1. What are the three parts of cell theory?

Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann concluded that all organisms

are composed of cells. This is the first tenet of the cell theory. Cell
theory was perhaps the most important breakthrough in biomedical
history. Cells were first observed by the philosopher Robert Hooke
(1) All living things are made up of cells,
(2) Cells are the basic units of structure and organization
(3) All cells come from preexisting cells

2. Describe the cell membrane and its various proteins, and what they do
The cell membrane defines the boundaries of the cell, governs its
interactions with other cells, and controls the passage of materials into
and out of the cell. Membrane proteins constitute about 50% of the
membrane weight. There are 2 broad classes:

(1) Integral proteins (penetrate into the phospholipid bilayer or all the way
through it. Transmembrane proteins are those that pass completely
through. These proteins have hydrophobic regions and hydrophilic
regions.
(2) Peripheral proteins (do not protrude into the phospholipid layer but
adhere to one face of the membrane
• Receptors: a receptor that binds chemical messengers such as hormones
sent by other cells.
• Enzymes: breaks down a chemical messenger and terminates its effect
• Channel proteins: passages that allow water and hydrophilic solutes to move
through the membrane. Some are always open and some close under
certain circumstances
• Carriers: transmembrane proteins that bind to glucose, electrolytes, and
other solutes and transfer them to the other side of the membrane
• Cell-identity markers: Glycoproteins contribute to the Glycocalyx which acts
as an identification tag that enables the body to tell which cells belong
and which do not.

3. What are the 3 embryonic tissues, the 4 adult tissue types, and go into detail
 about the adult tissues (specific examples in the body)
• The primary germ layers give rise to all of the body’s mature tissues:
Ectoderm: outer layer that gives rise to the epidermis and nervous
system
Endoderm: Innermost layer that gives rise to mucous membranes
of the digestive and respiratory tracts
Mesoderm: turns into mesenchyme that gives rise to muscle,
blood, and bone
• 4 adult tissues
• Epithelial: This tissue is composed of closely spaced cells that
cover organ surfaces, form organs, and serve for
protection, secretion, and absorption. This tissue is seen in
the epidermis, inner lining of the digestive tract, and in the
liver and other glands.
• Connective: Tissue with usually more matrix than cells. Often
specialized to support, bind, and protect organs
• Nervous: Contains excitable cells specialized for rapid
transmission of coded information to other cells. Found in
brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
• Muscular: Composed of elongated, excitable muscle cells
specialized for contraction. This is found in skeletal
muscle, cardiac muscle, and in walls of smooth muscle.

4. What kind of cells are found in the skin? Give detail on three accessory structures
found in the skin

Stem cells: these are undifferentiated cells that divide and give rise to
the keratinocytes. Found in deepest layer of the epidermis (stratum
basale)
Keratinocytes: Great majority of epidermal cells. They synthesize
keratin
Melanocytes: synthesize melanin that shields DNA from ultraviolet
radiation
Tactile cells: Touch receptor cells associated with the dermal nerve
fibers.
Dendritic cells: macrophages that originate in bone marrow that guard
against pathogens. Immune cells

• Accessory structures of the skin include hair, nails, sweat glands, and
sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands: when the body gets hot, sweat glands produce
sweat to cool off the body. They develop from epidermal
projections into the dermis and its secretions are excreted by
exocytosis through a duct. There are 2 types of sweat glands:
Merocrine sweat glands are the most numerous and create a
 watery perspiration that helps cool the body. The other type is
called Apocrine occurring in densely hair areas such as the
groin, anal region, and armpits. This sweat is usually thicker
and subject to bacterial decomposition.
• Sebaceous glands: This is a type of oil gland found all over the body. This
helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair. This gland
generates and excretes sebum.
• Ceruminous glands: This is found only in the external ear canal. There
secretion combines with sebum and dead epithelial cells to form
earwax. This keeps the eardrum pliable, waterproofs the canal, kills
bacteria, and makes guard hairs of ear sticky to help block foreign
particles from entering the auditory canal.

5. Give examples of where you would find bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial
joints in the body (give actual bones involved). Describe the difference
between these joint categories.
• Bony joints: an immobile joint formed when the gap between 2 bones
ossifies and they become a single bone.
• Bones involved:
Infant is born with right and left frontal and mandibular bones.
These bones fuse together into a single frontal and mandibular
bone. Epiphyses and diaphyses of the long bones become
synostoses in early adulthood. The attachment of the first rib to
the sternum.
• Fibrous joint: point at which adjacent bones are bound by collagen fibers
that emerge from one bone and penetrate another
• Bones involved:
Frontal, sagittal, lambdoidal sutures. Attachment of the tooth to
its socket. Shafts of the radius and ulna.
• Cartilaginous: 2 bones are linked by cartilage.
• Bones involved:
First rib to the sternum, pubic symphysis, joints between the
bodies of 2 vertebrae
• Synovial joint: freely mobile, most joints of the body.
• Bones involved: elbow, knee, knuckle

6. Using sarcoplasmic reticulum, sarcolemma, t tubules, calcium, and neuromuscular

junction to explain how a muscle is stimulated to contract.
When a muscle is stimulated to contract by the nerve impulse, calcium
channels open in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and release calcium in to
the sarcoplasm. Some of this calcium attaches to troponin which causes
a change in the muscle cell that moves tropomyosin out of the way so
the cross bridges can attach and produce muscle contraction.
7. Describe how contraction and relaxation of a skeletal muscle occurs. Use calcium,
troponin, actin, myosin, sarcomere, ATP, dystrophin, collagen
• Contraction: ACh is the neurotransmitter that binds at the neuromuscular
junction (NMJ) to trigger depolarization, and an action potential travels
along the sarcolemma to trigger calcium release from SR. The actin sites
are exposed after Ca++ enters the sarcoplasm from its SR storage to
activate the troponin-tropomyosin complex so that the tropomyosin
shifts away from the sites. The cross-bridging of myosin heads docking
into actin-binding sites is followed by the “power stroke”—the sliding of
the thin filaments by thick filaments. The power strokes are powered by
ATP. Ultimately, the sarcomeres, myofibrils, and muscle fibers shorten
to produce movement.

