145

Vibrations

This Chapter “Vibrations” is taken from our:

ISBN : 9789386629012
146

4
Page - 145 - 174

VIBRATIONS

C Ø Free and forced vibration of single degree of freedom systems

O Ø

Ø
Effect of damping

Vibration isolation

N Ø Resonance

T
Ø Critical speeds of shafts

E
N
T
S
 v

147

V IB R ATI ON S Ml2 M l2
To and fro periodic motions about the mean position are known IM = Iyy =
12 3
as vibrations. l : length of rod
Examples of vibrations are M : mass of rod
(i) Vibrations in fans, ventilators, lathe due to any unbalance
Circular disc
present in machine.
(ii) low frequency oscillations in lungs and heart.
Period : Time taken by motion to repeat itself.
Cycle : It is the motion completed during one time period. R
Frequency : The number of cycles of motion completed in one
second or per limit time.
Periodic motion: A motion that repeats itself after equal intervals
of time.
Amplitude: In case of vibrations, the maximum displacement of a
body from its equilibrium point/position.
Natural Frequency: Natural frequency is the frequency of the MR 2
IM =
vibrating system when no external force is acting on it. 2
Degree of freedom: At any instant, the number of independent M : mass of disc
coordinates requires to describe a system completely is termed R : radius of disc
or degree of freedom. Sphere (Hollow)
Resonance: It is the condition of a vibrating system, when the 2
frequency (natural) of the system becomes equal to the frequency IM = MR2
3
of the external force. M : mass of hollow sphere
Damping: It is defined or the resistance applied to the motion of R : radius of hollow sphere
the vibrating body/vibrating system. Sphere (Solid)
Vibration 2
IM = 5 MR2
M : mass of solid sphere
Longitudonal Torsional Transverse R : radius of sphere
Vibrations Vibrations Vibrations Ring
Ex: Axial Ex: Twisting Ex: Bending MR 2
elongation and untwisting of a shaft IM =
and contraction of a shaft 2
of a shaft M : mass of ring
Some other kinds of vibrations: R : radius of ring
Free Vibrations: When a system/body vibrator on its own and Solid Cylinder
no external force is acting on it, the system/body is said to have
free vibrations. Eg: Simple Pendulum.
MR 2
IM =
Forced Vibrations: When an external force acts on the system, 2
then the resulting vibrations concerned to the system are termed M : mass of solid cylinder
or forced vibrations. R : radius of cylinder
Damped Vibrations: When the motion of the system is opposed Linear Springs
or reduced by providing/applying a suitable resistance-mecha- A spring is called a linear spring if the deflection is produced such
nism (damper) to the system, the resulting vibrations are called that
damped vibrations. F = kx
where F : force applied
Mass Moment of Inertia about z-axis and passing through x : deflection
centre of mass x
k : spring constant / stiffness
Rod y
For a linear spring,

M 1
Potential Energy =kx2
2 F
l Stiffness of a spring is defined as force required for unit
y deflection.
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Linear Torsion Spring Example 1
A spring is referred to as linear torsion spring if t (q) = Kt q when Consider the following arrangement.
a moment t is applied at one end of the spring while the other end
of the spring is being held constant.
t (q) = Kt q
t : moment
q : angular deformation of spring
k(S1) k(S2)
PE (Potential Energy) of a torsion spring is
1
PE = Kt q2
2
Combination of Springs
The combination of spring is broadly classified into
(i) Springs in Series k(S3)
1 1 1
= +
k eq k1 k 2 m
k2
k1 k 2 Determine the net stiffness of the above arrangement springs
Þ k eq =
k1 + k 2 (s1) and (s2) are in parallel where as the combination of these
k1 is in series with (s3).
keq Solution
w=
m \ (1/keq) = (1/2k) + (1/k)
For ‘n’ number of springs in series m 2k
having stiffness k1, k2, ... kn Þ keq =
3
1 1 1 1 Example 2
= + ...
k eq k1 k 2 k n Calculate the equivalent stiffness of following
(ii) SPRINGS IN PARALLEL

