tank
should not overflow during normal operation. An overflowing tank
74 C h a p t e r Tw o
Ladders
Tower Ladder
A tower ladder shall be furnished with side rails no less than 2 in. ×
3/8 in. (51 mm × 9.5 mm), with a spacing between side rails of not less
than 16 in. (406 mm) and with nonskid rungs not less than 0.75 in. (19
mm) round or square, spaced 12 in. (305 mm) apart on centers. The
tower ladder shall extend from a point 8 ft (2.4 m) above the ground
up to and connecting with either the horizontal balcony girder or the
tank ladder, if no balcony is used. The ladder may be vertical but shall
not in any place have a backward slope.
Roof Ladder
Unless otherwise specified, the constructor shall furnish access to roof
hatches and vents. Such access shall be reached from the outside tank
ladder or riser ladder on pedestal tanks according to the following:
Ladder Requirements
Minimum requirements for ladders, hatches, and so forth can be found
in OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910. Note: Regardless of the access protection
provided to tank roof hatches and vents, weather conditions on tank
roofs are extremely variable, and workers and their supervisors are
expected to exercise good judgment in matters of safety. Among other
things, this may include the use of safety lines when windy, icy, or
other hazardous conditions exist.
Roof Openings
Above Top Capacity Level
An opening shall be provided above the top capacity level. It shall
have a clear dimension of at least 24 in. (610 mm) in one direction and
15 in. (381 mm) in the other direction and shall be provided with a
suitable hinged cover and a hasp to permit locking. The opening shall
76 C h a p t e r Tw o
have a curb of at least 4 in. (102 mm) high, and the cover shall have a
downward overlap of at least 2 in. (51 mm).
Tank Center
An additional opening with a removable cover having an opening
dimension or diameter of at least 20 in. (500 mm) and a neck at least
4 in. (102 mm) high shall be provided at, or near, the center of the
tank. This opening may also be used for the attachment of exterior
paint rigging. Where conveniently accessible to an outside balcony
or platform, a shell manhole may be substituted for the additional
opening. If properly designed, the shell manhole may be placed below
the top capacity level.
Vent
If the tank roof is of tight construction, a suitable vent shall be fur-
nished above the top capacity level, which shall have a capacity to
pass air so that at the maximum flow rate of water either entering or
leaving the tank, excessive pressure will not be developed. The over-
flow pipe shall not be considered a tank vent. Warning: An improperly
vented tank may cause external pressures to act on the tank that can
cause buckling even at a low-pressure differential.
Location
One tank vent shall always be located near the center of the roof, even
if more than one tank vent is required. For tanks with centrally located
access tubes, a reasonable offset of the vent is permissible. The vent
shall be designed and constructed to prevent the entrance of birds or
animals.
Screening
When governing health authorities require screening against insects, a
pressure-vacuum screened vent or a separate pressure-vacuum relief
mechanism shall be provided that will operate if the screens frost
over or become clogged with foreign material. The screens or relief
mechanism shall not be damaged by the occurrence and shall return
automatically to operating position after the blockage is cleared. Note:
The purchaser should clean the screens and check the pallets or relief
mechanism for operation at least once a year, but preferably each
spring and fall.
Manifold
Shell
Outlet cross Shell
Inlets
Existing outlet
Manifold
Existing inlet
FIGURE 2-18 Mixing system layout. (Notes: [1] Modification to inlet reservoir
may be required in order to install mixing system. Detail of existing
penetration must be provided. [2] Angle to be 30 degrees for water depth
30 ft [9 m] or below. Angle to be 45 degrees for water depth above
30 ft [9 m].)
78 C h a p t e r Tw o
Antennas
The AWWA Steel Tank Committee has noted that the wireless commu-
nication industry has been installing antennas on ground and elevated
tanks at an ever-increasing rate. The major tank contractors have all
but forfeited these installations to non-tank constructors. Guidelines
were added to the commentary for AWWA D100–05 (see Appendix
A) to provide the owners and their consultants with additional infor-
mation when addressing these accessories. The guidelines consider
functional, structural, future maintenance, and safety issues having
to do with antenna and communication installations.
80 C h a p t e r Tw o
Bibliography
Harper, W. B. 1986. Designing a More Corrosion-Free Water Storage Tank.
In Proc. 1986 AWWA Annual Conference, Washington, D.C.; Denver, CO.:
AWWA.
Matchett, B. 2006. Introduction to Improved Water Sampling Stations for Steel
Water Storage Tanks. NACE International, Channel Islands Section semi-
nar “Build a Tank in a Day,” Oxnard, CA.
Matchett, B. 2007. Introduction to Improved Tank Mixing Systems for
Water Storage Tanks. NACE International, Channel Islands Section semi-
nar “Build a Tank in a Day,” Oxnard, CA.
CHAPTER 3
Controlling
Corrosion
Mike Bauer and Joe Davis
Tnemec
Anthony D. Ippoliti
Sherwin Williams
Jeff Rog
Corrpro
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Controlling Corrosion
82 Chapter Three
electricity. The closure path, also called the return current path, is
the electrical conductor (usually metal) that connects the anode and
the cathode. If any one of these elements is missing, corrosion does
not occur. For example, coating stops corrosion from occurring by
providing a barrier to the current that flows between the metal and
the electrolyte.
A dry-cell battery is a corrosion cell. When the battery’s anode
(zinc) and cathode (carbon) are connected through a closure path (the
lightbulb), the potential difference between the zinc and the carbon
Metallic path
Anode
Cathode
+
H OH +
Electrolyte
Controlling Corrosion 83
Tank wall
(conductor)
Water
(electrolyte)
Anodic
area
(corrodes)
Cathodic
area
(protected)
produces a current flow. The current continues to flow until the zinc
anode is consumed by the corrosion process.
It is important to consider why the current flows in the direction
it does. The direction of flow is determined by the metals selected
for the dry-cell battery’s case and center post. If the center post was
magnesium instead of carbon, the current flow would be reversed:
The magnesium center post would be the anode (which corrodes),
and the zinc base would be the cathode (which does not corrode).
The current can also be forced to flow in the opposite direction
if the standard carbon/zinc battery is connected to an outside cur-
rent source instead of the lightbulb. In this situation, the anode and
the cathode would also be reversed—that is, the battery case would
become the cathode and would be protected from corrosion.
In a steel water-storage tank, some portion of the metal will be the
anode and some portion will be the cathode (Fig. 3-3).
Which area takes on which function depends on impurities in
the metal; surface conditions; oxygen concentrations in the water; the
presence of any dissimilar metals; stresses caused by manufacturing,
heat, or concentrated structural loads; and/or several other factors. At
the anode, metal ions leave the surface, enter the water, and combine
with oxygen to form rust. Electrons released from the anode travel
through the metal to the cathode. At the cathode, an ion exchange
occurs, but no metal is lost and no corrosion occurs.
The presence of ladders, mixing systems, baffling systems, floats,
or other accessories made of stainless steel that are electrically
84 Chapter Three
Impressed-Current Systems
In an impressed-current system of cathodic protection, an outside
source of electrical power forces current into anodes submerged in the
storage tank’s water. The current flows from the anodes through the
water (electrolyte) and onto the submerged walls of the tank, making
the tank itself the cathode of the corrosion cell. An impressed-current
cathodic protection system (Fig. 3-4) consists of a manual or automatic
alternating current/direct current (AC/DC) converter (i.e., a rectifier),
feeder wires, and anodes inside the tank. The DC output voltage is
typically adjusted and controlled automatically to account for a wide
range of variables. To prevent damage to the coating, care must be
exercised to ensure that the polarized voltage does not exceed a max-
imum value as noted in the industry standards; otherwise the coating
may be damaged. Because excessive current output may damage the
coating, manually controlled rectifiers without automatic adjustment
and potential limiting capabilities are typically not recommended for
coated steel. The precise maximum negative voltage is dependent on
the characteristics of the coating and other factors.
Controlling Corrosion 85
FIGURE 3-4
Impressed-current
system.
Galvanic Systems
In a galvanic system (Fig. 3-5), a block of specially selected metal
called a sacrificial anode is immersed in the electrolyte and electrically
connected to the metal of the tank. The metal of the sacrificial anode is
selected so that it will become the anode of the corrosion cell, with the
steel tank being the cathode. Magnesium is the most common anode
material employed for corrosion control in potable water. The anodes
are typically of an extruded-rod type that are either suspended in the
water from the roof of the tank or suspended in the lower portion
of the tank supported from the sidewalls or by supports on the tank
floor.
These anodes are fabricated with a copper lead wire connected
to the core of the anode and then attached to the steel tank. When
the connection is made and the anodes are submerged in the water,
the current flow from anode to cathode (steel tank) begins; thus, the
magnesium corrodes and the steel is protected. Galvanic systems have
become increasingly popular because no electrical current is required.
Output of the sacrificial anodes may be monitored by using refer-
ence electrodes permanently installed in the tank below the surface of
the water. The anode lead wires and reference electrode lead wires may
be run into a test station installed at ground level to facilitate routine
86 Chapter Three
Protective Coatings
Cathodic protection is normally used in conjunction with a well-
coated tank surface. The coating reduces the rate of anode consump-
tion and power use. Coatings typically have microscopic voids that
expose the metal to the water and allow metal loss if cathodic protec-
tion is also not in place. The ideal corrosion control system combines
a good dielectric coating (metallic coatings are not dielectric) and
a properly designed, installed, and maintained cathodic protection
system.
Controlling Corrosion 87
88 Chapter Three
Controlling Corrosion 89
90 Chapter Three
Controlling Corrosion 91
Components of Paint
Most paints are made up of three primary components—the solvent,
which is incorporated into the formula to lower viscosity and allow
the painter to get the paint out of its container and onto the substrate;
the resin or binder, which binds the material together and, more than
any other component, determines the physical properties and perfor-
mance of the cured film; and the pigment, which can provide color,
hiding, or any number of other desirable properties in the film (e.g.,
gloss control, sag resistance, or added film strength). The combination
of the solvent and the resin is called the vehicle (Fig. 3-8). The resin
binder and the pigments make up the protective dried film after the
solvent evaporates. Most paints also contain additives, which will also
be covered in this section.
Volatile solvents
Vehicle
Resins (binders)
Pigments
92 Chapter Three
Organic Solvents
Most paints contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These or-
ganic solvents are incorporated into paint formulas to lower viscosity
and allow the painter to get the paint out of its container and onto
the substrate. Water acts as a solvent for some types of paint, but it
is not an organic solvent and therefore is not considered a VOC. Or-
ganic paint solvents generally fall into one or more of the following
classifications:
Active solvent: An active solvent is a true solvent for the resin
(binder) portion of the formula. It dissolves the resin and keeps
it in solution.
Diluent: Although not a solvent for the resin portion of a partic-
ular paint formula, a diluent can still be used in conjunction
with a true (active) solvent, without causing precipitation or
incompatibility (“kick-out”).
Latent (auxiliary) solvent: This is not a true solvent, but com-
bined with an active solvent, it increases the strength (solvency
power) of the active solvent.
Controlling Corrosion 93
Esters Esters, like ketones, have high solvency power for most
generic paints and are used most often in lacquers and furniture fin-
ishes. They have limited use in industrial coatings because of their
high cost and reactivity with certain resins. Ester solvents most often
used in paints are ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, isobutyl acetate, and
amyl acetate.
Alcohols Alcohols are not true (active) solvents for most generic
paints. Exceptions are found in vinyl wash primers and ethyl sili-
cate inorganic zinc–rich primers. Certain water-soluble alcohols are
also used as co-solvents in water-based paints and in water-emulsion
paints. Alcohol solvents found in paints include ethyl alcohol (drink-
ing alcohol), isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol), butyl alcohol, and
amyl alcohol.
Glycol ethers and glycol-ether acetates Glycol ethers are unusual in that
several are water soluble yet also have high solvency power. Because
of their water solubility, they are often used as co-solvents in water-
based paints. Glycol-ether acetates are strong solvents that are often
used in urethane paint formulations.
94 Chapter Three
Prime pigments Prime pigments provide color and hiding power and
can be either organic or inorganic. Red iron oxide, yellow iron oxide,
titanium dioxide (TiO2 ), lead molybdate (toxic), and lead chromate
(toxic) are examples of inorganic prime pigments. Carbon black, ph-
thalocyanine blue, phthalocyanine green, and quinacridone violet are
examples of the more expensive organic prime pigments.
Controlling Corrosion 95
Resins
With only a few exceptions, resins (binders) are organic polymers. De-
pending on molecular weight and resin type, these paint constituents
can be either liquid or solid before they are added to the batch.
The physical properties and performance of a cured paint film are
related more to the types of resins used in the paint than to any of the
other ingredients. This is why most paints are classified according to
the resins (binders) they contain. Single-component paints can some-
times contain more than one type of resin, but these paints are usually
classified by the resin that is present in the formula at the higher per-
centage, with the other resin identified as a modifier. For example, a
paint that contains 80 percent alkyd resin solids and 20 percent acrylic
resin solids would be classified as an acrylic-modified alkyd. Two-
component paints are generally classified using both types of resins.
For example, a two-component paint that consists of epoxy resin in
one component and polyamide resin in the second component would
be identified as a polyamide epoxy.
96 Chapter Three
Oil-based paints At the turn of the 20th century, the choice of generic
paints was very limited. Most paints were based on vegetable oils such
as linseed oil. These “oil-based” paints exhibited excellent wetting
and adhesion to marginally prepared steel substrates and provided
long-term weathering and corrosion resistance when exposed to many
atmospheric conditions. The biggest disadvantage was very slow dry
time.
Alkyds Alkyd technology was developed in the late 1920s. It was dis-
covered through laboratory testing that by combining a trifunctional
Controlling Corrosion 97
Epoxy esters Epoxy esters are epoxy resins that have been “esteri-
fied” with fatty acids, resin, and so on. Epoxy-ester paints have better
chemical resistance than oil-based or alkyd paints, but they chalk more
readily when exposed to direct sunlight.
98 Chapter Three
Controlling Corrosion 99
Baking enamels These are coatings with two co-reacting resins pack-
aged in the same container. One resin is typically a polyester or acrylic
containing one or more hydroxyl groups. The other resin is usually a
melamine or urea formaldehyde. Cross-linking of the resin molecules
only takes place at high temperatures (generally above 250◦ F [121◦ C]).
Home appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, washers, and dryers
have metal substrates that are protected with baking enamels. Com-
ponents are painted in the shop and then sent through ovens, where
the coating cures (usually in 10 to 15 minutes) at high temperature.
Pot life is not a concern, since cure (co-reacting) will not take place at
ambient temperatures.
Moisture cure
Polyurethanes Some aromatic and aliphatic urethane resins are de-
signed to react with atmospheric moisture to form a cured film. These
resins are usually based on toluene diisocyanate (TDI) or dephenyl-
methane diisocyanate (MDI). In the presence of atmospheric mois-
ture (humidity), the resin molecules react with each other to form
cured films. Single-package aromatic urethane primers, intermedi-
ate coats, and topcoats containing aluminum or micaceous iron ox-
ide pigments are available that cure by this mechanism. The aro-
matic urethane types typically have excellent wetting and adhesion
Coalescence
Emulsion (latex paints) Water-based paints such as acrylic and
polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsions exhibit the coalescence curing
mechanism. Acrylic emulsion resin (acrylic latex), for example, con-
sists of small droplets of acrylic resin emulsified in water. The ap-
plied wet paint film cures through solvent evaporation (mostly water)
and coalescence. As the water evaporates, the emulsified acrylic resin
droplets get closer together. When most of the water is evaporated, an
organic solvent known as a coalescing agent causes the resin droplets
to flow together, forming a smooth, continuous paint film. Water-
based emulsions are often used as interior (PVA) and exterior (acrylic)
house paints. They are also used for other architectural applications.
Substrates that are coated with emulsion paints include masonry (con-
crete, concrete block, plaster, and so on.), wood, and drywall. Specially
formulated acrylic emulsion paints are also available for direct-to-
metal applications.
surrounding air is absorbed into the film, setting up the hydrolysis pro-
cess. In the case of ethyl silicates, complex chemical reactions occur,
forming a silicon oxide (SiO) matrix in which a small amount of resin
binder holds together a large amount of metallic-zinc pigment. Upon
complete hydrolysis (curing), the applied film is very hard, dense, and
resistant to abrasion and solvents. Inorganic zinc-rich primers protect
steel from corrosion by galvanic action. The zinc becomes the anode
in the corrosion battery and the steel becomes the cathode. The zinc
sacrifices itself to protect the steel in a process that is similar to that
exhibited by galvanized-steel substrates. Inorganic zinc-rich primers
are resistant to high temperatures (up to 750◦ F [399◦ C]), are difficult
to topcoat, and have poor acid resistance.
Coating Calculations
The spreading rate (coverage) of any gallon of paint depends on its
nonvolatile (solids) content. One gallon occupies a volume of 231 in.3
(0.0038 m3 ) or 0.1337 ft3 (0.0038 m3 ). If a gallon or liter of paint con-
tained no volatile (solvent) and it could be applied without any losses,
the spreading rate obtained applied at 1.0 mil (25.4 m) would be
1,604 ft2 (149 m2 ). This figure is expressed as the theoretical spreading
rate per gallon or liter.
If a gallon or liter of paint contains volatile and its percentage
of total volume solids is known, its spreading rate, wet-to-dry film
ratio, and cost per applied mil per square foot (per applied micron
per square meter) can be calculated as follows:
Theoretical spread rate @ 1.0 mil DFT = Percent of volume solids
× 1,604 ft2
Spread rate @ DFTs other than 1.0 mil = Percent of volume solids
× 1,604 ft2 /specified DFT
Wet film thickness = DFT/percent volume solids
Cost per mil per sq ft = Cost per gallon/spread rate @ 1.0 mil DFT
Example
Let us assume we have one gallon of paint that is 50 percent volume
solids. The specified DFT is 5 mil and the cost per gallon is $22. With
this information, we can make the following calculations:
Theoretical spread rate @ 1.0 mil DFT = 0.50 × 1,604 ft2 = 802
ft2 /gal
Spread rate at specified 5.0 mil DFT = 0.50 × 1,604 ft2 /5 = 160
ft2 /gal
Wet film thickness = 5.0/0.50 = 10 mil
Cost per mil per sq ft = $22/gal/802 = 2.74 cents/ft2
Outside Coating
Standard Systems Inside Coating Systems
AWWA Alkyd Red lead/aluminum phenolic
D102–64 Vinyl Vinyl
Red lead/linseed oil, Zinc/phenolic
alkyd High-solids vinyl
Metallic aluminum Cold-applied wax
Hot-applied wax
Metallic zinc
Hot coal tar enamel
Cold-applied coal tar
Cold taste-and-odor tar
AWWA Alkyd Two-component epoxy
D102–78 Vinyl Vinyl
Alkyd/silicone alkyd Chlorinated rubber
Alkyd (two primer coats) High-solids vinyl
Chlorinated rubber/alkyd Hot-applied coat tar
Cold-applied coal tar
Metallic sprayed zinc
ANSI/AWWA Alkyd Two-component epoxy (two
D102–97 Alkyd (two primer coats) coats)
Alkyd/silicone alkyd Two-component epoxy (three
Vinyl coats)
Epoxy/epoxy/aliphatic Zinc-rich primer/epoxy/epoxy
urethane Vinyl
Zinc-rich primer/epoxy/ Hot-applied coal tar
aliphatic urethane Cold-applied coal tar
ANSI/AWWA Alkyd Two-component epoxy (two
D102–03 Moisture-cured coats)
polyurethane Two-component epoxy (three
Water-based acrylic coats)
emulsion Inorganic zinc/epoxy/epoxy
Zinc-rich primer/epoxy/ 100 percent solids
fluorourethane polyurethane
Epoxy/epoxy/aliphatic Organic zinc/epoxy/epoxy
polyurethane
Zinc-rich primer/epoxy/
aliphatic urethane
Surface Preparation
Before a protective coating system can be applied to a steel or concrete
water storage tank, appropriate surface preparation must be under-
taken. The purpose of surface preparation is twofold: to clean the
substrate of contaminants and to roughen or “profile” smooth sur-
faces to ensure mechanical adhesion of the first (primer) coat. Welds
may be ground, corners and edges may be smoothed, and voids may
be filled so that the applied coating system does not fail prematurely.
The Society for Protective Coatings (SSPC), established in 1950 and
headquartered in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, assesses and advances
surface preparation and its understanding by conducting research
and “developing standards, specifications, and guides covering tech-
niques and materials of surface preparation.” NACE International is
a professional technical society that provides education and commu-
nicates information to protect people, assets, and the environment
from the effects of corrosion. It, too, develops surface preparation and
other standards, provides education and certification, and publishes
numerous books and journals. Founded in 1943, NACE is the largest
organization in the world committed to the study of corrosion, with a
membership consisting of 15,000 engineers, scientists, and researchers
in 91 countries.
Together, these two organizations have issued joint standards that
are commonly referenced by those who need to specify proven sur-
face preparation methods. For example, AWWA D102–03 Standard
for Coating Steel Water-Storage Tanks cites four SSPC/NACE sur-
face preparation standards (SP10/NACE 2 Near White Blast Clean-
ing, SP6/NACE 3 Commercial Blast Cleaning, SP7/NACE 4 Brush-
Off Blast Cleaning, and SP11 Power Tool Cleaning to White Metal).
Surface preparation methods vary and may not be appropriate for all
materials of construction. Methods may use abrasive blast cleaning
(SP10/NACE 2, SP6/NACE 3, and SP7/NACE 4, for example), hand
or power tools (SP2, SP3, SP11, and SP15, for example), or water under
pressure (SP12/NACE 5, for example).
The surface preparation standards listed previously are primar-
ily used for steel surfaces. Methods such as SP13/NACE 6 Surface
Preparation of Concrete exist for cementitious substrates. In addi-
tion, SP13/NACE 6 further identifies surface preparation practices
Surface Preparation—Steel
For welded-steel water-storage tanks, surface preparation completed
in a fabrication shop before the first (primer) coats are applied is un-
derstandably faster and easier than surface preparation that must be
carried out after erection. Shop conditions are controlled, in that op-
erations can be continued regardless of outside weather. Lighting and
access to all areas of the structure being fabricated are generally su-
perior to field lighting and access (Fig. 3-9). After cleaning, steel plate
surfaces are abrasive blasted to remove mill scale and/or create a sur-
face profile to which the applied coating will adhere. Abrasive blasting
When the. . . coating system will adhere to the existing coating, all corro-
sion products and deteriorated coatings shall be removed by spot clean-
ing to SSPC SP11 or SSPC SP6/NACE 3 and the remainder of the exterior
surfaces shall be cleaned by SSPC SP7/NACE 4 or by washing with an al-
kaline cleaner. . . to remove all dirt, dust, coating/paint chalk, and foreign
matter. When the new coating system is not compatible with the exist-
ing coating, all existing coatings shall be removed and the surfaces blast
cleaned to SSPC SP6/NACE 3 or, if specified, to SSPC SP10/NACE 2.
Surface Preparation—Concrete
Surface preparation for concrete water-storage tanks is different from
surface preparation for steel. Most surfaces of concrete tanks are al-
ready rough due to the way these vessels are constructed, so there is
little need to add a profile. This coarse surface characteristic allows for
good adhesion of paints and coatings. That does not mean, however,
that water tanks constructed of concrete are without their own surface
preparation requirements.
What needs to be accomplished is the removal of areas of poorly
adhered concrete—flake-shaped fragments that detach from the sur-
face of concrete in a process known as spalling. Laitance, a poorly
adhered layer of concrete, may also be found on concrete surfaces
and must be removed. Although less severe and less damaging than
spalling, laitance comprises cement and tiny particles called fines that
may be caused by improper vibration of concrete within forms. Left
unrepaired, spalling may continue and expose reinforcing bars to cor-
rosion, causing damage to the water tank that is difficult to repair.
One way to remove spalling and laitance is by mechanical means, in
accordance with ASTM D4259.
Roughening of concrete surfaces may be desired on cast-in-place
concrete surfaces, such as composite tank columns. These smooth, as-
cast surfaces may not be of uniform appearance, so abrasive blasting—
again in accordance with ASTM D4259—helps to regulate the appear-
ance of the completed pedestal tower. “Bugholes,” small irregular
cavities uncovered by surface preparation procedures, should be filled
with an appropriate material so they will not trap airborne contami-
nants and mold spores.
Occasionally, bolted tanks without bottoms are constructed and
placed on concrete slabs. These concrete slabs act as the floor and must
be constructed of materials that will not leach out into the potable
water supply and thereby contaminate it. NSF International, founded
in 1944 as the National Sanitation Foundation, created ANSI/NSF
Standard 61, a certification protocol that addresses these concerns.
Regarding “bottomless” tanks resting on a concrete base, NSF may
recommend that these concrete surfaces be constructed of ANSI/NSF
61-certified cements and admixtures, for example, or coated with an
ANSI/NSF 61-certified coating before being placed in service. These
concrete floor surfaces would also require surface preparation prior to
the application of ANSI/NSF 61-approved paints and coatings. Once
again, preparation routines in accordance with ASTM D4259 may be
used.
Even though most concrete tank surfaces may need little to no
roughening, they do require cleaning. The SSPC SP12 standard for
low-pressure water cleaning, WJ4, will accomplish this. This proce-
dure usually removes loose shotcrete clusters and may remove de-
bris left behind by, or concrete escaping through, placement forms.
Placement forms are coated with release agents or compounds to pre-
vent adhesion of concrete to these forms and thereby allow placement
forms to be removed cleanly. These compounds may act as contam-
inants, however, and prevent adhesion of paints and coatings. WJ4
may be specified for this purpose. If non–water soluble or non–water
dispersible form-release compounds are used, low-pressure water
cleaning will not remove them, and abrasive blast cleaning through
the use of ASTM D4259 may be required.
Concrete surfaces, because they are porous, also absorb moisture.
Whether because of rain or the use of water when cleaning equipment
for surface preparation, these surfaces must be allowed to dry before
coating. The length of, and need for, time to dry are influenced both
by the temperature and humidity at the tank site and by the type of
coating to be applied to the tank.
Coating Selection
To the residents of the community or neighborhood closest to a water-
storage tank, how the tank looks—its exterior color and design—may
be the most important characteristic. The city name or the name and
mascot of the local high school may be emblazoned on the elevated
steel tank for all to see. In contrast, residents living near ground con-
crete storage tanks may not want them visible at all, desiring them
to blend into the background landscape. Enhancements are made to
both steel and concrete tanks to increase their visual impact. Such en-
hancements may be from fabrications such as pilasters or simply from
the allure of carefully chosen and illustrated paints and coatings.
Understandably, residents want the exterior surfaces of water stor-
age tanks to remain colorfast and appealing. But the interior surfaces,
which few see, are in fact more important, because it is there where
bacteria can grow and corrosion can occur undetected. Coating sys-
tems for both interior and exterior surfaces can be selected based on
information provided by tank fabricators, by coating manufacturers
and their representatives, by the owner’s or specifier’s preference, or
by reviewing applicable AWWA standards.
113
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Controlling Corrosion
Shop Application
The two major advantages in applying a protective coating in a shop
environment are control and accessibility. Often the interior and ex-
terior sections receive just a primer coating in anticipation of field
application of the subsequent coatings specified. This is done to al-
low fabricators to quickly clean, prepare, and prime the surface in
accordance with specifications while still allowing them the ability to
continue working the plate and shipping it without compromising the
surface preparation. When this approach is taken, an area is generally
left uncoated around the perimeter of each plate, commonly referred
to as the margin. The margin area can vary by specification but is usu-
ally between 4 and 6 in. (102 and 152 mm) wide. This allows for field
welding to be performed during the erection in the field. Of course,
these areas will not meet the surface cleanliness requirements of the
specification, and they will need to be addressed in the field prior to
the continued application of the coating system. This will be covered
in more detail in the following section on field painting.
In some instances, the entire protective coating system is applied
in the shop—for example, with bolted tanks. The steel panels are gen-
erally coated following roll forming and bolt-hole punching. In this
situation, a thermoset liquid coating may be applied and then baked
at a prescribed temperature, or a thermoset powder coating may be
applied and then baked according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Depending on the type of interior lining system, the bake tempera-
tures can vary between 425◦ F (218◦ C) and (in the case of a glass lining)
Field Painting
Although coating and/or lining systems applied in the field share
many of the considerations we reviewed under shop-applied coat-
ings, other factors specific to field painting need to be evaluated.
Among these items are the type of lining that is environmentally com-
pliant, tank heating and ventilating, dehumidification requirements,
the landscape surrounding the tank, and the type of environment that
the tank is subject to during the preparation, application, and cure
of the lining and coating systems (e.g., chloride sources in a marine
environment).
Generally speaking, the interior of the tank requires the highest
degree of surface cleanliness and preparation. Many of the protective
lining systems require a minimum surface cleanliness equaling an
SSPC SP-10/NACE 2 Near White Metal Blast. In an effort to achieve
this, painting contractors typically blast the bottom of the tank first
and then begin to blast the wall section by section. Each section (called
a drop) is blasted and coated during the work shift unless an environ-
mental control such as dehumidification is needed. The abrasive used
in the cleaning process is allowed to fall to the floor of the tank and ac-
cumulate there. This abrasive provides an insulation of sorts from the
environment so that the initial blast on the floor is held or maintained.
If the blast is lost, the contractor reblasts the floor area and coats it as
he is finishing the interior of the tank. Special care needs to be taken to
ensure that spent blast media is not billowed and deposited into the
freshly coated surface. Although this is a common approach to lining
the inside of storage tanks, it is not the only correct way to perform
this task.
When a primer has been applied in the shop and the contractor is
only applying finish coats to the tank in the field, the surface prepa-
ration specification is usually a bit different than that just described.
Two concerns must be addressed: (1) the condition of the shop primer
and its preparation before receiving any topcoats and (2) the weld
seam preparation. Typically, the shop primer is swept blast according
to SSPC SP7/NACE 4 Brush-Off Blast Cleaning, while the weld seams
are prepared according to SP10/NACE 2 Near White Metal Blast. In
some cases the primer is reapplied, while in others only the finish
coat(s) are applied. Proper ventilation of the tank’s interior is critical
to ensure a thoroughly cured lining.
When coating the outside of the tank, the consequences of over-
spray, dry spray, and ambient conditions must be considered. Adverse
conditions during surface preparation, coating application, and cur-
ing can (and most often do) lead to premature catastrophic failure of
the coating system. Specifiers and contractors should also be aware of
the areas surrounding the tank and the environment to which the coat-
ing system will be subjected. For example, an elevated water tank in a
congested urban area may require coating materials that can only be
roller applied or that tend to “dryfall” if applied by a sprayer. By way
of environmental considerations, coastal regions may require a coat-
ing system that has a higher film build and more barrier protection to
protect the tank from a chloride-rich environment. Depending on the
tank and the contractor, the coating process is completed in different
ways, but completing drops is still the most common way to ensure
that a properly cleaned surface is maintained. Typically, the specified
cleanliness for the exterior of the tank would be an SSPC SP6/NACE 3
Commercial Blast. For a shop-applied primer, the primer is swept blast
according to SP7/NACE 4, while the weld seams require SP6/NACE
3. Again, a primer may be reapplied if specified or the finish coats
may be applied over the prepared existing primer.
Brushes
Brushes are not as high tech as sprayers, and many consider them an
outdated way to apply paint. However, many situations still require
their use. A “stripe coat,” often specified for added protection of edges,
Rollers
Rollers have earned a bit more respect than brushes, but their produc-
tion results still pale in comparison with results of spray application.
Application by roller is faster than application by brush, but is not
quite as fast as application by spraying. Because the roller cover holds
considerably more coating than a brush, a much larger area can be
covered with one load. Rollers are excellent for large, flat areas—for
example, the tops or sidewalls of tanks. Rollers can be used wherever
the skill of a brush or spray application is not called for. Rollers can
also be used if spray applications are prohibited due to overspray
concerns.
