Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Recent progress and development on power DC-DC converter topology, MARK

control, design and applications: A review
⁎
M.Z. Hossaina, N.A. Rahima,b, Jeyraj a/l Selvaraja,
a
UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Level 4, Wisma R & D, University of Malaya, 59990 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Renewable Energy Research Group, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Over the last few decennia, power DC/DC converters have been the subject of great interest due to its extensive
DC/DC converter increment of utilization in different applications. A thorough review on recent developed power DC/DC
Control converters is presented in this paper. The study is focused on the topologies in different applications such as
MPPT renewable energy, automobile, high-voltage and medium-voltage DC power systems, telecommunication, etc. In
Design-optimization
addition, an overview of the modulation techniques, the state-of-the-art of control strategies of well-established
Renewable applications
converters are discussed. Photovoltaic (PV) systems as the noticeable renewable energy resources generally
HVDC/ MVDC power system
suffer from poor conversion efficiency with instability and intermittent characteristics. Therefore, DC/DC
converter with Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithm is essential to ensure maximum available
power harnessed from the PV. Important features of DC/DC converters with MPPT are also figured with various
performances. Furthermore, the design and optimization of different parameters are addressed systematically.
Finally, the researcher’s future challenges and focusing trends are briefly described. For the next-generation
converters design and applications, these are considered in details, and will provide useful framework and point
of references.

1. Introduction concentrating their efforts towards specialized improvement in con-

A considerable measure of interest is recently building up of Power
DC/DC Converters (PDDCs) recently in the industry and the educated
community as one of the favored options in medium/ high-power
applications for the purpose of electronic power conversion [1–3]. They
have effectively advanced into the industry and therefore can be taken
into account as a mature and demonstrated technology. Right now,
they are popularized in standard and redone items that power an
extensive variety of applications, for example, photovoltaic (PV) power
systems [4], offshore wind turbines (OWT) [3], electric / hybrid electric
/ plug-in-hybrid electric/ fuel cell vehicles (EV/ HEV/ PHEV/ FCV)
[2,5], medium-voltage DC (MVDC) and high-voltage DC (HVDC)
power systems [6,7], telecommunication power supply [8], on ship-
board power system [9] and in offshore petroleum and gas applications
of subsea compressors [10], FC based power supply [11] etc. In spite of
the fact that it is an established and as of now proven innovation,
PDDCs exhibit a lot of difficulties, and considerably all the more
essentially, they offer such an extensive variety of potential outcomes
that their innovative work is as yet developing in depth and width. As a
result, in recent years, many researchers throughout the world are
version efficiency, power density, reliability, control techniques, sim-
plicity and cost of PDDC as well as spreading its applications.
Furthermore, the very common DC/DC converters, usually suitable
for low-power applications, cannot scale-up very well for high-power
(HP)/ medium-power (MP) applications because of their unsatisfactory
performances [12,13].
Recently, several review reports related to DC/DC converters have
been figured out in literature. Review works on non-isolated DC/DC
converter for PV application have discussed in [14] and [15], where,
DC/DC converters for grid connected with high conversion ratio, and
characteristics of few basic DC/DC converters have described respec-
tively. The high efficiency with high voltage gain DC/DC converter
topologies for renewable applications in the aspect of non-isolated and
isolated architectures has been reviewed in [16]. Review on DC/DC
converters with multilevel topologies for automotive and HP applica-
tions, and with HP density (HPD) and high-efficiency characteristics
for HEV and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) applications are summar-
ized in [17] and [18] respectively. In addition, EV related reviews have
also described in [19,20], where, different DC/DC converters are
discussed with the other power electronic devices. Furthermore,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mzakir@um.edu.my (M.Z. Hossain), nasrudin@um.edu.my (N.A. Rahim), jeyraj@um.edu.my (J.a. Selvaraj).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.017
Received 14 June 2016; Received in revised form 31 January 2017; Accepted 6 July 2017
Available online 03 October 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.Z. Hossain et al.
S Lr
Vi Cr
Resonant cell
(a)
S1
Vi
S2
FB cell
Fig. 1. Classical PDDC topologies. (a) Series resonant (SR). (b) three-level (3 L) buck. (c) Full-bridge boost.
literature [21,22] overview the DC/DC converter architectures, those
are applicable to FC-ultracapacitor based hybrid system and FC power
system respectively. In the same way, review works in the relation
between the FC technologies and electronic interfacing, and power
converter interfacing with electrochemical based energy storage devices
including few DC/DC conversion systems have reported in [23] and
[24] respectively. The review is focused on AC/DC and DC/DC
converters based high-frequency power distribution system (HFPDS)
[25], for space, telecommunications, and computer applications, in
where DC/DC converters topologies along with other features are not
the main concern of discussion. A review on DC/DC converters for
high-frequency (HF) HF-link conversion system has reported in [26],
considering only the isolated bidirectional dual active bridge (DAB)
architecture among the several topologies. Few DC/DC converters
topologies only for wind energy collection and transmission system
like HP power applications have briefly described in [27]. However,
from the aforementioned discussions, it is clear that review on various
established and proved power DC/DC converter topologies, modulation
and control strategies, design and optimization, and emerging applica-
tions are still not addressed properly, which are the main focuses of the
present review paper. This research provides better understanding of
the DC/DC converter specially designed for medium or high power
applications (≥1 kW), even prototype has implemented for lower
power, excluding few exceptions. This study is focused on the archi-
tectures in various applications for example, renewable energy, vehicle,
HVDC and MVDC power systems, telecommunication, and so on.
Likewise, an outline of the modulation strategies, the cutting edge of
control techniques of well-established converters are talked about. The
PV system as the noteworthy renewable energy resources generally
experiences by miserable conversion ability with instability and inter-
mittent behaviors. Hence, DC/DC converter with MPPT algorithm is
vital to guarantee maximum available power output from the PV. The
salient features of PDDC in PV system are additionally figured with
various performances. Moreover, the design and enhancement of
various parameters are addressed systematically. At long last, the
researcher’s future difficulties and focusing patterns are briefly dis-
cussed to inspire further study in this field.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the
basic topologies of PDDC. This is followed by the overview of recent
progress of PDDCs topologies with their operational issues and
challenges are described in Section 3. Section 4 covers the latest and
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
S1 S2
V/2 C1
V Vo
Vo
V/2 C2
Three level cell
(b)
S3
n:1
+
Co Vo
-
S4
(c)
widely used various modulation and control strategies, and control
devices. As the PV energy is the fast growing share among the
renewable energy, PDDCs with MPPT algorithm used in PV system
are explained in Section 5. In Section 6, the general design of active and
passive parameters of PDDC, and its optimizations are included.
Reputed and coming promising applications of PDDC are described
in Section 7, which is followed by the design procedure, future
challenges and research trends in Section 8. Finally, the concluding
remarks are concluded in Section 9.
2. Classical PDDC topologies
For integrity and clear understanding of the recently developed
PDDC technologies, it is essential to provide a brief summary of their
used before the last decade. It is quite difficult to point out the first dc-
dc converter topology developed for medium or high power applica-
tions. However, it is seen that at the early 1970s; a thyristor controlled
buck type dc-dc converter was proposed for high-power (HP) dc power
supply research-based applications [28]. In which, a simple switching
circuit with two silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) was utilized to
control the power to the load by periodic switching. In the mid
-1970s [29], a series resonant dc converter topology was developed
for HP industrial size [30]. Just a few later, in the late 1970s, a three-
level high power dc-dc converter was proposed [31], which is presently
recognized as multilevel converter (MC) topology. This buck-boost type
converter was controlled by time-sharing high-frequency thyristor with
energy-storage and -transfer reactor coupling links for the high-
frequency (HF) inverter and large-scale dc power supplies. A dual
bridge dc-dc converter (BC) topology of HP density was proposed for
HP applications in [32], at the early 1990s. It consists of a three-phase
dual-bridge inverter operating in HF and soft-switching (SS) technique
and a three-phase symmetric AC link transformer. Currently, these
three topologies (resonant, multilevel and bridge/ multiphase-bridge
(MPB)) could be considered as traditional or classical PDDC topologies
that were made in an earlier age for various power applications.
Generally, the conventional buck, boost and buck-boost (bB) type basic
converters are also used for HP / MP applications in the form above
mentioned topologies. As the examples, these three topologies are
shown in Fig. 1. These converters are offering different parameters
such as power rating, operating frequency, semiconductor devices
used, and control principles, among other technical specifications.
206
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