k1 = 8 N/mm

k1
k1 k2
m

m
k2 = 16 N/mm
m
k2

Solution
Both springs are in parallel
\ keq = 16 + 8 = 24 N/mm
keq = k1 + k2, w = k eq /m Modelling of a Vibration System
For ‘n’ number of springs in parallel having stiffness k1, k2, ... kn The modelling of a vibration system involves the formation of an
equation.
keq = k1 + k2 + k3 ... + kn
Any vibration system has
NOTE: (i) inertia elements : It releases and stores energy i.e. mass
1 (ii) stiffness elements : It releases and stores potential energy
Stiffness (k) µ i.e. spring
length
(iii) dissipation element : Presence of dampers in system
\ short springs have stiffness of high value. causing damping.
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Natural Vibrations (iii) Phase angle (f)
· The vibrations in which there is no friction and no external from above equation, f = p/6
force are known as natural vibrations (iv) Time period (T)
· First observed by Galileo T = 2p/5 seconds
Consider a mass ‘m’ attached to spring of stiffness ‘k’ NOTE:
The above method used in determing the equation of the
vibration system is known as FORCE METHOD.
Example 5
k An automotive engine weighing 240 kg is supported on four
springs.
Front spring have stiffness of 16 MN/m while that of rear spring is
m x 32 MN/m.
Calculate speed of engine (rpm) at which resonance occurs.
&& + kx = 0
mx The front and rear springs all are in parallel
ækö
Solution
&&
x + ç ÷x = 0 \ keq = 16 + 16 + 32 + 32 = 96 MN/m
èmø
¯ keq 96 ´ 106
\ wn= =
Governing Equation of Natural Vibration where w2n = k/m m 240
¯ at resonance w = wn
natural frequency
The solution for governing equation is 2pN 96 ´ 106
Þ =
æ k ö 60 240
x = A sin çç t + f÷ Þ N = 6039.505 rpm
m ÷
è ø » 6040 rpm
A, f Þ constants to be determined by initial conditions
Example 6
2p w k
Tn = , fn = n , wn = The natural frequency of a spring-mass system on earth is wn.The
wn 2p m natural frequency of this system on moon is __________.
¯ ¯ ¯ Solution
time period linear frequency angular frequency
Given gmoon = gearth/6
Example 3
The equation of motion of a natural vibration is given as follows k
wn = (independent of ‘g’)
&& + 27 = 0
3x m
Determine the angular frequency. \ wmoon = wn
Solution Example 7
27 A concentrated mass ‘m’ is attached at the centre of a rod of
w2n = = 3 rad/s. length 2L as shown in the figure.
3
Neglect weight of rod. For very small amplitude determine the
Example 4
natural frequency of system.
Consider a harmonic motion
x = 1.25 sin (5t – p/6) cm
Determine
(i) Amplitude (cm)
(ii) Frequency k
m
(iii) Phase angle O
(iv) Time period
x = 1.25 sin (5t – p/6) L L
Solution
(i) Amplitude = 1.25 cm
(ii) Frequency Solution
from above equation, wn = 5 rad/s Taking moments about ‘O’
\ T = 2 p/5 kx (2L) = mgL
\ f = 5/2p mg
Þx=
2k
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d : deflection of mass
x mg
\ = d Þ d=
2 4k

ms
g g K
\ wn = = ´ 4k = 2
Dd mg m

ENE RGY METH OD

In energy method, the governing equation of vibration is derived m
by using the expression of energy and differentiating it further. Solution
Since, the spring is having some mass as a result kinetic energy of
the spring is to be considered in our analysis.
Taking ‘ms’ into account,
1 1
E= mV 2 + sx 2
2 2 k
k wn =
ms
dE m+
=0 3
dt
m TO RQU E M ETHOD
1 dv 1 dx · This method is used when vibrations are angular.
Þ m (2V) + ks (2n) =0
2 dt 2 dt · In this method, we take torque of the forces acting on the
body.
k
Þ &&
x+ x=0 Example 10
m
A uniform rod of mass ‘m’ is hinged at one end as shown.
Example 8 Calculate angular frequency of vibration.
A disc having mass ‘m’ and Radius ‘R’ undergoes pure rolling as
shown. Find the frequency of vibration.

R
k
l
x

Solution
Taking moments the equation obtained is
Solution
mg l q
1 1 1 I &&
q+ =0
E= kx2 + mV2 + Iw2 2
2 2 2
ml 2 && mg l q
Þ q+ =0
1 1 1 æ mR ö æ V 2 2 ö 3 2
= kx2 + mV2 + ç ÷ç ÷÷
2 2 2 çè 2 ÷ø çè R 2 ø æ 3g ö
Þ &&
q + ç ÷ q =0
è 2l ø
1 1 æ 3m ö 2
= kx2 + ç V
2 2 è 2 ÷ø \ wn =
3g
2l
2k If l = 1m
\ wn =
3m 3g
wn = = 3.836 rad/s
Example 9 2
NOTE:
Consider a spring of mass ‘ms’ to which a mass ‘m’ is attahced.
Mass ‘m’ of the rod has no effect on the angular frequency
Find the angular frequency of vibration.
of vibration.
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TORSIONAL VIBRATION \ To find l1, following relations are used

Torsional stiffness (k ) : It is the torque required to produce unit
q L = l1 + l2
angle of twist.
l1 I 2
=
l2 I1
Massless shaft
Torsional Equivalent Shaft
Rotors are fixed to a shaft having stepped diameter
In order to find the frequency of such a system, we replace the
shaft by a torsionally equivalent shaft having suitable diameter
but same torsional stiffness as that of stepped shaft.
A d3 B
d1
d2 d4