The procedure for using the roller is to immerse it in the coating
tray or bucket and roll it back and forth on either a tray ramp or bucket
grid on the inside of the bucket. This removes the excess coating from
the roller and prevents excessive drip and spatter. Continue spreading
the liquid coating onto the surface in the form of a W or an M over
an area that one roller’s worth of coating will cover. After initially
spreading the coating by this method, fill in the area by rolling the
roller back and forth over the entire surface being covered. Finish
by rolling the coating in one direction. This is called laying off, and
it aids in developing a uniform finished appearance. Spraying and
backrolling is another example where the roller is used to ensure a
uniform application and finish.
Regulated air
Fluid
Regulated air
Pressure container
atomize the paint as it exits the spray gun. In other words, air is in-
jected into a stream of paint through the air nozzle in front of the gun,
creating the mist that is propelled out. The basic components needed
to apply paint by air spray are an air compressor, paint pot or cup, oil
and moisture separators, air supply hoses, material hose, regulators,
and air spray paint gun (Fig. 3-11).
The most important element in air spray painting, as in other ap-
plication methods, is the person operating the gun. Conventional air
spray equipment affords the applicator a great level of control and
results in a high-quality finish. The applicator is responsible for ap-
plying the paint correctly, using the best technique, and keeping the
equipment in good working order. Generally, coating manufacturers
list the optimum pressures for applying their coatings. They also list
the type of gun and the correct sizes of paint nozzle, air cap, and
needle to produce the best-quality applied film. Typically, external-
mix air caps are used. The space between the fluid nozzle and the air
nozzle is called the annular ring. It provides a column of air around
the fluid stream. As the fluid and air leave the air cap, they begin to
expand and mix. As this mixed stream leaves the center of the noz-
zle, it is further atomized with additional force from the holes on the
horns of the external-mix air cap. The biggest advantage of a con-
ventional air spray system is the control the applicator has over the
finish; relatively easy adjustments to the fluid pressure and air pres-
sure give the applicator tremendous flexibility and versatility. The
biggest drawback is probably low transfer efficiency; conventional
air spray equipment has a transfer efficiency of approximately 25 to
30 percent.
reaches the airless tip, it is atomized and shaped by the specific size
of the tip. The only adjustment to an airless spray gun is to change
the tip. Coating manufacturers specify the correct tip size and proper
atomizing pressures needed to produce the best-quality applied film.
Although the airless spray applicator does not have the control
that a conventional spray system affords, the trade-off is that greater
speed and greater transfer efficiency value (35 to 50 percent) are pos-
sible.
Some have found a way to combine the best features of conven-
tional air spray with airless spray equipment and have created a new
spray finishing capability. The process has been termed as air-assisted
airless spray. This equipment (Fig. 3-13) uses a standard airless pump
and an airless spray tip to atomize the coating and shape it into a fan
pattern. However, in contrast to normal airless operations, the fluid
pressure in an air-assisted airless spray system is relatively low. As
expected, a low fluid pressure (usually below 1,000 psi [6,894 kPa])
system provides only one ratio of volume for the multiple components
of the coating. A variable-ratio system can be adjusted for different
component ratios (e.g., 1:1, 2:1, 3:1). The equipment consists of two or
three airless pumps (feed pumps) attached to an air motor. The pumps
move the coating components individually from their containers in
separate lines to a proportioning pump. The materials are then nor-
mally heated and directed either to the spray gun tip or to a mixing
manifold assembly fitted with one or more in-line static mixers. From
the manifold, the mixed material travels through a whip hose to the
spray gun.
Heaters play an important role with plural-component systems.
They are used to reduce the coating viscosity, improve fluid flow, and
optimize the reactivity of the materials. Heaters are often installed
in-line and are placed on the material containers. The material hoses
are often heat traced and insulated, as well help maintain the desired
temperature. Plural-component systems also use a solvent-fed purge
pump that connects the container of solvent with the back of the mix-
ing manifold. When an applicator shuts down the equipment, the
valve for the purge pump is opened, and a solvent flush is delivered
to flush out any material that could set up in the mixing manifold
(Fig. 3-15).
The mixing manifold, when required, is critical for properly blend-
ing and mixing the materials before they leave the spray gun. The
manifold usually contains a static in-line mixer that works by split-
ting the coating stream and rotating it to 90 degrees. This is done
numerous times so that the components are mixed thoroughly when
they exit the spray gun.
Mixer/manifold
Spray gun
Inspection of Linings
Independent Inspector’s Duties
Coating contracts usually involve a significant investment of both time
and money. The owner has a well-written job specification completed
and conducts some type of bid process to select the coating contractor.
The inspector provides the owner with written assurance that the
project has met the specifications and that the coating system will
perform for its intended full life. The coating inspector is also viewed
as providing additional assurance that the risk of catastrophic failure
is significantly decreased or altogether eliminated. The inspector most
often becomes the eyes through which the owner observes the finished
work and determines whether the contract has been fully satisfied.
Many tests can be performed after the coating has been applied.
It is often difficult to find deficiencies in the coating system, however.
Once the job is finished, a poor job may look the same as a high-quality
job. Therefore, it is important that inspections occur not only at the
conclusion of a project, but also during coating operations. This will
help determine that the coating specification was met.
During Application
During the application, the inspector may need to conduct a wide
array of key tests and observations:
After Installation
Once the coating installation is complete, the inspector should check
that the proper curing and drying conditions are being maintained.
The inspector should also make certain that there has been no con-
densation on the surface or that any type of contamination has
been deposited on the coating during the curing process. Over-
spray, pinholes, runs, or any other imperfections not uncovered at
the time of application should be marked now and repaired before
another coat is applied. In many cases, other tests may be required
once the coating application is complete, including the following
points:
Inspection Tools
Individuals responsible for quality control should be familiar with
basic inspection tools including those listed here. This is not to be
construed as an exhaustive list.
WFT gauge: The wet film thickness gauge is used to measure the
thickness of paint being applied at the point of application.
Two common gauges used are the interchemical gauge and a
notch-type gauge.
DFT gauge: The dry film thickness gauge is used to measure the
thickness of paint after it has been applied and, preferably,
cured.
Type 1A magnetic DFT gauge: Commonly called a banana gauge,
this is a single-point lift-off gauge (Fig. 3-16). It measures non-
magnetic coatings over a magnetic surface. It operates by mag-
netic contact and resistance of the magnetic force to the surface
by the coating thickness. Calibration assurance in the field is
strongly recommended.
Type 1B magnetic DFT gauge: Commonly called a pencil pull-off
gauge, this is a single-point lift-off gauge. It measures nonmag-
netic coatings over a magnetic surface. It operates by magnetic
contact and resistance of the magnetic force to the surface by the
coating thickness. Calibration assurance in the field is strongly
recommended.
Type 2 electromagnetic DFT gauge: This gauge measures noncon-
ductive coatings over a ferrous metal surface. It operates by
electromagnetic contact and resistance of the electromagnetic
force to the surface by the coating thickness. Calibration assur-
ance in the field is strongly recommended.
Eddy current gauge: The eddy current gauge (Fig. 3-17) measures
nonconductive coatings over a nonferrous surface. It operates
by emitting an eddy current and measuring the difference be-
tween the emitted signal and the return signal. This differ-
ence in time is affected by the coating thickness. Calibration
Bibliography
Bauer, M. 1988. Changing Regulations on Coatings for Contact with Potable
Water. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 5(12):27–33.
Bauer, M. 1996. Organic Zinc Rich Primer for the Interior and Exterior of
Potable Water Tanks. In Proc. SSPC Expanding Coatings Knowledge World-
wide, Charlotte, N.C. (Nov.). Pittsburgh, PA.: SSPC.
Crist, M. T. 1996. The Cost and Timing of Water Tank Maintenance. In Proc.
SSPC Technologies for a Diverse Industry, Charlotte, N.C. (Nov.). Pittsburgh,
PA.: SSPC.
Dromgool, M. B. 1996. Maximizing the Life of Tank Linings. Journal of Protective
Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 13(3):62–74.
Dubcak, T. O. 1995. Inspecting Water Tank Linings: The Importance of the First
Anniversary. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 12(9):60–8.
Finch, D. 1996. Protecting Water Storage Tanks in an Era of Environmental
Compliance. WATER/Engineering & Management, Nov.
Huffman, L. R. 1997. Going with the Flow: A Sampling of Water Tank Mainte-
nance Painting Programs. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL)
14(5):38–46.
Ippoliti, T. 2000. Waterborne Coatings for Water and Wastewater Treatment
Plants. PWC (Nov./Dec.):92–7.
Ippoliti, T. 2002. Polyurea Coatings Win Place in Water, Wastewater Facilities.
WaterWorld (Nov.):16–8.
Kapsanis, K. 1990. A Water Tank Update: Issues and Practices in Removing
Lead-Based Paint. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 7(5):
50–6.
Knoy, E. 1992. When to Repair Pits in Steel Water Tanks. Welding Design and
Fabrication (Oct.):51–2.
———1993. Maintaining Aged Steel Water Tanks: What to Look for and Why.
Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 10(5):61–5.
Maronek, A. H. 1988. Evaluating Acceptability of Potable Water Tank Coatings.
Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 5(7):40–5.
Munger, C. G., and D. V. Louis. Corrosion Protection by Protective Coatings. 2nd
ed. Houston, TX: NACE International.
CHAPTER 4
Contractual
Considerations
William J. Dixon, P.E.
Dixon Engineering, Inc.
Competitive Bidding
The water industry in the United States has been serving municipal
clients for more than 200 years. In that time, the industry has de-
veloped competitive bidding practices, which are required by law in
most states and by governmental subdivisions. Many variations to
the standard construction project (designed and bid by the engineer)
and some old practices such as maintenance contracts have resur-
faced with new twists. Different methods of contract administration
have been developed, the most common of which is usually called
design/build. Newer practices include computer bidding and what
is called a reverse or negative auction. These alternative methods have
different benefits depending on the project and on whether you are a
public owner or a private owner.
It is necessary to fully understand the benefits of the selected
method. The closed competitive bid process was developed to elim-
inate fraud and political influence in the awarding of contracts and
131
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Contractual Considerations
Vertical
privity
(a) Constructor
Owner Engineer
Constructor
Supplier
Subcontractor
Subcontractor supplier
(b) Tier-2 subcontractor
Horizontal
privity
Owner Engineer
Vertical
privity
Lawsuits
Constructor
(c) Lawsuits
FIGURE 4-1 Roles of owner, constructor, and engineer in the competitive bid
process. (a) Privity means a direct relation throughout the contract. (b) In this
situation, there is still no privity between the constructor and the engineer.
There is vertical privity from the second-tier subcontractor all the way up to
the owner. Contract clauses and performance and payment bonds insulate
the owners as much as possible from lawsuits by subcontractors and
suppliers. (c) Because the engineer and the constructor are not third-party
beneficiaries of each other’s contract, neither can sue the other. The owner is
under privity both ways, so if he or she is sued by the constructor, the owner
can bring the engineer in by filing a claim against the engineer.
Design/Build
The design/build procedure puts the responsibility of engineering
design on the constructor. This procedure works well in new-tank
projects but has conflicts with rehabilitation projects. The benefit of
design/build lies primarily in expediting the project. On new-tank
or new-tower projects, the owner supplies the bidder with soil
investigations, establishes capacity and high water level, and designs
standards and a time schedule to follow. The bidder can properly
prepare costs and submit the bid. If the procedure is followed prop-
erly, there should be no unknowns and no cost increases. Third-party
inspection is still necessary.
On tank repair/repaints, the extent of repairs and the condition of
interior coatings and corrosion may not be known to the tank owner
because of the complexities of removing the tank from service for in-
spection. It is not recommended that the party completing the work
be allowed to establish the scope of the work. New construction with
no unknowns and larger budgets may be competitively bid as de-
sign/build. Design/build is not practical on lower-budget rehabili-
tation projects, because the unknowns cannot be competitively bid.
A pre-bid independent tank inspection can eliminate the unknowns
on repair/repaints. But to ensure competent work and competitive
bidding, a full set of specifications is still necessary, because the con-
structor’s idea of what constitutes a proper repair and coating system
would be different than what the owner expects. Third-party inspec-
tion would be necessary for quality assurance, but without specifica-
tions and a contract, what would the inspector inspect?
Project Administration
For a further discussion of all of the major methods of project ad-
ministration, see American Water Works Association Manual M47,
Construction Contract Administration.
Contract Documents
The terms contract document and bidding document are often incor-
rectly thought to be interchangeable. Bidding documents used to so-
licit project bids traditionally include all the information needed to
Design Standards
Incorporation of Standards
Standards prepared by national associations have been incorporated
into technical specifications for decades. Standards are beneficial be-
cause the bidder is using the same terminology as used by the owner/
engineer and for the most part knows what is expected. The Amer-
ican Water Works Association (AWWA) standards incorporate other
nationally recognized standards—American Welding Society (AWS),
Society for Protective Coatings (SSPC), National Association of Cor-
rosion Engineers (NACE), American Petroleum Institute (API), and
concrete standards, to name a few. The benefits are obvious, but there
are pitfalls.
Using standards requires the engineer’s understanding of the in-
cluded standards. He or she must decide whether to include the entire
standard or just portions of it. An example would be the use of AWWA
D100 Standard for Welded Carbon-Steel Tanks for Water Storage.
D-100 defines how many X-rays are to be taken. If you want more
X-rays or a different selection process for X-ray locations, the spec-
ifications must detail the variance. The potential for a conflict may
occur more in the incorporation of other standards within the spec-
ified standards (i.e., when a second tier of standards is incorporated
by reference within the specified standard).
Most standards are submitted to the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) for certification. One condition for ANSI certification
is that the standard be reviewed and formally updated at least every
5 years. Because of the constant updating and the long bid process,
specifications must identify which standard is being incorporated, ei-
ther by date or by clause in the section that outlines general conditions.
This also applies to standards incorporated within the standard spec-
ified. Industry standards recognize the standard in use when bids are
opened. If a standard is updated during a nonbid situation, a negoti-
ated contract, the negotiating parties should define which standard is
to be used.
The old tanks were behemoths and used more steel than the tanks
designed today. Water towers were once designed by engineers us-
ing slide rules, and steel thicknesses were rounded up to the next
one-eighth of an inch (0.125 in. [0.3 cm]). To this, the early engineers
added another 0.125 in. (0.3 cm) for corrosion allowance. When weld-
ing replaced riveting, welds had to have only 66 percent penetration.
Whereas earlier, steel was one size going down the stem until the
next fraction was needed, now every stem section could be differ-
ent, because current steel manufacturing allows steel with differences
in size, measured by 10 mil (254 m), to be purchased. Computer-
assisted design, cutting, and rolling permit the new thinner de-
sign methodologies for conical and dished sections. Welding require-
ments have increased to 100 percent penetration welds. Corrosion al-
lowances are still the option of the design engineer, but they are seldom
specified.
The excess steel—not maintenance or the coating systems—is the
reason some of those older towers are still standing. The interior coat-
ing of old towers was two coats of red lead primer protected by a
wax (grease) coating. Lead was good from a durability standpoint but
obviously now is out of favor because of health effects. The grease
coating had a very short life, particularly in cold climates. Pit weld-
ing was standard in maintenance projects, whether it was needed or
not. The modern epoxy, urethanes, and polyureas, as well as cathodic
protection, offer a far superior and cleaner method of protection. Main-
tenance painting and cathodic protection are more critical now that
new designs have no corrosion allowance. There is a safety factor in
design calculation, but that is not the same thing as a cushion factor
for steel loss.
New-Tank Designs
New-tank designs are another example of industry outpacing the
speed at which standards are developed. For example, the compos-
ite tank (concrete pedestal/steel tank) was built without an AWWA
standard for more than 15 years before a standard was developed.
Other smaller associations, including the Steel Plate Fabricators, were
able to develop standards more quickly, permitting the composite-
tank industry to grow until the more comprehensive AWWA stan-
dard could be developed. A hybrid—a glass-lined bolted-steel tank
on a pedestal—was developed and applied for inclusion in AWWA’s
proposed composite-tank standard, but it failed to make the standard
because of timing.
The caution is not to avoid new products but to understand the
standards before you specify something that is not included in them.
Pre-Bid Meeting
A pre-bid meeting is beneficial and useful for discussing specific non-
technical portions of the project, the timing of subcontracting require-
ments, and forms in the bid documents (e.g., noncollusion, minority,
affidavits, subcontractor lists, lien waivers, etc.). This meeting can be
mandatory or optional. If it is mandatory, interest in the project can
be gauged by how many constructors are present, which could affect
the contract price. As a minimum, job-site visits should be required.
On repaint projects, if the tank is empty, it should be made available
to the painter for inspection. If the tank is elevated, prospective bid-
ders should provide proof of insurance before they climb it. To limit
time infringements on the owner, limit the days the site is available
for inspection.
Prequalification of Bidders
To shorten the time between bidding and awarding of the contract,
prequalify the constructors. Tank constructors specialize in the design,
Constructor Assistance
Generally, tank constructors and manufacturers are more than willing
to discuss individual tank needs and to assist the owner and the en-
gineer by providing standard design information for a project. For an
elevated tank of a given capacity, each manufacturer has different ge-
ometric parameters. These dimensions normally do not vary enough
to cause difficulty if one constructor is selected for a project on the
basis of the information supplied by another constructor.
To become familiar with current industry standards and practices,
the owner is advised to contact prospective bidders and discuss a
project before issuing an invitation to bid. Most manufacturers are
willing to provide copies of preliminary specifications developed for
tanks of varying styles and capacities. The owner must be careful to
make every effort to write a specification that is open and does not
exclude bidding by any qualified manufacturer or supplier. In par-
ticular, a given manufacturer’s proprietary design details should not
be included in a project’s contract document; this would create an
inequitable bidding situation for other qualified suppliers or manu-
facturers.
Bid Security
Bonds are required on most publicly funded projects over a minimum
dollar amount. This dollar amount under the Miller Act is $50,000;
many states have a “Little Miller Act” that may have lower limits.
Some municipalities have lower limits yet. The Miller Act requires
performance and payment bonds. Bid bonds are generally required
by state or local statute.
The bidding process is time-consuming and involves significant
expense for both owner and constructor. In a tank-painting contract in
the northern states, a bidder failing to honor his or her bid could delay
the project into the next season. In that case, the second constructor
would still have to honor his or her bid but, thinking the job had been
lost, may have taken another project. Painting constructors usually bid
and complete all of their contracts within the same weather-restricted
season. They traditionally fill their season and do not leave openings
for jobs for which they came in second. Fairness may require adjusting
the project schedule into the next year if the first bidder cannot meet
the agreement.
The bid bond, intended to cover the increased cost of rebidding
or awarding to the higher bidder, has been traditionally set at 5 per-
cent of the bid. This amount should be sufficient on a $500,000 new-
tank contract ($25,000), but it may not be sufficient for a $50,000 paint
project ($2,500). If the constructor defaults and the bond is collected,
the constructor could lose the ability to purchase bonds. In the coat-
ing industry, with its limited number of qualified constructors, limited
seasons, and wide range of bids, a painter who has received a more
lucrative contract may buy his or her way out of the smaller job. For
this reason and others, many engineers require a bid bond higher than
5 percent or for a set amount.
r Bonding
r Warranties, guarantees
r Maintenance contracts
r Insurance
r Indemnification
r Prevailing wage and documentation
r Use of local or union labor
r Payment application, change order procedures
r Steel or concrete cost escalation
r Dispute resolution
r Safety
r Meetings—preconstruction, progress, final punch list
r Severability
r Schedule of values
r Termination
Bonding
Bid bonds, discussed in the previous section, are usually free. The
constructor pays roughly 1.5 to 2.5 percent depending on the work-
load and contract default experience for the actual performance and
payment bonds.
A combined performance and payment bond for 100 percent of
the project bid meets the requirements of the Miller Act, but it may
not be sufficient to cover a project gone sour. The performance bond
is used to ensure that all aspects of the project are completed. If the
original constructor is unable to meet the terms of the contract, the
bonding company brings in another constructor to finish the project,
at least to the extent of the bond. A payment bond is used to pay
all legitimate subcontractors and suppliers if the constructor fails to
make payments.
Problems generally start with the lowest bid process. If the project
is awarded to the lowest bidder, who turns out not to be responsible
(is incapable), a 100 percent combined performance payment bond is
inadequate. Remember, the bond is for an amount that all of the other
bidders thought was too low. Out of that amount, you must pay off all
unpaid subcontractors and suppliers and bring in another constructor
to finish.
Separate performance and payment bonds, each at 100 percent of
contract amount, are the current requirements of the EJCDC general
conditions. That and control of partial payments should be sufficient
to fund completion of the project.
Bonding companies have a contract with the constructor, who usu-
ally must personally guarantee the bond. The bond names the owner
as the intended beneficiary. Consider the bond a product supplied as
a condition precedent to award of the contract to the constructor. A
word of caution: There is no contract between the surety and the owner,
but consider the relationship an obligation. The owner is required to
control payments to the constructor and to receive waivers from all
subcontractors and suppliers; this is called a waiver of surety. If the
owner pays the constructor too much and there is insufficient money
left to complete the project, the surety has an affirmative defense to
avoid payment.
Another caution: Verify that the surety company can be served pro-
cess to force payment. Offshore bonding companies have attractive
bonding rates. Offshore companies are offshore for several reasons;
they enjoy tax advantages and are untouchable for claim enforcement.
The surety should be licensed in the state of the project.
Another aspect of the payment bond is the notice requirements
of the Miller Act and the Little Miller Act. The prime contractor’s
subcontractors and suppliers do not require notice of hire. Their con-
tract with the prime contractor, or prime, is evidence of notice. If the
Warranty
The standard construction warranty period is 1 year. The painting war-
ranty is also 1 year, but the D102 standard allows a 13-month period
in which to complete the paint warranty. The time extension recog-
nizes the difficulty some communities have in isolating their tank.
Also, weather may interfere with draining the tank within the speci-
fied time. There is also a trend toward specifying longer warranties, a
practice that theoretically raises project costs. Constructors prefer to
wrap up a project in 1 year. Their bonds are then released; they have
less unknown potential liability and can bid other jobs.
A multiyear warranty on tank construction has little benefit un-
less full use of the tank must be delayed. Most problems with welded
steel are evident within a year. Extended warranties are specified
more often on painting of new tanks or repainting contracts. Con-
tractual problems of long maintenance periods can be resolved by
the use of a maintenance bond. The problem is that the constructor
is giving a warranty on a product that deteriorates with age, weath-
ering, ablation, ultraviolet (UV) degradation, and so on. There is no
standard against which to hold a 2- or 5-year paint project warranty
condition.
Unless specified differently, D102 limits holiday testing (direct-
current voltage testing for coating pinholes) to the high waterline and
down on the wet interior surface. If there are coating breaks in that
area after 1 year, repairs under the warranty are justified. Small coating
breaks, rust staining at the lap seams of the wet interior roof or pinhole
rusting on the dry interior surface or on the exterior, are not warranty
issues. If the specifications did not require a holiday-free coating, a
warranty cannot require a holiday-free system at 1 year. At 2 years
or 5 years, enforcement can only be to whatever expected coating
condition at warranty was set in the original specifications.
Also, a 5-year warranty has to consider normal wear and tear. If
you are looking for annual maintenance, bid the maintenance contract
into the construction bid as a separate cost; do not try to complete the
work under a warranty clause. Trying to have work completed in
5 years for no pay is tricky—it is difficult enough just remembering
that there is a 5-year warranty. The second concern is whether the
constructor is still in business. The owner needs to pay only when
scheduled work is completed.
Maintenance Contracts
Maintenance contracts are for a set period of time. Generally, the ac-
tual painting takes place during the first year, and touch-up and re-
pairs happen in subsequent years. Some maintenance contracts are
attractive because they begin with an enticing finance offer, in which
a company finances the initial high cost of the first painting over the
first couple of years. As always, some good constructors and some bad
ones offer these services. To differentiate, follow the money—or, bet-
ter yet, control the money. Work including maintenance procedures
should be controlled by specifications prepared by your engineer. The
work should be inspected annually by a third-party inspection firm.
The financial portion should be written or at least reviewed by your
attorney. Your attorney should also offer an opinion if competitive bid-
ding of the entire maintenance project is required by local ordinance
or state statute. Some of the cost advantage is in the constructor pro-
viding financial and engineering services, but the owner must decide
whether the savings are in the owner’s interest or are in the vested
interest of the maintenance constructor.
When the dust settles, the good constructors will be there; the
ones with prices too good to be true will be the missing parties. Main-
tenance contracts are not new. In the 1960s and early 1970s, annual
maintenance contracts were a major portion of the painting market.
Most contracts were for 10 or 12 years and had the same annual pay-
ments. Painting on the interior would take place during years 5 and
11, and the exterior would be painted during years 6 and 12. Essen-
tially, the major work was paid in advance. A painter had enough
other contracts at varying stages and so could finance the work when
it was due. When the gas crunch came in 1973 and gas and paint
prices skyrocketed, most constructors merely walked away with the
up-front money or went bankrupt, and the owners were left with paid
but uncompleted projects.
Insurance Requirements
Risk managers or insurance consultants for the owner should establish
limits and types of coverages. Sometimes, consultants are nervous
because the project requires elevated work or may involve exposure
to lead paint. Most tank constructors carry large limits of liability,
and some are self-insured. But smaller paint constructors have lower
limits. The limits and types of insurance should match the owner’s
exposure to risk. Excess coverage sometimes cannot be purchased by
smaller constructors. Purchasing special insurance for one job drives
project costs up, particularly if some constructors are eliminated from
bidding.
Workers’ Compensation insurance levels are standard and protect
the constructor’s workers. General liability insurance protects site vis-
itors other than employees. Auto insurance is recommended even if
all work is on one enclosed site, because the constructor still will run
errands. An umbrella policy would be in addition to these policies.
The owner and the engineer require the constructor to name
them as additional insureds. Any claim against the additional insured
other than gross negligence is covered under the constructor’s policy.
Over the years, attorneys have expanded the gray area between the
constructor’s and the owner’s insurance liability. Some insurance
counselors now require the constructor to furnish a separate owner’s
protective policy.
Professional liability insurance covers errors and omissions and
is associated with the engineer. If the constructor acts as an engineer
in a design/build contract, this insurance may still be needed. Some
states have strict liability laws for accidents involving gravity, falls, or
injuries from dropped objects. Under contract terms, this liability can
be covered under an owner’s protective policy paid by the constructor.
But with strict liability laws, responsibility is automatic and liability
cannot be avoided. The owner should consider his or her own policy
and consider making the constructor’s policy a primary-pay policy.
The EJCDC documents require the owner to supply a builder’s
risk policy. As noted, the EJCDC documents were prepared by profes-
sional engineers’ associations and endorsed by a constructors’ associ-
ation; the owner’s municipal associations were not involved. Owners
prefer that the constructor provide a builder’s risk policy. This policy
provides insurance for the project during construction (e.g., if a tor-
nado blows over an unfinished tank). The policy covers the cost to
replace the tank.
Some owners require submittal of the constructor’s entire policy,
but most owners prefer just a certificate. The certificate warrants that
the constructor will not cancel the policy without giving a specified
number of days’ advance notice. The expiration date, additional in-
sureds, deductibles, and all policy exclusions should be checked.
Indemnification
Indemnification clauses are often points of contention and are some-
times contract killers. The owner’s attorneys want contractual lan-
guage that protects the owner from all claims—suits that might origi-
nate as a result of this project regardless of who is liable. Constructors
have attorneys who are as smart as the owner’s attorneys, and the in-
surance companies, especially, have their share of attorneys. Although
a constructor may agree to any clause to get a contract, it does not mean
his or her insurance policy covers the indemnification. A constructor
who has no insurance policy does little to offer true indemnification.
Rather than proceed under the false assumption of coverage, both
the owner’s and constructor’s policies should carry comparative li-
ability coverage. Each party pays on the basis of each one’s share of
liability.
Both bonds and insurance are conditions precedent to contract
award. We are a litigious society and, as with bonds, insurance is now
a requirement before the owner even signs a contract.
Dispute Resolution
The best defense for disputes is to detail in the specifications a clear
procedure for dispute resolution. The two primary alternatives are
the courts and arbitration. Owners, being deep pockets without a face
(usually a municipality), prefer the courts. In fact, a future trend by
municipalities will be to contractually require the constructor to waive
the right to a jury trial. The owner wants a decision based strictly
on the law, with no human element, whereas the constructor prefers
arbitration by certified arbitrators.
The three alternative methods of dispute resolution are negotia-
tion, mediation, and arbitration. There are many variations and hybrid
methods of resolution (minitrials, for example). Negotiation—direct
talking between the contract parties—is the first step in all contract
disputes. Mediation, generally the second step in the process, brings
in a third party. The EJCDC’s general conditions make the engineer
the mediator. He or she both hears arguments and tries to get the
parties to resolve the problem. Because the argument is usually about
Safety
Engineering associations have always maintained that the engineer
is not responsible for job-site safety. If the engineer and the owner
assume such responsibility, they are potentially liable for extensive
damages. If the engineer (and ultimately the owner) was responsible
and thus liable, the employee can sue through Workers’ Compen-
sation and collect a much larger settlement. So far, most cases have
dismissed the engineer because he or she had horizontal privity with
the owner and no contractual relation with the constructor. The ex-
ceptions were when the on-site inspector or project manager took on
the constructor’s role by directing some of the work or giving advice
on ways and means.
No one questions the need for safety, but constructors are contrac-
tually responsible for safety. Constructors have developed their own
construction procedures and ways and means. Constructors have de-
veloped safety programs and trained their personnel accordingly. The
engineer’s personnel should follow the constructor’s safety program
in addition to the engineer’s safety program.
Meetings
The number and types of meetings required, and who must attend,
should be listed as accurately as possible. If home office personnel
are required to attend, it is a cost issue. Most repaint contracts have
a preconstruction meeting and a final punch list meeting with the
job superintendent. Interim progress meetings are usually attended
by the on-site superintendent but not by the project manager unless
there are problems. On new-tank projects with larger budgets, it is
more common to require the project manager to attend.
Schedule of Values
New-tank projects are usually bid as lump-sum contracts. Extras, such
as complicated logos, are bid as deductible alternates. On a project that
is spread over a year or 18 months, partial payments are in order. To
avoid paying too much money up-front or not enough, a schedule of
values is submitted early. This schedule can be negotiated until it is
acceptable to all parties. The engineer has the final say. Following is a
sample schedule:
Repaint and repair projects can be bid with line items for repair
items and unit prices for painting different areas—wet interior, dry
interior, and exterior. If the project is bid lump sum, a schedule of
values should be included on a bid form that assigns costs to wet
or dry interior and exterior. Payment is then figured on percentage
of work completed (e.g., wet interior abrasive blast cleaning 40 per-
cent, prime coat 20 percent, intermediate coat 20 percent, and topcoat
20 percent).
CHAPTER 5
Foundations
Sayed Stoman, Ph.D., P.E., S.E., M.L.S.E., and Kevin Gallagher, P.E.
Caldwell Tanks, Inc.
155
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Foundations
Location/Orientation
Aside from accessibility, site location is crucial for several reasons.
Specific site location and accurate determination of property lines are
vital, as disputes resulting from even minor infringements onto ad-
jacent property can cause major delays in construction and possibly
even cancellation of the project. Precise staking of the foundation foot-
print early in the project can eliminate orientation concerns and facili-
tate establishing the proper grade elevations and boring locations for
geotechnical investigations. Ownership of the site property is essen-
tial, as building a storage tank on land owned by others can be costly.
Orientation of the tank on the site must also be considered with
respect to the piping layout, existing utilities, and other obstacles. To
facilitate the connection to the inlet piping as well as to accommodate
Foundations 157
the flow of overflow water away from the footing area, situating the
tank in the proper orientation, is essential. Tank and piping orientation
should be clearly shown on the site plan with reference to reliable
existing benchmarks.