Table 1
Classical PDDC topologies parameter. S1 + Lf + D2 +
Parameters Topologies V1 V2 S2
D1
Vi CfVo
Resonant Multilevel Bridge/ Multiphase-
bridge - - -
Power rating ( kW) 2.75, 5, 24, 2.75, 3, 12.6 2, 2.8, 3, 6, 40, 50, Buck cell Boost cell
50
Output voltage (V) 400, 600, 43, 700 60, 220, 280, 300, Fig. 2. TSbB converter. (a).
350, 400, 600, 2k
Switching frequency 100, 120, 33.3 10, 20, 25, 50, 100,
(kHz) 250, 750 200, 256 as shown in Fig. 3(a)–(d), by replacing the buck cell in Fig. 2 by the
Semiconductor device SCR, MOSFET BJT, MOSFET, buck-derived isolated modules. In the same way, a family of isolated bB
MOSFET IGBT, converters can be obtained as shown in Fig. 3(e)–(g) by replacing the
Modulation and control PWM PWM, PS- PWM, PS-PWM, boost cell in Fig. 2 by the boost-derived isolated modules [49].
techniques PWM DPS-PWM
Furthermore, resonant circuit can be introduced to the bridge con-
References [28,33–35] [36,37] [32,38–47]
verter. To achieve soft switching resonant power converters contain a
resonant inductor-capacitor (L-C) part whose voltage and current vary
The most relevant parameters and ratings are mentioned in Table 1 sinusoidally during one or more subintervals of each switching period.
for each of these traditional topologies before the last decade. It is By inserting one or more elements of the L-C network in series /
apparent from the table that the BC/ MPB converters (MPBC) are most parallel with the FB switches, the voltage across the switching devices
studied previously. The semiconductor device MOSFET and the PWM can be formed so they can turn on and off with zero-voltage switching
control technique are utilized as part of these converters are compar- (ZVS). An example of a DC-DC series resonant converter is shown in
able. However, there are some significant differences among them can Fig. 4(a). A time-domain analysis of this series-resonant converters
be concluded from Table 1. operating with phase-shift modulated FB has proposed [50]. Closed-
form formulas has been derived using fundamental harmonic approx-
1) The most likely causes of using MOSFET and SCR as semiconductor imation as well as a precise time-domain analysis. To ensure the ZVS
devices in RC are lower switching loss due to very high switching for the entire operating conditions, an adaptive passive auxiliary circuit
frequencies, ranging from 100 kHz to 750 kHz, and simple opera- (resonant tank includes an inductor LS and a capacitor CS) is used.
tion compared to others. The output voltage levels of this family are Previously HB DC/DC converter was considered only for low
also compatible to the three-phase inverter, whereas some MCs and voltage medium power (1–2 kW) applications, such as telecommunica-
BC/ MPBCs outputs are fed to various low voltage power applica- tion fields, fuel cell based power system, auxiliary compact power
tions [48]. supplies, etc. These are limited by the ratings of semiconductor
2) In previously, the BC / MPBC reached the higher voltage and higher switches used. However, nowadays, the invention of high voltage
power levels. However, the present situations will be described in (6.5 kV) IGBT opens up a radical new territory of potential outcomes
next sections of the studies. in power electronics [52]. A HB DC/DC converter topology shown in
3) Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is the most commonly used control Fig. 4(b) for Auxiliary Power Supply (APS) in MV rolling stock
technique for all the cases, whereas, phase-shift PWM (PS-PWM) application is proposed in [51]. The power and output voltage ratings
and dual-PS PWM (DPS-PWM) strategies were also used in MC and were as 40 kW and 3 kV respectively for variable input voltage as 2 ~
BC/ MPB DC/DC converters. 4 kV, and switching devices 6.5 kV IGBT used as well. The advance-
4) Before the last decade, the BC/ MPB converter topologies were the ment of Silicon Carbide (SiC) power devices makes the more con-
preferable choices among the above mentioned three topologies in ceivable to achieve an implementation that was inaccessible for Silicon
various power level applications and as well as different output (Si) semiconductor devices [53].
voltages. Full-bridge (FB) DC/DC converters operating with PWM zero-
voltage switching (ZVS) have experienced significant consideration in
recent years [54–58]. The Fig. 5 shows recently developed isolated FB
3. Recent progress in PDDC topologies
converter topologies for HP application. The soft-switching (SS) ( ZVS /
zero-current switching (ZCS)) technique causes a potential reduction in
Since the utilization of the PDDC topologies nearly from four
system switching losses and an enhance in switching frequency [54].
decades ago, possibly dozens of diverse and new PDDC have been
The familiar SS pulse-wide modulated (SS-PWM) FB buck converter is
studied and reported in the literature. Most of them are the upgrade
used for step-up operation as a double functioning manner for bi-
modification of the three topologies discussed in the previous section.
directional power flow in an isolated boost FB converter as shown in
All these topologies are described systematically in this section.
Fig. 5(a) [55]. Its control scheme allows an unparalleled commutation
process to minimize the mismatch between the boost inductor and
3.1. Bridge / multiphase bridge converter leakage inductor currents when commutation happens.
The DC-DC converter shown in Fig. 5(b) is proposed in [56]. This
Bridge converter may be classified into half-bridge (HB), full-bridge combines with a boost-HB cell and a FB cell having the ability of dual-
(FB), single active-bridge (SAB), dual active-bridge (DAB) and multi- input connection, i.e. the current-fed and voltage-fed ports are coupled.
phase-bridge (MPB) topologies as found in the literature. Various Although, this dual-input topology has some advantages, the major
features like as circuit architectures, control techniques, etc. are drawback is the dissimilar distribution of current stress on the power
addressed step-by-step in this sub-section. A two-switch buck-boost devices, which enhances the design complexity. Furthermore, neither
(TSbB) converter shown in Fig. 2, can be galvanically isolated by this analysis takes account of the asymmetrical operation, nor exam-
introducing an HF or medium-frequency (MF) transformer, either in ines the dead-time effect. However, considering dead-time, a HV DC-
the buck cell or boost cell, leading to the buck-derived isolated DC converter is designed for capacitor charging power supply (CCPS)
modules, as forward, push–pull, half-bridge (HB) and FB modules, for pulsed power application as shown in Fig. 5(c) [57]. It consists a FB
or boost-derived isolated modules, i.e., push–pull, HB and FB modules Phase-shifted (FBPS) pulse-wide modulated converter, which uses
respectively. A family of isolated bB DC/DC converters can be achieved