Rotor

The system as shown in the diagram is a two rotor system. l2 l3 l4

GJ G l1
\ kq = = (from torsion Equation) q : Twist in shaft under applied load.
l q
\ by taking moments, q = q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
&& + kq q = 0
Iq l l1 l2 l3 l4
4
= + + +
d d14 d 24 d 24 d 44
&& æk ö
Þ q+ç q ÷q =0 d : diameter of torsionally equivalent shaft
è I ø
l : length of shaft.
kq Example 11
\ wn =
I For the above figure,
If the shaft is also having mass, mA = 300 kg kA = 0.42 m G = 80 GPa
kq mB = 425 kg kB = 0.90 m
wn = Calculate the frequency of torsional vibration.
I
I + shaft Solution
3 Given
NOTE: l1 = 160 mm d1 = 140.0 mm
The angle of twist is same across all points but the l2 = 200 mm d2 125 mm
displacement (amplitude) is not same. l3 = 100 mm d3 = 180 mm
Two Rotor System l4 = 400 mm d4 = 125 mm
\ Using the above equation
Rotor 1
l 160 200 100 400
Rotor 2 4
= 4
+ 4
+ 4
+
(140) (140) (125) (180) (125)4
node
Þ l = 1140.706 mm
Now
IA l a = IB lB,
Þ 52.92 (la) = 344.25 lB (1)
I1 I2 la + lB = 1140.706 (2)
Using (1) and (2)
la = 988.715 mm
lb = 151.991 mm
l1 l2
GJ
w =
L lI

For the given two rotor system, a node is obtained at a distance of 80 ´ 109 ´ p (0.144 )
= = 240.135 rad/s
l1 from rotor 1 or at a distance of l2 from rotor 2. 0.988715 ´ 32 ´ 300 (0.422 )
Node ® Point where amplitude is zero.
Antinode ® Point where amplitude is maximum 1
f= (240.135) = 13.23 Hz
2p
152

DAMPED SYSTEMS x0
–xw n t
Xe
· In damped system, friction is not zero.

kx cx x
mx

Time
k damper

–xw nt
Xe
Free body Diagram
m Logarithmic Decrement (d )

m : mass of object x 2 px d2
In 1 = d = or x=
c : coefficient of damping x2 1 - x2 4 p2 + d 2
k : stiffness of spring
where, x1, x2 = two succ. ampli
From the free body diagram,
Critical Damping Coefficient
mx&& + cx& + kx = 0
C
= x where Cc : critical damping coefficient
æ c ö ækö Cc
Þ &&
x + ç ÷ x& + ç ÷ x = 0
èmø èmø C : damping coefficient
x : damping factor
governing equation of damped system
Example 12
The solution for the above equation is
x = A ea1t + B ea2t (a1 ¹ a2) A mass of 7.5 kg hangs from a spring and makes damped
or oscillations. It is given that the time required for 60 oscillations is
30 seconds. The radio of 1st and 5th is 3.5. Calculate the following
x = (A + Bt) eat (a1 = a2)
(i) The stiffness of spring
where a1, a2 are roots. (ii) The damping resistance
A, B are constants to be determined from initial conditions (iii) If the vibrations are critically damped, what is the damp-

{
a1, 2 = - x ± x2 - 1 wn } Solution
ing resistance required

m =7.5 kg, Td = 30/60 = 0.5 seconds

k 2p 2p
where w2n = wd = = = 4p rad/s
m Td 0.5
x : damping factor (i) x0/x5 = 3.5
c 5 (2 p x)
2 x wn = Þ e58 = 3.5 Þ = ln (3.5)
m 1 - x2
If x > 1 Þ overdamped system Þ x = 0.039
If x = 1 Þ critically damped system
If x < 1 Þ underdamped system ( 1- x ) w
wd = 2
n

Under Damped Systems (x < 1)

Þ 4p = ( 1 - 0.039 ) 2 k
a1, 2 = – x wn + i 1 - x2 wn 7.5
= – x wn + iwd Þ k = 1.186 kN/m
wd : frequency of damped vibrations C
(ii) Damping resistance 2x wn =
( 1-x ) w2
m
\ wd = d Td = 2p/wd
1.186 ´ 103
Þ C = 2 (0.039) ´ 7.5 = 7.35 N/m/s
x = X e -x w n t sin (wd t + f) 7.5