Sites in low-lying areas and floodplains, areas with sinkholes, and
areas with underground shafts, tunnels, or fault lines are not recom-
mended, nor are areas containing substantial fills. Similarly, coastal
regions are not recommended—they are generally subject to signifi-
cantly higher wind loading and may require design for tidal waves.
The loose sandy soils in these areas could require additional stabiliza-
tion measures.
the frost line at a minimum depth of about 4.5 to 5 ft (1.4 to 1.5 m).
A minimum projection of 6 in. (15 cm) above the final grade should
be sufficient to protect the column base plates from ground moisture.
On sites where standing water or settlement is a concern, higher pro-
jections would be appropriate to further protect the base plate and
anchor bolts from corrosion.
Excavation Requirements
Before any excavation begins, it is essential that all aspects of job-
site safety are well understood. All excavations, particularly confined
excavations, must be performed in strict compliance with the latest
federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) stan-
dards.
It is recommended that excavated slopes, including those for shal-
low foundations, be laid back at a maximum of 2H:1V (horizontal to
vertical) slope. Permanent slopes of 3:1 may be used on fill slopes that
have been placed on suitable subgrade. Grass should be planted or
other measures taken for erosion control.
Vertical cuts for shallow foundations are not recommended unless
all the requirements for job-site safety and foundation stability can
be assured. Such cuts are not possible in dry, sandy soils, but they
can be made to a critical height in an undrained soil where the pore
pressures are negative. If vertical cuts are used, however, one must
ensure that clear and achievable compaction requirements for the soil
wedge alongside shallow foundations are well defined.
Foundations 159
Foundations 161
Engineering Properties
Soils that are well suited for foundation design can be cohesive (pri-
marily clayey) or cohesionless. Cohesion, the characteristic that en-
ables the soils to bind or stick together, gives added shear strength to
the soil. Shear strength defines the suitability of the soil for the type
of foundation work being considered. Cohesionless soils are predom-
inantly sandy soils having particles that lack cohesion. Cohesionless
soils draw their shear strength from sliding friction and interlocking
of grains.
Some soils combine cohesive and cohesionless characteristics and
are classified according to which is dominant. Silty soils have been
classified as cohesionless by some authors and cohesive by others,
depending on the soil’s clay content. Silty soils, however, are not con-
sidered good foundation material due to their compressible nature
when wet. Similarly, topsoil and organic soils are unsuited for foun-
dations. Sandy and clayey soils with high bearing capacities and low
plasticity are best suited for foundations of water-storage tanks.
Engineering properties of soils are defined by the soil grain size
distribution. For cohesionless soils, this distribution is determined by
sieve analysis, which involves sifting the soil through sieves having
openings of different sizes arranged in descending order from coarse
to fine. The amount of soil retained in each sieve after sieve agita-
tion serves as the basis of measurements and plots used in defining
grain-size distribution. Particle-size distribution in fine-grained cohe-
sive soils is determined by hydrometer analysis based on sedimenta-
tion of soil particles in water over a given length of time.
Another measure of cohesive soil consistency is called the
Atterberg limits. The Atterberg limits refer to the moisture content at
which a given volume of a cohesive soil changes consistency from one
state to another. These states are defined as solid state, semisolid state,
plastic state, and liquid state. The moisture content at which the soil
transitions from the solid state to each successive state is referred to
as, respectively, the shrinkage limit (SL), the plastic limit (PL), and the
liquid limit (LL). The difference between the LL and the PL is defined
as the plasticity index (PI). The PI is also a measure of the expansive
potential of the soil. Soils with high PI values (PI > 35) have severe
shrink/swell characteristics and require additional consideration in
design, as is discussed later in the chapter.
Soil Consolidation
All structures are subject to foundation settlement. Given the loading,
footing size, and properties of soils, these settlements can be evaluated
with reasonable accuracy. Consolidation is time-dependent settlement
that can be significant in saturated soils. It occurs when the soil under-
goes compressive deformation under the loading from the structure.
Foundations 163
Water is extruded from the voids in the soil as the soil rearranges
its grains to accommodate the increased pressure. The process occurs
rapidly in granular soils because of their permeability, whereas in co-
hesive soils or fine-grained silty soils, consolidation can take a long
time.
Consolidation is also a function of footing size. The larger the foot-
ing, the greater the depth of the soil affected by the loads on the footing.
The affected depth is also referred to as the effective bearing depth of
the foundation. Depending on the thickness of the compressive layer
or layers and the depth(s) at which they occur, the resulting settle-
ments can be substantial and could create serious consequences for
the structure. Therefore, to ensure structural stability, it is important to
include consolidation testing in the work scope where deformation-
prone soil layers are present within the effective bearing depth of the
foundation.
Foundations 165
r Minimum required reinforcement for caisson (as per local
practice)
r Pile/caisson allowable lateral load capacity
r Pile/caisson bending-moment diagram for appropriate end
conditions
r Pile or caisson safety factor for long-term and transient load-
ing
r Pile testing required and type of test
r Special installation considerations
r Appropriate uplift connection recommendations
Problem Soils
Experience indicates that certain types of soils pose special challenges
in design and require remedial measures before they can support wa-
ter tank foundation loads. Among these are expansive soils, which
are prevalent in many areas of the United States and elsewhere in
the world. The expansive clays with very high plasticity index values
are not suited for shallow foundations unless remedial measures are
taken that include lime mixing, prewatering, use of water barriers, or
soil replacement. All of these measures are costly and require strict
quality control.
Structural Concrete
Water tank foundations are primarily constructed of reinforced struc-
tural concrete. Concrete is a mixture of hydraulic cement with fine
and coarse aggregates and water in appropriate proportions. Sand,
gravel, crushed stone, and, in some cases, iron blast-furnace slag con-
stitute the aggregates. The governing properties of hardened con-
crete are defined by the quality of the cement paste, ratio of water
to cement, and the properties of the aggregates. Structural concrete
is concrete mixed to a uniform distribution of materials on the basis
of a precise mix/design and satisfactory quality control for required
Foundations 167
Materials
Structural concrete materials include cement, aggregates, water, and
admixtures. The reinforcing steel used in water tank foundations com-
prises deformed bars ranging in diameter from 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) to
about 13/8 in. (3.5 cm). Two larger bar diameters of 13/4 in. (4.5 cm)
and 21/4 in. (5.5 cm) are also available but are seldom used in water
tank foundations. Welded wire fabric is another form of reinforcement
often used in floor slabs.
Cement is a powdered substance produced from a burned mixture
of clay or shale and limestone. Portland cement is the most common
type, grayish in color, consisting chiefly of calcium and aluminum
silicates. Portland cement is manufactured to various designations
on the basis of the physical and chemical requirements as defined
by ASTM C150. Type I designation represents the general-purpose
cement for foundations subject to normal exposure. Where sulfate
attack from soil or water is a concern, if high strengths at an early
period are required, or if hydration heat needs to be minimized,
other ASTM cement types would be better suited and should be
specified.
Aggregates are generally classified into fine and coarse categories
on the basis of their particle size. Fine aggregates consist of sands that
pass through a no. 4 sieve, meaning that their maximum particle size
is less than 1/4 in. (6.4 mm). Some references include a particle size
up to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) in fine aggregates. Coarse aggregates constitute
any material larger than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm). The most common aggre-
gate size is about 3/4 in. (19 mm). However, the maximum coarse
Durability
Because water tanks are erected in varied climates and locations, the
environmental effects on their concrete foundations can be harsh and
must be taken into consideration. Conditions that can profoundly af-
fect the service life of the foundations include extreme temperature
fluctuations, freeze/thaw cycles when exposed to water, and exposure
to chemicals, salts, deicers, etc. Durability, in essence, refers to the ca-
pability of concrete to withstand these exposure conditions without
damage, distress, or deterioration.
ACI 318-05 provides detailed durability requirements for im-
proving the performance of concrete. These requirements include
air-entraining recommendations for concrete exposed to freez-
ing/thawing or deicing chemicals, maximum water-to-cement ratios
and minimum strength values for concrete exposed to special condi-
tions, maximum percent of total cementitious material by weight for
exposure to deicing chemicals, and criteria for resistance to sulfate-
containing solutions and soils. This reference also provides require-
ments for corrosion protection of the reinforcing steel.
Foundations 169
500 psi (3.4 MPa) less than the specified strength is used in compu-
tations. This allows some flexibility in situations where strict quality
control measures cannot be maintained due to the long hauls to remote
job sites.
Evaluation and acceptance of concrete for a given design mix can
be made on the basis of actual testing. Adjustments to the mix design
can be made to improve the resulting strength as necessary. To en-
sure that the concrete furnished meets the specified design strength
requirements, fresh concrete specimens can be prepared at the job
site for testing in the laboratory. ACI 318-05 provides criteria for con-
crete sampling and testing and for acceptance of concrete compressive
strength: Concrete strength is considered acceptable when the aver-
age of any three consecutive strength tests equals or exceeds f c and
no individual test (average of two cylinders) falls below f c by more
than 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
For the test results to be meaningful, it is critical that the samples
be taken, handled, and cured in strict compliance with the applicable
ASTM standard. Testing of cylinders that are mishandled or ignored at
the job site may not be truly representative of the concrete furnished.
Also, it is important that qualified personnel test all specimens, as the
outcome of the tests determines the acceptability of the foundations.
If the strength test results fail the acceptability criteria, hardened
concrete can be tested by taking core bores in accordance with ASTM
C42. Experience indicates that unless the requirements of ASTM C42
are strictly adhered to, the core bore test results will underestimate
the true strength of the hardened concrete. ACI 318-05 also provides
specific criteria for core drill testing.
Reinforcing Steel
The reinforcement steel used in water tank foundations is generally
deformed bars conforming to the ASTM A615 specification and hav-
ing a minimum yield strength of 60 ksi (414 MPa). Where weldability
is a requirement, low-alloy steel deformed bars conforming to ASTM
A706 can be used. As noted previously, welded wire fabric reinforce-
ment can be used in floor slabs. These fabrics conform to ASTM A185
for plain wire and ASTM A497 for deformed wire. Epoxy-coated bars
or wires are not necessary for water tank foundations.
ACI 318-05 provides detailed criteria for determining the amount
of reinforcement necessary in design as well as requirements for the
spacing, cover, development length, and splice length. Requirements
for the development length of bars should be carefully reviewed, espe-
cially for the horizontal bars. If horizontal bars are so placed that more
than 12 in. (30.5 cm) of concrete is cast in the member below the bar,
the required development length is 1.3 times the normal development
length.
Foundations 171
Nonconforming Concrete
On occasion, it is possible that concrete mixed and furnished under a
specification fails to meet the minimum design strength requirement.
As a result, contractual obligations may require the foundation con-
tractor to remove the nonconforming foundations and reinstall the
foundations according to the stated requirements. This can signifi-
cantly delay project completion and can be very costly. Therefore, it is
important that serious attention be paid to quality control during the
mixing, conveying, placing, and curing phases of the concrete foun-
dation construction.
Contractual obligations notwithstanding, not every nonconform-
ing condition warrants the removal of the footings. If testing confirms
low strength, calculations can be performed to check the adequacy
of the furnished concrete with reduced strength and the actual rein-
forcement provided. The nonconforming condition may be accepted
if the calculations confirm that the load-carrying capacity of the foun-
dation is not significantly reduced and that the design intent has been
met.
Tank diameter
Overflow elevation
Head range
High water line
Column (typ.)
Low water line
Center riser
Top of
footing Elevation
elevation
Centerline to
centerline of
foundation
at
eter
Diam rline of
e
cent ation
o un d
f
Plan
FIGURE 5-1 Typical leg tank elevation and shallow foundation plan.
Foundations 173
Shallow Foundations
The shallow foundation is the most cost-effective foundation for water
storage tanks. Shallow foundations typically include isolated footings
or mat or raft foundations placed just below the columns on the lowest
part of the structure, as applicable. Footings can be placed as shallow
as possible as long as the bottom of the footing is below the frost line,
the resulting bearing pressures are within the allowable limits, the
overall settlements are tolerable, and the stability requirements are
met. However, for water-storage tanks, shallow foundations can be
typically placed as shallow as 4.5 ft (1.4 m) and as deep as 10 ft (3.0 m)
below grade.
Shallow foundations transfer structural loads to the bearing soil
or rock strata occurring below the base of the footing. Shallow foun-
dations for multicolumn elevated storage tanks typically consist of
isolated piers with footings (Fig. 5-1). For ground storage tanks and
elevated single-pedestal tanks, the foundation may take the form of
a ringwall, a ring-tee, or a ring-slab. These ring-type foundations are
further discussed later in the chapter. Ground storage tanks may also
be founded on a slab or a granular berm. Figures 5-2a, 5-2b, 5-2c, and
5-3 show several common types of shallow foundations.
Based on tank geometry, site conditions, and specific environmen-
tal loading effects, various foundation alternatives should be evalu-
ated. Typically a shallow foundation is the preferable option. If poor
soil conditions, high settlement expectations, or low bearing capac-
ities dictate, deep-foundation alternatives must be considered. Low
bearing capacities generally result in large footings, causing the adja-
cent footings to encroach upon each other. As a result, the overlapping
of the pressure bulbs from the individual footings can exacerbate the
bearing stresses and magnify settlements. Therefore, when the net
allowable bearing pressure falls below 2,000 psf (96 kPA), the deep-
foundation alternative should be pursued.
Centerline of foundation
Centerline of
anchor bolts
Diameter at centerline
of anchor bolts
Plan
Anchor bolts
Centerline of
Centerline of
anchor bolts
foundation
Bars
Bars
(a) Elevation
Foundations 175
Centerline of
Radial foundation
centerline
Centerline of foundation
Centerline of
anchor bolts
Diameter at
centerline of
anchor bolts
Plan
Anchor bolts
Centerline of
Centerline of
anchor bolts
foundation
Bars
(b) Elevation
Centerline of foundation
Hole for
inlet/outlet
pipe
Centerline of foundation
A Anchor bolts
on bolt circle
Plan
Centerline of
Anchor bolts
foundation
Dowels
Bars
Bars
(c) Elevation
Foundations 177
Centerline of
tank and foundation
Exposure
Mat top
reinforcement bars
Mat bottom
(a) reinforcement bars
Extend 3–5 ft
(0.9–1.5 m) Tank plate
beyond tank 2 ft (0.6 m) Centerline of
minimum tank and foundation
Top of berm Compacted crushed stone,
elevation screenings, fine gravel, clean
Slope 1 sand, or similar material
To drain down 1.5
away
1
1
Coarse stone or Coarse stone or
coarse gravel Thoroughly compacted fill of
gravel, coarse sand, or other coarse gravel
(b) stable material
FIGURE 5-3 Examples of shallow mat and berm foundations: (a) typical square
mat foundation and (b) typical granular berm foundation for flat-bottom tanks.
when the tank is empty. For taller and shorter towers in areas of high
seismic risk, it would not be unusual to find that the maximum uplift
occurs under seismic loading when the tank is full. Similarly, the great-
est downward force occurs in the column situated exactly downwind
of the lateral force. The downward load will be a maximum when the
tank is full. The direction of the lateral force that will cause the greatest
uplift may not be the same as the direction of the lateral force that will
cause the greatest downward force. Hence, all column foundations
are candidates for the worst-case orientation.
Typically, structural loading required for the design of the founda-
tions is determined from the analysis of the elevated tank and tower
or pedestal. The resulting reactions, shears, and overturning moments
due to the gravity loads, wind loads, and seismic loads are all defined.
These loads, in addition to the foundation dead loads and other loads
emanating from soil pressure or swells, constitute the design loads.
Foundations are generally designed according to ACI 318-05 and
its commentary, ACI 318R-05. This building code for structural con-
crete stipulates that the foundations be designed to have design
strengths at all sections at least equal to the required strength based
on factored loads in defined load combinations. Although ACI 318-05
still retains the classical factored load combinations in its Appendix
C as an alternative, in its 2005 edition it has adopted the ASCE 7-05
factored load combinations for design. In the seven load combinations
stated for determining the required strength U, loads not present can
be eliminated from the load combinations:
U = 1.4(D + F) (5-1)
U = 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(L r or S or R) (5-2)
U = 1.2D + 1.6(L r or S or R) + (1.0L or 0.8W) (5-3)
U = 1.2D + 1.6W + 1.0L + 0.5(L r or S or R) (5-4)
U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S (5-5)
U = 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H (5-6)
U = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H (5-7)
where
D = dead loads
F = load due to weight of fluids
Lr = roof live load
L = live load
R = rain load
S = snow load
E = load effects of seismic forces
W = wind load
H = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in soils,
or other materials
Foundations 179
It is the authors’ view that the load due to the weight of the flu-
ids F should be included in the strength design load combinations
(Equations [5-4] and [5-5]) with a load factor of 1.2—that is, 1.2F . Oth-
erwise, the case of the full tank under wind or seismic loading may
not be appropriately considered. Interestingly, the ASCE 7-05 basic
load combinations for allowable stress design correctly include the F
loads in load combinations for wind and seismic loading. Likewise,
the weight of fluids should be included in the seismic load combina-
tions (Equations [5–7] and [5–10]), as the seismic uplift can be more
significant in areas of high seismic risk or in the case of tall elevated
tanks when the tank is full. The uplift for an empty tank is generally
governed by the wind load combinations.
Alternatively, the classical ACI 318 Appendix C load combinations
may be used:
U = 1.4(D + F ) + 1.7L (5-8)
U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.4F + 1.7L) + (1.6W or 1.0E) (5-9)
U = 0.9D + (1.6W or 1.0E) (5-10)
U = 1.4D + 1.4F + 1.7L + 1.7H (5-11)
Bearing Capacity
Bearing capacity refers to the ability of the soil strata below the footing
to safely resist the structural loading on the foundation with reason-
able safety and tolerable settlements. The loads described earlier must
all be transferred to the bearing strata through the foundation system.
The pressure resulting from the structural loading at the interface
between the foundation and the bearing strata is referred to as the
bearing pressure. The bearing pressure must always remain below
the ultimate bearing capacity of the bearing soils. The ultimate bear-
ing capacity may correspond to a general shear failure or a punching
shear failure in the soils. However, in design, safety factors are applied
to further limit the bearing pressures to levels commonly referred to
as the allowable bearing capacity.
The determination of the ultimate bearing capacity follows
Terzaghi’s equations (Terzaghi and Peck 1967). Based on equilibrium
analysis and experimentation, Terzaghi expressed the ultimate bear-
ing capacity in semiempirical forms that can be expressed as
where
Foundations 181
Foundations 183
for taller pedestals. The vertical dowels constituting the pedestal re-
inforcement resist the uplift and lateral forces that exist at the upwind
columns when the tank is empty and the design wind load is fully
active. They also strengthen the pier in resisting compressive loads.
The dowels will require lateral ties as per ACI 318-05 Section 7.10.5.
As was noted earlier, once the foundation system is sized based
on all other requirements, it is necessary to check for vertical (uplift)
and lateral (sliding) stability. When the uplift is severe, it will control
the embedment depth and the size of the footing. To ensure stability
against uplift, the foundation can be placed deeper or made larger
to maximize the dead weight of the soils directly above the footing.
This will be especially necessary when the water table is high and
when buoyant weights are used in design. Similarly, footing depth
or slab dimensions can be adjusted to provide stability against lateral
sliding. When such adjustments are made, it will be necessary to revisit
final reinforcement requirements for code compliance. (Typically, for
buoyant weights, 60 lb/ft3 [961 kg/m3 ] for soil and 82 lb/ft3 [1,314
kg/m3 ] for concrete are used in design.)
AWWA D100-05 requires the weight of the pier (footing) plus the
weight of the soils directly above the pier to be sufficient to resist the
maximum net uplift occurring when the tank is empty. The lateral
stability is provided by the passive resistance, cohesion, and adhesion
provided by the soils. It is recommended that a minimum FS of 1.3 be
maintained against the working load uplift by including the weight
of a 25-degree soil wedge and that a minimum FS of 1.5 be maintained
against lateral sliding.
In elevated tanks, the riser carries a major portion of the water
weight. For torus-bottom tanks, this loading may be equivalent to the
weight of water within half the diameter of the tank times the tank
head range. The loading and the requirement for pipe entry and exit
at the base of the riser footing make the riser foundation unique. The
pipe pit design differs considerably from the column pedestal design
in that it has a top slab that can support a considerable load.
The pipe pit often has an open front so that support for the top slab
is provided by just three walls. The slab, treated as a two-way slab, is
supported on the front edge by a deepened girder or non-deepened
band beam across the open face of the pit and on the other three edges
by the walls of the pit. The load transferred to the top slab by the riser
consists of two parts: one part comprises the direct loads from the tank
transferred by a compressive axial stress in the riser pipe walls, and
the other part is due to the water column that bears on the riser floor
in wet risers. Another design consideration for the top slab is whether
the diameter of the riser pipe is less than or greater than the clear span
in the pipe pit below. If the riser diameter is smaller than the clear
span, the reinforcement in the slab must be attuned to account for the
additional bending moment in the slab.
The walls of the pit are reinforced in accordance with ACI 318-05
Sections 14.3.2 and 14.3.3, unless required otherwise. The walls are
typically 12 in. (30.5 cm) thick. They are checked for compressive stress
as well as flexural bending stress caused by soil active pressure, and
their thickness is adjusted as required. Where the water table is high
or when the soils are saturated, soil lateral pressures will be affected,
and their effect must also be considered when specifying design lateral
pressures.
Centerline
of tank and
foundation
ll
wa
r ing
r
ete
iam all
d ringw
s ide e d ia meter
n
I Outsid
Centerline of
tank and foundation
Compacted
regular or Expansion
gravel fill material
Detail X
Centerline of
tank and foundation See Detail X
Top of footing Sand cushion
elevation Inlet or outlet pipe Exposure
Compacted
backfill 6–12 in. (152–305 mm) Compacted regular
crushed stone Compacted
Hoops Verts. or gravel fill backfill
Section A-A
Concrete
thrust block
FIGURE 5-4 Typical ring-wall foundation plan for a flat-bottom tank. (Verts. =
vertical reinforcement dowels.)
Foundations 185
Anchor bolts
on bolt circle
Ins
dei
Ou
dia
tsi
O ut de
me
side dia
diam Centerline of
te
m
e
r sl
ete tank and foundation
r rin ter s
gwa la
ab
ll b
all Centerline of
in w
g tank and foundation
m e ter r
e dia
Insid
Ch
or
d
Ch
or
d
Radial bars
Hoops
A
Plan
FIGURE 5-5 Typical ring-tee foundation plan for a single-pedestal tank. (Verts.
= vertical reinforcement dowels.)
through the no. 200 sieve. Soils with high values of liquid limit and/or
plasticity index should be avoided. A liquid limit in the range of 30 to
35 and a plasticity index of less than 15 are commonly preferred.
Backfill may also be required to replace unsuitable bearing soils.
The backfill material in this case may consist of well-compacted struc-
tural fills as defined above, clean-washed crushed stone (e.g., no. 57
stone), or a lean-concrete mud mat with a compressive strength of
Foundations 187
Anchor
bolts on
bolt circle
Centerline
Ou of tank and
Out tsi foundation
side de
diam dia
eter me
ring te
wal r s
l la
b
Centerline Centerline
A of inlet- gw all of tank and
A
r rin
outlet pipe mete foundation
e dia
Insid
spCh
ac ord
Ch
in
g
or
d
sp
ac
in
g
ing
sp oop
ac
Radial bars
H
Hoops
Plan
FIGURE 5-6 Typical ring-slab foundation plan for a single-pedestal tank. (Verts.
= vertical reinforcement dowels.)
about 2,000 psi (14 MPa). The geotechnical consultant must provide
specific recommendations as to the appropriate backfill material and
required compaction.
Resistance to sliding is generally derived from the passive resis-
tance of the soils acting against the foundation. Cohesive soils also
draw passive resistance from the soil cohesion. In addition, the shear-
ing resistance at the base of the footing resulting from internal friction
in the soil may contribute to the lateral resistance. The coefficient of
friction at the base of the footing ranges from about 0.3 for silty soils
to 0.5 for coarse-grained cohesionless soils.
The backfill around the footings is commonly placed in 6- to 8-in.
(15- to 20-cm) lifts and is compacted to 95 to 98 percent of the soil’s
standard proctor maximum dry density (ASTM D698) or modified
proctor maximum dry density (ASTM D1557) criteria. Manipulation
of the moisture content of the backfill material may be necessary to
achieve the required compaction. Flowable fill is an alternative back-
fill material that is simple to place and does not require elaborate
compaction.
Settlement
All structural foundations are subject to settlement. As long as the set-
tlements are reasonably small and uniform, their effect on the structure
is relatively small. However, if the settlements become large and the
differential settlements excessive, there can be serious consequences
that could lead to failure. Therefore, it is absolutely essential that the
settlement of all foundations is estimated and that its effect on the
structure as a whole is examined before construction proceeds.
Geotechnical consultants are expected to provide proper assessment
of the total and differential settlements.
As was stated earlier, for water tanks it is preferable to limit the
total and differential settlements to a maximum of 2 in. and 1 in. (5 cm
and 2.5 cm), respectively. If shallow foundations will cause excessive
settlement, deep foundations can be used to further limit these set-
tlements. The effect of the settlement on the piping should also be
carefully examined. Special piping and pipefittings are available that
should be used when flexibility in the system is required.
Settlement of foundations bearing on rock is not a concern as
long as all individual footings bear on rock. However, the rock layer
must be thick and strong enough to support the loads without be-
ing crushed (as might be the case with a rock lens). The designer
should be very cautious of situations in which the foundation bears
partly on rock and partly on soils, as high differential settlements can
result.
Pile Foundations
When the bearing soils are weak or prone to excessive settlements,
deep foundations—of which one type is the pile foundation—are
necessary. Piles transfer the structural loads deep into the stronger
Foundations 189
underlying soil strata or rock formations. They also transfer the lat-
eral loads to the surrounding soils and maintain lateral stability.
Given the complex nature of the resisting soils, competent advice
from a qualified geotechnical engineer should always be sought on
the basis of a thorough subsurface investigation to assess the ap-
propriate pile type, length, and other characteristics necessary for
design.
Pile foundations consist of long, slender structural members that
are either driven into the soil or poured in place after drilling. Whether
a pile develops its capacity from end bearing or side friction depends
on how deep it is embedded and on the properties of the soils sur-
rounding it. Piles driven to and bearing on hard rock or very dense
layers of soil are primarily end bearing, as they axially transmit the
loading to the bearing strata. Piles driven to shallower depths and not
resting on hard and dense layers transmit the loading mainly by skin
friction and, hence, are referred to as friction piles. Generally, piles
develop resistance through a combination of both end bearing and
skin friction. The resistance varies on the basis of the pile length and
the relative density and consistency of the soil layers.
The lateral capacity of the pile is a function of the soil characteris-
tics near the surface. A simulation technique called “beam on elastic
foundation” can be used to assess the lateral resistance capacity of
the pile. The spring constant necessary for the evaluation can be de-
termined from the elastic or shear modulus of the soil. Pile lateral
load is also a function of the flexural capacity of the pile itself. Pro-
fessional advice must be sought in determining pile lateral capacities
and load-displacement characteristics.
Pile Types
Piles can be driven or cast in place. Available driven pile types in-
clude timber, precast, prestressed concrete, steel pipe, and H-piles.
All have certain advantages and disadvantages. Where the resulting
vibrations from pile driving can be a problem, cast-in-place piles may
be more suitable. Auger-cast piles, drilled piers, or caissons are alter-
natives often preferred over pile driving because of their lightweight
equipment.
Although pile selection depends on many factors—among them
cost, availability, and load test requirements—there are advantages to
using a particular pile type for a given job. The common pile types are
listed in Table 5-2 (ASCE 1993b).
The main disadvantage associated with timber piles is the diffi-
culty of achieving a high-strength connection between the pile and
the pile cap. Similarly, prestressed-concrete piles can pose a challenge
in achieving uplift connection. Dowels can be embedded into the
pile head for transfer of tensile load, but because of physical space
Foundations 191
equivalent to that of the load test. The reader is once again referred to
a textbook on pile foundations (Prakash and Sharma 1990). The equa-
tion that is often used by the industry is known as the Engineering-
News formula (Liu and Evett 1987):
2Wr H
Qa = (5-16)
S+C
or
1000 Wr H
Qa = (in SI units) (5-17)
6(S + C)
where
Qa = allowable pile capacity (lb [kN])
Wr = weight of ram (lb [kN])
H = height of fall of ram (ft [m])
S = amount of pile penetration per blow (in./blow [mm/blow])
C = 1.0 for drop hammer; 0.1 for steam hammer (25 or 2.5)
Foundations 193
for the job. Also, the pile-driving techniques on test piles must be the
same as those that will be used for the production piles.
For foundations for elevated water tanks, the most common
method of testing piles under static axial compressive loading is that
performed under ASTM 1143. But this method is costly and requires a
minimum waiting period of 7 days for piles in granular material and
14 days for piles in cohesive soils for dissipation of excess pore wa-
ter pressure after test pile installation and before load testing begins.
More recently, the use of PDA is gaining much acceptance over the
static load tests in view of its fast pace and the more quickly avail-
able resulting data. PDA is also used to assess pile capacity and pile
stresses from measurements of the applied force and acceleration at
the head. Refer to ASCE 1993b and ASCE 7-05 for further details.
Auger-Cast Piles
Auger-cast piles are piles that are installed by pumping grout under
pressure into holes drilled to required depth by continuous-flight,
hollow-stem augers. The common diameters of these piles range from
12 to >30 in. (30 to >76 cm), with lengths from 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m)
and compressive capacities that can exceed 125 tons (1 MN). Auger-
cast piles are reinforced by inserting a single reinforcing bar and/or a
reinforcing cage through the unset grout. The cage extends to a defined
length based on the structural requirements of the pile in resisting
tensile, compressive, and lateral loading. The single reinforcing bar at
the center of the pile typically continues to the bottom end of the pile.
The grout mostly consists of portland cement, sand, and water.
Foundations 195
S S
S
S
S S S
S S
S
S
S
S
S
S S
FIGURE 5-7 Typical pile group patterns for single foundations. (S = spacing
between piles.)
Centerline of foundation
Radial centerline
Prestressed
concrete piles
Aggregate
FIGURE 5-8a Typical pile foundations: typical pile foundation for a single
column
Foundations 197
Prestressed, precast
Anchor bolts A concrete piles
on bolt circle
Centerline of
tank and foundation
Outs
ide d
iame
ter rin
gwall
ringwall b
iameter la
Inside d rs
ete slab
m
dia
eter
side
diam
In
d
d
or
or
side
Ch
Ch
Out
Radial bars
Hoops
A
Plan
Anchor
Exposure
Subgrade
Hoops Hoops
(special Verts. Verts.
top bars)
Radial bars
Typical uplift Reinforced
anchor concrete
Hoops thrust
Radial bars
Prestressed block
Hoops concrete piles
Foundations 199
where
Hoops
Diameter depends on
loading and depth
of excavation
Depth can vary per design
Reinforcing steel
WP
Bell—may be used
when required.
Size varies—no larger than
θ
Q bu base resistance
Base resistance
FIGURE 5-9 Typical drilled shaft. (Wp = pier dead weight; Qsu = pier ultimate
side friction resistance; Qbu = pier ultimate end-bearing resistance) (Source:
Reese and O’Neill 1988.)
Foundations 201
Design of Piers
The diameter of the pier is a function of the soil characteristics within
the profile, the location of the water table, and the presence of lateral
loads and/or moments. The design of the concrete mix and its strength
are also of critical importance.
