Eur J Appl Physiol (2004) 92: 518–523
DOI 10.1007/s00421-004-1073-x
O R I GI N A L A R T IC L E
Ralph Beneke Æ Thorsten Beyer Æ Christoph Jachner
Jürgen Erasmus Æ Matthias Hütler
Energetics of karate kumite
Accepted: 27 January 2004 / Published online: 20 May 2004
! Springer-Verlag 2004
Abstract It is speculated that anaerobic metabolism is
the predominant source of energy in karate kumite.
However, no experimental proof is currently available.
The metabolic cost and fractions of aerobic and anaer-
obic energy of karate kumite fighting were investigated.
Ten male nationally or internationally ranked karateka
[means (SD) age 26.9 (3.8) years, height 1.80 (0.08) m,
mass 77.2 (12.8) kg] performed two to four fights
scheduled and judged like a championship. Oxygen
uptake was measured continuously with a portable spi-
rometric device. Blood lactate was determined immedi-
ately before, and minute by minute after, each fight.
Aerobic, anaerobic alactic and anaerobic lactic energy
were calculated from oxygen uptake during the fight
(VO2), the fast component of the post-fight oxygen
uptake (VO2PCr) above resting values and changes in
blood lactate concentration (Net-BLC), respectively.
Altogether, 36 fights lasting 267 (61) s were analysed.
The referee’s decisions caused an activity-to-break ratio
of approximately 2:1. VO2, VO2PCr, and Net-BLC per
fight were 165.3 (52.4) ml.kg)1, 32.2 (7.2) ml.kg)1and 4.2
(1.9) mmol.l)1; the overall energy cost above rest was
334.3 (86.3) kJ per fight. Fractions of aerobic, anaerobic
alactic, and lactic energy sources were 77.8 (5.8)%, 16.0
R. Beneke (&)
Department of Biological Sciences,
Centre for Sports and Exercise Science,
University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park,
CO4 3SQ Colchester, England
E-mail: rbeneke@essex.ac.uk
Tel.: +44-1206-872530
Fax: 44-1206-872592
T. Beyer Æ C. Jachner
Institute of Sports Medicine,
Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
J. Erasmus
State Department of Sports Medicine,
Berlin, Germany
M. Hütler
Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,
Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
(4.6)%, and 6.2 (2.4)%, respectively. The results indicate
a high metabolic rate in karate kumite. However, the
acyclic activity profile implies that aerobic metabolism is
the predominant source of energy and there is anaerobic
supplementation, mainly by high-energy phosphates.
Keywords Metabolism Æ Oxygen Æ Lactate Æ
High-energy phosphates
Introduction
Karate kumite is a non-contact fighting event. Successful
athletes have excellent technical and tactical skills but
also high fitness levels (Lehmann 1996; Lehmann and
Jedliczka 1998). The metabolic profile of karate kumite
results from forward, backward and sidesteps, and
hopping movements, all of which constitute relatively
low-intensity basic activity, together with short-lasting
techniques of attack or defence, which are considered to
be performed with maximum intensity. Such sequences
of activity are interrupted by breaks decided by the
referee.
Overall karate kumite fighting is ranked as a high-
intensity event (Baker and Bell 1990) and, consequently,
anaerobic metabolism has been considered to be the
predominant source of energy in this sport (Lehmann
and Jedliczka 1998; Schmidt and Perry 1976). This
assumption was based on both the observation that
karate fighting has an activity pattern comparable to
interval training (Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998) and by
attempts to simulate karate by bouts of 60 leg or arm
attack techniques per minute without interruption
(Baker and Bell 1990). The latter activity profile was
different and lasted a shorter time than would karate
kumite fighting (Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998). Also,
measurements taken during training sessions of kata or
kumite (Francescato et al. 1995; Imamura et al. 1999,
2002, 2003; Shaw and Deutsch 1982; Zehr and Sale
1993) were not comparable to real kumite fighting.