• Relaxation: Motor neuron stops releasing Ach into the synapse at the
neuromuscular junction. The muscle fiber repolarizes, closing gates in
the sarcoplasmic reticulum, stops calcium from being released. ATP
pumps will move calcium out of the sarcoplasm back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. Muscle fibers cannot form cross bridges between
thin and thick filaments, and looses its tension making it relax.

8. Describe the functions of these cells: astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia,

oligodendrocytes.

Astrocytes: most abundant glial cell in the CNS. They cover the entire
brain surface and most synaptic regions of the neurons in the gray
matter of CNS. They form the supportive framework of nervous tissue.
They have perivascular feet that contact blood capillaries and create a
tight seal called the blood-brain barrier. They also convert glucose to
lactate and this to the neurons for nourishment

Ependymal cells: line internal cavities of the brain. They secrete and
circulate cerebrospinal fluid that bathes the CNS

Microglia: These are small wandering macrophages formed from WBC’s

called monocytes. They perform a complete checkup in the brain tissue
several times a day. They wander in search of cellular debris to
phagocytize.

Oligodendrocytes: Form the myelin sheath in the CNS. Each armlike

process wraps around a nerve fiber forming an insulating layer that
speeds up signal conduction.
9. Draw the spine cross section and associated spinal nerves. Label gray matter,
white matter, dorsal root ganglion, ventral root, anterior ramus, posterior
ramus, rami communicantes, and point out where nerves are mixed, sensory,
or motor.

Dorsal root: sensory

Ventral root: motor

10. Explain the action of each of these parts of the brain has: Telecephalon,
diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, myelencephalon

Telecephalon: Becomes the cerebrum. This is where conscious thought occurs

and where we initiate conscious muscular movements.

Diencephalon: Becomes mostly everything with thalamus attached to it. relays

sensory information between brain regions and controls many
autonomic functions of the peripheral nervous system.

Mesencephalon: becomes the midbrain. This is a portion of the central nervous

system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal
(alertness), and temperature regulation.

Metencephalon: Gives rise to the pons and cerebellum. The pons is a major
relay center for nerve signals going to the brain. The cerebellum is the major
site of muscular integration. Complex muscle movements

Myelencephalon: Forms the medulla oblongata. Responsible for basic life

support functions like respiration and heart rate. Vasoconstriction/dilation.
Lots of involuntary life-supporting activities.
11. Positive feedback loop:
• Self amplifying cycle, meaning it leads to a greater change in the same
direction.
• Ex: childbirth and oxytocin

12. Negative feedback loop:

• When your body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it.
• Ex: when the body gets too warm, vessels will dilate in skin and
cause swelling
• Ex: If cold, the vessels will constrict and shivering beings.

13. Ways to examine the human body:

Inspection – looking at the body’s appearance
Palpation – feeling a structure with the hands
Auscultation – listening to natural sounds of the body
Percussion – taping on body, and listening to the emitted sound for signs
of abnormalities.

14. Inductive and deductive method

Inductive – bottom up. Making numerous observations until one becomes
confident in drawing a generalization from them.
Deductive – top down, take knowledge acquired and apply it to an
individual case

15. Evidence for evolution:

• Fossils: odd animals not living in the present. They can fill in missing links.
They show changes over time.
• Homologous structures: Same origin, common ancestor
• Dolphin fin and arm
• Analogous structures: same structure/function not necessarily the same
ancestor
• Ex: dolphin fin and shark fin
• Vestigial structures: no longer used now but once were (appendix)
• Piloerector muscle

16. DNA replication

DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell
division.
 The first step in DNA replication is to ‘unzip’ the double helix structure of the
DNA? molecule.
This is carried out by an enzyme called helicase which breaks the hydrogen
bonds? holding the complementary? bases? of DNA together (A with T, C with
G).
The separation of the two single strands of DNA creates a ‘Y’ shape called a
replication ‘fork’. The two separated strands will act as templates for making
the new strands of DNA.
One of the strands is oriented in the 3’ to 5’ direction (towards the replication
fork), this is the leading strand?. The other strand is oriented in the 5’ to 3’
direction (away from the replication fork), this is the lagging strand?. As a
result of their different orientations, the two strands are replicated
differently:

17. 4 types of bone cells –

(1) Osteogenic cells – stem cells found in endosteum, periosteum and central
canals. They continuously produce new osteoblasts
(2) Osteoblasts – bone forming cells that line up in a single layer. They are
nonmitotic. They synthesize soft organic matter of matrix which then
hardens by mineral deposition
(3) Osteocytes – former osteoblasts that have been trapped in the matrix they have
deposited. They reside in tiny cavities called lacunae. Some osteocytes
reabsorb matrix while others deposit it.
Osteoclasts – bone-dissolving cells found on the bone surface. They develop from the
same bone marrow stem cells that give rise to blood cells. They have a ruffled border
that increases surface area and resorption.