The geotechnical profile of the soil dictates not only how far down
to extend the pier, but also the method of construction to be em-
ployed, the need for casing and/or dewatering, and the need for
under-reaming. Special characteristics of soils—shrinking/swelling
of plastic soils, occurrence of boulders, remains of abandoned foot-
ings, presence of debris or other unsafe materials, and so on—all re-
quire that certain measures be taken into full consideration. Aside
from the basic structural design, the most important consideration is
the amount of the expected settlement of the pier foundation and its
effects on the elevated water tank system.
Under-reaming, where possible, helps increase the pier bearing
surface and consequently the bearing resistance. Under-reaming can
also be used interchangeably with socketing where required. The lon-
gitudinal reinforcement for drilled shafts depends on the many fac-
tors noted previously, but as a minimum, industry practice has been
to provide at least 0.5 percent of the cross-sectional area and at least six
bars, forming a cage of equally spaced bars. This minimum is actually
based on ACI 318 Sections 10.8.4 and 10.9.1. Section 10.9.1 requires a
minimum reinforcement of 1 percent. For regions of low-to-moderate
seismic risk, Section 10.8.4 states that, for compression members with
cross-sectional areas larger than required by consideration of loading,
it should be permissible to base the minimum on a reduced effective
cross-sectional area not less than half the total area.
Additional reinforcement may be required where heavy tensile
loading or bending moments are present. The longitudinal reinforce-
ment cage may extend a partial depth or the full length of the pier
when required. Hoop or spiral reinforcement is also used for drilled
shafts. Hoops are more economical, but from a performance stand-
point spirals are preferred. Figure 5-10 illustrates pier reinforcement.
Ties—spacing as per
ACI 318 Sections 7.10
and 7.11. Refer to
ACI 318 Chapter 21 for
special provisions for
seismic design.
Foundations 203
be adequate for uplift stability. But when the loads are severe, belled,
or under-reamed, piers are necessary. Detailed criteria on the stability
of drilled piers and a discussion on the potential collapse of the bell
in loose soils during construction can be found in the study by Reese
and O’Neill (1988).
Load Testing
A clear way of establishing the structural integrity of a drilled pier is
by load testing. However, due to the high costs and logistical difficul-
ties associated with the arrangement of reaction shafts, such testing
is rarely performed. If it is absolutely necessary that a load test be
performed, the pier (as with piles) must be able to sustain without
excessive settlement a load that is at least twice the working load.
The best way to ensure the structural integrity and intended per-
formance of drilled piers is to follow a credible quality control program
of inspection and installation procedures. Recent studies have shown
that minor construction flaws that may not be detectable by common
nondestructive evaluation methods can lead to significant capacity
reduction in drilled piers. Such flaws include the presence of small
voids, soil inclusions, misaligned cage or other reinforcement steel,
weak concrete, or corroded reinforcing bars. Refer to Sarhan et al.
(2004) for further details.
Settlement
Settlement concerns associated with drilled piers are similar to those
defined for piles. Typically, if the drilled pier is bearing on or socketed
into the bedrock, settlement caused by direct loading is negligible.
Under other installation conditions, it is important that a proper set-
tlement analysis be performed by the geotechnical engineer to ensure
that the expected settlements are tolerable from operations and per-
formance perspectives and from the standpoint of structural design.
Foundations 205
Coarse stone or 1
coarse gravel 1 Coarse stone or
Thoroughly compacted fill of coarse gravel
gravel, coarse sand, or other
stable material
Subgrade
Slab Foundation
Where the bearing soils are strong or when the water tank capacity is
small, flat-bottom tanks can be supported by a mat or slab foundation.
The slab is uniformly loaded by the pressure head in the tank. The
resulting bearing stress under the slab is the pressure due to the weight
of the tank and its contents added to the uniform pressure caused by
the thickness of the concrete slab. Overturning moment resulting from
wind or seismic loading also contributes to the bearing stress.
The reinforcement requirements of the mat or slab foundation
are based on the loading and deformation characteristics of the
footing. Often the minimum reinforcement requirement defined by
ACI 318-05 will control. Anchorage and stability requirements should
be investigated when the tank is full and when it is empty. Slab exte-
rior edges supporting the tank wall may be thickened, if necessary, to
accommodate the additional bearing stress caused by wind or seismic
overturning moments. Consideration should also be given to the frost
depth in determining slab thickness and bearing elevation.
Ringwall Foundation
As discussed in the section on shallow foundations, ringwall founda-
tions are used when the bearing pressure under the tank shell exceeds
the allowable bearing pressure of the soil near grade. The ringwall
carries the loads deeper and distributes the pressure over a wider
area. When the overturning moments are severe and anchor bolts are
required for stability, a ringwall foundation best accommodates these
anchorages. The design must consider hoop stresses caused by the
internal soil pressure resulting from the weight of the tank and its
contents.
Deep Foundations
Where the bearing soils are weak or the settlements are excessive,
flat-bottom tanks require deep foundations. Driven piles and auger-
cast piles are typically used under flat-bottom tanks. In regions of
high seismic risk, special reinforcement requirements also apply, as is
discussed subsequently in this chapter.
Foundations 207
forces may also be taken into consideration, in the authors’ view. Some
codes specifically disallow this, but for water tanks it is justified since
nearly the entire mass is considered effective in the formation of all
seismic loads, including the seismic overturning moments. This must
be done with attention to signs (load direction), since a column under
uplift cannot generate frictional resistance.
Bolt Interaction
Interaction can be checked by means of a simple equation. For the
combined effects of tension and shear, the following linear interaction
equations may be used in design:
T V
+ ≤ 1.33 (wind) (5-19)
Tallowable Vallowable
T V
+ ≤ 1. (seismic) (5-20)
Tseismic-allowable 1.33Vallowable
where
T = tensile load
V = concurrent shear load on bolt
Foundations 209
the appropriate seismic use group (I, II, or III). All structures having
SDS ≥ 0.5g or SD1 ≥ 0.2g (where g is the acceleration of gravity) are as-
signed an SDC of D. Also, seismic use group III structures with 0.33g
≤ SDS < 0.5g or 0.133g ≤ SD1 < 0.2g are assigned an SDC of D. Seismic
design category E is assigned to seismic use group I and II structures
located on sites with mapped maximum considered earthquake spec-
tral acceleration at 1-second period S1 equal to or greater than 0.75g.
Similarly, seismic use group III structures at these accelerations are
assigned an SDC of F. Structures assigned to categories C, D, E, or
F require special attention to quality assurance during construction.
Structures assigned to category E or F are prohibited from being sited
where there is a known potential for an active fault.
The seismic importance factor IE significantly affects seismic de-
sign. (This factor is defined in ASCE 7-05 Section 11.5.1, Table 11.5-1.)
Values of the importance factor range from 1.0 to 1.5, depending on
the seismic use group category assigned to the elevated water tank
system. AWWA D100-05 assigns a default value of 1.5 to IE unless
otherwise specified by the purchaser, but it allows the use of 1.0 for
systems not supplying water for fire protection.
Reinforcement Criteria
In regions of high seismic risk, ACI 318-05 requires structures to com-
ply with requirements defined in Sections 21.2 through 21.10. These
sections define maximum and minimum flexural and transverse re-
inforcement, maximum spacing for hoops and crossties, bar develop-
ment length, and other requirements. Section 21.10 provides criteria
for the design of foundations. Footings, mats, piles, pile caps, piers,
and caissons are all required to be designed under this section.
ASCE 7-05 refers to ACI 318-05 for design and construction of
concrete foundations assigned to seismic design categories D, E, and
F. ASCE 7-05 requires individual pile caps or drilled piers in these
categories, as well as in category C, to be interconnected by ties. Like-
wise, spread footings founded on site class E and F soils are required
to be interconnected by ties. The design strength for ties in tension or
compression is required to be greater than 10 percent of SDS times the
larger pile cap or column factored-dead plus factored-live load, with
some exceptions. There are also rigorous requirements for the design
of piles in site class E and F soils.
Foundations 211
Foundation Stability
Design for stability is critical in regions of high seismic activity. Foun-
dations must be designed to withstand all design loads with adequate
factors of safety. Foundations must also be stable against all forces
causing uplift, lateral sliding, and overturning. The safety factors re-
quired for stability and strength are defined in various ways by differ-
ent codes. It is important to appreciate the reasoning and philosophy
associated with these factors to ensure structural integrity, safety, and
stability.
Lateral stability in saturated soils, settlement evaluation in satu-
rated or high-moisture-content silty soils, and potential liquefaction
in sandy soils are all conditions that require competent evaluation and
assessment before elevated water tanks are built on sites with these
characteristics. Piles designed for fixity at the pile head must be prop-
erly connected to or embedded deep into the pile cap to develop uplift
and moment capacity.
Backfill around spread footing and pile foundations must be con-
sistent with the geotechnical engineer’s recommendations. Special
recommendations made in terms of moisture content, maximum loose
lifts, or soil remediation measures must be followed. All nonconform-
ing conditions must be brought to the attention of the engineer of
record for evaluation and disposition.
Special Considerations
Design of elevated water tank foundations requires close coordination
with the project geotechnical engineer and with the construction team
at the job site. All parties must clearly understand the design require-
ments and must appreciate what is essential to quality design and
construction. Structural engineers must not assume that all geotech-
nical requirements defined in the subsurface evaluation report will
be routinely implemented during construction. In today’s fast-paced
construction, it is not unusual to see the forms removed the following
day, or long before the concrete has achieved its specified 28-day com-
pressive strength f c . Backfill placement could be started immediately
Backfill Compaction
Geotechnical engineers generally specify compaction in terms of max-
imum thickness of loose lifts and standard proctor maximum dry den-
sity unit weights per ASTM D698 or modified proctor maximum dry
density tests per ASTM D1557 (see Annual Book of ASTM Standards).
These requirements are usually specified to be 95 to 98 percent of
the maximum dry density; even higher percentages are specified for
subgrade compaction. Soil compaction is accomplished by the use of
hand tampers and sheepsfoot or pneumatic rollers.
Foundations 213
Shrink/Swell Soils
Expansive soils and challenges associated with shrink/swell soils
were discussed earlier in the chapter in the section on design con-
siderations in plastic soils. Expansive soils are generally plastic clays,
also known as fat clays, that swell with increases in moisture content.
U U
FIGURE 5-12 Typical foundation in shrink/swell soils. (Uw = vertical uplift due
to wind; Us/w = vertical uplift due to shrink/swell.)
Foundations 215
1. Bear the footing below the active zone and replace the backfill
with select structural fill.
2. Bear the footing in the active zone, replace 3 to 5 ft (0.9 to 1.5 m)
of soil below the footing with select structural fill, and use
select structural fill for backfill.
3. Use site soils for backfill, but ensure that soil moisture content
is greater than the plastic limit and that the moisture content
is 3 to 5 percent above the optimum moisture.
4. Use a polyethylene or bitumen material on the vertical faces
of the footing.
5. Same as point (2), but use site soils for backfill with lime mix-
ing.
6. Same as point (1) or (2), but use site soils for backfill, and
consider the uplifting forces in the design of the footing and in
its stability. Use J-voids where necessary to allow room for the
soil to swell without imposing any forces on the foundation
element.
7. In soils where piers are recommended, geotechnical engineers
should recommend belled piers, with emphasis on the rein-
forcement requirements for resisting the uplift forces at the
junction of the shaft and the bell.
must clearly define the active zone, the potential for swell, uplift,
or adhesion forces that need to be considered in design, the bearing
depth at which the foundations are to be placed, and suitability of
site soils for backfill or recommendations for imported soil. If im-
ported soils are to be used for backfill, clear criteria must be provided
regarding the nature of the soil, its Atterberg limits, compaction re-
quirements, and guidance on local availability of the recommended
soils.
Conclusion
Foundations are critical to the design, construction, operation, and
performance of welded-steel tanks for water storage. Therefore, foun-
dation design and construction require attention to detail and proper
understanding of all criteria and requirements.
Sites that are relatively dry, level, and easily accessible and that
have good soils properties are ideal locations for erecting elevated
water tanks. The suitability of sites must always be established by
a qualified geotechnical engineer. Grade elevations and site bound-
aries must be established carefully to achieve the proper overflow and
foundation elevations.
Geotechnical investigation reports must provide all the neces-
sary information for design. This includes detailed soil properties
and other characteristics defined in this chapter. Certain soils exhibit
shrink/swell or other characteristics that require extra measures and
precautions in design. All of these characteristics must be clearly de-
fined and appropriately addressed in the report. Site classification
and settlement evaluation must also be included in the geotechnical
report.
Generally, isolated spread footings or shallow foundations are
the most economical foundation type when suitable to site condi-
tions. Otherwise, deep foundations are necessary. Detailed criteria
are provided herein to assist the designer in selecting the most suit-
able foundation type and to assist the designer with the design, be it
shallow footings or deep foundations using piles and drilled piers. In
regions of high seismic activity, special design requirements apply that
must be incorporated into the foundation design. Both the logic and
philosophy for these requirements are explained in this chapter, and
further resources are provided in the bibliography at the end of the
chapter.
Requirements for the quality control, mixing, placing, finishing,
and curing of concrete have also been defined here. These require-
ments are critical, as they govern the strength, durability, and work-
ability of concrete foundations. Also, criteria have been introduced
Foundations 217
for sizing anchor bolts and for allowable bearing capacity under base
plates.
Requirements for backfill compaction and lateral and uplift sta-
bility are defined. It is further emphasized that to ensure safety, all
excavations must be performed in full compliance with the latest
OSHA construction standards.
Assume the live load to be zero, and assume that the wind load
has been reduced by a directionality factor so that the 1.6 load factor
applies.
Use a net allowable bearing pressure of 3,000 psf (144 kPA) at a
minimum embedment depth of 5.5 ft (1.68 m) below existing grade and
a concrete compressive strength f c of 4,000 psi (27.58 MPa). Assume
the pedestal to be 4 ft × 4 ft (1.2 m × 1.2 m) with a 1-ft (0.3-m) projection
above grade. Refer to Fig. 5-13.
Footing Design
Step 1: Governing Load Combinations
The load combinations were defined in Equations (5-1) through (5-7).
A quick examination of these equations reveals that only load combi-
nations (5-1), (5-4), (5-5), and (5-6) are governing. After simplification,
these equations are as follows:
V
Grade Footing
exposure
Embedment depth
Pedestal width p w
d
Flexural
shear d
Punching
2 shear
t d
Footing width B
Vertical Loads
U 1 = 1.4 (D + F ) = 780 kip (5-1)
U 4 = 1.2 (D + F ) + 1.6 W + 0.5 S = 840 kip (5-4)
U 5 = 1.2 (D + F ) + (1.4 × 1.0) E + 0.2 S = 869 kip (5-5)
U 6 = 0.9 D + 1.6 W = −135 kip (5-6) (uplift)
Corresponding Horizontal Loads
V1 = 0.0 (5-1)
V 4 = 1.6 W S = 1.6 × 30 = 48 kip (5-4)
V 5 = (1.4 × 1.0) E S = (1.4 × 28) = 39 kip (5-5)
V 6 = 1.6 W S = V 4 = 48 kip (5-6)
Foundations 219
662 kips
AWind = = 220 ft2 (governs)
3000 psf
699 kips
ASeismic = = 175 ft2
1.33 × 3000 psf
Pedestal
d width pw1 d
2 2
2
d
width pw2
Pedestal
2
d
Footing width B
(a)
Footing width B
Pedestal width pw
d Footing width B
(b)
(B – pw)
–d
2
FIGURE 5-14 Design shear and bending moment evaluations: (a) punching
shear, (b) flexural shear, and (Continued)
Foundations 221
Footing width B
Pedestal width pw
Footing width B
(c)
(B – pw)
2
Here, f c is reduced by 500 psi (3.45 MPa) for reasons described in the
section on structural concrete. Assuming no contribution from slab
reinforcement, using a shear reduction factor of 0.75 as per ACI 318-
05 Section 9.3.2.3, the nominal punching shear capacity is
882 kips
Vu = [152 ft2 − (4 + 1.42)2 ft2 ) = 767 kip
152 ft2
pw
W3 d
W1
(soil) (Concrete—pedestal)
W2 (Concrete—slab)
3,740 psf (179 kPa)
pw
} 450 psf
(22 kPa)
2
pw (B – pw)
d+
2 2
B/2
FIGURE 5-15 Flexural shear and bending moment evaluation. (psf = pounds
per square foot, kPa = kilopascal.)
Foundations 223
The flexural shear capacity of the footing slab as per ACI 318-05
Section 11.3.1.1 is
Vcf = 2 3, 500(15 × 12)(17) = 362 kip
Vnf = 0.75 × 362 = 272 kip
Since Vnf > VFlex , the 17-in. (43.2-cm) depth selected is adequate
for shear.
Foundations 225
Other Steps
The anchor bolts should be designed for tension and shear interac-
tion. Lateral stability should be checked on the basis of the active and
passive pressures and the cohesion, if any, of the backfill soils. Backfill
compaction is a function of the stability requirements. A compaction
to 95 percent standard proctor maximum dry density, as discussed
in this chapter, may be recommended. The embedment depth can be
adjusted, if necessary, to achieve additional passive resistance.
Refer to Fig. 5-16 for the reinforcing details. Note that, in gen-
eral, strain compatibility must be checked to ensure that a balanced
condition prevails and that the footings are not over-reinforced. Also,
note that a nominal top mat reinforcement can be added as required
for uplift or shrinkage control.
4 ft (1.2 m)
Anchor bolt
16 #8 dowels
No. 5'S–nominal–each
way (only if required
for uplift or shrinkage
control)
(508 mm)
20 in.
14 #9 each way
15 ft (4.5 m)
Bibliography
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 1989. Manual of Steel Con-
struction, Allowable Stress Design. 9th ed. Chicago: AISC.
American Petroleum Institute (API). 2008. Design and Construction of Large,
Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks, 11th ed. API Standard 620. Washington,
D.C.: API.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1993a. Bearing Capacity of Soils.
Technical Engineering and Design Guides as Adopted From the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, No. 7. New York: ASCE Press.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1993b. Design of Pile Foundations.
Technical Engineering and Design Guides as Adopted From the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, No. 1. New York: ASCE Press.
Bowles, J. E. 1995. Foundation Analysis and Design. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Das, B. M. 2006. Principles of Foundation Engineering. 6th ed. Florence, KY: CL
Engineering.
Deep Foundations Institute (DFI). 1990. Augered Cast-in-Place Piles Manual. 1st
ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: DFI.
Kosmatka, S. H., and W. C. Panarese. 1990. Design and Control of Concrete Mix-
tures. 13th ed. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
Liu, C., and J. B. Evett. 1987. Soils and Foundations. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP). 2003. NEHRP
Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and Other
Structures (FEMA 450). Part 1: Provisions. Washington, D.C.: NEHRP.
Nilson, A. H., D. Darwin, and C. Dolan. 2004. Design of Concrete Structures.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Peck, R. B., W. E. Hanson, and T. H. Thornburn. 1974. Foundation Engineering.
2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Portland Cement Association (PCA). 1999. Notes on ACI 318–99 Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete, with Design Application. 7th ed. Skokie,
IL: PCA.
Prakash, S., and H. D. Sharma. 1990. Pile Foundations in Engineering Practice.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Reese, L. C., and M. W. O’Neill. 1988. Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures
and Design Methods. US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration FHWA-HI-88-042, ADSC-TL-4. McLean, VA: US Depart-
ment of Transportation Federal Highway Administration; and Dallas, TX:
ADSC, the International Association of Foundation Drilling.
Sarhan, H. A., M. W. O’Neill, and S. W. Tabsh. 2004. Structural Capacity Reduc-
tion for Drilled Shafts with Minor Flaws. ACI Structural Journal 101(3):291–
297, May/June.
Smith, G. N., and E. L. Pole. 1981. Elements of Foundation Design. New York:
Garland STPM Press.
Terzaghi, K., and R. B. Peck. 1967. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Woodward, R. J., W. S. Gardner, and D. M. Greer. 1972. Drilled Pier Foundations.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Wyllie, D. C. 1992. Foundations on Rock. New York: E. and F. N. Spon, an imprint
of Chapman and Hall.
CHAPTER 6
Construction of
Welded-Steel
Water-Storage
Tanks
Jim Noren, P.E
Advance Tank Construction
Steel Fabrication
Tank constructors have developed specialized equipment, tools, and
procedures for the construction of ground storage tanks and elevated
water tanks. In the construction of nearly all steel-welded tanks, the
steel components are fabricated in a shop environment and shipped
to the tank site, where the fabricated components are fit and welded
into the finished tank by field construction crews. Steel plate layouts
are developed by the constructor, which minimizes welding and max-
imizes the use of the ordered plate, with consideration to the size and
weight restrictions for shipping. For the composite elevated tank, spe-
cialized forms and equipment have been developed and are used in
the construction of the concrete components.
Material
Plate material may be purchased from a steel warehouse or directly
from a steel mill. Steel warehouses stock plate material in most of the
227
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Construction of Welded-Steel Water-Storage Tanks
Cutting
Several methods are available for cutting plates to size in the shop,
including thermal cutting by either oxy-fuel gas torches or plasma
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 229
arc. Thermal cutting methods are commonly used in the shop for
irregularly shaped plates (Fig. 6-1). Oxy-fuel gas torches may be au-
tomated by either setting up a track burner or by use in a numerically
controlled burning bed. Plasma arc cutters are used in a numerically
controlled burning bed. Using either method, the plate may be simul-
taneously cut to size and the edges tapered and beveled for welding
by using multiple burning heads. The finished edges should closely
follow the detailed plate dimensions to ensure good fit-up in the field.
The edges should be uniform and smooth and cleaned of slag accu-
mulation when necessary.
Machining and shearing are other methods of cutting plates to
size. Rectangular plates that are ordered with minimal trim allowance
may be trimmed and squared by machining the edges using an edge
planer. Shearing is another option for straight edges that are less than
the width of the constructor’s plate shear. American Water Works As-
sociation (AWWA) Standard D100 limits plate thicknesses for shearing
to 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) or less if the joint is to be butt welded. Edges that
will be lap welded are limited in thickness only by the capacity of
the plate shear. Sheared edges should be square and burrs removed
before welding.
Forming
Single-curvature plates for welded-steel tanks are typically cold rolled
in the shop to the appropriate curvature using a plate roll. Plate widths
Plate Thickness
Minimum Maximum
(in.[mm]) (in.[mm]) Minimum Plate Diameter (ft[m])
>3/8 [>9.5] ≤3/8[≤9.5] 40 [12]
>1/2 [>12.7] 1/2 [12.7] 60 [18.2]
>5/8 [>15.8] 5/8 [15.8] 120 [36.6]
Must be rolled for all diameters
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 231
Shop Subassemblies
Fabricated plate may be subassembled and welded in the shop
(Fig. 6-4). This is done to maximize the welding that can be performed
FIGURE 6-4 Shop assembly of cut and formed plates for a dome roof.
Shipping
Shipping from the shop to the job site is almost exclusively by truck
(Fig. 6-5). The current weight limit is 80,000 lb (36,287 kg) gross for
the truck, trailer, and load, resulting in a net load capacity of approx-
imately 45,000 lb (20,412 kg), depending on the weight of the truck
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 233
and trailer. Rules for oversized loads vary from state to state. Special
permitting, routing, and escorts may be an option when oversized
loads cannot be avoided or are deemed to be more economical. Plate
layouts are often dictated by shipping limitations. Site access should
also be considered in planning shipping loads.
Material should be sufficiently blocked, braced, and tied down to
secure the components to the trailer and maintain the fabricated shape
during shipping.
Welding
In the 1950s, welding replaced riveting as means of connecting tank
joints. Welding can be performed in all climates and in a variety of po-
sitions. Over time, the technology has improved, leading to increases
in productivity. To convey the correct welding information from the
tank designer, weld symbols in accordance with AWS Standard Sym-
bols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination should
be used on the fabrication and erection drawings.
Welding Processes
The primary welding processes used in the shop and field are shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), and flux
cored arc welding (FCAW). All are arc welding processes that use
an electric arc generated by an electric current between the tip of the
electrode and the base metal. Heat from the arc melts the electrode
and adjacent base metal which then combines, cools, and solidifies to
form the weld bead.
Welding may be performed manually, semiautomatically, auto-
matically, or by machine welding. Manual welding requires the welder
to manually maintain the proper positioning and arc length and re-
place the electrode as it is consumed. Semiautomatic welding is per-
formed with a handheld gun that continuously feeds the electrode
and flux. Automatic welding is accomplished with equipment that is
capable of performing the welding operation without a welding op-
erator. This type of welding is more commonly used in assembly line
operations. In machine welding, specialized equipment performs the
complete welding operation; however, the welding equipment must
be monitored by a qualified operator who is responsible for position-
ing the steel components, starting and stopping the weld, setting the
speed, and adjusting the controls.
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 235
SAW is typically limited to the flat position for butt welds and the
flat and horizontal positions for fillet welds. With specialized equip-
ment to contain the flux, SAW may be used for lap and butt joints
in the horizontal position. Moving the bulky wire-feeding mecha-
nism for the continuous-feed electrode may make SAW a less desir-
able option for inaccessible areas. Good joint fit-up is also critical for
SAW.
Grinding
Some grinding of welds may be required to ensure that the finished
weld contour is suitable for cleaning and painting and will not be detri-
mental to the life of the coating. Grinding should be used to remove
weld slag, weld spatter, burrs, and any sharp surfaces along welds.
If the purchaser requires special grinding, it should be noted in the
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 237
Construction
Scheduling Issues
In addition to the production capacity and workload of the tank con-
structor, construction schedules are affected by the style and size of the
tank, the availability of material, the time of year, and daily weather
conditions. The purchaser may specify either the number of weeks
to completion after award of contract or a set calendar date for com-
pletion, or the purchaser may allow the tank builder to propose a
scheduled completion. If a specified completion date is critical to the
owner, the purchaser may specify liquidated damages to be charged
on a daily basis if the work is not completed on time.
If the purchaser chooses to set a construction schedule, consider-
ation should be given to mill delivery time to allow the constructor to
use material from the mill. In northern climates, a schedule should be
specified that allows painting to be performed at an appropriate time
of year. Tanks with very short construction schedules are typically
purchased at a premium.
Weather can significantly influence the field schedule. Wind, ex-
treme temperatures, rain, snow, and sleet can affect what work can
be performed and how productive the crew is. Even moderate winds
can make it unsafe to pick up and place steel plate.
Weather and temperature conditions must also be appropriate for
welding. Welding is not permitted when the parts to be welded are
wet from rain, snow, or ice, or during periods of high wind, unless the
welder and the work are properly protected. No welding is allowed
when steel is wet. The protection is typically an enclosure to block the
wind. Welding is not allowed if the base metal temperature is lower
than 32◦ F (0◦ C) unless the base metal is preheated to at least 100◦ F
(38◦ C) through the thickness and maintained for a distance along the
weld of four times the thickness of the parts to be welded. If base metal
temperatures fall below 0◦ F (−18◦ C), welding is not recommended.
If welding is performed, low-hydrogen electrodes or low-hydrogen
processes must be used, and the base metal must be preheated to 200◦ F
(93◦ C) in accordance with AWWA D100.
Site Issues
The engineer’s drawings typically show the site layout superimposed
on a topographic drawing. This gives some indication of the relative
slope of the site and of potential access problems. If, during the bid
stage, questions arise regarding the site, a site visit may be warranted.
Access
The owner should provide a suitable right-of-way for access from
the nearest public road to the tank site. The access should be able
to handle a semitrailer tractor rig with a trailer that is 53 ft (16 m)
long and that weighs 80,000 lb (36,287 kg) under ordinary weather
conditions. Side clearance needs to be adequate to accommodate the
maximum shipping width for the job. The access road should be free
from underground and overhead obstructions that could be damaged
by the truck traffic. A minimum vertical clearance of 14 ft (4.2 m) is
required.
Site Size
Final property lines should be located sufficiently far from the founda-
tion footprint to permit construction operations. During construction,
additional clearance is required for steel delivery, storage, staging, and
subassembly. If a permanent site of adequate size is not available, the
owner should provide an adequate temporary construction easement.
As a minimum for the construction operations, a site clearance from
the center of an elevated tank to the site limits should be equal to the
height of the tank. For a ground tank, it is preferable to have at least
20 ft (6 m) clear around the entire tank so that a crane can be used
around the full circumference of the tank.
The site should also be big enough to permit abrasive blasting
and painting without impacting neighboring property, both after ini-
tial construction and during future recoating operations. Clearance
requirements between the tank and the neighboring property vary
with the prevailing wind conditions, type of paint application, and
consequence of damage. Sites should be evaluated on a case-by-case
basis, but as a general rule, a clearance of approximately 100 yd
(91.5 m) is suggested. If adequate clearance cannot be provided, it
may be necessary to shroud the tank during initial and future paint-
ing operations. Shrouding the tank is costly and should be avoided if
possible.
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 239
Drainage
The tank site should have good drainage during construction. Storage,
staging, and subassembly areas should be free from standing water.
For sites with poorly draining soils, the bearing surface for a shal-
low foundation should be protected from becoming saturated prior
to concrete placement.
Power Lines
Overhead or buried power lines present a significant safety risk for
tank construction. Sites having power lines within 40 ft (12 m) of the
tank or tank foundation are unacceptable.
Security
Access to the tank should be blocked when the tank is left unattended.
If the location is remote or subject to frequent vandalism, additional
measures to ensure site security may be required. The additional mea-
sures may include fencing and full- or part-time security.
Power Requirements
Power requirements in the field vary depending on the types of tools
that will be used on the job. If the purchaser is furnishing power to
the site, the power requirements should be coordinated with the tank
constructor.
Tank-Bottom Construction
The bottom of a ground-supported reservoir or standpipe is essen-
tially a nonstressed membrane, the purpose of which is to contain the
product inside the tank and transmit the water-bearing load directly
to the foundation. The minimum thickness of the bottom plate is 1/4
in. (6.3 mm); it may be thicker if a corrosion allowance is specified.
The tank bottom should be crowned up from the shell to the cen-
ter with a minimum slope of 1 in. (25.4 mm) vertical to 10 ft (3 m)
horizontal.
Inside shell
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 241
)
6m
. (0.
2 ft nimum ll
mi e she
d
insi
)
m n
1 m ctio
(5 o je
n. pr
2 i ide
ts
ou
Annular plate
Welding sequence The welding sequence for the bottom plates shall
minimize out-of-plane distortion. A general sequence for bottom
welding is described as follows:
Lap welded versus butt welded Bottom plates can be welded by either
lap welds or butt welds. For bottom plate thicknesses up to 3/8 in.
(9.5 mm), the plates are typically lap welded from the top side only.
The weld is a full-thickness fillet weld and, for thicknesses equal to
or greater than 5/16 in. (8 mm), the fillet is typically a two-pass weld.
If it is necessary to seal the underside of the bottom or if the bottom
Bottom plate
plate thickness is greater than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), butt welding of the
bottom plates is appropriate.
For lap-welded bottoms, the lapped area that is beneath the shell
and projected outside of the tank must be “broken down.” The pur-
pose of the breakdown is to provide a smooth transition at the lap on
the top side so that there will be no gap at the shell-to-bottom connec-
tion in the region of the lap. Refer to Fig. 6-9 for an illustration of a
breakdown.
Annular ring splice welds must be butt welded. The welds may
be either single butt welds with backup bars or double butt welds.
Commonly, the fabrication shop will subassemble annular ring sec-
tions with double butt welds, and the subassemblies will be welded
in the field with single butt welds.
Butt-welded bottom plates can be either a one-sided weld with
a backup bar or a double butt welded. Single butt welding is the
preferred method since the bottom can be laid out and the welding
performed from the top side. Double butt welding is difficult for large
tanks due to the inaccessibility of the underside of the bottom. For
small tanks, however, the initial weld pass can be performed down-
hand and the bottom can be flipped over so that the welding can be
completed down-hand.