Therefore, the hypothesis that karate kumite is an
event dominated by anaerobic metabolism has not been
proven yet and the energy cost of karate kumite fighting
is still unknown. The present study investigated the
metabolic profile of karate kumite based on measures
enabling assessment of aerobic and anaerobic energy
metabolism (Beneke et al. 2002).
Methods
Ten male nationally or internationally ranked karateka
[mean (SD) age: 26.9 (3.8) years, height: 1.80 (0.08) m,
and body mass: 77.2 (12.8) kg] participated in the study.
Four athletes were in immediate preparation for the
European Championship. All athletes participated in the
National Championship 6 weeks later. They were
informed about reasons and risks of the measurements
and signed informed consents conforming to interna-
tionally accepted policy statements on the use of human
subjects, as approved by the local ethics committee.
All athletes had been familiarized with the test pro-
cedures at an earlier date. All tests were conducted at
similar times in the afternoon, on separate days and at
least 2 h after a light meal. The subjects were instructed
to prepare themselves as they usually would for a top
event. After an individual warm up, each subject per-
formed two to four fights scheduled and judged like the
qualification round of a National Championship. The
planned time intervals between separate fights were
17 min (fights 1 and 2), 15 min (fights 2 and 3) and
9 min (fights 3 and 4), which was almost identical to the
corresponding fights of the qualification round of the
National Championship of the previous year (Beneke
et al. 1999). Finals were not considered because the time
interval between the qualification and final rounds was
found to be rather variable and lengthy (up to 6 h).
Each fight was recorded on videotape so as to enable
analysis of the performance profile with respect to low-
intensity basic activity, that is, forward, backward and
sidesteps, and hopping movements (BA) and maximum-
intensity actions such as short-lasting techniques of at-
tack or defence (MA) or breaks due to the referee’s
decisions (BR). Oxygen uptake (V_ O2) and carbon
dioxide production (V_ CO2) were continuously measured
with a portable breath-by-breath spirometric system
(Metamax, Cortex, Germany) up to the 10th min post
fighting or till the start of the final fight. Before, imme-
diately after a fight and subsequently minute by minute,
up to the 10th (9th, before final fight) post-fight minute,
20 ll capillary blood were collected from the hyperaemic
ear lobe for enzymatic-amperometric blood lactate
(BLC) determination from haemolysed blood (Ebio
plus, Eppendorf, Germany).
Net aerobic energy (WAER) was calculated from VO2
above rest, caloric equivalent and body mass by using:
WAER (J.kg)1) =VO2 (ml.kg)1) · caloric equivalent
(J.ml)1). In a pre-fight situation it would be extremely
ambitious to measure the resting V_ O2 irrespective
519
of the body position and the duration of the period
of measurement. Therefore, resting was defined as a
standing position, which is equivalent to a V_ O2 of
4.5 ml kg)1 min)1 (Ciba-Geigy 1985). Anaerobic lactic
energy (WBLC) was determined from the highest change
in the blood lactate concentration (Net-BLC) and body
mass by using: WBLC (J.kg)1) = Net-BLC (mmol.l)1) ·
O2-lactate equivalent (ml.kg)1.mmol)1.l) · caloric
equivalent (J.ml)1) (Beneke et al. 2002). A caloric
equivalent of 21.131 J ml)1 was used, corresponding to
a respiratory exchange ratio >1.0 (Stegemann 1991).
Under the assumption of a distribution space of lactate
of approximately 45% of the body mass, the O2-lactate
equivalent is 3.0 ml.kg)1.mmol)1.l (di Prampero 1981).
Repayment of high energy phosphates (WPCR) was as-
sumed to correspond to the fast component of the post-
exercise oxygen uptake (VO2PCr) and calculated from the
latter and body mass by: WPCR (J.kg)1) =VO2PCr
(ml.kg)1) · caloric equivalent (J.ml)1) (Beneke et al.