Amplitude has become a decreasing function of time. C 7.35

(iii) Cc = = = 188.46 N/m/s
x 0.039
 153
Example 13 Example 14
The equation of motion of harmonic oscillator is given by A mass ‘m’ attached to a spring is subjected to a harmonic force
as shown. The amplitude of forced motion is observed to be 50
d2x dx
2
+ (2 x w n ) + (w 2n ) x = 0 mm. The value of m (in kg) is
dt dt
Initial conditions
dx
at t = 0 x(0) = X (0) = 0 k = 3000 N/m
dt m F(t)
what is the amplitude after ‘n’ complete cycles? = 100 cos (100t)
Solution &&
x + (2 x wn ) x& + wn2 x = 0
x = Xe – x wnt sin (wd t + f)
at t = 0, x = X
X = X sin f Þ f = p/2 Solution
xn = Xe – x wnT . n sin (wd t + p/2) w = 100 rad/s

-x
2pn F0 /k
1 - x2 A=
= Xe sin (wd t + p/2)
( ) úû + ( )
é 2 ù2 2
w 2 xw
2np ê1 - wn wn
-x ë
1 - x2
\ Amplitude = Xe
100/300
PERFECT REAL VIBRATION(Force Damped 50 ´ 10–3 = Þ wn = 100 3 rad/s

( ) úû
2
Vibrations) é 2ù
ê1 -
100
wn
· Presence of unbalanced force ë
k 3000 3000
wn = Þm = 2 = = 0.1 kg
m wn (100 3) 2
VIBRATIONS IN BEAMS
k Longitudinal Vibrations in Beams
· Longitudinal vibrations mean along the axis of the rod.
Consider a rod the end of which contains a mass ‘m’.
E : Young modulus of rod
x m A : Cross-section area of rod
L : Length of rod
FUN = F0 sin wt

k : spring stiffness
E, A, L
c : coefficient of damper
m : mass which is under vibration k
FUN : unbalanced force
The unbalanced force is harmonic.
FUN = F0 sin wt
m m
F
&&
x + (2 x w n ) x& + w 2n = 0 sin wt ® governing equation k EA
m w= where k =
The sol m L
x = A sin (wt – f) Consider another case which consists of two rods

F0 /k
where A =
L1, A1, E1
( ) ( )
é 2 ù2 2
w 2x w
ê1 - wn ú + wn
ë û
m
Here A : amplitude of forced vibrations
1 A L2, E2, A2
Magnification factor (MF) = =
F0 /k
( ) ûú
é 2 ù2 2
+é
w 2 xw ù
ê1 - wn ë wn û
ë
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E1 A1 E A Critical speeds of shafts: It is the speed at which the shafts start

k1 = , k2 = 2 2
L1 L2 to vibrats at resonance condition/situation. E.g: non-uniform dis-
Q The rods are in parallel tribution of material, binding of shafts etc.
\ keq= k1 + k2 Now, considering a shaft rotating with bearings P and Q as shown
k eq k1 + k 2 in fig.
\ w= =
m m From the figure,
Transverse Vibrations in Beams Restoring force (acting along ‘B’ radially inward)
· Vibrations in direction perpendicular to the length of the beam will be equal to centrifugal force (acting along C radially out-
are known as transverse vibrations wards)
Single Concentric Loads
W 2
mgL3 ìCantilever subjected to concentrated ü KT y = w ( y + e)
D= í ý g
3 EI îload at free end. þ
For a simply supported beam subjected to load On simplifying, we get
m g a 2 b2
D= 1 æ 2 KTg ö
3 EI l y/e = ç Assuming wc = ÷
æ wc ö
2 è w ø
a W b ç w ÷ -1
è ø

wc
l If = y / e , ratio is ‘ ¥ ’. So this specific value of ‘w’ will
w
For a fixed beam be critical/whirling speed of shaft.
3 3
mga b
D= g
3 EI l 3 So, wc = (where, d = static deflection)
d
NOTE:
· The above formulaes are to be used only when a beam is
subjected to concentrated point load.They are not valid for 2pf c = g / d
uniformly disturbed load.
· More so, assume a shaft supported in long bearing as a 1 g
fc = Nc =
fixed one. 2p d
Vibration Isolation: Vibration isolation means to reduce the trans-
mitted vibration. It is generally expressed in terms of force/mo- (Where Nc = Critical speed of shaft in rps)
tion transmitted to the foundation. Less force/motion transmit- Þ If w = wc, Ratio of amplitude ® ¥
ted leads to a great vibration isolation.
Þ If w < wc, Ratio of amplitude will be positive
Mathematically,
Transmissibility (TR) Þ If w > wc, Ratio of amplitude will be negative.

2
ì wü
1 + í 2z ý P
FTR î wn þ
= =
F 2
ïì æ w ö ïü
2 2
ì wü
1
í ç - ÷ ý + í 2z ý
ïî è w n ø ïþ î wn þ y

Where, FTR = Force transmitted A B C

F = force of excitation/disturbance
Þ When w/wn = 0, and 2 , the value of TR = unity1 e
Þ In absence of damping, then
1
TR = Q
( w / wn )2 - 1