207
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

n1:n2
S1 D1 + Lf + Db +

Vi n3 D2 V1 V2 S2
Cf
Vo
D3
- - -

(a)

+ Lf + Lf + Db +
+ Db + C1 S1 D1 D2
D1 D2
Vi n1 n2 Vi
n1 n2 V1 V2 Sb Vo
n3 Sb
V1 V2 Vo Cf
Cf
S1 C2
S2 D3 D4 S2
D3 D4
- - - - - -

(b) (c)

+ Lf + Db + Lf
S1 S3 Lr D1 D2 Sb + + +
D1 D2
Vi n1 n2
n1 n2 V1 V2 Sb Vo
Cf V1 V2 n3 Vo
Db
Vi Cf
S2 S4
S1 S2 D4
D3 D4 D3
- - - - - -

(d) (e)

Lf +
Sb + + Sb + +
L1 L2 D1 D2 S1 S2 D1 D2

Vi n1 n2 Vo V2 n1 n2 Vo
Db V1 Db V1
Cf Vi Cf
S1 S2 S3 S4
D3 D4 D3 D4
- - - - -

(f) (g)
Fig. 3. Isolated bB converters [49]. (a) Forward-boost. (b) Push–pull-boost. (c) HB-boost. (d) FB-boost. (e) Buck–push–pull. (f) Buck–HB. (g) Buck–FB.

three HV-HF transformer. In addition, a FB converter with series- by providing reactive current. However, unlike resonant topologies
parallel current-driven (SPCD) technique as shown in Fig. 5(d) is providing nearly sinusoidal current waves [59], the SPDC FB converter
proposed in [58]. Its series branch Ls provides current pulses from the has triangular current waveforms is its main limitations.
voltage pulses while parallel branches Lp and Cp offer facilities for ZVS The activities of PDDC in a DC wind farm is like as the AC

+
S3 S1
S1
LS CS Lo
n:1
+ Vi
Vi Co Ro
Tank Co Vo S2
-
S2 S4
-

(a) (b)
Fig. 4. (a) FB-SR converter [50]. (b) Half-bridge DC/DC converter used as APS [51].

208
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

Lf
DC S1 S4 S5 S8

Lk
Vo
Vi CC

S3 S2 S7 S6

(a)

S w2
C2 S1 S2 L2
V2 1:n 2
Vo
L1
S w1 Cb
V1 C1 S3 S4
1:n 1

(b)

T1

S1 S4

VDC T2
VAC L Vo

T3
S3 S2

(c)

Lf
S1 S3
Ls
k:1
Vi Cp Co Vo
Lp

S2 S4

(d)
Fig. 5. FB converter. (a) Boost-FB converter for bidirectional high power application [55]. (b) Boost-HB and FB [56]. (c) HV DC/DC FB converter [57]. (d) SPCD converter topology
[58].

transformer in a conventional AC wind farm. The SAB converter shown
in Fig. 6(a) is investigated as a possible topology for such DC wind farm
for a single 5 MW turbine [60]. In which, the leakage inductance Ls has
a great influence on both the converter output voltage and current.
However, the limitation of unidirectional power flow of SAB converter
makes it less popular in high-power DC systems. Therefore, DAB
isolated PDDC topologies are widely used to achieve bi-directional
power flow [32,61]. A triangular-current-mode dual active bridge
(TCM-DAB) DC/DC converter topology is analyzed in terms of internal
charge dynamics behavior for HP-MV applications as shown in
Fig. 6(b) [62]. In this circuit, a series inductor Ls is used as the
replacement of the resonant tank of series-resonant FB converter.