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 243
Shell Construction
Crane versus jacking Normally, there are two basic methods for erect-
ing the tank shell. The more common method is to start from the
bottom ring and use a crane to place each individual shell plate for
each successive ring until the shell is complete. However, for tall tanks
a method using hydraulic jacks may be more economical. Using this
method, the top two shell rings and roof are erected on temporary jack
stands. Once this is complete, the shell is jacked using hydraulics, and
the next shell ring is placed. This process is repeated until the shell is
complete. This method reduces the crane requirements since there are
no high picks. Also, temporary scaffolding for the shell is not required
since all shell erection and welding activities are performed at ground
level.
The shell is the critical component of a storage tank. It is the pri-
mary stressed membrane that contains the liquid. Therefore, great care
must be exercised in laying out, fitting, and welding the shell.
Listed here are general steps for layout and fit-up of a tank shell.
This procedure varies among contractors; however, the general steps
are the same.
Shimming and the tub ring After the bottom plate is laid, the first shell
ring, or “tub ring,” is set. Care must be taken in setting the tub ring,
since the roundness of the tub ring is the basis of whether the rest of the
shell will be round. An essential part of making the shell round is that
the tub ring must be level. If the tub ring is not level, tank roundness
is difficult to achieve. The tub ring is leveled by using shims between
the bottom and the foundation.
Weld clearances Weld clearances for shell vertical joint offset, perma-
nent attachments, and shell penetrations should meet the require-
ments of AWWA D100 and good industry practice. Section 14 of
AWWA D100 prescribes the requirements for weld clearances. The
base code does not describe any weld clearance requirements; how-
ever, good practice indicates the following weld clearances:
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 245
Roof Construction
Roof configuration can be either supported on structural framing or
self-supporting. The self-supporting roofs can be unstiffened, or stiff-
eners can be welded to the roof plate.
Method of roof erection—crane versus air raised For tanks with struc-
turally supported roofs, the typical method of construction is to use
a crane to lift the various components into place. The roof framing is
erected after the bottom and shell are in place, and the roof plate is
placed after the framing is complete.
For tanks with self-supporting roofs, there are more options. The
roof can be built in place using a crane and temporary support for
the roof or the roof can be built on temporary supports outside of the
tank and the entire roof can be lifted into place. The latter method
is advantageous for tall tanks, roofs requiring seal welding, and in
situations where a crane with enough capacity can be used econom-
ically. Another option is to have the roof erected on the floor of the
tank and to lift it into place after the shell erection is complete. This is
accomplished by sealing the outside edge of the roof to the shell and
pressurizing the underside of the roof to lift it to its final position. This
method is economical for large-diameter tanks that are relatively tall.
Surprisingly, the pressure required to air-raise a roof is on the order
of a water column of 3 to 6 in. (76 to 152 mm). The roof can be raised
using high-velocity fans bolted to the shell manholes.
butt or lap welded to the top of the shell. The roof plate laps onto
the top of the angle. This arrangement can be advantageous since
fabrication and erection variances can be tolerated. The top angle is
used to aid in keeping the tank shell round. As an alternative to using
an angle, a bar may be used.
A double-curved transition may be used for either a supported or
unsupported roof. This type of transition can be more visually pleasing
for taller tanks and any tank for which aesthetics are important.
Ponding For supported cone roofs, the minimum roof slope is a 3/4-
in. (19-mm) rise in a 12-in. (305-mm) run. This is a very shallow roof
slope and it may therefore produce ponding if the roof plate is built
with excessive distortion. In many local jurisdictions, ponding is not
allowed by law. The easiest solution to potential ponding is to increase
the roof slope.
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 247
General Requirements
Field subassemblies Shipped plates are frequently subassembled on
the ground in the field. The subassemblies are planned on the basis
of the maximum weight and size feasible to lift and fit into place.
This erection practice allows the welding to be performed close to the
ground in more favorable positions.
Access to the tank Safe access to the tank and tower is required for
welders, inspectors, and painters. Temporary scaffolding is commonly
used in conjunction with permanent and temporary ladders for access.
Aerial lifts such as a boom lift or scissor lift may also be used. A work
basket or chair hung from a spider line is another frequently used
option. This option requires a secure anchor point above the area to
be accessed. Regardless of the method of access, fall protection needs
to be considered and special measures taken to ensure the safety of
the workers.
Fluted-Column-Style Tank
The fluted tower rests on butt-welded base plates that are seated on
shims and fixed to the foundation by the anchor bolts. It is critical that
the base plate is level before erecting the fluted plates. After the tank
has been erected, but before it is filled with water, the space between
the base plate and foundation is grouted.
FIGURE 6-10
Erection of tower,
fluted-column-style
tank.
The vertical joints in the fluted tower are lap welded, and the
horizontal joints are butt welded. Water-bearing plates in the tank
are welded with full-penetration butt welds. The roof is typically lap
welded on the top side only. When specified by the purchaser, the
overhead laps in the roof are also seal welded (Figs. 6-10 to 6-12).
Access to the inside of the fluted tower is required at all times and
is typically provided at the opening for the overhead door. A bottom
manhole provides access to the inside of the tank. Tank constructors
have developed specialized equipment to enable safe access to dif-
ficult areas such as the outside of the cone or the underside of the
roof.
The constructor must be cognizant of the stability of the structure
at all times, but especially when the structure is left overnight. Re-
gardless of what component the crew is erecting, the crew should not
leave the tank unattended until all the plates in a given ring are in
place and adequately secured. Provisions should be taken to stiffen
unfinished sections of the tank in case of high winds. This may include
providing stiffening or continuous scaffolding at the upper limits of
construction or guying the structure to the ground.
FIGURE 6-11
Erection of cone
plate, fluted-
column-style tank.
FIGURE 6-12
Erection of
cylindrical shell
plate, fluted-
column-style tank.
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Construction of Welded-Steel Water-Storage Tanks
Pedestal-Style Tank
Complete-penetration butt-welded construction is used for all the
components of the pedestal tank and tower except the roof. The roof
is usually lap welded on the top side. At the request of the purchaser,
the underside may also be seal welded or, alternately, the roof may be
butt welded (Figs. 6-13 and 6-14).
The base cone of the tower of a pedestal-style tank sits on a thick
base plate that is welded with complete-penetration butt welds, set
on shims, and fixed to the foundation by the anchor bolts. As with the
fluted-column-style tank, it is critical that the base plate be level before
erecting and welding the base cone. The base cone is fillet welded to
the base plate. As with the fluted-column-style tank, grout is placed
under the base plate after the tank is completely erected but before it
is filled with water.
Multicolumn-Style Tank
Erection for a multicolumn-style tank typically begins with one bent
in the first panel, consisting of a pair of columns, one bolted strut,
and loosely connected cross-bracing that will either be welded or
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 251
bolted to the columns. Base plates are welded to the bottoms of the
columns in the first panel. The base plates of the first bent are set
on shims placed on the foundation pedestals and are fixed using the
anchor bolts. Additional bents are erected by sequentially adding a
column, strut, and cross bracing around the tower. After all the bents
are in place in the first panel, the cross braces are adjusted to length,
as required, to ensure that the panel is square and true before pro-
ceeding to the next panel. Subsequent panels are erected in a similar
manner with the columns of the upper panel welded to the lower
columns.
Typically, the portion of the tank that is welded to the upper col-
umn is welded to the column before the tank is erected. After the
tower is complete, the intermediate plates are fit-up and welded with
complete-penetration butt welds. It is critical to maintain dimensional
accuracy of the tower for proper fit-up of these plates. The tank joints
between water-bearing plates are joined with complete-penetration
butt welds. The roof plates may be lap welded with or without seal
welding, or they may be butt welded.
An alternate construction sequence is to construct the upper bents
and tank without the lower columns in place. The advantage of this
construction method is that the tank and upper tower can be con-
structed and painted when closer to the ground. After this portion of
the tank is complete, it is lifted by cranes and the lower columns are
FIGURE 6-15
Multicolumn-style
tank.
set underneath (Fig. 6-15). The structure is then lowered to its proper
height and seated on the columns.
After the tank is complete, but before it is filled, the final tightening
or welding of the cross-braces is done. At this stage, the grout is also
placed under the base plates.
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 253
Concrete Mix
The concrete mix should be suitable for the method of placement
and the weather conditions. The proportions of the mix should be
adjusted to provide adequate workability and the proper consistency
for placement.
For each tank, the material should be from a consistent source
and the mix design number verified upon delivery. The arrival of
trucks should be sequenced to sustain a pour without long delays.
Retempering of the concrete should be controlled to maintain the mix
Liner Plate
An interior liner plate is placed over the dome or flat slab. The liner is
lap welded on the top side only. For tanks with a dome, formed liner
plates may be used and constructed so that the liner lies directly on
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 6-18 (a) CET hoisted tank erection as the tank is being raised. (b) CET
hoisted tank erection with the tank in the final position.
255
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Construction of Welded-Steel Water-Storage Tanks
the dome. Alternately, unformed steel liner plates that do not match
the shape of the dome may be used if the space between the plate
and the dome is completely filled with flowable grout after welding
(Fig. 6-19).
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 257
where
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 259
Subject to Subject to
Thickness Primary Stress Secondary Stress
(in. [mm]) (in. [mm]) (in. [mm])
0 < t ≤ 5/8 [15.8] 1/16 [1.6] 1/8 [3.1]
>5/8 [15.8] Lesser of 0.10t or Lesser of 0.20t or
1/4 [6.3] 3/8 [9.5]
TABLE 6-3 Maximum Allowed Offset for Butt-Welded Plates Subject to Primary
or Secondary Stress
Hydrotest
Water testing is typically performed on the completed tank after it is
painted and disinfected. The purchaser is responsible for furnishing
the water to the site with sufficient pressure to fill the tank. Water
should be filled to the top capacity level, and weld seams should be
inspected for any signs of leakage. If leaks are found, the water must
be lowered at least 2 ft (0.6 m) below the point of repair, and the defect
must be repaired and rewelded. If no leaks are found, the tank can be
put directly into service, which eliminates the need to dispose of the
test water.
CHAPTER 7
Construction of
Bolted-Steel
Water-Storage
Tanks
Keith McGuire, P.E.
Columbian TecTank
261
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Construction of Bolted-Steel Water-Storage Tanks
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 263
Floor
If the tank will have a concrete floor, specially sized sheets and panels
will be embedded into the floor, forming a ring of foundation sheets
on which the remainder of the tank will be erected. If the tank will
have a steel floor, factory-coated floor segments/panels will be used.
the top of the footing pour. These assemblies are used to position the
embedded tank foundation sheet (Fig. 7-3). The foundation ring is set
on the leveling plate assemblies, then leveled and rounded to specified
tolerances (Fig. 7-4). Floor sumps are then installed, and other piping
is stubbed off above the floor line (Fig. 7-5).
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 265
FIGURE 7-5 After floor sumps are installed, other piping is stubbed off.
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 267
FIGURE 7-9
Embedded anchor
bolts are installed
to specified
projection.
Tank Construction
Jacking Method
Specially designed jacks are used to build the remainder of the tank.
The jack assemblies are anchored to the tank floor, one at each sheet
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 269
location around the tank perimeter (Fig. 7-12). After all jacks are in-
stalled, the faceplates to which the wall sheets will attach are leveled
with each other.
As the first ring of sheets is placed on the jacks, sealer is placed
in the overlapping vertical joints, and the sheets are bolted together.
Before tightening the bolts, a special tool is used to spread the joint
apart, simulating the loading that will be placed on the vertical joint
from the stored liquid load. As the joint is held in its spread condition,
the bolts are tightened to their specified torque.
At this point, the roof segments are bolted and attached to the top
of the first ring of sheets (Fig. 7-13). The center of the roof is temporarily
supported while the roof segments are bolted into place. When the
roof is complete, the temporary support is removed and the entire
structure is jacked up to the next level.
After the first ring of sheets is completed and tightened, the jacks
are energized and the structure is raised to a height that allows the
next ring of sheets to be installed in the same manner as the first
ring (Fig. 7-14). The second ring of sheets rests in supports attached
to the foundation sheet while being bolted to the ring above it. On
completion of the second ring of sheets, the jacks are disconnected
from the first ring, lowered to a specified location in the ring just
completed, and connected to that ring. The jacks are energized, and
the structure is raised to the next level. Tank erection continues in
this manner until the last ring of sheets is installed and tied into the
foundation sheets. Tanks taller than 120 ft (36.5 m) have successfully
been erected in this manner.
The last sheet of the bottom ring is typically left out to provide
an easy means of access for other work inside the tank and for the
removal of the jacks.
Scaffold Method
Exterior scaffolding similar to that shown in Fig. 7-16 is required. The
quantity and length of scaffold planks required are determined by
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 271
FIGURE 7-15 Wind stiffeners, ladders, ladder cages, and platforms are
attached.
the size of the tank and the width of the tank panels. Scaffolding is
moved from ring to ring as work progresses, meaning that the min-
imum quantity of planks is enough to encircle the tank at one level,
plus a few extra. Some crews prefer to leave all scaffolding in place un-
til the shell and roof are complete, thus requiring two planks for every
shell segment in the tank. Scaffold planks are supported by scaffold-
ing brackets (Fig. 7-17). Normally, the brackets consist of steel angles
2.5 in. × 2.5 in. × 0.25 in. (63.5 mm × 63.5 mm × 6.35 mm). Ac-
commodation for safety line uprights must be provided. The bracket
shown in Fig. 7-17 will receive a tubular upright that fits over the 6-in.-
(152-mm)-long plank-retaining rod at its end. Any plank-retaining de-
vice should have a minimum height of twice the scaffold plank thick-
ness. The safety line upright must be 42 in. (1 m) in height, measured
from the top of the scaffolding board. Common practice is to leave all
scaffolding brackets in place until the shell and the deck are complete.
This requires one bracket for each shell segment in the tank. All boards
must be secured.
If interior scaffolding is not used, a hooked drive-out ladder sim-
ilar to the one shown in Fig. 7-18 is required during erection. Points
that bear on the shell should be padded to protect the interior finish of
the tank. Hoisting equipment capable of lifting components weighing
as much as 1,000 lb (453.6 kg) is required. A variety of devices can
be used, but gin poles similar to the one shown in Fig. 7-18 are the
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 273
most common. Made of steel pipe or tubing, they are supported from
scaffolding brackets and extend well above the top of the ring under
construction. The tank shell must be protected from gin-pole bearing
points.
Roof Installation
At least three types of roofs are commonly installed on factory-coated
bolted-steel tanks. These types are self-supported (Fig. 7-19), center-
supported (Fig. 7-20), and self-supported aluminum domes (Fig. 7-21).
Self-Supported Roofs
Self-supported roofs consist of one-piece pie-shaped panels that are
temporarily supported in the center while the panels are lapped onto
each other and bolted together. The roof slope is typically 20 degrees,
and the outer end of the panel is formed in a rounded shape, creating a
knuckle, which adds stiffness to the panel. This outer edge bolts to the
top of the tank wall (Fig. 7-13). After all roof panels are assembled and
attached to the tank wall, the temporary center support is removed,
allowing the roof to support itself.
Low-profile self-supported roofs are typically sloped at a 1:12 pitch
to allow for rain runoff. One or two horizontal support members span
the tank diameter, and an elevated collar is located at the mid-span to
set the roof pitch and accept the radial rafters or stiffened roof sheets.
Center-Supported Roofs
Center-supported roofs are supported by a center pole that extends
from the tank floor. A common system consists of a center support
column of prefabricated pipe with a base plate at the bottom, a rafter-
bearing plate at the top, and radial rafters (see Fig. 7-22 for proper
arrangement of parts).
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 275
tank shell sheets (Fig. 7-23) or constructed on the ground and lifted
onto the top ring of shell sheets as a completed assembly. In either
case, the mounting shoes of the dome attach to a formed angle that
has been attached to the upper horizontal bolt line of the first ring
of shell sheets. The dome consists of an aluminum I-beam structure,
lightweight aluminum roof panels, and flashing. Although the dome
is attached to the tank shell at the perimeter roof angle, the attachment
allows necessary movement between the roof and the tank.
Roof Accessories
A hinged, lockable roof access door is normally provided near the
outside ladder to allow liquid samples to be withdrawn from the top
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 277
FIGURE 7-24 Roof ventilator usually located in center of roof at roof cap.
of the stored liquid (Fig. 7-25). The door is bolted onto an opening
provided in the roof panels for this purpose.
A roof railing assembly is installed after the roof installation is
complete. Depending on the pitch and the type of roof, a walk-
way may be provided (Fig. 7-26). The assemblies are bolted together
FIGURE 7-25 Hinged, lockable roof access door near outside ladder.
using appropriate fasteners; sealer and neoprene pads are used where
support brackets attach directly to the roof panels.
A caged ladder with a roof manway landing platform that meets
requirements of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) is supplied with most tanks (Fig. 7-27). Depending on tank
height, some ladder/cage assemblies also include one or more step-
off platforms. Individual sections of the ladder/cage assemblies are
constructed on the ground. The sections are then attached to the rings
of shell sheets during the tank erection process.
Shell Penetrations
Tank manufacturers’ policies vary concerning penetrations through
the tank sidewall for piping and other instrumentation. Some manu-
facturers supply the openings in the panels shipped from the factory;
others provide detailed instructions for locating and cutting the open-
ings in the field during or after tank erection. Depending on the open-
ing size, the tank manufacturer may require and provide the means
to reinforce the area around the opening. Depending on the tank coat-
ing, the reinforcement can be a plate welded around the opening in
the factory or bolted on in the field (Fig. 7-28).
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 279
FIGURE 7-29
Brackets holding
overflow pipe
should be correctly
located.
After the tank sidewall has been tied into the foundation sheet, one
or more access door assemblies (manways) are mounted to the tank
sidewall within the lowermost full-height ring of shell sheets (refer to
Fig. 7-26).
A variety of overflow piping designs can be installed. Care should
be taken to ensure the brackets holding the overflow pipe are correctly
located and cushioned against the tank to prevent damage to the coat-
ing (Fig. 7-29).
When level indicators and other control devices are being in-
stalled, workers need to heed the tank manufacturer’s instructions
regarding penetrations of the sidewall and prevention of coating
damage.
Completion
After all tank sections have been erected, all appurtenances have been
installed, and piping is complete, the interior is cleaned of all con-
struction equipment and debris. Any damaged coating areas on the
tank interior or exterior are repaired in accordance with the coating
manufacturer’s instructions. The tank exterior is examined to ensure
that all safety decals are in place, if applicable.
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s 281
The tank is tested for leaks by filling it to the overflow level. Any
leaks found are repaired in accordance with the tank manufacturer’s
recommendations. The test liquid is usually disposed of using the
tank’s drain system.
FIGURE 7-31
Completed
standpipe.
CHAPTER 8
Inspecting New-Tank
Construction
Steven P. Roetter, P.E.
Tank Industry Consultants
283
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Inspecting New-Tank Construction
Soil Investigation
The purchaser should be at the site when the borings are being taken
as part of the soil investigation. This gives the purchaser better insight
into problems that might be encountered during construction of the
foundation.
I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n 285
being driven, the purchaser must determine if the piles are driving
as predicted. The purchaser should be on the job to verify that the
pile-driving log is properly completed. Site and final concrete eleva-
tions should be confirmed. Placement of forms, reinforcing steel, and
anchor bolts should be verified, and photographs should be taken to
document these steps before the constructor allows the concrete to be
placed.
Concrete
If the owner, constructor, or engineer does not have extensive previ-
ous experience with the materials supplied by the concrete ready-mix
plant, a design mix should be developed and tested. The consistency
of the concrete should be evaluated as it comes out of the chute, and
concrete test cylinders should be taken. The storage location for the
test cylinders should provide satisfactory moisture conditions and
controlled temperature. The cylinders should not be transported dur-
ing initial cure. Test cylinders that are taken after approximately one-
eighth of the truck’s load has been discharged give a more represen-
tative sample of the concrete than the initial material that is placed.
Slump tests should also be performed. For large pours, it is necessary
to sequence the pouring operations so that the concrete does not set
up before placing fresh concrete next to it, creating “cold joints.” The
concrete should not be dropped into the forms from excessive heights.
After the concrete is placed, it should be vibrated with a mechanical
Backfilling
If backfilling is done improperly, the concrete is overstressed. Proper
backfilling techniques are necessary to provide a structurally stable
foundation, to prevent water from ponding on moisture-weakened
soils, and to make the site more solid for the tank-erection crew.
Proper backfilling operations require the specialized services of
a qualified soil-testing laboratory to determine the optimal moisture
content and maximum density of the backfill material, check the mois-
ture content of the material being placed, and conduct relative den-
sity tests in the field after the backfill material has been placed and
compacted. This last test ensures that the specified degree of soil com-
paction has been obtained. Adequate soil compaction is particularly
important for the foundations of ground storage tanks. Although the
bottoms of these tanks are usually quite flexible, particular care is nec-
essary for backfilling pipe trenches beneath the tank and the soil or fill
material adjacent to concrete ringwalls. Severe differential settlement
in these places can rupture the underlying pipes and cause possible
failure of the tank bottom.
The contract documents may assign the responsibility for provid-
ing necessary soil-testing services to either the tank constructor or the
owner. In either case, copies of all soil test reports should be furnished
promptly to all interested parties.
Fabrication
It is recommended that the owner and the engineer visit the construc-
tor’s facility while the tank is being fabricated. Fabricators approach
the process differently in terms of flow of materials and the sequence
of operations, which eventually influences how the structure is evalu-
ated. The owner should inspect the quality of shop fabrication, weld-
ing, and fit-up; the type of surface preparation; and the shop coating
I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n 287
Steel Delivery
The owner should be on hand when the steel is delivered to the job
site. The owner can help resolve conflicts with neighboring property
owners, document any damage occurring in the unloading process,
and protect underground utilities on the site or under the access road.
Tank Erection
Erecting and welding or bolting the steel are tasks for which the exper-
tise of the constructor is vital to the success of the project. Erecting steel
is a dangerous operation, requiring skills acquired only through ex-
perience. During this phase, the purchaser’s representative may need
assistance. Independent testing laboratories are usually equipped to
take radiographs of welded seams, but they know little about steel
erection and fit-up and are not willing to climb to the heights usually
associated with water-storage facilities.
Using someone from another tank constructor’s organization as
the purchaser’s representative can lead to conflicts of interest and
other problems. It is very difficult for a competitor to be unbiased in
the evaluation of another constructor’s work. Even if this competitor
is fair, it is difficult for the tank constructor to accept the opinion as
an unbiased one. Therefore, it is usually best to secure the services of
a consultant who specializes in this type of inspection work and has
the expertise and climbing ability to accomplish the job.
Fit-Up Quality
Tank Bottom
The levelness of the tank’s base plate(s) is critical if the rest of the tank
is to be erected properly. The constructor’s steel-erection supervisor
should check the foundation(s) for differences in elevation. Any such
differences should be compensated for by shims underneath the base
plate(s). If this task is not done properly, or if there were fabrication
problems with the steel, the purchaser may see slivers of steel that need
to be cut from seams, frequent use of a large hammer to form the steel
variations in the seam gaps, or plates not aligned in accordance with
the tolerances required in AWWA D100 Section 10.6.3. These prob-
lems usually produce a tank of unacceptable aesthetic or structural
quality.
Tank Shell
AWWA D100 has several fit-up requirements. Most are related to ap-
pearance of the structure, but improper fit-ups can be structurally
significant if bad enough. AWWA D100 addresses plumbness of the
shells of ground storage tanks. The shell’s deviation from vertical
should be measured as the shell is erected, and variations from verti-
cal should be corrected when they approach the limits set in AWWA
D100. The standard also establishes the roundness of the shell. The
tank diameter should be measured in several locations 1 ft (0.3048 m)
above the tank bottom corner weld. The measurements should not
exceed the tolerances established in AWWA D100. AWWA D100 also
establishes tolerances for peaking and banding of the shell of ground
storage tanks. Peaking is the out-of-plane distortion across a vertical
weld seam, and banding is the out-of-plane distortion across a hori-
zontal weld seam. To measure peaking and banding, a sweep board
is useful. A sweep board can be constructed from a piece of plywood
36 in. (0.9144 m) long. One side of the plywood board should be curved
to the radius of the tank, and the other side should be flat. The curved
side should be used to measure peaking, and the flat side should be
used to measure banding. The offset of aligned shell courses is gov-
erned by AWWA D100. During fit-up, it should be verified that the
plates are aligned within the tolerances established in D100, and these
tolerances should be maintained throughout the welding process.
I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n 289
Welding Quality
According to AWWA D100, the constructor is required to check the
quality of the welding. It is the job of the owner to monitor the con-
structor’s quality control program. First, the owner should collect the
certification papers of all welders on the site. These papers detail the
types of welding and the steel thicknesses for which the welder is
certified. The most common method of evaluating weld quality is
by means of radiography. The purchaser should participate in the
selection of radiograph locations, watch for documentation of the ra-
diographs, and review the radiographs with the constructor’s quality
assurance expert. The areas selected should be in strict accordance
with the AWWA D100 standard, which requires that the radiographs
reflect the general quality of welding on the tank. Equal proportions
of shop, ground, and air welds should be reflected in the radiographs.
The contractor should document these radiograph locations on a roll-
out. AWWA D100 has radiograph inspection standards that must be
used for evaluating discontinuities and defects present in radiograph
film. The penetrameter, which ensures the reviewer that the radio-
graph was sensitive enough to identify the smallest defect addressed
by the standard, must be visible in each radiograph. It is vital that
the radiographs be evaluated in accordance with this criterion and
that any repairs and follow-up radiographs be conducted in accor-
dance with D100. It is also important for the tank constructor and
purchaser to visually inspect all welds to ensure the removal of all
weld splatter, sharp surfaces, overlaps, and unacceptable undercuts
that will be detrimental to the coating life. Welds do not need to be
perfectly smooth, but sharp edges must be removed. Ground storage
tanks erected under AWWA D100 Section 14 Alternative Design Basis
require many more radiographs than standard tanks.
Bolting Assembly
Bolted-steel tanks require the proper placing of steel sheets, gaskets,
and sealants. Some erection methods may also require pre-tensioning
the sheets and tightening the bolts to a prescribed torque. These details
are covered by the manufacturer’s erection instructions and drawings.
The engineer or purchaser may require that a set of these instructions
be included with the shop drawing package that is submitted.
Tank Appearance
Tank appearance is of great importance to many owners. The final
appearance is known only after the tank is coated, when dents and
buckles become apparent. It is then that the owner expresses dissat-
isfaction. Determining how well the tank complies with the speci-
fications and applicable codes and negotiating a settlement for poor
appearance are time-consuming and stressful. Usually these problems
can be avoided if the constructor checks to see that the tank is level,
round, and plumb as it is being built. Incorporating dimensional tol-
erances into the contract will also minimize disputes. AWWA D100
specifies some of these tolerances.
Surface Regularity
A smooth, regular surface provides a good base for the application of a
protective coating system, thus helping reduce maintenance costs. To
this end, the constructor and the purchaser should ensure that the weld
contour is smooth, that unacceptable weld undercutting is eliminated,
that weld spatter is ground off, that remains of welds used to attach
erection and fit-up equipment are chipped and ground smooth, and
that unacceptable gouged-out places in the steel are filled in.
Representatives of the tank constructor and the purchaser should
be alert for sharp edges or areas that would cause premature coat-
ing failure so that corrective action may be taken as the work pro-
gresses.
Water Testing
When welded tanks are water tested before they are coated, any leaks
that are found can be repaired without requiring any coating to be
redone. If the tank is not filled until after it has been coated, small pin-
holes in the welds may be plugged temporarily with coating; these
will cause leaks later if the coating breaks loose. The owner should
ensure that water for the test is available at the time and pressure nec-
essary to coincide with the constructor’s schedule. The owner should
also ensure that provisions are made for draining and disposing of
the test water. If leaks are found in factory-coated bolted tanks, the
constructor should make repairs according to the manufacturer’s rec-
ommendations.
I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n 291
Steel Cleanliness
The first requirement for a good coating is a clean surface. The steel
should be free from dirt and oil, both of which may accumulate during
construction. All weld seams, abraded areas, scratches, shop or field
markings, or poorly adhering shop primer should be removed by
abrasive blast cleaning. The areas cleaned by abrasive blasting should
blend well into the adjoining undisturbed shop primer. Some shop-
applied primers must be scarified or otherwise prepared before ensu-
ing coats are applied.
The purchaser should also be aware that welding or cutting activ-
ity on one side of a plate is likely to damage the coating bonding on the
opposite side of the plate. This is especially important if shop priming
is used. The areas opposite welding or cutting operations should be
examined for coating damage resulting from the heat induced by the
cutting or welding process.
The manuals Good Painting Practice and Systems and Specifications
visual standards and an inspection manual available from the Society
for Protective Coatings give good guidelines for inspecting coatings.
Inspection Instruments
Instruments needed to inspect coating include at a minimum a wet-
film thickness gauge, a calibrated dry-film thickness gauge, equip-
ment for measuring air temperature and humidity, a steel-temperature
thermometer, a surface-profile measuring device, and a wet-sponge-
type holiday detector. The holiday detector is used to inspect the coat-
ing for voids that will cause premature coating failure. If full-time
inspection is not conducted, destructive testing involving the use of
a Tooke Gage and/or other instruments will be necessary to evaluate
the thickness of each coat and to obtain an indication of the cleanliness
of the substrate.
Inspection Planning
The purchaser should plan work to aid in the timely completion of the
tank field coating. This will require open lines of communication with
the coating company and an understanding of the effects of weather
on coating progress. The constructor will also need to work efficiently
in good weather.
The purchaser should state requirements for the number of lo-
cations to be tested according to the total surface area of the plate.
Minimizing testing is unwise, but an excessive number of testing lo-
cations places an unreasonable burden on the constructor and can
substantially delay the progress of the tank coating. SSPC PA2 delin-
eates procedures for measuring coating dry-film thicknesses. To avoid
excessively delaying the coating progress, large tanks may require
more than one purchaser’s representative to conduct the required field
tests.
Shop-Applied Coatings
Bolted tank panels are coated at the factory under controlled condi-
tions. AWWA D103 requires that the panels be grit-blasted to near-
white metal (SSPC SP10) and coated within 15 minutes of cleaning
to prevent rust from starting. The coating is then either baked on or
fused on. If desired, the purchaser may observe these operations dur-
ing shop inspection.
If specified, a preconstruction primer may be shop applied to new
welded-steel tanks. Observation of the shop painting and fabrication
of the steel components of welded-steel tanks is necessary to evaluate
proper fabrication techniques, shop surface preparation, and shop
primer application.
I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n 293
CHAPTER 9
Operation
José N. Hernández, P.E.
City of Cleveland
295
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Operation
FIGURE 9-1 Masonry and concrete reservoir, capacity 23 mil gal (87,064 kL),
in Parma Heights, Ohio.
FIGURE 9-2 Water intake crib in Lake Erie; Cleveland, Ohio, is in the
foreground.
Operation 297
Ground
Elevated Surge tank
tank tank
Treatment
plant
Trunk and
distribution
water mains
Clearwell Pumping
Raw water station
source
Tank 1
Treatment
plant
Tank 2
Tank 3
Operation 299
Total
dynamic
head Ground
H static tank
Elevated
tank
Trunk and
distribution
water mains
Datum
Pump
H atmospheric
FIGURE 9-5 Distribution system energy lines. (Note: V 2/2g = velocity head.)
Both the EGL and the HGL increase at the location of a pump
within the pipeline by an amount equal to the head added by pump-
ing. The head added by pumping (h A ) may be calculated if the flow
velocity and gauge pressure are known for the suction and discharge
pump nozzles.
P V2 P V2
hA = + +Z − + +Z
2gc discharge 2gc suction
The head added by the pump is a function of the flow rate through
the pump. A graph of pump head versus flow rate is called the pump
curve. The plotted head is the head difference across the pump and is
given the name total dynamic head (TDH).
Traditional hydraulic modeling provided an insight into how the
water level in tanks changed under simulated demand conditions.