2002; Knuttgen 1970; Roberts and Morton 1978). The
total average metabolic energy WTOT was calculated as:
WTOT=WPCr+WBLC+WAER, the total average power
[PTOT (W.kg)1)] and fractions derived from anaerobic
[PPCr (W.kg)1) and PBLC (W.kg)1)] and aerobic energy
[PAER (W.kg)1)] were defined as the corresponding
amounts of energy divided by the duration of the fight.
Data are reported as mean values and standard
deviations (SD). Differences between subsequent fights
were tested with a one way ANOVA with Bonferroni
post hoc analysis. The differences between WAER, WBLC
and WPCR were tested using a MANOVA model with
the source of energy as within factor and a paired t-test
for post hoc analysis with Bonferroni adjustment.
Interrelationships between variables were analysed by
linear and non-linear regression models. For all statis-
tics, the significance level was set at P<0.05.
Results
In total, 36 fights were analysed (Table 1). One subject
had to terminate the event after the first and one further
subject after the third fight. Reasons were an injury in
subject one and technical failure of the spirometric sys-
tem in the other athlete. On average the fights lasted 267
(61) s each with 17.8 (2.2) min, 15.4 (1.4) min and 9.3
(0.7) min breaks between fights 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 3
and 4, respectively. The referee’s decisions caused an
activity-to-break ratio of approximately two to one,
from 18 (6) s activity and 9 (6) s break phases. Activity
phases contained 16.3 (5.1) high intensity actions per
fight lasting 1–3 s each, which resulted in 3.4 (2.0) high
intensity actions per minute.
VO2 per fight was 165.3 (52.4) ml.kg)1. The average
post-fight BLC was 7.7 (1.9) mmol.l)1, resulting from a
Net-BLC of 4.2 (1.9) mmol.l)1. VO2PCr was 32.2
(7.2) ml.kg)1. WTOT was 334.3 (86.3) kJ per fight. WAER
[262.2 (78.3) kJ] was higher (P<0.01) than WPCR [51.7
(12.4) kJ], which was also higher (P<0.01) than WBLC
520

Table 1 Performance, and metabolic response to subsequent
karate kumite fights scheduled like a qualification round of a
National Championship. TimeTOT Duration of a total fight;
TimeNET cumulative duration of active phases of a fight; Net-action
rate number of high intensity actions per minute of activity;
BLCPRE blood lactate concentration before a fight; Net-BLC dif-
ference between BLCPRE and highest post fight BLC; VO2 cumu-
lative oxygen uptake above rest during a fight; VO2PCR VO2
equivalent to the fast component of the post fight VO2; WBLC
anaerobic lactic energy corresponding to Net-BLC; WPCR anaer-
obic alactic energy corresponding to VO2PCr; WAER aerobic
energy corresponding to VO2; WTOT cumulated energy
(WPCr+WBLC+WAER);PPCR anaerobic alactic power (WPCR·Ti-
meTOT)1); PBLC anaerobic lactic power (WBLC.·TimeTOT)1); PAER
aerobic power (WAER·TimeTOT)1); PTOT average total power
(WTOT·TimeTOT)1)

Fight 1 (n=10) 2 (n=9) 3 (n=9) 4 (n=8) Significance

TimeTOT (s) 260 (55) 243 (35) 277 (85) 290 (61) n.s.
TimeNET (s) 179 (39) 187 (13) 176 (32) 176 (27) n.s.
Net-action rate (min)1) 4.0 (1.9) 3.2 (2.0) 3.8 (2.4) 2.4 (1.2) n.s.
BLCPRE (mmol l)1) 1.7 (0.6) 3.1 (1.2) 4.1 (1.5)* 5.4 (2.5)*,** P<0.001
Net-BLC (mmol l)1) 5.9 (1.6) 5.0 (1.2) 3.3 (1.2)* 2.4 (1.5)*,** P<0.001
V_ O2 (ml kg-)1) 165.1 (43.4) 164.2 (27.2) 163.2 (60.9) 168.6 (60.9) n.s.
V_ O2PCR (ml kg)1) 32.8 (7.4) 35.5 (5.8) 30.3 (7.1) 29.9 (8.2) n.s.
