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Running Head: AUTISM 1

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Katherine P. Thorneburg

University of North Carolina at Charlotte


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Abstract

This paper explores five professional research journals and two professional books that

report on different subjects regarding Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Autism refers to a range

of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and

nonverbal communication (Autism Speaks, 2016). Autism has many spectrums that include

Asperger's Syndrome, Pervasive Developmental Disorder, and Rett Syndrome. Numerous

studies have been conducted concerning increasing prevalence and proliferating theories,

sociodemographic risk factors, ASD in infants, screening for ASD in young children, and

differences between diagnostic systems and comparison between genders in relation to childhood

Autism. Scientists have discovered through research that there is no one cause of autism and no

one type of autism.

Keywords: ASD, risk factors, Autism Spectrum Disorder, symtoms


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Diagnosis

Research has shown that at age two, the diagnosis for autism is reliable. However, most

children are not diagnosed until after four years old (ASD, 2016). Currently, there is not a

medical test that can determine whether or not a child has ASD. Statistics show that one in sixty-

eight children have been identified on the autism spectrum (ASD, 2016). Studies reveal Autism

is more prevailing in males than females (Bhasin & Schendel, 2007). One study acknowledges

that at least fifty percent of the children with ASD also have mental retardation (MR). In a study

concerning an autism diagnostic interview, a comparison between genders revealed the mean

mental age (MA) of the females tended to be lower than that of the males (Pilowsky, Yirmiya,

Shulman & Dover, 1998, p. 149). The MA was assessed by using the Cattell Scales, the

Stanford-Binet, and the Wechsler Scales. Parents are often the first ones to notice abnormal

behaviors in their child, such as failing to make eye contact, not responding to their name, and

playing with unusual toys excessively. The Modified Checklist of Autism in Toddlers (MCHAT)

is a series of questions that can determine whether children should be taken to a specialist

(Dumont-Mathieu & Fein, 2005). Between the age of birth- 36 months, every child should be

screened. This includes a hearing and lead exposure test that can help determine if a child has

autism. In addition to MCHAT, other autism-specific screening tools are the Checklist for

Autism in Toddlers (CHAT), Pervasive Developmental Disorders Screening Test-II (PDDST-II),

Screening Tool for Autism in two-year olds (STAT), and Checklist for Autism in Toddlers-23

(CHAT-23) (Dumont-Mathieu & Fein, 2005, p. 257).

Symptoms
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Autism spectrum disorders are characterized by social-interaction difficulties, a tendency

to engage in repetitive behaviors, and communication challenges (Autism Speaks, 2016). In a

study of recent retrospective parental reports, professionals made systematic clinical

observations on the current behavior of 2 to 4-year olds with autism (Wimpory, Hobson,

Williams & Nash, 2000, p. 526). The professionals recorded there were deficits in imitation,

nonverbal communication, responsiveness to others, and social and imaginative play. Research

has proven that autistic children are attached to their parents and rarely social. They have

difficulty regulating emotions, causing frequent temper outbursts and making them seem

immature (Autism Speaks, 2016). A symptom of autism can be daily seizures. The easiest

symptom to notice is difficulties in communication; a child with autism will not be able to form

complete sentences, but speak in single words. They do not express the right body language to

match how they feel or what they are saying (Fredericks, 2008, p. 23). Studies show risk factors

for ASD.

A study was performed to locate sociodemographic risk factors for autism in Atlanta

(Bhasin & Schendel, 2007, p. 668). Children with autism were identified through a population-

based surveillance program that monitors the occurrence of autism and MR. The results revealed

that high socioeconomic status (SES) families were more likely to have their child diagnosed

with ASD while children from families of lower SES were having their abnormities

characterized as cultural deprivation (Bhasin & Schendel, 2007, p. 672-673). Children with ASD

who do not receive the correct treatment can have worse symptoms than those who get

diagnosed by a professional and go to therapy.

Causes and Course of Disease


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Scientists have determined a number of rare gene mutations that correlate with ASD

(Autism Speaks, 2015). These cases seem to influence early brain development and are caused

by a connection between autism gene risks and environmental factors. Maternal illness during

pregnancy, parental age during conception, difficulties in giving birth (specifically those in

which the baby is deprived of oxygen), can increase the risk of a child having autism (Autism

Speaks, 2015). Research has found that ASD clusters in families (Fredericks, 2008, p. 33).

Identical twins have a 75-percent concordance rate when fraternal twins only have a 3-percent

concordance rate. Autism can result from abnormalities in three to twenty genes and likely has

no single causal gene (Fredericks, 2008, p. 33). There are many causal theories of autism;

however, one theory is Roger’s (2008) idea that the increased prevalence of ASD is likely the

result of an increase in pregnant woman taking folate supplements (Waterhouse, 2008, p. 274).