However, the water in the tank was considered of invariable quality.
Hence, there was no difference in quality whether the water was en-
tering the tank, inside it, or leaving it. In the past decade, increased
emphasis on water quality in storage facilities prompted more detailed
investigations of water dynamics in tanks.
Modeling of water flow regimes and water quality in tanks has
been done using multiple methods:
r Scaled laboratory models
r Tracer studies
r Semiempirical mathematical models
r Computational fluid mechanics using finite-element or finite-
volume models
Reynolds number
UL
Re =
Operation 301
Weber number
U 2 L
We =
Tracer Studies
Tracer studies are conducted in water storage tanks to determine res-
idence time and/or water quality distribution (Fig. 9-6). Tracers may
be chemicals or dyes that can be tracked or measured by ion-specific
electrodes, conductivity probes, colorimeters, or visual/camera ob-
servation. A tracer can be introduced at a known concentration by a
dosing pump at the tank’s inlet piping. Typical tracers include chloride
ions (such as sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and lithium chloride),
fluoride ions, and the fluorescent dye Rhodamine WT. Local regula-
tory agencies must approve the use of a particular tracing chemical
for studies of actual potable water tanks. The tracer should not be
consumed or removed during treatment. Fluoride ions are not typ-
ically present naturally in water. Therefore, fluoride can be used in
lower concentrations than chloride tracers. Rhodamine WT must be
used following certain guidelines found in Appendix D of the August
1999 US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Disinfection Pro-
filing and Benchmarking Guidance Manual (USEPA 1999). Selection of a
24
22
Chloride ion concentration (mg/L)
20
18
16
14
12
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (h)
FIGURE 9-6 Tracer study results of live pass-through distribution system tank
with plug flow to determine contact time.
Operation 303
FIGURE 9-7 Apparatus to measure CaCl tracer concentration at tank inlet and
outlet. Ion-specific probes can be seen at left. Data were recorded on a PC.
FIGURE 9-8 Computational fluid dynamics model of reservoir with two inlets
and two outlets showing velocity contours. Light gray is highest velocity and
dark gray is stagnant.
Operation 305
FIGURE 9-9 Chlorine residual analyzers monitor inlet and outlet disinfectant
residual at ground storage tank.
Operation 307
Inadequate tank turnover r Low inflow and/or outflow r Hydraulic analysis to investigate proper distribution piping,
r Low tank volume change over pumping, or storage requirements
TABLE 9-1 Water Quality: Issues, Causes, and Suggested Solutions (Continued)
309
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310
Issue Possible Cause(s) Suggested Solution(s)
Short-circuiting r Tank geometry and location of r Provide tank mixing
inlets and outlets r Provide baffling for pass-through tanks (if inlet and outlet are
connected to different pressure zones with little or no
backflow)
Regions of stagnant r Tank geometry and location of r At design, optimize ratios of tank surface area to volume and
water in tank inlets and outlets of height to diameter
r Short-circuiting r Locate inlets and outlets such that the largest volume of
r Stratification water in the tank is contained between them
r See Short-Circuiting
r See Stratification
Coating leachates r Insufficient coating cure r Follow manufacturer’s recommendations for cure time versus
r Improper coating component substrate surface temperature
Operation
Effects of metal r Improper coating or coating r Consult coating specialist for proper coating selection and
corrosion in contact application surface preparation
with the water, such as r Ice damage r See Effects of Ice
red water, iron-reducing r Presence of sharp edges, r Ensure proper surface preparation during maintenance or
bacteria, and high cavities, or gaps that prevent rehab
Chemical composition of r Metals come out of solution and r Periodically clean tank sediments
precipitates in the settle inside tanks, affecting
storage facility, such water quality in high
as iron and concentrations
manganese
Effects of ice including r Winter conditions in colder r Provide insulation and heating of a tank for surge tanks
Operation
311
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Operation
Security Concerns
The events of September 11, 2001, raised questions about the safety
of the nation’s water supply. In general, water tanks are accessible
through access hatches, air vents, overflows, and access ladders. These
entry points can be tempting targets for vandals or criminals attempt-
ing to contaminate the water supply. They are also potential sources
of accidental contamination from rainwater, birds, insects, and other
natural sources. Continuous online monitoring of water quality pa-
rameters can provide an indication or alarm should contamination
occur. The affected tank can be isolated from the system, and author-
ities and the public can be notified. Figure 9-10 illustrates protective
measures for water tanks.
Tank-Monitoring Program
The tanks themselves can be a source of concern. Leaching from coat-
ings, red water and bacteriological concerns from rusting wet surfaces
or overhead structural elements, accumulation of sediments that may
contain biofilms, settled metal particles, or other detriments to water
quality may be present in storage. Some may engender complaints
about the water’s taste, odor, or appearance.
A tank-monitoring program provides a utility with background
data of tank parameters for different seasons and weather conditions;
it helps establish schedules for tank inspection and maintenance; and it
can serve as a guide to water quality managers for planning treatment
strategies for changing distribution system conditions.
Although no regulatory requirements in the United States man-
date tank monitoring, there are regulations that require periodic water
Operation 313
FIGURE 9-10 Tank overflow and catch basin are protected from insects or
vandals by combination of stainless-steel cage and insect screen; flow switch
(not shown) triggers overflow alarm.
314
Disinfectant residual Distribution system Maximum residual disinfectant levels D/DBP Rule, Stage 1 Surface-water systems serving
(MRDLs): chlorine, 4.0 mg/L; more than 10,000 people
chloramines, 4.0 mg/L; running
annual average
Disinfectant residual Throughout Detectable levels of disinfectant Surface Water Treatment Rule Only applies to systems using
or heterotrophic distribution system residual or HPC bacteria count of 500 surface-water supplies; in the
plate count (HPC) or fewer colony-forming units (cfu) per United States, Legionella is
bacteria count milliliter in 95 percent of samples also regulated by a treatment
collected each month for any 2 technique
consecutive months
Nitrite Entry point to 1.0 mg/L as N National Primary Drinking Water Maximum contaminant level
distribution system Regulations (NPDWR), Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR) 141.23
Nitrate Entry point to 10.0 mg/L as N NPDWR, CFR 141.23 Maximum contaminant level
distribution system
Operation
Total Throughout 80 g/L, running annual average based D/DBP Rule, Stage 1 Systems serving more than
trihalomethanes distribution system on quarterly samples 10,000 people
Haloacetic acids Throughout 60 g/L, running annual average based D/DBP Rule, Stage 1 Systems serving more than
(sum of five) distribution system on quarterly samples 10,000 people
Total coliform Throughout 0 cfu in 95 percent of samples Total Coliform Rule Number of samples determined
bacteria distribution system by population served
Lead Customer’s tap 0.015 mg/L Lead and Copper Rule Action level at 90th percentile
Copper Customer’s tap 1.3 mg/L Lead and Copper Rule Action level at 90th percentile
Operation 315
Secondary Maximum
Parameter Conditions Contaminant Level
Aluminum Colored water 0.05–0.2 mg/L
Chloride Salty taste 250 mg/L
Color Visible tint 15 color units
Copper Metallic taste, blue-green 1.0 mg/L
stain
Corrosivity Metallic taste, corrosion, Noncorrosive
fixture staining
Fluoride Tooth discoloration 2 mg/L
Foaming Frothy, cloudy, bitter taste, 0.5 mg/L
agents odor
Iron Rusty color, sediment, 0.3 mg/L
metallic taste, reddish or
orange staining
Manganese Black to brown color, black 0.05 mg/L
staining, bitter metallic
taste
Odor Rotten-egg, musty, or 3 TON (threshold
chemical smell odor number)
pH Low pH: bitter metallic 6.5–8.5
taste, corrosion
High pH: slippery feel, soda
taste, deposits
Silver Skin discoloration, graying 0.10 mg/L
of the white part of the
eye
Sulfate Salty taste 250 mg/L
Total Hardness, deposits, 500 mg/L
dissolved colored water, staining,
solids (TDS) salty taste
Zinc Metallic taste 5 mg/L
fastened to a wet tank surface so that its conditions mimic those of the
tank walls. In this manner, the coupon can be retrieved from the tank
for analysis without interfering with tank function.
Samples from tank bottom sediment may be collected to determine
chemical composition or biological activity. Kirmeyer et al. (1999) rec-
ommend the sediment monitoring parameters outlined in Table 9-4.
The need to monitor other bulk water parameters varies depend-
ing on the type of tank, source water, environmental conditions, and
so on. Monitoring the amount of sediment accumulated in the tank
bottom can give a utility an indication when the next cleaning cycle
should take place. Table 9-5 lists water quality monitoring parameters
recommended for storage facilities.
Several nitrification tests should be performed where chloramines
are used for secondary disinfection. As a minimum, tests for hetero-
trophic plate counts (HPC), nitrite, nitrate, ammonia, and chlorine
species can help to ensure that optimal conditions are maintained in
storage facilities when chloramination is used.
Operation 317
Sampling Procedure
Parameter Purpose Used
Alkalinity Indicates potential buffering On-line ion-selective
capacity (pH stability) electrode or grab
sample and
laboratory analysis
Aluminum Indicates potential On-line ion-selective
coagulant overfeeding electrode or grab
sample and
laboratory analysis
Ammonia, Indicates potential for On-line ion-selective
total and/or nitrification electrode or grab
free sample and
laboratory analysis
Chlorine Indicates protection from On-line chlorine
residual, bacterial growth and residual analyzer
total and/or provides early warning or grab sample and
free sign of water quality amperometric
deterioration; monitored titration laboratory
at inlet and outlet to analysis
control rechlorination
when practiced
Coliform, total Indicates the presence of Grab sample and
and/or indicator bacteria laboratory analysis
fecal
Conductivity, Can quickly indicate relative On-line ion-selective
specific changes in total electrode or grab
dissolved solids (e.g., sample and
alkalinity) laboratory analysis
Disinfection Represents potential for Grab sample and
by-products ongoing chemical laboratory analysis
reactions and DBP
formation
Heterotrophic Indicates conformance to Grab sample and
bacteria MCL; provides early laboratory analysis
warning sign of water
quality deterioration
Iron Indicates potential On-line ion-selective
corrosion reactions electrode or grab
sample and
laboratory analysis
Sampling Procedure
Parameter Purpose Used
Nitrate Indicates possibility of On-line ion-selective
nitrification electrode or grab
sample and
laboratory analysis
Nitrite Indicates possibility of On-line ion-selective
nitrification electrode or grab
sample and
laboratory analysis
pH Indicates changes from the On-line ion-selective
water source; indication electrode or grab
of corrosion of concrete sample and
or an unlined new facility laboratory analysis
Taste and Evidence of water quality Grab sample and
odor problem in progress laboratory analysis
Temperature/ Differences in storage On-line sensor
temperature facility indicate possible
profile stratification and
stagnant zones—early
warning sign of potential
microbial problems
Turbidity Provides early warning sign On-line turbidimeter
of water quality sensor and
deterioration analyzer
Operation 319
break down sampling needs into two categories of routine sampling and
diagnostic sampling. Routine sampling is defined as monitoring of param-
eters on a regular (continuous, weekly, monthly) basis and may include
regulatory and operating parameters. Diagnostic sampling is defined as
special purpose monitoring to document condition or to determine the
cause of a problem. Routine monitoring is used to document general water
quality conditions, whereas diagnostic monitoring is often more facility
specific. Diagnostic monitoring can first provide a baseline for a storage
facility and identify problems. After the problems are corrected, routine
monitoring can then be used to track tank conditions to detect or prevent
the recurrence of the problems or the beginning of new ones.
The types of data being collected or the purpose for the data col-
lection dictates whether grab or continuous sampling is required for
a particular parameter.
Grab Samples
In theory, technicians using grab sampling techniques can collect ev-
ery type of parameter. Certain types of tank-water tests such as het-
erotrophic plate count, total coliform bacteria, chemical composition
of tank sediments, biofilm analysis, and disinfection by-products can
only be performed on manually collected tank water, as they require
analysis under laboratory conditions. A rare exception is when a tank
is located next to the utility’s laboratory and sampling lines exist di-
rectly between the tank and the laboratory. The laboratory technician
or chemist is then able to fill the test vial directly from the sampling tap.
In most cases, technicians must travel to several tanks in remote lo-
cations as often as the monitoring program dictates the taking of grab
samples. Under the best of circumstances, the sampling program in-
cludes the installation of permanently and properly located sampling
taps on the tanks. The taps can be connected through small-diameter
piping to several sampling locations inside the tank. This scheme can
provide a more or less three-dimensional view of the tank’s water
quality parameters. The more sampling taps are installed, the more
complete the water quality picture will be. The ideal locations for sam-
ple points are the inlet(s) and outlet(s), if any; locations that may be
subject to short-circuiting or stagnation, such as regions not in the
general path between the tank’s inlet and the outlet; and at several
depths to test for the effects or the presence of stratification.
The sampling lines can be designed such that the water will flow
out of the tank by gravity or be pumped out with the use of a jet (vac-
uum) or metering pump. Technicians must flush the sampling lines
for sufficient time to provide a proper sample from the tank water
at the sampling point. Twenty minutes of flushing is usually suffi-
cient. Some systems allow for continuous flow through the sampling
lines, which facilitates this step. Others are designed so that the sam-
pling lines can be periodically disinfected and flushed. Permanently
FIGURE 9-11 Grab sample retrieved from ground tank using calibrated depth
sampling tube with check valves.
Operation 321
Continuous Sampling
Climbing tanks to take grab samples can be dangerous or impossible,
especially during rainy or cold weather. Continuous online sampling,
which relies on technology rather than technicians to collect, analyze,
record, and communicate the data, does not require that operators
climb the tank to retrieve water or that they even be present during
sampling, and its performance is independent from weather condi-
tions. Online sensing probes may be located at various locations inside
the tank, or water from various locations in the tank may be brought
to an analyzer through sampling lines. The analyzer, data recorders,
telemetry, and other equipment should be located in a secure, heated,
and sanitary location to preserve the integrity of the readings. Figure
9-12 shows a pressure transmitter, analyzer, and corrater.
Online sampling technology offers the advantage of a continu-
ous data stream or data collected at relatively brief time intervals,
depending on the type of test, type of instrument, and the utility’s
desired sampling rate for particular parameters. Grab samples reflect
only a momentary condition of the water in the tank, often with no
accurate time reference.
The analyzed data can be stored on site using a personal computer,
data logger, printout, or pen-chart. Operators can retrieve the data in
either electronic or paper form at scheduled intervals that can vary
from daily to yearly, depending on the purpose of the testing. Data can
also be sent to a central data collection and monitoring facility using a
telephone modem connection, remote terminal unit (RTU) with radio
frequency communication capability, cellular technology, broadband
(T lines), satellite, and so on. These methods of communication are
Operation 323
Clearwells
Treatment plants require tanks in which to store treated water be-
fore it is pumped into the distribution system. These tanks are com-
monly known as clearwells. Clearwell sizing is critical to reducing
or eliminating fluctuations in use of filtered water. These tanks also
provide the utility with disinfectant contact time (CT) credit. The
SWTR requires that all surface water treatment facilities provide fil-
tration and disinfection that achieves at least a 99.9 percent (3-log)
removal-inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts and a 99.99 percent (4-
log) removal-inactivation of enteric viruses. The SWTR assumes that
for effective filtration, a conventional treatment plant achieves 2.5-
log removal of Giardia and a 2-log removal of viruses. Disinfection is
required for the remainder of the removal-deactivation. The amount
of disinfection credit to be awarded is determined with the CT con-
cept, CT being defined as the residual disinfectant concentration (C,
in mg/L) multiplied by the contact time (T10 , in minutes) between
the point of disinfectant application and the point of residual mea-
surement. The SWTR Guidance Manual (USEPA 1991) provides tables
of CT values for several disinfectants that indicate the specific disin-
fection or CT credit awarded for a calculated value of CT (AWWA
1990).
Clearwell design must take into account CT requirements for the
particular treatment process served by the tank. It is a recommenda-
tion of the Ten States Standards (1992) that intermittently operated
filtration plants with automatic high-service pumping from the clear-
well during nontreatment hours provide enough extra clearwell vol-
ume to compensate for depletion of storage during nighttime hours to
ensure adequate disinfectant CT. It is commonplace to design clear-
wells with two or more compartments. One compartment may be
removed from service for maintenance or during times of low de-
mand. Methods for optimizing CT in clearwells will be discussed in
the section on plug flow in this chapter. Figure 9-14 is an aerial view
of a baffled tank optimized for contact time.
Clearwell operation must follow preset parameters for flow and
elevation. It is desired that a clearwell should operate in a condition
as close to steady state as possible. The hydraulic control of raw water
pumping, filter effluent flow, and pumping out into the distribution
system should be coordinated and interlocked, if possible, to prevent
pulsating flows and other transients. Interlocks should also maintain
elevations and should properly shut down during power failure. This
allows for fast recovery when power is restored. To further prevent
flow fluctuations, since most raw water pumps are vertical pumps,
caution should be exercised so that pumps are not operated in unstable
regions of their curves.
Operation 325
FIGURE 9-14 Aerial view of baffled tank optimized for contact time.
to serve both typical and emergency capacity demand. The water must
be stored at sufficient elevation to meet the pressure requirements of
the service area. It is important to keep in mind the preservation of
water quality when sizing the tank and determining its operating
characteristics.
Distribution system tank operation is inherently intertwined with
the pumping facilities that feed it, other parallel tanks and their eleva-
tions and capacities, the size of upstream piping, and valve operation.
Each of these is discussed hereafter.
Isolation valves in a distribution system may be inadvertently
closed after repair of a water main break or after a new installation,
for example. This may cause a lower-than-expected pressure at the end
of a system, where tanks are likely located. Such a condition may pre-
vent adequate filling of a tank, increase water transport time between
the pump station and the tank (system residence time), and create
customer dissatisfaction from low pressures. Periodic isolation valve
surveys and valve exercising should be carried out to ensure proper
valve operation and position to prevent isolation valve mishaps. Hy-
draulic modeling is a tool that can be used to assist in the location
of improperly positioned isolation valves, pressure zone boundary
valves, and faulty pressure regulators. All of these may reduce sup-
ply pressure to tanks.
Altitude valves (Fig. 9-15) are installed at the system connection
to tanks. There are two types of altitude valves: single acting and
FIGURE 9-15 Piston-style altitude valves shown here control flow and water
elevation for two adjoining storage tanks.
Operation 327
Operation 329
for tanks to cycle in unison, water tank residence time will vary, and
water quality may become inconsistent between facilities in the same
system. However, the effect of differing tank shutoff times in the same
system may render transient travel times not constant. Hence, pump
check valves at pump stations may require a much longer closing or
opening time to prevent pressure surges.
Distribution system water storage tanks should be periodically
taken out of service for cleaning and inspection. Most of the water
in the tank should be allowed to flow back into the distribution sys-
tem. A few feet or meters of water, typically between 3 and 5 ft (0.9
and 1.5 m), are left in the tank to prevent collected sediments from
reentering the system. Debris and sediments are brought to the tank
from the system’s piping and are collected at the bottom of tanks.
This is a desirable means of removing contaminants and particulates
from the water. However, as discussed in the water quality section of
this chapter, several potential biological and chemical water quality
issues are associated with tank sediment. Removal of this sediment is
the only way to eliminate these potential problems. NSF International–
approved chemicals are available that remove persistent, troublesome
stains , such as those caused by manganese and iron deposits. Tanks’
inlets and outlets should be designed such that settled solids are not
fluidized by the inflow and do not return to the distribution system
through the outlet.
In the authors’ experience, a good practice is to allow the wa-
ter main supplying the tank to flush through the tank, using it as a
sediment trap. This can be achieved by emptying the tank and then
opening the tank shutoff valve while the drain is open. This creates
high-velocity scouring of the mains in the vicinity of the tank. A con-
siderable amount of sediment has been removed from tank supply
mains using this scheme. The flushing can be accomplished in as little
as a couple of hours. The drained water must be treated according
to local regulations (dechlorination and solids removal, for example)
prior to disposal.
The tank should be isolated with at least two valves in series with
the tank. All hatches should be open, and the tank drain should be
kept open. After all water and sediment are drained from the tank,
the tank is typically powerwashed prior to inspection. Regulations
require that the tank be disinfected before it is returned to service. The
tank should be disinfected according to the latest version of AWWA
C652, Standard for Disinfection of Water-Storage Facilities. The stan-
dard describes the materials needed, facility preparation, application
of disinfectant to interior surfaces of the tank, and sampling and test-
ing procedures for the detection of coliform bacteria. It also contains
instructions for disinfecting equipment used in on-line underwater
inspections.
Operation 331
332
Heat
per Lineal
(Btu) 25 30 40 50 75 100 150 200 250 Ft (kW-hr/m)
Loss (94.6) (113.6) (151.4) (189.3) (283.9) (378.5) (567.8) (757.1) (946.4)
2 Uninsulated
per Ft
2 Square Feet (Square Meters) of Tank Surface∗ Steel Riser
(kW-hr/m )
Atmospheric Tank 1,210 1,325 1,550 1,800 2,370 2,845 3,705 4,470 5,240 3 ft 4 ft
Temperature Radiating (112.4) (123.1) (144.0) (167.2) (220.2) (264.3) (344.2) (415.3) (486.8) (0.914 m) (1.220 m)
(◦ F[◦ C]) Surface Btu Lost per Hour, Thousands (kW) Dia. Dia.
20 [−6.7] 77.2 94 103 120 139 183 220 287 346 405 380 506
(0.243) (0.028) (0.030) (0.035) (0.041) (0.053) (0.064) (0.084) (0.101) (0.119) (10.365) (0.486)
15 [−9.4] 93.6 114 125 146 169 222 267 347 419 491 519 692
(0.295) (0.033) (0.037) (0.043) (0.049) (0.065) (0.078) (0.102) (0.123) (0.144) (0.499) (0.665)
10 [−12.2] 110.9 135 147 172 200 263 316 411 496 582 670 893
(0.349) (0.039) (0.043) (0.050) (0.059) (0.077) (0.093) (0.120) (0.145) (0.171) (0.644) (0.859)
5 [−15.0] 128.9 156 171 200 233 306 367 478 577 676 820 1,092
−50 [−45.5] 405.6 491 538 629 731 962 1,154 1,503 1,814 2,126 3,139 4,186
(1.28) (0.144) (0.158) (0.184) (0.214) (0.282) (0.338) (0.440) (0.531) (1.623) (3.02) (4.02)
−60 [−51.1] 470.8 570 624 730 848 1.116 1,340 1,745 2,105 2,467 3,702 4,936
(1.48) (0.167) (0.183) (0.214) (0.248) (0.327) (0.392) (0.511) (0.616) (1.722) (3.56) (4.75)
Notes: To determine heat loss per hour, find the minimum mean atmospheric temperature for 1 day from the isothermal map (Fig. 9-16) and note the
corresponding heat loss. Heat loss for a given capacity with a different tank radiating surface than shown here shall be obtained by multiplying the radiating
surface by the tabulated heat loss per square foot (square meter) for the atmospheric temperature involved. The minimum radiation surface area shall be the
333
TABLE 9-6 Thousands of British Thermal Units (Btu) Lost per Hour from Elevated Steel Tanks Based on Minimum Water Temperature of 42◦ F (5◦ C)
FIGURE 9-16 Isothermal lines for lowest one-day mean temperatures and
normal daily minimum 30◦ F (−1◦ C) temperature line for January, United
States and Southern Canada.
Operation 335
FIGURE 9-17 More than 100 tons (90.72 metric tons) of “dirty” ice was
discovered inside this 3-mil-gal (11.35-ML) elevated tank in the spring of
2004. It took weeks for repair crews to remove the ice before work on the
tank could begin.
Operation 337
or propellers, some use air bubblers (bubbles remove heat from the
water, and there must be an influx of warmer water for the system to
operate properly), and others use turbulent jets. They are all essentially
mixing devices with varying degrees of mixing efficiency and energy
consumption. A small tank may be fitted with a recirculation pump
and a water heater. This energy-intensive option is limited by tank
size and equipment expense.
There are reasons beyond tank operation that may make a tank
susceptible to freezing problems. Isolation or altitude valves may be
improperly applied or malfunctioning, which creates conditions of
overflow, low flow, or no flow that may cause a tank to freeze. Valves’
hydraulic control piping should be protected against freezing by pro-
viding heated enclosures, insulation, or electric heat tracing.
Some traditionally designed air vents for tanks can collect conden-
sation, freezing rain, or snow that freezes on vent parts and hinders
operation. A common problem in such cases is the insect screen serv-
ing as a substrate for ice formation. Water outflow from a tank with a
frozen vent creates a vacuum condition that may result in progressive
collapse of the tank shell until structural failure allows venting or the
water outflow stops. Several manufacturers supply frostproof tank
vents designed either to prevent the formation of ice on their parts or
to dislodge any ice formed by using a tank vacuum condition. Utility
crews should inspect tank vents periodically to ensure their proper
functioning.
A common cause of tank freezing is inadequate cover over the pipe
leading to the tank. Sometimes soil conditions preclude installing the
tank foundation deep enough to provide adequate frost cover; in such
cases, fill should be brought in for cover, or other means should be
devised to insulate the pipe.
Compacting fill If the earth over the connecting piping is not com-
pacted properly, it will settle during the first few years of operation.
The ensuing lack of adequate cover, combined with moisture satu-
ration of the depression, creates a potential trouble area that may
freeze.
Supervising the covering The base of the tank is usually the location
of the interface between constructors, and it may become a no-man’s-
land. Unless the construction work is properly supervised and in-
spected, the piping may not even get backfilled before the first winter
operation (AWWA 2003).
Operation 339
Operation 341
Hydropneumatic Tanks
Hydropneumatic pressure tanks are used in very small systems to re-
duce the amount of pumping required to provide water at pressure.
They can also serve as temporary replacements to elevated storage
in small systems during prolonged rehabilitation work. Hydropneu-
matic tanks are pressure vessels typically made of steel. A portion of
the tank is kept filled with compressed air. Once full of water, the tank
provides water in excess of the pump capacity as required. This keeps
the pump from short-cycling and provides pressured water for short
periods during power outages. These vessels can also act as pressure
surge relief tanks.
Plug Flow
Short-circuiting, in general, occurs when influent water bypasses most
of the tank volume, having only minimal interaction with ambient
water, and flows directly to the outlet. Clarifiers, clearwells, or tanks
where contact time is needed should not be designed to have any form
of short-circuiting. It is ideal if the water enters the tank and leaves
the tank in an orderly fashion like a train, with the oldest water in the
tank leaving first. This is referred to as the first-in, first-out flow mode
or the regime generally known as plug flow.
In such a flow mode, a decrease in tank elevation decreases the
flow area. This increases the speed by which the influent water reaches
the outlet. Hence, the detention time of water in the tank decreases.
Also, depending on geometry, some areas inside the tank may expe-
rience a change in the nature of the flow. For example, a separation
area near where water changes direction may trap more water and
increase velocities in the rest of the cross-sectional area, which may
cause some mixing and/or short-circuiting.
The Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Guidance Manual of the
USEPA (1999) has procedures for CT calculations that list baffling
factors for various baffling conditions. These are approximate, and the
regulatory agency usually approves the baffling factor during design
reviews. Computational fluid dynamic analysis can accurately predict
baffling factors by modeling a tracer flow through the tank. However,
the use of CFD is limited to design validation and should not be a tool
for determining baffling factors because drastic difference in results
are possible depending on the model and modelers’ limitations. Tracer
studies are the most accurate means of determining baffling factors.
A tank’s theoretical detention time (TDT) is computed by dividing
the volume (V) of the tank by the peak hourly flow rate (Q): (TDT
= V/Q). The baffling factor, T10 /T, is multiplied by the TDT to yield
an estimate of the contact time (also known as the effective detention
time), T10 , as follows:
T10 = Contact Time = V/Q × T10 /T
Baffling factors are a function of tank design. T10 /T equal to 1.0
represents pure plug flow characteristics where TDT is equal to the
contact time, T10 . Figure 9-19 illustrates a CFD model of a baffled
clearwell showing velocity contours.
Operation 343
Inlet Treatment
The inlet to a tank can be modified—for example, by adding a perfo-
rated wall—so that the flow entering the tank does not create an un-
even stream but is distributed evenly along the flow’s cross-sectional
area. In addition, the flow should not be directed such that it impinges
on and attaches itself to a boundary; this creates a skewed velocity
profile.
Outlet Treatment
To maintain water level, an outflow weir may be provided at the tank’s
outlet. Water drop should be minimal to prevent aeration of water and
disinfectant loss. However, a bypass through the weir should be added
to allow drafting of the clearwell in an emergency. A perforated wall in
the vicinity of the outlet may help in eliminating preferential currents
and help ensure an even distribution into the outflow from all parts
of the baffled channel’s cross-sectional area.
Operation 345
FIGURE 9-20
Computational fluid
dynamics model of
0.8 baffling factor
tank.
Mixed Flow
Mixed flow occurs when the influent water impinges on the ambient
water, resulting in a diluted volume representative of their propor-
tions. The water leaving the tank is no longer the oldest water in the
tank but is of an averaged age based on the tank’s turnover ratio and
mixing efficiency. Just as the baffling factor represents the scale of plug
flow present in a pass-through tank, mixing efficiency or effectiveness
represents the amount of mixing achieved. Just as baffling schemes
are not equal in performance, performances of mixing schemes differ.
Mixing in tanks can be achieved in many ways; we shall attempt to
discuss most of them, concentrating on turbulent jet mixing due to its
applicability in water storage tanks as discussed hereafter.
where
Operation 347
This calculated mixing time must exceed the tank’s fill time for
sufficient mixing (Grayman et al. 1999). In small tanks, such as models,
the effects of mixing by molecular diffusion affect a larger proportion
of the tanks’ volume within a given time than is the case with large live
tanks, in which the concentration gradients may be lower or dissipate
more quickly, causing slower diffusion. Hence, the previous equation
may overestimate the mixing capabilities of a tank. Nevertheless, this
approach is a good tool, since a tank that does not meet the criteria of
the previous mixing time equation most probably has water mixing
problems.
On the other hand, if a tank meets the criteria, there is still a
good chance that it has a problem regardless of the apparent sufficient
exchange of water volume. The most definitive and accurate means of
checking a tank for water quality is to take multiple samples at differ-
ent areas and elevations and calculate the tank’s coefficient of variance
(CoV), as discussed later. More research should be conducted to de-
termine satisfactory CoV or mixing efficiency values. Some authors
set a target CoV of 0.05 (5 percent) for well-mixed tanks. Recent pub-
lications point to a CoV of 0.1 (10 percent) as a more attainable goal.
Although we agree with the higher CoV requirement change (less mix-
ing), we still believe it may not always need to be this stringent. Many
tanks that meet the criteria of the previous mixing time equation do
not have a CoV less than 0.1, which further reinforces the statements
made about its limitations.
Some references state that a CoV between 0.05 and 0.1 is compara-
ble to achieving complete mixing. A CoV of 0.05 is typically considered
in the industry to constitute an excellent mixing condition for a wide
variety of applications (such as paints), all of which are required to be
more homogeneous than ambient potable water in tanks. A CoV value
close to zero reflects optimum homogeneity, while a value close to 1.0
n = number of samples
= standard deviation of the measured readings corrected to the
true value of the population by using n−1 in the denominator
x ave = average of the measured readings
where
RangeOut = range of concentration readings leaving the tank
RangeIn = range of concentration readings entering the tank
Operation 349
Mixing Theory
Of the many mixing technologies, no single one can be used for all mix-
ing duties. This makes choosing mixers a complex task that requires
adequate understanding of mixing processes—their application and
limitations. Many texts have been written on this subject. Hereafter
we shall attempt to discuss the subject in general and then focus on
its applications in tanks.