209
M.Z. Hossain et al.
S1
Vi
S2
Ls
VMV ..
n1:n2
(b)
Fig. 6. Topology for active bridge converter. (a) SAB [60]. (b) triangular-current-mode dual active bridge (TCM-DAB) [62]. (c) DPS control DAB converter [64].
However, high losses and high current ripple of DAB converter due to
high reactive power circulation is a great challenge for HP application
[63]. To overcome this limitation a DAB bidirectional DC/DC converter
shown in Fig. 6(c) is proposed in [64].
One bridge of this converter acts as a DC/AC converter, which
provides input to a transformer, while other bridge works as an AC/DC
converter, is fed from the same transformer. Compared with DAB, the
SAB topology provides only in step-down and unidirectional power
flow modes of operation. In addition, since, it utilizes less switching
devices and the rms current flowing through the switches is lower, the
switching and conduction losses are lower compared to DAB. In
contrast to the use of SAB from losses point of view, DAB is the
optimal solution for step-up operation and bidirectional power flow,
especially on MP / HP applications.
The demand for bi-directional power flow, especially in PDDCs,
increases day by day. Including this feature a three-phase current-fed
DC/DC converter topology with active clamp as shown in Fig. 7 [65]. It
consists a current-fed three-phase converter feeds to a three-phase FB
diode rectifier via a HF transformer.
3.2. Multilevel converter
Multilevel converters (MC) are finding expanded consideration in
scholarly world and industrial fields as one of the preferred options in
the area of electronic power conversion for MP /HP applications [66–
70]. Research and development in this field have been started for more
than three decades. However, this is still a field of research and
development, and lots of fresh contribution and modern industrial
topologies have been accounted in the last decade. The traditional and
well-established MCs can be classified into three major categories such
as the capacitor clamped (CC) or diode clamped (DiC) for example
L1
S1
SC
Vi
CC S4
Fig. 7. Three phase current-fed DC/DC converter with active clamp [65].
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
S3
Ls
1:n
Vo
S4
(a)
Vi /2 S1 S3 S5 S7
Vo/2
VLV n1:n2
S2 S4 S6 S8
Vi/2 Vo/2
(c)
neutral-point-clamped (NPC), cascaded H-bridge (CHB), and flying-
capacitor (F-C) [17,71], are described in this sub-section. In addition,
presently the modular multilevel converters (MMC or M2C) have
received significant consideration also addressed in this article. The
elementary concept of MCs is to achieve higher voltage handing
capability of the switches than their rating by connecting them in
series. Multilevel DC/DC converters with an intermediate ac link can be
derived from the well-known DC/AC MC.
Three-level (3L) DC/DC converters are widely used in MP or HP
applications [72,73]. The topology shown in Fig. 8(a) is a 3L converter
with LLC resonant tank, in where, two quadrant NPC configuration is
utilized by avoiding the neutral point clamping diodes [72]. The LLC
resonant tank is used to achieve SS operation and offers the stable
converter gain which provides constant DC output voltage. The Fig. 9
also shows a 3P-3L converter topology is derived from the combination
of a FB and a 3L-HB converters adopting symmetrical duty cycle
control [73]. Hence, the voltage stress upon all the switching devices
reduce to half of the input voltage, and in the meantime, the output
current ripple frequency significantly enhances. This offers a mini-
mized filter requirement. However, higher switching losses due to hard
switching technique degrade the overall performance of the converter,
therefore, the well-established SS (ZVS/ ZCS) scheme may recommend
to overcome this limitation.
The Fig. 10 employs a two-stage isolated bidirectional DC/DC
converter topology with hybrid switching scheme [74]. Furthermore,
researchers have studied different DiC [17], and NPC based MC
topologies, while the later one usually used in multilevel inverter
[75]. Literature also shows the interest of utilizing of F-C based DC/DC
converters in power applications [17,76,77]. A F-C based 4 L bidirec-
tional DC/DC converter shown in Fig. 11, which consists of six
switching cells, therefore, forming three switching poles [77]. It neither
S3 S5
RL
S6 S2
210
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

The VSCs are by and large considered to be the best choice for
S1
multiterminal HVDC systems, as they permit power inversion without
Lr changing the voltage polarity and can associate with weak AC systems
C1
S2 [84]. Such a VSC based DC/DC converter system for low to medium
Vo step-ratio applications is shown in Fig. 14 [6]. It consists a modular
Vi Lm
multilevel converter (MMC) and an alternate arm converter (AAC)
S3 coupled by a transformer. The Fig. 15 shows another modular resonant
C2 Cr
capacitor clamped (MRCC) voltage tripler converter is based on a direct
switch (DS) module and a switchless (SL) module [85]. Though the
S4 LLC Tank circuit diagrams are same for both these topologies, the module
configurations are different as shown in Fig. 15(a) and b, resulting
Fig. 8. 3 L DC/DC converter with LLC resonant tank [72]. slightly distinct performances.

uses any magnetic components nor PWM technique rather than fixed
duty cycle. It operates similarly to a voltage multiplier. However, this
type of architectures have several limitations, such as i) complexity in
3.3. Resonant converter
high-frequency switching, ii) excessive voltage drop across the semi-
conductor devices, iii) nonmodular structure, iv) comparatively com-
The up and coming era of DC/DC converters not just needs to meet
plicated switching technique, v) limitation of bidirectional power flow,
the features required by the load / inverter, additionally, need to
etc.
process energy with high efficiency, high reliability, high power density,
The Cascaded DC/DC converter is an attractive area of research
and lower cost. Keeping in mind the end goal to accomplish converters
particularly for PV applications [78–81] as multi-level cascaded DC/
with high power densities, it is normally required that they work at
DC converters. Both the boost and buck topologies can use for cascaded
higher switching frequencies. Switching losses associated with turn-on
architecture for general-purpose PV system. Fig. 12 shows a cascaded
and turn-off of the switching devices also increases with the increase in
DC/DC converter for PV application is designed by buck type converter
switching frequency. In DC/DC converters, nonetheless, the switching
[78]. In the buck topology, as the freewheeling diode allows bypass
losses can be lower, permitting the resonant converter (RC) to work at
path for the current due to PV module failure, the active device
higher frequencies are particularly described in this sub-section. Along
arrangement ensures uninterruptible operation under a fault condition.
these lines, RCs demonstrate some encouraging properties for the
Among these three sorts of multilevel (DiC, F-C, and CHB) converters,
HVHP applications as they have low converter weight (with no inner
there are many comparative features as pointed out in Table 2. Due to
AC transformer most of the topologies), high efficiency, can be
the fewer redundant switching states, the DiC DC/DC converters are
designed with phase control thyristors, able to link VSC to current
not suitable in DC/DC applications. Thus, DiC topology is actually used
source converter (CSC), have great inherent performances against DC
as an inverter, and hence, no much more data regarding this as DC/DC
faults [86], and high voltage gain as well [87].
converter. The F-C converter, on the hand, can be used in different DC
The Fig. 16(a) demonstrates a HP resonant step-up unidirectional
application because of their flexible voltage balancing behavior due to
DC/DC converter topology [88]. It’s all switches are the Silicon Power
higher redundant switching states [17]. Furthermore, comparatively
thyristor with high reverse blocking capability, used of 6.8 kV/100 kV
less switching devices are required in it. However, the CHB topology
converter scheme without any snubbers. As the DC/DC converters that
has numerous favorable circumstances including higher redundant, for
do not use coupled transformers, will dependably require a higher
example, modularized structure and low voltage stress, simple switch-
rating of active switches, which is usually n×Prated, where n is the
ing scheme and so on. Hence, this type of multilevel converter can be
voltage step-up ratio. The higher size of switches has negative results
the preferable choice for DC/DC MP/HP applications.
regarding expenses and losses. In addition, harmonic will increase at
The modular multilevel converter (MMC) has turned into the
lower power due to frequency control. However, the topology shown in
significant alluring multilevel converter topology for MP and HP
Fig. 16(b) is similar to the topology of Fig. 16(a), with the bi-directional
applications [83], particularly for voltage-sourced converter (VSC)
feature, is studied for HVHP applications [89,90]. Table 3 demon-
based HVDC systems. A five-level multilevel modular capacitor
strates the stresses of all the switch (Thyristors C613 and C784 used
clamped DC/DC converter (5L-MMCCC) as shown in Fig. 13, having
respectively) for both these topologies are investigated on PSCAD
an inborn particular structure and can be designed to accomplish any
platform. To provide input-output galvanic isolation and high conver-
conversion ratio [82]. Each modular block consists with one capacitor
sion voltage gains, AC transformer is used in RCs for DC/DC conver-
and three transistors conducting three terminals.
sion system [91,92], may be used for power applications.