Roger wrote that “this allowed increased fetal survival of infants, with a genetic polymorphism

that does not maintain normal folate levels, which resulted in an increase in children at risk for

diminished methylation and abnormal neurodevelopment, resulting in ASD” (Waterhouse, 2008,

p. 274). Many researchers have found causes of ASD; however, they have not concluded that

there is a singular catalyst.

Effects on the Individual, Family, Friends, and Society

When a child is diagnosed with Autism, it becomes the primary focus of the family. This

may put stress on a marriage, finances, other siblings, and personal relationships. Most of the

income made by the parents goes towards the Autistic child’s medical expenses. Introducing

Autism to a young sibling can be difficult for them to understand. They may face challenges with

coping and understanding the disorder. Parents, siblings, and the autistic child can become

frustrated in public, such as during social events or holidays. The brain anatomy of a child with
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autism has no significant difference to children without autism. Specific mirror neuron activity in

the inferior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, angular gyrus, insula, brainstem, and

cerebellum have been founded to reduce in an autistic brain (Libero & Kana, 2017). A child with

autism is still given the same academic opportunities as any other child. The Individuals with

Disabilities Education Improvement mandated that every state provide all eligible children with a

free and appropriate education that meets their unique individual needs. This also guaranteed

children with disabilities, including autism, is entitled to early intervention services and special

education (APA, Individuals, 2017). Autistic people tend to learn better visually instead of

verbally. They have trouble with long sequences of instruction, therefore, short instructions are

encouraged. People with autism tend to become fixated on one thing, so by using an object a

professional can teach them math or reading (Ex: if a person is fixated on trains, use it to teach

them).

Nature vs. Nurture and Treatment

The nature of ASD can be helped with nurture provided by professionals and parents.

Nurture can influence the behaviors of individuals with ASD. The main focus for treatment for

children with ASD is therapies that involve intense one-on-one interaction and/or a specially

structured teaching environment. The main categories of treatment include: developmental,

behavioral, and organizational. One developmental approach includes developmental, individual-

difference, relationship-based (DIR) approach; parents are trained to act as the primary

therapists. One behavioral approach is discrete trial training (DTT), where each skill is broken

into small parts and taught in repetitive drills. One organizational approach is treatment and
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education of autistic and related communication-handicapped children (TEACCH); this is

primarily a classroom approach (Fredericks, 2008, p. 52-59). Additionally, there are numerous

clinical therapies and biomedical treatments. Many parents use the DIR approach to help their

autistic child make emotional connections with the surrounding world (Allman, 2010, p. 57).

Fredericks agrees that DIR is vital and that treating communication skills, personal interaction

skills, and creative and logical thinking skills are the key to helping autistic individuals (2008, p.

97-102). There are many autism support groups and organizations in the United States. For

example, Autism Speaks, Autism Consortium, Autism National Committee, Autism Research

Institute (ARI), and Autism Society of America (ASA) are dedicated to funding global research

to find the cure.

Barriers and Complications

One of the biggest barriers of having this disease is financial. Also, having to care for a

child with ASD is time consuming and can affect job opportunities and life styles. It costs about

$17,000 more per year to take care of an autistic child than it does a regular child. In total, it can

cost up to $60,000 a year to give the right treatment and care to a person with autism (ASD,

2016). Some families are fortunate to have financial stability, while others experience hardships.

There are organizations that help fund children’s treatments; this improves the quality of life for

the child with autism and their family.

Current Research on a Cure for ASD

There is no current cure for Autism Spectrum Disorder; however, there is research being

conducted to find a cure. Over one thousand autism researchers worldwide are looking for a cure

(Allman, 2010, p. 77). Autism Speaks is the largest autism support group and fundraising

organization in the Unites States. Autism Speaks (2017) states, “We are dedicated to funding
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global biomedical research into the caused, prevention, treatments, and cure for autism; to raising

public awareness….and to bringing hope to all who deal with the hardships of this disorder.”

Glowatz (2017) discusses autism cure research and the hormone oxytocin reverses attention and

social dysfunction in rats. The rats used in the study were bred to have the same genetic

mutations found in humans with Phelan-McDermid (Glowatz, 2017). According to Orphanet

Journal of Rare Diseases, “Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder

associated with a terminal deletion affecting chromosome 22 that results in the loss of function

of the SHANK3 gene. SHANK3 has also been identified in gene-linkage studies to be associated

with ASD” (Oberman, Boccuto, Cascio, Sarasua, & Kaufmann, 2015). The rats in the study

demonstrated comparable symptoms of ASD. When the researchers treated the rats with

oxytocin, a hormone our brains naturally create and release, those ASD symptoms improved. In

conclusion, many researchers are still avidly searching for the cure for autism spectrum disorder.
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References

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Hills, MI: Cengage Learning.


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doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005683209438

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