The mixing of one or more components or materials in a fluid
system can be described in terms of two separate but interlinked pro-
cesses, macromixing and micromixing:
For mixing immiscible fluids such as chlorine gas or solids with water,
the mixing approach is focused on reducing droplet or particle size to
maximize the area of contact (micromixing). Hence, micromixing has
a higher tendency to resuspend settled solids or diffuse gases.
Another point of consideration is the mode of operation involved,
of which the fluid mixing is normally only a part. The most important
distinction that affects the mixing operation is whether the tank op-
eration is a batch process (distinct fill or draft cycles) or a continuous
process (pass-through where fill and draft occur simultaneously). In
a batch process, a discrete volume of material is mixed in the tank,
whereas in a continuous process, a stream of material is mixed.
Operation 351
taking place over time also contribute to the increase in the coeffi-
cient of variance. In addition, the higher velocities reduce the total
amount of tank influent water because of the effect of the resulting
higher head loss on pump performance. Reducing the amount of wa-
ter with high disinfectant residual entering the tank results in a lower
overall increase in tank disinfectant residual over time. Therefore, cre-
ating high-velocity jets in an effort to increase micromixing is not an
optimum way of mixing tanks.
Mixer Types
The many types of mixers applicable to water mixing in tanks may be
categorized as follows:
Impellers
These have specially shaped blades on a rotating shaft driven by a gear
motor and/or variable-speed drive. They are used almost exclusively
for batch processes. Applying them in water tanks or towers may be
prohibitive because of structural support requirements and energy
consumption issues. Also, these systems may not work in changing
water levels.
Static Mixers
These devices require continuous fluid motion to work, so they are
used in continuous processes. They comprise a set of nonmoving ob-
structions or orifices in a pipeline. The obstructions or orifices are
shaped and positioned in such a way as to create cutting and fold-
ing effects and/or turbulence for mixing of piped fluid streams. Static
mixers are a reliable and low-cost alternative. Nevertheless, any high-
pressure drop across the mixer may require larger and more expensive
pumps, increase energy consumption, or alter pump operating points.
Dispersers
Dispersers comprise a range of complex machines and systems that
deliver relatively uniform dispersions in particular fluid applications.
A valve homogenizer comprises a very high-pressure pump and a
controlled valve nozzle through which the fluid is forced at very high
velocity to rupture the droplets through extensional stressing. The jet-
impinging mixer, another type of disperser, uses high-velocity fluid
streams—except that in this case, the fluid is jetted against a plate or
contra-jet to rupture the droplets or particles using impact stressing.
The high level of mixing that these systems provide is localized; use
of this technology in water tanks would require many nozzles or jets,
making it high in installed cost and energy consumption.
Pump Mixers
Available in both batch and continuous forms, pump mixers use in-
ternally generated energy to force fluid through small nozzles at very
high velocities while extending and shearing it. The fluid flowing
through the nozzles at high velocity then impinges on an internal
wall of the mixer. A dynamic cutting and folding action added to
vigorous turbulent flow provides distributive mixing. Pump mixers
are suited to a wide variety of applications because they can handle a
wide range of materials and viscosities with high mixing performance.
In addition to energy consumption and availability issues, these sys-
tems may not be as effective in large tanks. Tests conducted for the US
Operation 353
Operation 355
Operation 357
Mixing Regions
The hydrodynamics of an influent continuously discharging can be
conceptualized as a mixing process occurring in two separate areas.
In the first area, the initial jet characteristics of momentum flux,
buoyancy flux, and outfall geometry influence the jet trajectory and
mixing. This area, called the near field, encompasses the jet subsurface
flow and any surface or bottom interaction (or, in the case of a stratified
ambient, terminal–layer interaction). The mixing zone is the part of
the near-field area in which the initial dilution of a discharge occurs.
Many hydrodynamic definitions of mixing zones include both near-
field mixing and boundary-interaction processes (MixZone 2005). In
this area, mixing system design can usually affect the initial mixing
characteristics through appropriate manipulation of design variables.
In particular, designs with dynamic bottom attachments should be
avoided (MixZone 2005). Dynamic plume attachments occur when
the discharge flow interacts strongly with a boundary in the near
field. Such near-field boundary interactions present the possibility
of high influent concentrations near the discharge (MixZone 2005).
Often, near-field attachments are avoidable with proper design of the
mixing system. This flow also exhibits a subsequent buoyant liftoff
and an unstable near field (MixZone 2005).
Two types of attachment are typically found: wake attachment
forced by the crossflow and Coanda attachment forced by the entrain-
ment demand of the influent jet itself. A physical description of these
processes is given below (MixZone 2005).
In wake attachment, the presence of the discharge structure and
the jet influx interrupts the ambient velocity field and causes a recir-
culation area in the wake downstream from the discharge (MixZone
2005).
A Coanda attachment is a rapid dynamic attachment that occurs
when a jet discharges close to a nearby parallel boundary. This process
is referred to as a Coanda effect. It occurs because of the entrainment
demand of the jet flow at its periphery. If a boundary limits the ap-
proach flow of ambient water, then low-pressure effects cause the jet
to be deflected toward that boundary, thereby forming a wall jet. Thus,
the mixing process of Coanda-attached flow is governed by the dy-
namics of the wall jet (MixZone 2005). Figure 9-22 shows a negatively
buoyant turbulent jet flow with wall attachment.
This implies that a tank mixing system discharging very close to
the bottom or surface may cause flow attachment to the bottom or a
buoyant film at the top with reduced mixing.
FIGURE 9-22 Negatively buoyant turbulent jet flow showing wall attachment.
(Source: MixZone.)
FIGURE 9-23 Turbulent jet flow into density-stratified tank model. (Source:
MixZone.)
Operation 359
Buoyant Discharges
Information about the density distribution in the ambient water body
is very important for correctly predicting influent discharge plume
behavior. Density currents are buoyancy driven far-field flows that
are defined by transverse horizontal spreading while being advected
Operation 361
FIGURE 9-24 Buoyant discharge from single port inlet at 45-degree angle into
stagnant tank.
Flow Diffusers
Influent
A multiport diffuser is a linear structure consisting of many more or
less closely spaced ports or nozzles that inject a series of turbulent jets
into the ambient receiving water body. These ports or nozzles may
be connected to vertical risers attached to an underground pipe or
tunnel or they may simply be openings in a pipe lying on the bottom
(MixZone 2005).
Flow diffusers in water tanks’ mixing systems should be designed
to use and accommodate all the physical phenomena associated with
turbulent jet mixing. Such systems should optimize mixing efficiency
using as little energy as possible, as follows:
r Use reasonable inlet velocities. Higher velocities are not only
energy consuming, but are also detrimental to proper mixing
as shown earlier. This requires a multitude of inlets to suffi-
ciently divide the flow so that velocities are lower.
r Do not use nozzles—not only because of higher velocities and
head loss, but also because more recirculation is associated
with nozzles. Orifices are closer to the conduit/pipe surface
and minimize such recirculation.
r Entrain larger volumes of ambient water by having flow
streams at different levels and sides, creating three-dimensio-
nal mixing effects. A three-dimensional arrangement would
be required for the inlets such that the influent creates undis-
turbed streams or currents, which engulf the majority of am-
bient volume.
r Enhance folding of the interfaces in the far field (Fig. 9-25).
The inlets must be positioned so that inflow streams impinge
on each other and interact with boundary surfaces in such a
manner that they create large-scale folding and lateral vor-
tices.
r Use density currents.
Operation 363
FIGURE 9-25 Sheet flow from multiport diffuser into tank model showing
formation of vortices and folding of interfaces in far field. Note: better mixing
distribution in far field.
Effluent
The flow diffuser discussed so far is an influent structure. However,
it may also be a tank effluent structure. The filling cycle typically uses
a fraction of the total time of a tank’s operating cycle. The tank may
remain idle for some time or may draft for a long time, feeding back
into the system. Reliance on influent mixing alone is not optimum, be-
cause throughout the longest part of the operational cycle, no mixing
is taking place. To optimize mixing, it is ideal to also mix during the
draft cycle. After the fill cycle, ambient water in the tank will stratify,
lose disinfectant, or be rendered otherwise nonhomogeneous because
of some physical or biochemical activity. As a result, water quality
may progressively decrease.
More importantly, impurities or disinfection by-products may set-
tle, stratify, or accumulate unevenly because of temperature gradients
and removal of fluid solely at one or two locations on the tank bot-
tom. To prevent the possibility of high concentrations of accumulated
impurities (such as some disinfection by-products or solids being fed
back into the distribution system by excessive drafting), it is prudent
to mix or blend the effluent water from various areas and elevations
of the tank as it is drafted. At a minimum, effluent mixing will accom-
plish the following:
r Prevent the sequential removal of stratified or accumulated
components
Tank Venting
Most water storage tanks are nonpressurized tanks that require ad-
equate venting. By allowing the removal or replenishment of air as
water enters or exits the tank, venting prevents both pressurized and
vacuum conditions. Atmospheric tanks are not designed to handle
pressurization; the absence of sufficient venting to handle the air out-
flow generated as water enters the tank would cause the air in the
tank to compress and exert pressure on the tank walls that may ex-
ceed design stress limits. Likewise, tanks are not designed to handle
the vacuum conditions created when water is drafted from a tank
without adequate venting. Buckling of tank walls takes place even
when differential pressure is small.
The styles of air vents most commonly found in water tanks are
the mushroom, pan, and 180-degree types. AWWA D100, Standard
for Welded Steel Tanks for Water Storage, requires that one tank vent,
even if more than one is required, always be located near the center of
the roof. A reasonable offset is allowed for tanks designed with center
dry-access tubes. Vent designs, examples of which are given in Figs.
9-26 to 9-28, should meet the following requirements:
Operation 365
Screen
24 in. (588 mm)
FIGURE 9-26 Double 90-degree elbow roof vent detail. (Source: AWWA Manual
M42, Steel Water Storage Tanks.)
(Outside diameter)
3/16
C
ov
er
A A
.
am
di
nt
Ve
Tank ro
of
di
am
(Inside diameter)
et
er
(Outside diameter)
(Hole in roof)
FIGURE 9-27 Pan deck vent detail. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water
Storage Tanks.)
re
su
pres 1/2- no. 13 × 15 flattened
Air expanded metal bird screen
Pres
PTFE gaskets (typical) sure
palle
t
Vacuum
pallet
Screen
(brass material is normal)
Support bars
Air vacuum
Carbon-steel body
Roof
Operation 367
Telemetry
Most storage facilities for potable water are located in unmanned sites.
Some tanks are located in sites manned by a handful of operators
whose main responsibilities are to monitor a water treatment process.
In either case, it is desirable to have automated systems that moni-
tor hydraulic and water quality parameters of tanks. These devices
can store data in electronic form or on paper. They can also transmit
information collected to a central location or manned facility where
an operator can keep track of and control multiple facilities through-
out a plant and/or a distribution system. Telemetry is the science and
technology of automatic measurement and transmission of data by
wire, radio, or other means from remote sources, pumping stations,
distribution system tanks, or other facilities or processes to receiv-
ing stations for recording and analysis. Most telemetry systems used
by water utilities are commonly known as SCADA (for supervisory
control and data acquisition) systems.
elevation data if the tank geometry is known, and changes in tank vol-
ume can be calculated over time. This trended flow and volume data
can help water quality personnel monitor mixing patterns in tanks
over the course of the year and provide operators with strategies to
enhance tank mixing for each tank’s operating characteristics. A bal-
ance must be maintained between the need for optimum water quality
and emergency storage. Allowable low levels in tanks should leave
sufficient water in storage to satisfy potential emergency demands
from fires, power outages, water main breaks, and so on.
Excessively high water elevation can trigger an overflow alarm
to alert the SCADA operator that an altitude valve may be malfunc-
tioning and that tank overflow is probable. The operator can respond
by turning pumps off at upstream pumping stations and/or closing a
remotely controlled motor-operated isolation valve, if one is present
at the tank. Depending on the particular circumstances, the operator
can dispatch a road crew to the tank. Skillful operation and knowl-
edge of the distribution system are required to appropriately address
high-pressure conditions.
Isolating a tank from the distribution system without taking other
measures, such as shutting pumps off, may create abnormally high
pressure and leave a system vulnerable to water main breaks and
other catastrophic failures. Tanks that are left open to a distribution
system provide surge relief should pressure transients be generated.
Such systems are deemed soft systems. A system operated at high
pressures with its tank(s) offline loses this surge protection and is
said to be a hard system. It should be noted that some utilities have
chosen to forego altitude valves and rely entirely on telemetry and
motor-operated isolation valves to control water level in the tank.
Many strategies are available for sensing water level. A few of
the most common technologies are listed here, divided into two cate-
gories: contact sensors and noncontact sensors.
Operation 369
used to monitor each switch in the tank and transmit digital outputs
corresponding to tank level. Icing is a concern with this technology.
Street Pressure
Street pressure is measured on the street side of the altitude or tank iso-
lation valve. The most common technology used is the pressure trans-
mitter. A continuous-voltage or current-analog signal corresponding
to the pipe pressure at the sensor elevation can be continuously sent
to the SCADA operator. (The pressure transmitter need not be at
the same elevation as the pipe centerline, but this discrepancy must
be accounted for in the determination of street pressure.) If the alti-
tude valve is not locally controlled, a decrease in street pressure signals
the operator that the altitude valve or tank isolation valve should be
opened and the tank drafted to meet demand. Data on street pressure
enable the operator to monitor distribution system pressures even if
the tank has been isolated. For instance, a sharp decrease in street
pressure may be an indication of system failure such as a water main
break.
Disinfectant Residual
Water quality managers are installing monitors for disinfectant residu-
als at representative distribution system locations. Some installations
are made because of regulatory requirements, others as a voluntary
measure. Tanks are ideal for such systems since they are usually in
secured locations, electrical power is available, and utility personnel
periodically visit the tank site.
Various technologies are commercially available to measure and
transmit concentrations of disinfectant residual. The most common
secondary disinfection chemical in the United States is chlorine. The
following methods are described for measuring concentrations of
chlorine residual at water storage facilities.
Iodometric Method
Potassium iodide reacts with free chlorine in the sample water to pro-
duce iodide. The iodide concentration is measured by the instrument
to yield total chlorine. Free chlorine is not measurable by this method.
Amperometric Electrodes
Combinations of probes consisting of a silver anode and a platinum
cathode measure free chlorine concentration, pH, and temperature.
A current proportional to the free chlorine concentration is produced
within the electrodes. The amperometric electrodes require replace-
ment after a manufacturer-specified lifetime (Pollack et al. 1999). Al-
though automated, these systems may require chemical replenish-
ment and periodic maintenance and calibration to sustain accuracy.
Operation 371
Temperature
Temperature transmitters and thermocouples can be used to measure
and transmit temperatures. Low air temperature inside equipment en-
closures can alert the SCADA operator to potential freezing conditions
that are detrimental to tank-monitoring devices. A water temperature
probe inserted either in the tank or in the pipeline leading to the tank,
or in both, can provide the utility with information regarding tank
stratification conditions. A complete temperature profile of a tank can
be obtained by using a weighted line of thermocouples designed to
measure temperature at various water depths. The information may
be transmitted to SCADA or stored locally and downloaded manu-
ally. Trending of such temperature profiles over time can help water
quality managers and operators to determine operational parameters
for seasonal or changing conditions.
Flow
Many different types of meters can be used to measure water flow.
SCADA monitoring of flow into and out of a tank can indicate prob-
lems in the distribution system, assist water quality managers in de-
termining optimum tank operation, determine water depletion time
during emergencies, and so on. Some of the systems used to mea-
sure flow at tanks are differential-type flowmeters such as venturis,
insertion meters (V-Cone, Annubar, etc.), and orifice plates and
electronic-type meters such as ultrasonic, temperature, and magnetic
flowmeters. Detection of flow direction is inherent to the operation of
some of the meters, such as magmeters. Other meters, such as ven-
turis, require additional devices to determine flow direction. Each
meter named, whether as a primary or a secondary device, makes
use of a transmitter to calculate and convert the flow into an analog
current or voltage signal.
Security
As discussed earlier in this chapter, security at water storage facilities
is a concern to utility officials and law enforcement. SCADA systems
can also transmit data from security sensors and video from cam-
eras either to the SCADA operator or directly to a separate security
SCADA monitoring center or to law enforcement monitoring officials.
A variety of sensors are available to detect intrusion to a tank site or
Operation 373
best communication range because the path loss is less than at higher
frequencies. However, it is susceptible to interference from electri-
cal noise. The UHF band is the most frequently used because of the
large number of available channels and its relative freedom from elec-
trical noise.
Line-of-sight studies are always required to test the feasibility for
RF systems. Obtaining a license from the FCC for the exclusive use
of a frequency can be expensive and time-consuming. Start-up cost
is high, and although maintenance cost is low, the utility becomes
the sole owner and operator of the RF communication system and is
responsible for its maintenance and upgrades (Pollack et al. 1999).
Fiber SCADA communication systems require the installation of
expensive fiber-optic cable (often several miles or kilometers) to a fiber
utility cable. Fiber provides the best broadband of any communication
method, often surpassing 100 Mbps. This expensive option should
only be considered when a utility requires the fast transmission of
very large volumes of data, including real-time video. The fiber lines
can be leased or owned, depending on availability and agreement
with the provider. When the water utility owns the line, it becomes
responsible for its maintenance and upgrades.
When a tank is located where telephone lines, cellular commu-
nications, or RF systems are impractical, satellite communications
is an option if a satellite covering the distribution system area is in
space. In this case, the satellite acts as a relay station between the tank
and the SCADA center. Transmitters and receivers are required at
both ends to communicate through the satellite. This option is more
expensive than hard phone lines or cellular technology, but it may
be well worth the cost when no other communication alternative is
viable.
SCADA Systems
The sophistication of the SCADA system depends on the utility’s bud-
get, the equipment supplier, and the programmer/system integrator.
Often a single operator is in charge of remotely controlling and mon-
itoring thousands of data points throughout the distribution system.
A master station at the SCADA center is usually a single device (cen-
tralized system), a master with submasters (hierarchical system), or a
parallel group of processors (distributed system). For the purpose of
this discussion, each will be referred to as the master station.
The functions of the master station include scanning PLCs and
RTUs throughout the distribution system. This is accomplished by
monitoring the proper operation of remote control devices, ensur-
ing that messages from these devices are error free, retrying when
messages are incorrect, and reporting PLC or RTU failures. A mas-
ter station also processes data received from RTUs and PLCs. The
Operation 375
Operation 377
Bibliography
American Water Works Association (AWWA). 2003. Principles and Practices of
Water Supply Operations—Water Treatment. 3rd ed., p. 210. Denver, CO:
AWWA.
AWWA. 1986. Maintaining Distribution-System Water Quality. Denver, CO:
AWWA.
AWWA. 1990. Water Quality and Treatment, A Handbook of Community Water
Supplies. 4th ed., p. 14.4. New York: McGraw-Hill.
AWWA. 2010. Water Quality and Treatment, A Handbook on Drinking Water.
6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Clark, R. M., and W. M. Grayman. 1998. Modeling Water Quality in Drinking
Water Distribution Systems. Denver, CO: AWWA.
Clesceri, L. S. (ed.), A. E. Greenberg, and A. D. Eaton. 1998. Standard Methods
for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20th ed. Washington, D.C.:
American Public Health Association, AWWA, and Water Environment
Federation.
Code of Federal Regulations. 2004. Title 14—Aeronautics and Space, Chap-
ter 1, Subchapter E Airspace, Part 77. Objects Affecting Navigable
Airspace. Washington, D.C.: Federal Aviation Administration, Depart-
ment of Transportation.
Code of Federal Regulations. 2004. Title 40—Protection of Environment, Chap-
ter 1, Part 141. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Washington,
D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency.
Connell, G. F. 1996. The Chlorination/Chloramination Handbook. Denver, CO:
AWWA.
Crozes, G. F., et al. 1999. Improving Clearwell Design for CT Compliance. Denver,
CO: American Water Works Association Research Foundation (Awwarf).
De Zuane, J. 1997. Handbook of Drinking Water Quality. 2nd ed. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Gotoh, K. (ed.), J. K. Jacobs, S. Hosoda, and R. L. Gerstberger. 1993. Instru-
mentation and Computer Integration of Water Utility Operations, pp. 113–4.
Denver, CO: Awwarf and Japan Water Works Association.
Operation 379
CHAPTER 10
Maintenance,
Inspection, and
Repair
Jennifer Coon, C.H.M.M., C.E.T.
Tank Industry Consultants
381
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Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair
382 C h a p t e r Te n
Initial Evaluation
An initial evaluation is a thorough evaluation performed to deter-
mine the tank’s structural, sanitary, safety, and coating condition. The
AWWA manual M42, Steel Water Storage Tanks, recommends that a pro-
fessional engineer familiar with the design and maintenance of water
storage tanks perform this type of evaluation. The initial evaluation
is the most detailed and intensive evaluation.
Update Evaluation
An update evaluation should be performed approximately every 3 to
5 years following the initial evaluation. The update evaluation is per-
formed to monitor changes in the coating condition and rate of corro-
sion and to verify that tank conditions have not changed significantly
since the previous evaluation or rehabilitation. The same person or
firm that performed the original initial evaluation should perform the
update evaluation. The update evaluation is not as time-consuming
and detailed as the initial evaluation.
The advantages of having an initial evaluation and subsequent
update evaluations performed by a professional are that these evalu-
ations will identify the optimum time for tank repainting and repairs,
and the owner can better plan for and budget for proper tank mainte-
nance or rehabilitation. The evaluations will identify all of the work
that is required to properly maintain the tank. This eliminates sur-
prises and change orders during a repair or repainting project.
Operator Evaluation
Tank owners should perform a cursory evaluation of the tank’s con-
dition at least annually. The purpose of this evaluation is to identify
items that can be easily remedied by maintenance personnel and to
indicate if any issues exist that require professional evaluation. If any
significant deterioration is found, or if the tank has been damaged
in some way, a professional should be called in to evaluate the prob-
lem. Items requiring basic maintenance can be remedied by operat-
ing personnel at this time. If the owner’s personnel are not properly
equipped or qualified to climb the tank, the professional person or firm
that performs the initial and update evaluations could perform this
function.
The advantages of operator evaluations are that any significant or
serious changes that may require further evaluation by a professional,
such as a potential leak or metal loss on the anchor bolts, can be iden-
tified by the operator. Also, routine maintenance can be performed by
water department personnel, thus saving the costs of replacing items
or repairing items at the next rehabilitation.
384 C h a p t e r Te n
Site Access
Inspection
The tank and the site should be monitored for signs of unautho-
rized access and vandalism, which are a potential liability for the tank
owner. Signs of unauthorized access include damage to the tank or
site, graffiti on the tank or site appurtenances, paint chipping caused
by rocks being thrown at the tank, and bullet holes or indentions in the
steel caused by from guns being shot at the tank. Personnel should
look for damage or loose wiring in the site fence and barbed-wire
strands as well as gaps between the fence and the ground. The proper
operation of the gate locking mechanism, site motion detectors, site
lighting, and surveillance cameras should also be verified. If the tank
is equipped with an exterior ladder, the proper operation of its vandal
deterrent and locking mechanism should also be confirmed.
Repair
If the site is not already enclosed by a fence, a fence at least 6 ft
(1.8 m) tall and topped with barbed wire should be installed around
the entire tank site. Barbed-wire strands should be added to the top
of the fence if they are not already present. Personnel should then
regularly maintain the fence and barbed wire so that they are in good
condition. Any holes, broken wire, or bent sections should be repaired.
The fence should be close enough to grade to prevent intruder passage
under it. All barbed-wire strands should be taut. The fence should be
equipped with a gate or gates that can be locked whenever the site
is unattended. Vegetation should be regularly trimmed back from the
fence so that it does not damage or restrict view of the fence. All
light fixtures, motion detectors, and surveillance cameras should be
regularly maintained. If the tank has an exterior ladder, it should be
equipped with a locked vandal deterrent.
Site Maintenance
Inspection
The operator’s personnel should evaluate the condition of the tank
site not just for appearance purposes, but also to help protect the
tank from damage and corrosion. The presence of any trees, bushes,
or other vegetation touching the foundation, bottom plate, or tank
should be noted. Foliage traps moisture against the steel and creates
a damp atmosphere that can accelerate corrosion. These areas should
also be checked to see if grass clippings or other debris have accumu-
lated there. If saturated or eroded soil not caused by precipitation or
Repair
Trees and bushes should be trimmed back to prevent the limbs and fo-
liage from touching the tank. Vegetation should be trimmed so it does
not grow up on the foundation, base plate(s), and tank. Personnel
should remove any debris found on the foundation and base plate(s).
When the tank site is mowed or other maintenance operations are
performed with similar equipment, the discharge should be directed
away from the base of the tank to prevent any rocks discharged from
hitting the tank and damaging its coating. This will also prevent grass
clippings from accumulating on the foundations and base plates and
accelerating corrosion. Care should be taken that maintenance equip-
ment, trucks, and so on do not come into contact with the tank or
foundation.
If necessary, personnel should regrade the site so that the founda-
tion projects 6 to 12 in. (152 to 304 mm) above grade and adequate
drainage away from the foundation occurs. Rainwater runoff and
overflow discharge should be directed away from the foundation.
Foundation(s)
Inspection
The foundation should be checked to verify that it projects between
6 and 12 in. (152 and 304 mm) above grade and that there is proper
drainage away from the foundation. The foundation(s) should be ex-
amined for signs of settlement and the concrete inspected for evidence
of cracking, spalling, or exposed reinforcing steel. Deep cracks or ex-
tensive crumbling of the foundation signal, a potentially serious issue,
and a professional evaluation should be conducted. Also, if the foun-
dation tops are not approximately level with each other, this may be
evidence of differential settlement of the tank foundation, and a pro-
fessional evaluation should be conducted.
Repair
Personnel can apply a bonding agent and vinyl emollient concrete-
patching mortar to any deteriorated areas or voids found in the con-
crete foundation to build up the surface to its original contour. The
condition of this repair should then be monitored.
386 C h a p t e r Te n
Repair
A flexible sealant can be applied to any deteriorated areas or voids
found in these materials to restrict the ingress of moisture through the
voids and under the tank bottom plate. The condition of these repairs
should then be monitored.
Repair
Personnel should keep the chairs free of debris, vegetation, and grass
clippings.
Repair
Personnel should install locks on manholes and access doors. They
should also replace any manhole gaskets that do not create a positive
seal. If any of the bolts have corroded, they should be replaced with
stainless-steel bolts to prevent rust staining from streaking onto the
tank surfaces.
Repair
If gaps are noted, personnel should reposition the flap gate or elas-
tomeric check valve on the overflow pipe to eliminate them. Any dam-
aged screening on the overflow pipe discharge should be replaced to
prevent the ingress of insects and small animals.
Venting
Inspection
The proper operation of the clog-resistant vent and its pallets needs to
be checked before and after freezing weather. The condition of the vent
screening needs to be assessed to verify it is adequate to prevent the
ingress of insects into the tank. Shielding over any vertically oriented
screening also needs to be assessed so that wind-driven dust and
debris do not enter the tank.
Repair
Personnel should replace any damaged vent screens to prevent the
ingress of insects into the tank. Any damaged shielding over the
screening should also be replaced so wind-driven dust and debris
do not enter the tank.
Ladders
Inspection
All ladders should be carefully checked for deteriorated members
that might pose a danger to climbers. The ladder brackets and their
attachments to the tank and the ladder itself should be checked for
missing or deteriorated bolts and/or cracked welds. The rungs should
be inspected for metal loss, especially where they join the side rails.
Repair
If deteriorated members are noted on a ladder or its associated brack-
ets, repairs should be made. If the ladder is equipped with a safe-
climbing device, the device should be shielded from any paint or sol-
vent being used to ensure its continued proper operation.
388 C h a p t e r Te n
Repair
Personnel should replace any missing covers from floor openings
and/or protective chains from safety railing.
Interior Lighting
Inspection
Personnel should check to make sure all interior lighting fixtures op-
erate properly. The condition and presence of the protective cages and
globes on the fixtures should be verified. The conduits associated with
the lighting should be assessed to confirm that they enclose all wiring
and are adequately supported. If they do not appear to be adequately
supported, a professional engineer should be contacted.
Repair
Personnel should maintain any interior light fixtures so that they oper-
ate properly. Burned-out bulbs should be replaced, as should damaged
protective cages and globes. If the fixtures or associated conduits ex-
pose wiring, it should be covered in accordance with National Electric
Code (NEC) guidelines.
Obstruction Lighting
Inspection
If obstruction lighting is required on a tank, personnel should make
sure it is operational and lit. The condition of any globes and bulbs
should be verified. The lighting should be evaluated to confirm that
it is adequately braced and that it and the associated conduits do not
have exposed wiring. The condition of the photoelectric cell should
be checked. The proper operation of the lighting should be verified
both at night and during the day to ensure that the lights are on when
required and off during daylight hours (unless otherwise required
by the Federal Aviation Administration) to reduce electricity use and
the frequency of replacing bulbs. If the fixture and its conduits do not
appear to be adequately supported, a professional engineer should be
contacted.
Repair
Personnel should replace damaged bulbs or globes. If wiring is ex-
posed, it should be covered in accordance with NEC guidelines.
390 C h a p t e r Te n
Professional Evaluation
AWWA recommends that water storage tanks be professionally evalu-
ated at least every 5 years and otherwise whenever conditions warrant
evaluation. A thorough professional evaluation will enable the tank
owner to accurately schedule required maintenance, prolonging the
structure’s useful life.
A professional evaluation should consist of a careful study of the
tank’s interior, exterior, foundation, and accessories. All necessary sur-
faces on the tank should be accessed by rigging and rappelling the
interior and exterior as required by the condition and design of each
tank.
Float-Down Evaluation
The interior of the tank is full of water as a float-down evaluation
begins. A field technician in a small raft evaluates the interior surfaces
as the owner drains the tank. The interior wet riser of elevated tanks
is typically evaluated by rigging after the float-down evaluation has
concluded. The duration of this evaluation is determined by the rate
at which the tank is drained.
392 C h a p t e r Te n
the tank to access the bottom plates. Technicians get to the necessary
surfaces of the tank by rigging and rappelling the interior (including
the interior of riser pipes 36 in. [0.9 mm] in diameter and larger) as
required by the condition and design of each tank.
Both dry and wet evaluations have limitations. First, with a diving
evaluation, the diver is able to access all of the steel surfaces. During
a dry evaluation, the tank evaluation crew can only access, via simple
rigging from roof manholes and vents, surfaces that are adjacent to
ladders. However, the diver must evaluate the steel surfaces up close,
as the limited light does not allow him or her to move away from the
tank shell and evaluate the overall corrosion patterns inside the tank.
Also, because there is usually silt in the bottom of the tank, the tank
bottom cannot be as thoroughly evaluated by diving. When a diver
stirs up this sediment, visibility is impaired, diminishing the quality
of the evaluation of the tank bottom and the lower portion of the tank
shell. In addition, the diver is working with a limited supply of air,
which typically causes him or her to accelerate the evaluation. Some
of the physical tests that are normally performed, including adhesion
tests and dry film thickness readings, cannot be accomplished on the
submerged surfaces. Perhaps most importantly, only one diver sees
the tank interior, whereas it is ideal for several members of the tank
evaluation crew to visually assess the tank interior and evaluate the
problems found. This provides for greater accuracy in the evaluation.
Structural Evaluation
Structural evaluations are normally only performed if the owner or the
engineer believes a tank does not meet current structural standards or
if the structural integrity of the tank is suspect. Structural evaluations
should evaluate metal loss compared to the apparent or observed orig-
inal metal loss obtained by ultrasonic testing. A structural analysis is
not commonly required for properly maintained existing tanks unless
the tank has been modified (if, for example, equipment or antennas
have been added to the structure) or has experienced an extreme event
such as high winds or an earthquake.