S6

Lf
S1 S5 1:k
La
Css
Cf
Vi Lb RL Vo

S4 S2
Lc
S3

Fig. 9. 3P-3 L DC/DC converter [73].

211
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

S2 S3 S5
Lm S7
Lb
Vi Lr
N:1
Vo
S1 S4 S6
S8

Fig. 10. Two-stage isolated bi-directional DC/DC converter [74].

V3 3.4. Interleaved converter

In recent years, interleaving strategies have been generally utilized

as a part of power converters [93–95]. There are significant advantages
V2
36V of interleaving such as decreased device stress by sharing power into
42 V
battery each discrete phase, cut down filter size by expanding effective
Alt. 42V frequency, easing of the impacts of current ripple, applicable of surface
load mount technology (SMT) elements, planner or SMT type magnetic
V1
12V components can be utilized, and so on. The interleaving system
14V battery additionally provides other gainful innovation changes, for example,
load
substitution of aluminum electrolytic or polymer organic capacitors by
film or ceramic capacitors, which enhances the proportional series
Fig. 11. Multilevel (4 L) F-C based bidirectional non-isolated DC/DC converter [77]. resistance, power density, and reliability in a tough warm environment.
Utilizing interleaving technique, a three-phase synchronous mode
bidirectional DC/DC converter shown in Fig. 17 is investigated for HP
L1 application [93,94], in which, a HF capacitor acts as an energy buffer.
VPV1 The inductors L1-L3 work as boost inductor and low pass filter as well
under boost mode and buck mode operations respectively. The benefits
and drawbacks regarding of percentage of ripple, loss, and weights, are
L2 analyzed and compared in details of a two-phase interleaved HP DC/
VPV2 Vo DC converter with a non-interleaving technique as shown Fig. 18 [95].
The carrier of the converter 2 in Fig. 18(a) is phase-shifted by 180°
resulting each phase ripple also shifted by the same angle, and hence
the total current ripple minimizes.
L3
In the case of high power converter design large size filter is
VPV3 required. It is seen from the analysis, keeping 5% and 20% current
ripple, the interleaving technique can reduce the inductor weight
whereas it will enhance the inductor losses significantly, especially at
Fig. 12. Multilevel cascaded DC/DC converter topology for PV application [78].
20% current ripple. One extra reverse coupled inductor is used rather
than two input inductors in order to reduce the circulating current as
shown in Fig. 18(b). The Fig. 18(c) shows that at a certain level of
switching device current stress, the interleaving with coupled inductor
Table 2
Comparisons of three multilevel topologies [17,76–82].
minimizes both the size and loss greatly.
Incorporating a very high number of interleaved stages, the current
Parameters Topologies stress is enormously decreased. In connection with this principle, 16-
phase bidirectional DC/DC converters are shown in Fig. 19. The 16
Diode- Flying- Cascaded H-
phase design is also extended as 36 phase in same circuit architecture
clamped capacitor (F-C) Bridge (CHB)
(DiC) as shown in Fig. 19(a), and both are interleaved buck [96]. The surface
mount devices (SMD) are used in both of the multiphase architectures
Redundancy Less Higher Higher without utilizing of the heatsink. The use of current loops are also
Filter component (s) Moderate Bulk Lower
avoided, which are quite difficult in the case of a high number of
Modular structure No No Yes
Voltage stress on active – Higher Lower
phases. The topology shown in Fig. 19(b) is designed for hybrid vehicle
devices applications [97,98]. The switching signals of the switching devices
Withstand in fault – Incapable Capable (Q1_1~ Q16_2) for the phases are 360°/N phase shifted and same phase
Requirement of switching Higher Less Higher difference of current waveforms (N is the no. of phases). The frequency
devices for the same
of the low-voltage (LV) side ripple current is increased to N × fs (fs is
level
Switching scheme – Complex Simpler the switching frequency). In addition, each phase delivers only 1/N of
Gate signal needed for N – N-phase signal Only two-phase the total power, hence, the stress on the switching devices reduce. The
conversion ratio signal overall performances of the interleaving topologies depend on different
Voltage drop on active Moderate Excessive Lower
parameters related to the number of phases are compared in Table 4.
devices
Capacitors Used – High and Lower and same
As shown from the Table 4, the first two converters are implemented
different values values for not so higher power (1 kW), while, the third one is designed for HP
Voltage stress on same type – Unequal Equal (45 kW) application. There are some remarks regarding the Table 4:
active and passive
components
• As the number of phases increases, the size of the switching devices

212
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

Sr1 Sb2 Sr4 Sb5 Sr7

VLV
VHV

Sb1 Sr2 Sb3 Sr5 Sb6

Sr3 Sb4 Sr6

Fig. 13. 5L- MMCCC with four modular blocks [82].

HV1 Link HV2 Link

Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell

Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell

Cell Cell Cell DS DS DS

HB
DS

Cell Cell Cell DS DS DS

Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell

Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell

FB
MMC AAC
Fig. 14. VSC-based DC/DC converter system [6].