WBLC (kJ) 28.3 (7.8) 23.5 (4.6) 15.5 (5.1) 12.3 (8.4)** P<0.001
WPCR (kJ) 52.6 (9.9) 56.2 (11.8) 48.6 (13.0) 48.8 (15.4) n.s.
WAER (kJ) 267.4 (69.8) 258.8 (49.8) 256.2 (87.2) 266.6 (113.0) n.s.
WTOT (kJ) 348.3 (74.5) 338.5 (55.8) 320.3 (99.1) 327.7 (12.1) n.s.
PBLC (W kg)1) 1.48 (0.46) 1.31 (0.26) 0.79 (0.28)* 0.55 (0.34)*,** P<0.001
PPCR (W kg)1) 2.93 (1.56) 3.17 (0.87) 2.42 (0.62) 2.21 (0.56) n.s.
PAER (W kg)1) 13.37 (2.09) 14.28 (1.18) 12.36 (2.34) 11.88 (3.11) n.s.
PTOT (W kg)1) 17.78 (3.05) 18.76 (1.65) 15.57 (2.63) 14.64 (3.04) P<0.01

* Significant difference from the fight 1 condition

** Significant difference from the fight 2 condition

[20.3 (9.0) kJ]. The pre fight BLC (BLCPRE) was lower
(P<0.001), and Net-BLC and PBLC were higher
(P<0.001) in fights 1 and 2 than in fights 3 and 4,
respectively (Table 1). Related to WTOT, the fractions of
WAER, WPCR, and WBLC were 77.8 (5.8)%, 16.0 (4.6)%,
and 6.2 (2.4)%, respectively. Figure 1 shows the meta-
bolic profile of a typical fight.
PBLC and PPCR were positively related to actions per
minute (Figs. 2, 3) and negatively correlated to the
duration of fight interruptions (r=)0.45, P<0.01,
y=)0.45ln x+2.0 and r=)0.52, P<0.01, y=8.4/
x+1.6). From fight to fight, BLCPRE increased more or
less linearly (r=0.68, P<0.01, y=1.21x+0.53) and was
negatively related to break duration between fights
(r=)0.55, P< 0.01, y=)0.005x+8.082). Nevertheless,
post-fight BLC remained unchanged, resulting in a fight-
related decrease of the PTOT and of the fraction of PBLC
(Table 1, Figs. 4 and 5) whilst PPCR and PAER were not
interrelated with the fight number.
Discussion
The present study is the first to investigate the energetics
of karate kumite based on measures of aerobic and
anaerobic metabolism during simulated fighting. Con-
sidering the metabolic cost and the activity-to-break
ratio, the results indicate that karate kumite is based on
activities that require a high metabolic rate. Neverthe-
less, contrary to the previously published hypothesis
(Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998; Schmidt and Perry 1976),
the overall metabolism of karate kumite is aerobically
dominated. This implies that the acyclic activity profile
of frequent forward, backward and sidesteps, and
hopping movements, combined with short bouts of ex-
treme techniques with a high energy requirement, fol-
lowed by short fight interruptions, cause a metabolic
profile in which aerobic metabolism is the predominant
source of energy and anaerobic supplementation is
mainly by high-energy phosphates.
The anaerobic component of karate kumite fighting,
especially the use of high energy phosphates, may be
even less than calculated because the fast component of
the post-fight V_ O2 may represent not only the repay-
ment of the WPCr but also the replenishment of oxygen
stores (Margaria et al. 1933). The potential overestima-
tion of the WPCr up to 8.5 kJ (Astrand and Rodahl
1986) makes an aerobic fraction of the overall energy of
!81% feasible.
Calculation of an overall metabolic profile partly
based on an averaged fighting V_ O2 and pre- and post-
fight BLC values respectively, does not take into account
the interval-like activity pattern of karate kumite fight-
ing. This limitation is caused by the fact that a more
detailed assessment of the energy metabolism during
each fighting phase is impossible. Subsequent short
bouts of fighting activity (!18 s) and breaks (!9 s) are
too short to allow for a meaningful analysis of the cor-
responding onset and offset of the V_ O2-kinetics and Net-
BLC values or the use of alternative measurements.