The first step of a structural analysis is an engineering evaluation
of the tank to determine its condition. A structural engineer should
review deterioration of the foundation to determine its effects on the
tank’s structural integrity. A level should be used to determine if dif-
ferential settlement has occurred since construction of the tank.
The original design drawings should be reviewed for compliance.
Measurements should be taken in the field to analyze the tank and
anchorage for compliance with current structural codes and require-
ments that may have changed or come into effect since the tank was
originally designed and constructed. The latest AWWA standards and
local building codes should be used. Careful attention should be given
Specialized Inspections
Ultrasonic Thickness Measurements
Ultrasonic thickness measurements of the steel should be taken, and
areas of metal loss and deterioration should be analyzed for structural
deficiencies.
Coating Evaluation
The coating survey should include laboratory analysis of coating sam-
ples to determine the total lead content by weight. Similar tests should
be conducted for other regulated heavy metals such as arsenic, barium,
cadmium, chromium, mercury, selenium, and silver. Additionally, the
coating type, thickness, condition, and adhesion should be tested to
assess the ease of applying a topcoat to the existing coating. If such
tests indicate that topcoating is an option, recoating costs could be
significantly reduced.
394 C h a p t e r Te n
Owner-Performed Inspection
Immediately following a tornado, hurricane, major windstorm, or
earthquake, or during freezing weather, tanks should be evaluated for
any possible damage. If damage is evident, a professional structural
engineer familiar with water tank design and maintenance should be
contacted as quickly as possible to evaluate the structural condition
of the tank.
For example, when tanks are located in areas subject to soil lique-
faction or gross slip failures, additional site investigation and remedi-
ation may be required. The size, location, and type of tank influence
the relative value of a soil investigation. A tank of low height with
an unanchored flat bottom typically imposes less load on the soil and
may not be susceptible to soil and foundation problems during an
earthquake. Conversely, a large standpipe or elevated tank with sub-
stantial anchorage requirements may be significantly affected by the
soil behavior.
The existing building codes and national tank design standards
all specify factors to adjust the seismic design load for the site soil
classification. All of these documents also have a default value when
396 C h a p t e r Te n
sufficient detail is not available. For many sites, the default site clas-
sifications are conservative for determining the design load.
Another important factor in assessing the need for a site-specific
soil investigation is the history of tank failures during seismic events.
The types of tank failures most often encountered are related to pip-
ing flexibility, damage to the shell anchorage, shell buckling, or slosh-
ing damage to the roof and roof support structure. Few foundation
problems resulting from earthquakes are reported. When foundation
problems are reported, they are often related to gross soil failures (e.g.,
a tank sliding down the hill) that may not be addressed by the typical
soil report or may be a consequence of inadequate anchorage design.
Tank Cleaning/Washouts
As water is held in the tank, suspended solids begin to settle out of
the water and onto the tank bottom. Without regular washouts, large
amounts of sediment may accumulate in the tanks. In addition, proper
evaluation of the interior surfaces of the tank cannot be conducted
with sediment covering the bottom of the tank.
398 C h a p t e r Te n
CHAPTER 11
Potable Water
Security
John McLaughlin, P.E.
Jordan, Jones and Goulding
The use of water as a leveraging tool in conflict is not new, or is the con-
cept of water security. Besides the air we breathe, water is the single
most critical element to human survival. In Water Conflict Chronology
(Gleick 2008), more than 100 incidents are documented in which water
was the cause of, or was integral to, a major conflict or event. These
events or types of conflicts are grouped into one or more of the fol-
lowing categories: control of water resources, water as a political or
military tool, terrorism, water as a military target, and disputes re-
lated to development of water resources. As early as 2,500 bc, water
was used as a military tool to help defeat an enemy. With humans’
reliance on safe and sustainable potable water, its use as a tool of war
and conflict should be no surprise.
399
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Potable Water Security
December 31, 2004. The actual schedule for completion of the VAs
was the following:
r March 31, 2003, for systems serving a population of 100,000
or more
r December 31, 2003, for systems serving a population of 50,000
or more but less than 100,000
r June 30, 2004, for systems serving a population greater than
3,300 but less than 50,000
In each case, the system was to complete an ERP as soon as pos-
sible, but no later than 6 months after completion of the VA. The ERP
was to incorporate the results of the VA.
Water systems were not fundamentally insecure before Septem-
ber 11; most had fences, locks, and other systems to detect and delay
intruders. Larger water systems sometimes had guards and more in-
tricate electronic security systems. What fundamentally shifted was
the focus—away from protecting water systems against natural dis-
ruption and contamination and toward reducing the risk from an
intentional malevolent human attack (and not necessarily from an
international terrorist organization). Some of the most prevalent, best
documented, and least appreciated threats to water systems come
from disgruntled current or former employees, a lone vandal or a
group of vandals, and common criminals.
Almost monthly since September 11, news stories have docu-
mented break-ins at water facilities. These types of events almost
certainly occurred as often before 9/11, but they received little pub-
licity or attention. The main difference between the pre- and post-
9/11 incidents is that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and
other law enforcement agencies paid the former—usually unorga-
nized attempts at vandalism—little attention. Nevertheless, the in-
cidents directly pointed to the need for better risk reduction at water
systems, which quickly began to improve formerly minimal security
practices.
Definitions
People tend to think of “providing security” at water systems, and this
chapter uses that terminology, but the real goal is to reduce risk by
eliminating vulnerabilities. This process of risk reduction ultimately
leads to the security that water system operators and the public seek. In
that connection, the following definitions are provided (Sandia 2002).
r Risk—Measure of the potential damage to or loss of an asset
based on the probability of an undesirable occurrence.
r Risk assessment—Process of analyzing threats to and vul-
nerability of a facility, determining the potential for losses,
Types of Threats
A water-storage facility can be intentionally attacked in three ba-
sic ways: physical disruption, contamination (radiological, chemi-
cal, or biological), and interference with supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA), computer, and information technology (IT)
systems.
Physical Disruption
Much has been written about contamination being the worst-case sce-
nario for a water-storage facility. This is valid and worthy of discus-
sion, but perhaps the simplest and the most effective way of having
an impact on potable water storage is through physical disruption.
The amount of water that humans actually consume is only a frac-
tion of a percentage of the total potable water produced. In Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, for example, the percent-
age of potable water actually consumed is one-half to one-quarter of
1 percent of the total produced (Danneels 2001). Having storage, and
Contamination
Three types of contaminants are of concern in water systems. These
are, in order of concern, biological, chemical, and radiological. Tra-
ditional water treatment has focused on removal or inactivation of
naturally occurring contaminants and contaminants unintentionally
introduced by humans. Each case of intentional or malevolent contam-
ination can cause unique problems. Besides the obvious—customers
getting sick or dying—one of the most likely overall problems is the
widespread public perception and panic that water is not safe to drink
(Burrows, Valcik, and Seitzinger 1997). Additionally, there is the prob-
lem of timely determination of what agent (or agents) has been intro-
duced.
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utilities (in North Carolina) has dealt with
this issue twice. The first event was unintentional and involved Foam-
gate (Krouse 2001); the other occurred after 9/11 and was intentional.
In each case, even with rapid detection of the contamination, the test-
ing necessary to determine its exact nature and potential harmful ef-
fects was one of the most difficult parts of the entire response effort.
A chemical agent might be easily detected through the taste, odor,
or appearance of the water, especially if enough of the agent is present
to do physical harm to a person. The problem with radiological or
biological agents is that they are much more difficult to detect and
deal with. The first means of detecting these agents in water, even
large quantities of agents, might be through symptoms that do not
appear in an affected population until days or weeks later. Moreover,
SCADA/IT Interference
A third method of disabling a water-storage facility is through cyber
attacks against a SCADA system. Fortunately, many water systems
still practice manual operation and allow their SCADA systems to
perform very little, if any, control. Those that do not practice manual
operation or that allow maximum control by their SCADA systems
run the very real risk of losing control through hackers entering their
system. These hackers can be current insiders or employees, disgrun-
tled former employees, lone thrill-seeking hackers, or a group of orga-
nized and highly capable hackers bent on significant and coordinated
destruction.
Remote Location
When a storage facility is remotely located, its primary vulnerabil-
ity is that few people are around to detect an intrusion. Unless it is
a manned facility, such as a clearwell at a water treatment plant, the
only reliable means of detecting an intrusion would be through an
accurate, automated detection system, which many remote facilities
do not have. Even when a system has the capability of accurately de-
tecting an intrusion attempt at a remote site, response would normally
take too long because of the distance from a regular patrol area.
Urban Location
An urban or heavily populated location does not have the same vul-
nerabilities as a remote location, but several inherent vulnerabilities
still exist. Location in a congested area means that many more people
have close access to the site and are potentially aware of the facil-
ity’s importance. In general, in many urban areas, a lot of criminal
activity goes unnoticed and unreported. One thing common to virtu-
ally all water system facilities is the presence of graffiti, especially on
tanks. Most water systems have not worried about this in the past,
but the presence of graffiti points to the ease of access by and the
poor detection of intruders. In addition, because these storage facil-
ities are so close to large population centers and because they tend
to serve more critical customers, they are usually much more vital
assets.
In both remote and urban settings, the key is good detection. Ob-
viously, until a system accurately detects an intrusion attempt in the
first place, delay of the intruder will not be possible. A response force,
no matter how close or aware, will have not have any impact, and no
facility location will be safer than any other.
Accessibility
Accessibility, as discussed here, has to do with the number of peo-
ple allowed to access the facility. Almost all potable water storage
systems allow nonutility personnel to have unmonitored access to
storage tanks. These are most often employees of telecommunication
companies, electrical utilities, and other city departments. An unsci-
entific survey of results of many vulnerability assessments shows that
almost all facilities allow this access without maintaining any direct
control over who accessed the facility or when.
An equally critical vulnerability is the common practice by many
water systems of allowing too many of their own personnel to
have keys to facilities. Maintaining access control over the water
department’s own personnel is a more difficult problem to solve than
Multicolumn Tanks
Multicolumn tanks have many of the same features as an enclosed-
base tank, but without the same level of protection. Figure 11-5 shows
the base of a typical multicolumn elevated tank with a ladder guard.
Usually, multicolumn tanks have detached underground vaults to
FIGURE 11-5 Typical base of multicolumn style tank with ladder guard.
house critical piping and shutoff and altitude control valves (see
Fig. 11-6 for an example of this arrangement). SCADA components
and other related instrumentation are sometimes housed in the same
vault, but more often they are located in the open on the tank leg or
possibly in an unprotected shed detached from the tank.
FIGURE 11-6 Detached underground vault for piping and valves, multicolumn
tank.
Construction Materials
Materials of construction play only a minor part in the security
of a tank. Almost all tanks are constructed of concrete, steel, or a
steel/concrete composite. A study of explosives, tank characteristics,
and materials of construction would be needed to determine which
of the three would be most susceptible to destruction. Suffice it to
say that a steel, concrete, or composite tank of proper structural de-
sign will withstand about the same level of explosive force, all other
factors being equal.
Water-Storage Vulnerabilities
This section is general and avoids describing specific methods and
means of contaminating or disrupting a water system through inten-
tional acts at a potable water–storage facility.
Most key elements of water system vulnerability have been cov-
ered previously. Specific locations exist on most storage facilities that
are the most vulnerable points. These include vents, sampling ports,
fiberglass hatches, and local chemical feed stations. Many utilities
have hatches that are lightly screened or not screened at all because
of wear and tear. Fiberglass hatches are common on ground storage
tanks and present a minimal barrier to a determined adversary. The
locks usually provided for metal hatch covers are of the type found
at the hardware store and are easily cut with large bolt cutters. Read-
ily accessible sampling ports, fire-hose connections, or local chemical
feed systems (for maintaining residual chlorine levels, for example)
are simple points of access for possible contamination.
Disruption of a water system through physical destruction at a
water-storage facility is a bit more difficult, but it is possible just the
same. It would take a large amount of explosive placed strategically
close to a storage facility to ensure complete destruction. Because of
this, we tend to focus on the possibility that an adversary would at-
tempt the same level of disruption through focused destruction of
critical piping, valves, booster pumping, or other on-site components.
As with a tank’s access hatches and vents, most enclosed tank base
doors or exterior vaults are only secured with a minimal hasp-and-
lock system.
SCADA/IT vulnerabilities are not currently severe or common,
because not many water systems rely on SCADA/IT to control func-
tions. Many utilities use SCADA only to monitor a few key parameters
and are alerted either when the signal is lost or when values are out
of range. This does not mean, though, that these vulnerabilities can
be ignored. Reliance on SCADA signals without verification can be
dangerous, and often SCADA systems alarm over many minor occur-
rences, leaving operators to filter these alarms and potentially miss
something of real importance.
SCADA-related vulnerabilities will probably increase as security
systems (closed-circuit television [CCTV], perimeter alarms, and so
on) begin running signals through the same SCADA system used for
operational data. This also opens up a new avenue to be concerned
about: A disgruntled employee who controls not only the operation of
a system but the security system as well is known as a super insider.
Physical Security
Physical protection systems are security measures such as CCTV (cam-
era) systems, motion sensors, alarms, fences, locks, and guards. The
basic concept of PPS is to detect an adversary as early as possible.
Detection means not just having a camera system record an intruder,
but having a person assess the alarm or image and react quickly and
effectively to alert whatever response mechanism is planned. Delay is
the combination of measures that will slow an adversary who is on the
Detection Practices
Digital CCTV
Many utilities installed CCTV capability before September 11. Some
of these provided digital image storage. The majority used tape and
relied on an operator to see an event in real time or to forensically
view what happened. After 9/11, digital CCTV systems became more
prevalent. These systems store images in digital format and provide
an alarm if the viewed image deviates from a stored baseline image.
In such a case, in addition to providing the alarm, they pull up the
correct segment of video image, including the moments immediately
preceding and following the event.
With any camera system, lighting conditions and clear lines of
sight are critical. An uninterrupted fence line and clear areas at least
15 ft (4.5 m) outside the fence line are essential to successful early de-
tection. Adequate lighting, properly designed with the camera system
to provide optimum contrast, is also essential. Lights should be the
quick-strike type so that after a power outage has been resolved, it
does not take several minutes for the lights to warm up. (Quick-strike
lights come up to full candlepower almost instantly after power is
restored. They do not operate without power. The best means of pow-
ering lights and other critical functions during a power outage is to
provide a generator.)
Access Control
Controlling access is another key component of both detection and
delay. Access control can be as simple as basic door and window
locks or it can comprise state-of-the-art biometrics. Basic lock-and-key
systems can be effective against many adversaries, but they require
strict key-control policies that are practiced and enforced. If everyone
has a key to all facilities and assets, locks cease to be effective. Good
key control can detect and delay both insider and outsider adver-
saries. If padlocks are used at remote storage facilities to which other
Photographic
Technology Comments
Night-vision camera r Good for day and night viewing
r Will not have to redo or add lights
r Expensive
Black and white (B&W) r Good for day and lower-light vision
camera r Inexpensive
(recommended) r Not good for dark conditions
r Not as easy to distinguish during the day
r Will have to redo site lighting to have
effective monitoring
Color camera r Good for day viewing
(not recommended) r Not good for low-light or dark conditions
r Will have to redo site lighting to have
effective monitoring
r Expensive
Day/night (color/B&W) r Color is good for day viewing
r B&W is better for night viewing
r More expensive than B&W or color
r Will have to redo site lighting to have
effective monitoring
Recording Technology
No recording r Must monitor at all times to be functional
r Nothing is available that can be used for
prosecution
Tape recording r Used for backup validation of alarms
r Hard to find previously recorded moments
r Cannot record while viewing a previously
recorded moment
Digital recording r Used for backup validation of alarms
r Begins recording based on motion in the
field of view
r All recordings are date/time stamped for
ease in finding a particular moment when
viewing
r Accessible from a remote location
r Images are in PC-friendly format and can
be stored electronically indefinitely
machinery.
r Ported coaxial r Mostly immune to weather and r Avoid installing under chain-link fences; install at least
buried line environmental noise 3 ft (0.9 m) above buried metallic pipes
r Susceptible to buried metal
r Affected by high-EMI sources such as large electrical
equipment or substations (should not be used in close
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418
Types of
Detection Technology Pros Cons
r Buried fiber r Mostly immune to weather and r Must be installed away from poles and trees at a
optic environmental noise distance equal to at least the height of the pole or tree)
r Immune to electrical or EMI r Should not be installed in or under concrete or asphalt
disruption r Susceptible to erosion where either more exposure or
r Adjustable sensitivity deeper burial affects the sensitivities
r Sensitive to tree roots as the tree blows in wind
r Buried r Mostly immune to weather and r Sensitive to medium in which geophones are buried
geophone environmental noise r Sensitive to trees, fences, light poles, and telephone
poles, which can trigger the alarms when blowing in wind
Volumetric r Active infrared r Send multiple-beam pattern, r Precise alignment of sensors is critical
sensors increasing coverage r Not good with hilly terrain
Potable Water Security
r Good probability of detection r Sensitive to snow and grass around the sensors
r Available in portable versions r Sensitive to fog, heavy rain, and dust
r Narrow detection zone good for r Sensitive to vegetation overgrowth
monitoring perimeter sectors
r Microwave r Can be used to monitor an area r Sensitive to high-frequency spectrum
or a definitive perimeter line r Sensitive to areas that contain strong emitters of
r Use monostatic sensors where electric fields (radio transmitters) or magnetic fields
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Potable Water Security
utilities and/or agencies may need access, the tank owner should avoid
daisy-chain systems (several interlocking padlocks); all that is neces-
sary for an intruder to do is to break the weakest lock.
Swipe cards and/or personal identification number (PIN) access
control can be more secure and allow easier “key” control. The person
must remember his or her code and remember to carry his or her key.
An advantage of these systems is that they allow logging of who enters
the facility—or at least of whose card and PIN were used to enter. This
may not stop the adversary (the wrong person with the right key or
access code can enter), but it will dissuade those who want to escape
undetected.
Biometric systems control access by using characteristics and traits
that are unique to an individual. Among the most common are finger-
print and retina/eye scanners. These systems are virtually impossible
to trick, and they do not involve having to carry a key. Their cost may
prevent widespread use, but they can be especially effective against
an insider or as a second layer to a perimeter detection system for an
especially critical facility. See Table 11-3 for a further breakdown of
various access control systems.
Glass-Break Sensors
Delay and response are most effective when there is early detection. If
an adversary gets through a fence or other outer perimeter undetected,
the time available to a response force for intervention is greatly dimin-
ished. However, using glass-break sensors on building windows may
be necessary if perimeter detection at a fence line is not available or
practical. Certainly, it is preferable to have the extra distance and de-
lay, but short of moving entire facilities, that may not be possible. This
type of sensor may also be considered a layer in a detection system
for a highly critical storage facility or where threat by an insider is the
main concern.
Door Alarms
Door alarms, too, are more appropriate when the adversary is an in-
sider or as an extra layer in a detection system. The use of alarms for
storage facilities within the property’s perimeter can detect an insider
who, although legitimately within the perimeter of the facility as a
whole, may need to be restricted from entering key buildings that
house specific assets.
421
TABLE 11-3 Entry Control Summary
Contaminant Analyzers
Current technologies for detecting a contaminant look at its effect on
certain key indicators. Among the most common are residual chlorine
and ORP, described previously. The very nature of these types of de-
tection means the contaminant is already present in the system and
its consequences must be mitigated.
Another technique is to use biological analyzers—organisms that
react in certain ways to any of several toxic agents. Their reaction is
tied to an electronic signal that creates the alarm. The problems here
are the lack of any specificity as to the cause of the alarm and the
potential for false positives or negatives. A few examples follow:
While these methods may not be desired for use at this stage, they
give an indication of the body of knowledge available to enhance
security at all your facilities.
Technology to monitor and analyze contaminants is constantly
being developed and perfected with a goal of providing accurate,
real-time capability. Already the Sandia National Laboratories staff
Delay Practices
Delay measures generally are the most cost-effective part of a risk
reduction system that comprises detection, delay, response, and con-
sequence mitigation. There is a multitude of number and types of
measures; the only limits are the constraints of the particular site.
Whether it is an operator-staffed facility such as a water treatment
plant clearwell or a remote, unmanned facility such as an elevated
water storage tank, the most common delay features are fencing and
gates. As with any protection system, fencing and gates are useless
without proper maintenance and training of the staff on how to max-
imize their effectiveness.
A simple way of making a regular chain-link fence more secure
is to use razor wire at the top of the fence instead of three strands of
barbed wire. Traditional fences consist of 6-ft to 8-ft (1.8-m to 2.4-m)
chain link with three strands of barbed wire on outward-facing out-
riggers. Where necessary and practical, the fence can be made more
secure by replacing the three-strand barbed wire with at least one coil
of concertina or razor wire (Fig. 11-8). Even more delay can be built
in by using two layers of fencing. This system is prevalent at critical
the sites are unmanned, they are almost always accessed by vehicle. If
gates exist but vehicle access is no longer allowed, Jersey-type barri-
ers are very effective. These come in various forms, including plastic
barriers that can be filled with liquid to add weight. If they are to be
effective, they must remain filled with liquid.
used for all windows (if applicable). Figure 11-13 shows a typ-
ical entrance configuration for a fluted-column enclosed-base
elevated tank. If this configuration is not practical, bars, cages,
fence, or mesh can be installed on the inside of the window
frame. Of course, these measures are worth nothing if doors
are not kept locked and if there is no key control.
Response Practices
The response component of physical security should focus on provid-
ing the water tank owner and staff with backup communications sys-
tems for all possibilities. This should include landline phones, cellular-
phone backup, and even radio systems tied into emergency frequen-
cies. Local law enforcement should be made fully aware of all facility
locations and should train on these sites. Water system staff should
also be familiar with local law enforcement agencies and should have
all of their emergency phone numbers up-to-date and readily avail-
able at all times.
Operational Security
Operational security (OS) can also provide security, detect and delay
an adversary, and enhance response capabilities.
The same type of key control policy should apply to vehicles and
at all other points where access needs to be restricted. All employ-
ees should be subject to strict sign-in/sign-out procedures around all
critical facilities and when using any water system vehicle.
Consequence Mitigation
If detection, delay, and response have failed and a successful attack
has occurred, you are left to mitigate the consequences of that attack.
For water systems, conducting mitigation may be one of the most cost-
effective means of reducing the risk of future attacks and ultimately
improving the level of security for the system. Consequence mitigation
provides benefits after an intentional human act and after natural
disasters. As with some high-level adversaries (e.g., international or
domestic terrorists, organized criminal enterprises, and saboteurs), a
natural disaster cannot be prevented from “attacking” a water system;
in either case you must be able to mitigate the consequences. These
general mitigation techniques are applicable to all sites:
r Provide and maintain an inventory of replacement equip-
ment, focused on the most critical assets as determined from a
Sandia-based RAM-WTM (Sandia 2002) or other vulnerability
assessment.
r Do not store replacement or redundant components in the
same location or structure as the primary item.
r Provide generators or other backup power at all critical facil-
ities. They should be capable of powering the critical assets,
at a minimum.
r For utilities that use gaseous chlorine, store less total chlorine
on site, assuming delivery is on time and reliable.
r If you must store large quantities of gaseous chlorine on site,
store it in two or more geographically distant locations to
lessen the amount available at any single place.
Bibliography
Brosnan, T. M., ed. 1999. Early Warning Monitoring to Detect Hazardous Events
in Water Supplies. International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Risk Science
Institute Workshop Report. Washington, D.C.: ILSI.
Burrows, W. D., J. A. Valcik, and A. Seitzinger. 1997. Natural and Terrorist
Threats to Drinking Water Supplies. US Army Center for Health Promo-
tion and Preventive Medicine. In Proc. 23rd Environmental Symposium and
Exhibition, American Defense Preparedness Association, Arlington, VA.
Danneels, J. J. 2001. Department Manager, Sandia National Laboratories. State-
ment to US House of Representatives Committee on Science, hearing on
H.R. 3178 and the Development of Anti-Terrorism Tools for Water Infras-
tructure, Nov. 14, 2001.
Deininger, R. 2000. The Threat of Chemical and Biological Agents to Public Wa-
ter Supply Systems. Water Pipeline Database, Science Application Interna-
tional Corporation (SAIC), Hazard Assessment and Simulation Division.
McLean, VA.: SAIC.
Gleick, P. H. 2008. Water Conflict Chronology (revised). Oakland, Calif.: Pacific
Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security.
Krouse, M. 2001. Backflow Incident Sparks Improvements. Opflow 27:2.
Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of
2002. Public Law 107-188, 42 U.S.C. Washington, D.C.: 2002.
Security Systems and Technology Center, Systems Analysis and Development
Department, Sandia National Laboratories. May 2002. Risk Assessment
Methodology for Water (RAM-WSM ). Notebook Volume I. Copyright 2002
Sandia Corporation. Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. Export Control Clas-
sification Number (ECCN) EAR99.
US Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. Guidelines for the Physical Secu-
rity of Water Utilities. ASCE/AWWA Draft American National Standard
for Trial Use. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), American Water
Works Association (AWWA), and Water Environment Federation (WEF).
Washington, D.C.: USEPA.
CHAPTER 12
Tank Rehabilitation
Gregory R. “Chip” Stein, P.E.
Tank Industry Consultants
Developing Specifications
If an evaluation of the tank’s condition, components, and appurte-
nances has determined that repair is required—and if repair is eco-
nomically feasible—it is necessary to generate a set of detailed tech-
nical specifications and bonding requirements.
The scope of work must be determined by evaluating the rec-
ommendations and cost estimates from the inspection report and
comparing these to the availability of funds and to the tank owner’s
long- and short-term plans for the tank. Often, there are multiple po-
tential solutions to an observed deficiency. To determine the repair that
best fits the utility’s needs, these solutions and their associated costs
should be evaluated in terms of the level of risk the utility is willing to
accept.
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Tank Rehabilitation
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Standards Referenced
For the specification writer to be effective, he or she must have a
working knowledge of and have access to the following material:
Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n 435
Environmental/Worker Safety
Lead Regulations
Regulations regarding removal of paint that contains lead and other
regulated heavy metals were changed in the early 1990s. Methods of
compliance and the interpretation and enforcement of these regula-
tions to protect the environment and workers have changed dramat-
ically. Many areas of the United States now enforce a policy of no
emissions into the atmosphere or past the property line. Add to this
the concern for the safety of workers while they are removing the
coatings, and it is obvious why the cost of water tank rehabilitation
has doubled.
The largest problem has been collection of the dust and debris gen-
erated by the removal of the tank’s coating while keeping workers’ ex-
posure levels to heavy metals within the permissible range prescribed
by OSHA in its regulation 1926.62. One solution is to shroud the entire
structure with impervious tarps and conduct open blasting within this
containment system. Dust collectors are then used to negate the pres-
surization effect of the compressed-air abrasive blasting, producing
a negative air pressure in the containment enclosure. Workers must
be adequately equipped with respiratory protection while they are in
this hazardous environment. This relatively expensive method of con-
tainment has been very successful and widely used. Other methods of
surface preparation include the use of vacuum shrouding around blast
nozzles and power tools and the use of ultra-high-pressure (35,000+
psi [241.32 MPa]) water jetting.
The most promising technology currently in use and undergo-
ing further development is the robotic blasting system. This system
includes a self-contained centrifugal blasting apparatus that seals
against the tank surface. The unit is raised and lowered by a winch and
cable. There is no compressed air, so there is no pressure to disperse
the debris that is generated. The abrasive media is typically recyclable,
so the amount of debris is minimized. Additionally, because workers
are outside the blasting assembly, they are not exposed to the concen-
trated dust.
VOC Regulations
Volatile organic compounds, the solvents that traditionally have given
coatings their liquidity and workability, are being heavily regulated
nationwide. To complicate matters, different areas of the country are
436 C h a p t e r Tw e l v e
Water Circulation
Short-circuiting and stagnation of water in tanks is a concern for tank
owners, who have installed baffle walls and piping systems to force
circulation and water turnover. Baffle walls should be carefully de-
signed to account for their effect on the tank structure. Additionally,
these walls present challenges to future tank maintenance. Piping sys-
tems should be evaluated for use of dissimilar metals, increased cost
of interior repainting, and degree of head range loss required to run
the system.
Surface Preparation
A successful coating application depends largely on the quality of sur-
face preparation. Regardless of the substrate (be it steel, concrete, or
a coated surface), the area to be coated must be clean, relatively free
of contaminants, and properly abraded to receive a coating. Surface
preparation should be specified to conform to the applicable SSPC
standards for cleanliness and the coating manufacturer’s surface pro-
file requirements. Depending on the location of the water tank (in
coastal or heavy-industry areas, for example), specific requirements
regarding the degree of cleanliness and additional testing require-
ments may be required for surface contaminants.
Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n 437
Coating Systems
There is no longer any such thing as a standard coating system. Tech-
nology in the painting industry, especially in the water storage tank
industry, is in a period of rapid change. There is no longer a “standard
spec”—not if you want a coating system that will truly protect your
tank.
Gone are the days when conventional paints were applied over
minimally cleaned surfaces by everyday laborers. Now, in a period of
increasingly stringent environmental regulations, highly skilled tech-
nicians apply sophisticated coatings onto surfaces cleaned by ever-
evolving surface preparation methods. We must now “design” a coat-
ing system for each tank, taking into consideration all the specific
conditions that may affect the system’s performance.
Coating System Selection
First, we need to realize that in the past, common industry shortcom-
ings caused specifiers to use improper or inadequate coating systems
for water tanks. Engineering education was lacking with regard to con-
trolling corrosion by using coatings, and so specifiers relied mainly on
coating suppliers for guidance. Thus, a trend developed among speci-
fying engineers of using suppliers’ “canned” specifications rather than
developing a specification and system that fit the exact needs of the
tank owner. Additionally, the welded-steel tank specifiers, designers,
and fabricators frequently failed to recognize the need to incorporate
proper design details that extend the coating life. Just because “it’s
by the specification” does not mean it is the best coating design for
long-term corrosion protection.
The first step in designing a proper coating system is to deter-
mine the owner’s needs and research specific operating conditions by
asking questions about the tank itself.
r In what environment is this tank located?
r What are the constraints of the tank site?
r What is the design of this tank?
r What is the current condition of its coating?
r What are the types of coating failures observed on this tank?
r Why did these coating failures occur?
r What can be done to correct these coating failures?
r Where are the existing corrosion problems on this tank?
r What time of year and for how long can the tank be taken out
of service for painting?
r What is the level of community acceptance of this tank?
r What are the owner’s short- and long-term plans for this tank?
438 C h a p t e r Tw e l v e
Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n 439
440 C h a p t e r Tw e l v e
442 C h a p t e r Tw e l v e
Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n 443
444 C h a p t e r Tw e l v e
information, and interpret and define the owner’s decisions. The util-
ity’s representative should also be responsible for arranging for access
onto both public and private properties as necessary and for reviewing
and providing input on all documentation submitted by the contractor
and the engineer.
Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n 445
r AWWA standards D100-96 and D102-97
r Testex Press-O-Film Profile Measurement System
r Surface contamination detection device (soluble salts)
r Wet film thickness gauge
r Dry film thickness gauge
r Certified thickness calibration standards
r Steel temperature gauges
r Sling psychrometer and psychrometric tables
r Wet sponge holiday detector (low voltage)
r Tooke Gage (if required)
r Adhesive force measurement device (if required)
446 C h a p t e r Tw e l v e
Contract Administration
The specifier and the tank owner should collaborate to administer the
project to make sure that the owner’s needs are being satisfied. The
owner may prefer that some activities be performed on-site during a
rehabilitation project; some activities are best overseen by either the
specifying engineer or the on-site project representative. The project
engineer should verify compliance with the project specifications and
contract documents to ensure that both the letter and the intent of
the documents are being followed. The go-ahead for work to pro-
ceed should not be given until all submittals have been reviewed and
accepted.
After all of the submittals have been reviewed and accepted, nu-
merous other administration activities need to be done, including
these:
Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n 447