SL DS Output
module module module C t1
Intput
module C t1
Dt1 D t2
D t1 D t2 Ct2
C t2 S t1
S t1
L2
L2
Vi
Vi RL
RL C b2
C b2
S b1
S b1
L1
L1 D b1 D b2
Db D b2
1
C b1
C b1

(a) (b)
Fig. 15. MRCC voltage tripler converter [85]. (a) SL-based module and (b) DS-based module.

decrease. It also permits to use of SMD transistors and can keep off
the use of heatsink by appropriate design.
• Similar graphics in regards to the inductor and capacitors, acquiring
a little size for higher stages. Indeed, even with 36 stages, the total
inductor volume is lower compared with others' outlines, in
correspondence of a number of stages instead of power ratings.
• Two distinguish however, important features are common for all the
three schemes: utilizing of digital devices to control is the first, and
the second one is removing the use of current loop in each phase.
• Finally, efficiencies of all converters are not below than 93%.
However, the inability to use of general purpose integrated circuits
(ICs), the circuit complexity due to a higher number of stages, and the
imbalance current due to the differences in duty ratio
in each phase, are the significant barrier to design multiphase
interleaving converters.
3.5. Other PDDC topologies
In order to interfacing between an Energy storage system (ESS) and
a DC bus, a DC/DC converter is proposed in [99]. It is an integration of
a FB and a forward converters including bidirectional one as shown in
Fig. 20. In which, the FB part provide discharging facilities for the ESS
while the forward one provides charging of ESS. A semiisolated
multiinput DC/DC converter (S-MIC) topology shown in Fig. 21 is
compatible both for PV and wind power as well [100]. The output
voltages from PV and rectified wind generator are fed to the input
terminals of this converter. Both the sources can be achieved MPPT
separately or simultaneously by appropriate switching of the switches
S1 and S2. Nevertheless, higher conduction loss due to series con-
nected diode and transformer, than parallel FB and bB are its great
limitations. To obtain a very high conversion ratio (1:14), a flyback-
forward DC/DC converter shown in Fig. 22 is proposed in [101]. It
consists of two cells, and featuring with modularity, multilevel and

213
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

LV circuit HV circuit
Lf1 L1 L2 Lf2
T1 T2 T3 T4
Cf1 Cf2

V1 Cr V2
Cf1 Cr
T2 T1 Cf2
Lf1 L1 T4 T3 L2 Lf2

(a)

LV circuit HV circuit

Lf1 L1 L2 Lf2
T1 T2 T5 T7 T6 T8
Cf1 Cf2

Cr V2
V1
Cf1 Cr
T2 T1 Cf2
T8 T5 T7
Lf1 L1 T6 T3 L2 Lf2

(b)
Fig. 16. HP step-up resonant DC/DC converters. (a) Unidirectional power flow [88]. (b) Bidirectional power flow [89,90].

electrical isolation as three degrees of freedom (3DoF) applicable for

Sa1 Sa2 Sa3
HV and HP applications. The topology shown in Fig. 23 is a phase-shift
L1
(PS) FB DC/DC converter [102]. In which, passive auxiliary circuits are
incorporated in each leg to provide required peak current for ZVS L2 CHF RL
Battery
during the entire operation. L3
The topology shown in Fig. 24 is a step-up DC/DC converter [103].
CLF Sb1 Sb2 Sb3
In order to reduce the switching losses, only one MOSFET is used to
design this PV battery charger. The ZVS and ZCS can be achieved by
using the suitable resonant parameters C1, and Lm and Lk1 (magnetiz- Fig. 17. Three phase interleaved synchronous mode bidirectional DC/DC converter
ing and leakage inductors) during the turn off and turn on the switch [93,94].
respectively. A bidirectional DC/DC converter (BDC) as shown in
Fig. 25 is proposed in [104]. This is obtained by integrating a dual- high dc link voltage is proposed in [106]. The pulsating current-source
active half-bridge with a traditional bB BDC. By adjusting the bB BDC (PCC) cells are integrated to the bridge before the isolation stage,
switches duty cycles, voltage matching control for the DAHB BDC is resulting in less part-count and flexibility in transformer design.
achieved. A boost composite DC/DC converter topology as shown in
Fig. 26, is introduced in [105]. It is a combination of three conventional 4. Modulation and control techniques
converter modules as buck, boost and DAB converters, where the last
one operates as a dc transformer (DCX). Each converter shares partial Various modulation techniques have been studied and developed to
power having reduced voltage rating. Despite the same active devices control the raising fields of power DC/DC converters. Commonly there
area and same magnetics size, improved efficiency and reduced are two switching control techniques for the switch-mode converter as
capacitor size are obtained compared to conventional boost topology. Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) and Phase-shift modulation (PSM). In
If the conversion ration of the buck, boost and DCX are Mbuck, Mboost some cases, PSM is also treated as phase-shift PWM (PS-PWM).
and NDCX respectively, then the system conversion ratio will be M = Between these two, the PWM has been widely utilized to control of
Mbuck × NDCX + Mboost. The Fig. 27 shows a multiple input isolated 3L switching-mode power DC/DC converters in several applications.
DC/DC converter applicable for renewable energy resources providing Generally, PWM control may be grouped in fixed-frequency (FF) and

Table 3
Switch stresses for different RCs [88,89].

Parameters Topology in Fig. 16 (a) Topology in Fig. 16 (b)

Thyristors Thyristors Max. values C613 (Silicon Power) Thyristors Thyristors Max. values C784 (Silicon Power)
T1-T4 T5-T8 T1-T4 T5-T8

Vpeak (kV) 113 11 57×2.1=120 96 87 27×4.4=119

Irms (kA) 0.38 0.025 0.475 1.25 0.063 1.65
dV/dt (V/μs) 25 25 400 10 4.4 1000
dI/dt (A/μs) 18 9 200 7 60 100

214
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

V1
L M
V2
+ +
L`
Vpv VDC Vpv VDC

- -

120%
Non inter.
100%
Two inter. Non-coupled
80%
Two inter. With coupled
60%
40%
20%
0%
Loss Weight

Fig. 18. (a) Two-phase (2P) interleaved DC/DC converter, (b) 2P interleaved converter incorporating reverse coupled inductor (ideal) and (c) comparisons of loss and weight after
inductor coupled [95].

variable-frequency (VF) PWM [107]. However, different modulation Table 4

techniques with various control schemes are applied in different power Comparison of several higher (16 and 36) phases interleaved converter topologies.
DC/DC converter topologies. Among these, the most widely studied
References [96] [97,98]
modulation and control strategies are mainly discussed in this section.
Parameters/ No. of phases 32 phases 16 phases 16 phases