Consequently, during the acute fighting activity an ath-
lete may generate a higher metabolic rate, combined
with an acutely higher relative anaerobic contribution,
than the calculations based on the present experimental
approach would suggest. This higher rate of anaerobic
metabolism during fighting activities may be combined
with an aerobic compensation due to an increased aer-
obic metabolic rate not only during the post fight period

Fig. 1 Metabolic profile of a typical karate kumite fight modelled
based on the present results. The fight lasts 261 s with 10 bouts of
basic activity, each lasting 18 s and requiring a VO2 of 156 ml kg)1
above rest, and 16 phases of maximum intensity activity equivalent
to 58 J kg)1 each. BA periods are separated by breaks of 9 s with
an elevated post-activity V_ O2; WTOT, WAER, WBLC and WPCr are
4,226 J kg)1, 3,373 J kg)1, 266 J kg)1 and 587 J kg)1, respectively.
Anaerobic MA: anaerobic power for maximum intensity activity
lasting 2 s, anaerobic BA: anaerobic power for basic activity;
aerobic BA: aerobic power for basic activity; VO2fast BR: payback
of PCr and oxygen stores according to the fast component of VO2
during breaks between BA periods; VO2fast post: payback of PCr
and oxygen stores according to the fast component of VO2 post
fight; VO2slow BR and post: increased metabolic rate corresponding
to the slow component of VO2 during break and post fight
but also during the breaks between the two subsequent
bouts of fighting activity within a fight. Nevertheless, the
present results about the overall duration, the cumula-
tive duration of active phases, the number of high-
intensity actions per minute of activity and the overall
metabolic profile enabled us to model both the interval-
Fig. 2 Anaerobic lactic power (PBLC) is interrelated with the
number of high-intensity actions per minute of activity (Net-action
rate)
521
Fig. 3 Anaerobic alactic power (PPCr) is interrelated with the
number of high-intensity actions per minute of activity (Net-action
rate)
like pattern of the activity and the metabolic profile for
these short subunits of a typical karate kumite fight
(Fig. 1). The duration of BA periods is too short to
reach full adaptation of the V_ O2. The resulting deficit of
aerobic energy is increased by MA. Depending on the
progression of the fight and the number of MAs per
active fighting period, the deficit of aerobic energy is
between 30% and 67%, with an average of !40%.
Approximately 50% of this lack of aerobic energy is
compensated for by the increased metabolic rate during
the subsequent breaks. This requires further compensa-
tion by Net-BLC and WPCr, as calculated in the present
results.
The present study simulated conditions typical of a
qualification round in a National Championship. The
Fig. 4 Average total metabolic power (PTOT) decreases with the
increase of the number of fight
522
Fig. 5 Anaerobic lactic power (PBLC) decreases with the increase of
the number of fight
simulation successfully mirrored a championship sche-
dule with respect to the number and the duration of the
fights and the activity-to-break ratio during, and the
breaks between, the fights at such events (Beneke et al.
1999; Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998). However, during
the simulation the number of attacking and defending
actions was 30–50% lower then that observed under real
championship conditions (Beneke et al. 1999; Lehmann
and Jedliczka 1998). The latter may explain why under
championship conditions the BLC was mostly found to
be between 10 and 40% higher than that after simulated
fighting (Beneke et al. 1999; Lehmann 1996; Lehmann
and Jedliczka 1998). Only one investigation observed
!15% lower values in the qualification round of a
National Championship (Mohr 1994).
The effect of a 50% increase of the number of high
intensity actions per fight may be approximated based
on the interrelationship between PPCR and PBLC and
counted high-intensity actions per minute (Figs. 2, 3).
The resulting increase of WBLC and WPCR per fight
would be in the region of 31% and 22%, respectively.