4.1. Recent progress in modulation and control techniques Output power, P0 (kW) 1.0 1.0 45
Switching frequency, 150.0 82.0 100.0
fs(kHz)
The control methods for PWM HB DC/DC power converters may be MOSFET/ phase 2 (IRF7341) 2 (SI4450) 2 (IRFP4242)
classified into two main groups as voltage-mode control (VMC) and MOSFET case 1 (SO-8) 2 (SO−8) –
current-mode control (CMC) [51]. Besides these there are several Inductor core WE PD-47 RM7 ETD54
principles has been established such as feed-forward VMC (FFVMC), Inductor height (mm) 10.0 13.4 –
Total core vol. (cm3) – 21.2 35.5
peak CMC (PCMC), average CMC (ACMC), one cycle mode control Total inductor vol. (cm3) 36.2 63.4 –
(OCMC) and VCM are known as FF-PWM; whereas, hysteresis control Output capacitance (μF) 12.0 99.0 15.0
(HC) and sliding mode control (SMC) are treated as VF-PWM. On the Average current/ phase (A) 2.0 4.4 8.2 (at 5.1 kW)
other hand, only three among these algorithms: VCM, ACMC and Phase current ripple (%) 150.0 220.0 –
Heat sink Not used Not used Used
FFVMC suit for PSM are applied to a 3L-HB DC/DC converter in order
Control Digital (FPGA) Digital Digital (FPGA)
to compare the performances between PWM and PSM techniques in (FPGA)
[108]. In the case of less number of components use and high- Current sharing Passive Passive No current loop
reliability demand, the PWM control shows the better performance Efficiency (%) 93.0 full load 95.0 full load 94.9 (at 5.1 kW)
than PSM. In addition, asymmetric-PWM (APWM) [109], is also
proposed to achieve ZVS of HB converter instead of PS-PWM. In the

L + L
S1-1 S 1-2 +
S1-2 S 1-1 Vo
Vi
-
L
- L
Vi S2-1 Vo
S 2-2
S2-2
S 2-1

L L
S16-1 S 16-2
S 16-1
S16-2

(a) (b)
Fig. 19. Interleaved DC/DC converters. (a) 16 phase interleaved [96]. (b) 16 phase interleaved bidirectional [97,98].

215
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

L1
S b1 S1 S2
n1 n2
Lb n3
Cf
V bus
n2 S5
Vi S b1 S3 S4

Fig. 20. Integrated full-bridge-forward (I-FBF) DC/DC converter including a bidirectional converter [99].

L +
D1 D2 Aux
S1 Ls S1 S3
VW C1
D3 n:1
Vo Vi Lk +
Lp Co Vo
-
Cp
D4
V PV C2 S2 S2 S4
-
Fig. 23. Full-bridge converter with the resonant auxiliary circuit in each switch legs
Fig. 21. S-MIC DC/DC converter for hybrid PV and wind power application [100]. [102].

case of lower power ratings, where converters are usually designed by n 1 :n 2

MOSFETs, ZVS techniques are used to enhance the efficiency of the FB
converter [110,111]. On the other hand, ZCS principles are more
Lm C2
convenient, where IGBT are preferable to design the higher power +
converters as they have lower conduction losses than the MOSFET
V PV C PV L k1 L k2 C DC V DC
devices because of their voltage drop in the collector-emitter junction.
The ZCS can notable minimizes the tail of the device current during
turn-off period, which, therefore, enables the switching devices to -
operate with lower losses at the higher switching frequency. To achieve S C1
ZCS for the main switches in higher power PWM converters, the
complicated auxiliary circuit is used [112]. The SS is used in a PWM
buck and boost converter for interfacing ultracapacitors and batteries
Fig. 24. Single switch step-up DC/DC converter [103].
or FCs. In which, an auxiliary circuit is used just once moment in every
switching cycle [113]. Furthermore, three phase-PWM (3P-PWM)
strategy can also be applied to maintain the high efficiency and voltage n1 LC
boosting capability of power DC/DC converter [114].
Phase-shift (PS) control technique has been the attractive choice C1
among the various SS techniques suitable for PDDC, even also for S2 n2C2
Co
wider input voltage range for the semiconductor switches [47,115]. In Lk Vo
Vb
fact, for improved performances and better characterizations, the PS Cb S3 S4
control can be extended to single-PS (SPS) control [32,116–118],
S1
extended-PS (EPS) control [119–121], dual-PS (DPS) control [122–
124] and Triple-PS (TPS) control [125–127] are briefly explained in
this sub-section applying to a DAB isolated-bidirectional DC/DC power bB BDC Voltage doubler cell
converter (DABIBPC) as an example as shown in Fig. 28. The gate
Fig. 25. High step-up Bidirectional DC/DC converter (BDC) [104].
signal timing diagrams for these control strategies in corresponding to
the switches (S1-S4 and Q1-Q4) are available in [26]. In SPS scheme, the
diagonally-connected switch pairs of each FB are switched to generate
phase shift square wave with 50% duty cycle. By regulating the phase-

Lk1
L4 L1b
L1a Lk2
L1 L2 * L2a L3 L3a L4 a
L2b*
L3b Vo
Sc1 Sc2 Sc3 Sc4 Lk3
Vi L4b
S1 S2 S3 S4
Lk4
Fig. 22. Flyback-forward DC/DC converter [101].

216
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

Buck DC Transformer quite difficult. To develop a control scheme for stability analysis, TPS is
Mbuck (DCX) + applied under the change in arbitrary parameters. For this reason, a
NDCX numerical model is developed for the converter with TPS control,
which is a non-linear system [125].
Vo In order to supply an explosive power for very short tine interval
Boost together with quality output voltage will be possible in closed-loop
+
Vi Mboost control (CLC) system by creating electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
-
- issues with reduced efficiency. This limitation can be defeated in open-
loop control (OLC) techniques [130], are realistic if the converters
Fig. 26. Composite DC/DC converter topology [105].
output resistance is as lower as possible. To eliminate semiconductor
diode recovery process as well as converter wide power exchange
S1
L1n capacity with minimized operating frequency, a control strategy is
V1n Lo + known as Current-synchronized-control (CSC) proposed in [131],
L11 operating in hyper-resonant VF control (HR-VFC).
V11
In HR-VF mode, active switches operate at higher the resonance
S2 Vo
Co frequency, which, therefore, reduces the output power demand result-
L2n
ing in significantly less switching losses and losses in the isolated
V2n L21 magnetic components as well.
S3 In recent years, the sliding mode (SM) control idea has been
V21 -
considered to enhance the line/load regulation capacities of various
S4 switching DC/DC converters. This is due to its heartiness against
control parameter varieties and quick transient response of VSS
Fig. 27. Multiinput isolated 3 L DC/DC converter [106].
(Variable Structure Systems) control technique on “Discontinuous-
Non-linear” systems [132–136]. As describe earlier, the CM control is
Bridge H1 Bridge H2
also applicable for power DC/DC converters. The simplified general CM
control and SM control are shown in Fig. 29(a) and (b) respectively.
S1 S3 Q1 Q3
The principle objective of CM control technique is to restrict the