Even under the rather unlikely assumption that the lat-
ter increase of anaerobic metabolic rate would occur
without a corresponding increase of aerobic metabolism,
the higher level of activity in a real fight would cause
only a slight increase of the fraction of the anaerobic
energy to an overall ratio of 7.4% anaerobic lactic and
17.9% anaerobic alactic, but still 74.7% aerobic. Thus,
even when taking into consideration the potentially
higher number of high-intensity attack and defence
techniques per fight, the overall metabolic profile
remains predominantly aerobic.
PTOT decreased slightly after the second fight
(Table 1, Fig. 4). This was caused by a significant decrease
of PBLC (Table 1, Fig. 5) in combination with a ten-
dency to increase in the fraction of aerobic metabolism,
although the absolute rates of anaerobic alactic and
aerobic metabolism were unchanged. This modulation
of the metabolic profile during subsequent fights had no
effect on the post-fight BLC, which seems to indicate
that the reduction in the use of WBLC was an effect of the
BLCPRE rather than a consequence of a voluntarily
change in the fighting strategy.
Whilst the BLCPRE of the first fight was more or less
in the range of resting BLC levels, even during the break
of about 18 min between fights 1 and 2, the BLC could
only decrease to !3 mmol l)1. Considering the typical
behaviour of the BLC during a post-exercise period the
latter is not a surprise. The halftime of BLC disap-
pearance is usually expected to be about 15 min
(Asmussen 1950; Davies et al. 1970; Margaria et al. 1933;
Margaria and Edwards 1934). Extensive tests identified an
interrelationship between the velocity of the post-exercise
disappearance and the maximum value of the BLC (Fre-
und et al. 1986; McLellan and Skinner 1982). For post-
exercise values of the BLC in the range of
3–20 mmol l)1, an interrelationship between the latter and
the time constant of the disappearance (s) was shown
(Heck 1990) to be s (min)=9.8 (min mmol)1)+0.932 BLC
(mmol l)1), (r=0.76) . Based on the latter, the post-fight
BLC value should have been reduced by !63% after
!16 min. This is fairly similar to the observed BLC
decrease after fight 1 and also explains the lower relative
decreases of the BLC after fights 2 and 3, with !55% and
30%, respectively.
BLCPRE values of !4.4 mmol l)1 and 5.5 mmol l)1 at
fights 3 and 4 may have already impaired the activity of
glycolytic enzymes and thus reduced the ability to pro-
vide anaerobic lactic energy. In the present simulation
this mechanism may have been slightly facilitated by the
passive rests between subsequent fights, which were
somehow artificial compared to usual activities between
separate fights. Compared to active recovery, passive
resting is known to utilize less lactate (Belcastro and
Bonen 1975; Dodd et al. 1984; Stamford et al. 1981).
Nevertheless, it seems to be unlikely that this limitation
affected the general results about the metabolic profile to
a relevant extent because increases of the BLCPRE of
consecutive fights were also found under real champi-
onship conditions (Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998).
Comparable to the present results, these changes seemed
to have almost no effect on the post-fight BLC values.
In conclusion, the present study is the first successful
approach to analyse the metabolic profile of karate
kumite based on the measurement of the BLC and V_ O2
pre, during and post fighting in a valid simulation of
such an event in top class athletes. The results demon-
strate that karate kumite fighting contains activities that
require a high metabolic rate. Nevertheless, contrary to
the previously published hypothesis, the overall metab-
olism of karate kumite is not anaerobically dominated.
The acyclic activity profile that includes more or less
frequent forward, backward and sidesteps, and hopping
movements, combined with short bouts of extreme
techniques that have high-energy requirements and
subsequent short breaks, cause a metabolic profile in
which aerobic metabolism is the predominant source of

energy and where anaerobic supplementation is mainly
by high-energy phosphates.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully thank R.M. Leithäuser
for many stimulating discussions and her helpful comments on
earlier drafts. This research was supported by the Deutscher Karate
Verband e.V.
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