Vi Ci
L1
..
n:1
Co
Q2
S2 S4 Q4
Fig. 28. Topology of DAB-IBDC [26].
shift ratio between the equivalent ac output voltages of full-bridges, the
voltage over the transformer's leakage inductor will vary. At that point,
the power flow direction and magnitude can basically be controlled.
The EPS principle is an upgrade version of SPS with improved
efficiency and wider SS operation range and reduced current stress as
well. In this scheme, the diagonal switches pair of one FB is switched in
turn, while another FB’s switch pairs are switched with an inner phase-
shift ratio. The DPS control, in addition, a modification of PS is studied
to improve the dynamic and static performances of power DC/DC
converters. It controls both the phase shift between the two bridges and
the phase shift of the single bridge section which maintains the power
and voltage levels, while the conventional PS strategy just controls the
power flow between the sides. Unlike EPS, in DPS control, the inner
phase-shift ratio with same values is utilized to switch the diagonal
switch pairs in both FBs. The TPS control is similar to DPS, except the
inner phase-shift ratios in both of the bridges are same. As the
converters are not linear, especially the HP ZVS converters are non-
linear in behavior [128,129], their theoretical analysis of stability is
Vo
inductor peak / average current [137], by applying a sawtooth or ramp
waveform keeping in mind the end goal to keep up a consistent output
voltage. In this strategy the voltage-feedback is utilized to decide the
current reference, which is continuously compared with the voltage-
error-signal (VES) deduced from voltage reference and VES. For SM
control plan, on the other hand, the primary thought is to discover a
sliding surface for a specific linear combination of current and voltage
variables and constrain it to a fall between characterized limit values
[138]. This point can be accomplished if and just if the presence and
achieve capacity conditions are fulfilled. However, the fundamental
barrier for SM control execution is a marvel called ‘Chattering’ and
‘Bifurcation’ in control literature [139–141].
In order to reduce inductor current ripple two-edge-modulation
(TEM) techniques is proposed [142], where, half of the active switches
are leading edge modulated and the remaining switches are trailing
edge modulated. If all the switches operate at higher frequencies then it
is called as one-mode TEM. On the other hand, in two-mode TEM, only
half of the switches operate at higher frequencies, hence, switching loss
reduces compared to the first one. The bB converter applicable for
renewable energy sources, the input voltage variations are the very
common phenomenon. In such cases, converter swings between buck
mode and boost mode under two-mode TEM are its great problem. To
avoid this swing, a three-mode TEM has also proposed in the same
article [142], in which, a hysteresis, ΔV is introduced, and the converter
operates with two different frequencies of different modes, is known as
dual frequency three-mode TEM. Furthermore, for FB-boost converter

i
iL Ki HPF K
+
PI
+ + +
V K
VC + + - -
f
PI
Vref - V
- Gate +
Gate Drive
+
Drive

(a) (b)
Fig. 29. Generalized control scheme. (a) CM control and (b) SM control.

217
M.Z. Hossain et al.
a modified TEM is known as phase-shift TEM (PS-TEM) proposed [49],
which employs PS control for the FB module. Since the boundary input
voltage of the boost and FB modes moves with the output current in
view of the resonant devices, three-mode PS-TEM is additionally
proposed, in which the converter works in boost, FB boost and FB
modes in the lower, medium and higher input voltages respectively.
Space-vector-modulation (SVM) is one of the modulation principles
that has the more degrees of flexibility can be extended and popular-
ized surprisingly for even n-level converters using 2-D and 3-D SVM
algorithms [143–149]. The most usual characteristics of all the SVM
techniques may be divided into three main operating steps. The first
one is the selection of switching vectors or states for modulation. The
second stage processes the duty cycles (or On and Off times) of each
vector to accomplish the required reference over an average period, and
the last third stage is the arrangement in which the vectors are created.
An alternate methodology is Model Predictive Control (MPC) [150–
153], in which a model of the framework is considered keeping in mind
the end goal to anticipate the future characteristics of the variables over
a time span. The MPC is used due to its several benefits: the simple
inclusion of nonlinearities and constraints and the capability of
handling inherent discrete behaviors of power converters and drives
such as voltage regulation and peak current protection. To regulate the
output voltage without damaging the peak current constraint, the more
degrees of adaptability can be expanded and advanced shockingly for
DC/DC power converters utilizing Linear-MPC (LMPC) and Non-
linear-MPC (NL-MPC) [150]. Another extension of MPC is Finite-
control-set MPC (FCS-MPC) can also be applicable in power DC/DC
converter. As it has already been implemented in a NPC multilevel
converter (inverter), utilizing full prediction model of the conversion
system and the feedback is incorporated into the cost function, without
limiting the controlled variables error magnitude [153].
4.2. Other control techniques
The PSM is currently being actualized digitally in an expanding
number of situations. Digital execution of PSM such as Uniformly
sampled-PSM (USPSM) [154], in which, the phase-shift control
command is discrete in time and is created by an advanced digital
compensator, which overhauls its values on a clock cycle premise. A
recently developed new centric based controller, which is a combina-
tion of FF-PWM, and quick and reliable dynamics of geometric
controller proposed in [155]. A PWM module provides the switching
action in linear controllers, while, the circular trajectories also known
as average natural trajectories (ANT) in the state plane, order the duty-
cycle values. A fundamental duty modulation (FDM) is recommended
in [156], which uses the ideal arrangement of minimization of current
conduction got from the fundamental component analysis (FCA)
model. While the traditional modulation strategies specifically figure
the modulation signals, the FDM principle is to compute an ideal
arrangement of the modulation signals shown in a basic structure in
the key component domain. In this manner, with a straightforward
controller structure, FDM does not require a working mode grouping,
logged off computation, or current data. Nonetheless, the drawbacks of
DC-DC
PV RPV converter Load
IPV
MPPT
(a)
Fig. 30. Typical PV structure with MPPT and DC/DC converter. (a) Stand-alone system and (b) Grid-connected system.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
a FCA model are: the model can't reflect switching moments which
decides to switch attributes and the model is built upon guess ignoring
higher order Fourier coefficients. Hence, the working characteristics of
FDM including rms current level and ZVS switching are sometimes
studied by changing the FDM control technique in the time domain. A
periodic Bifrequency digital-PWM (BF-PWM) control technique has
proposed in order to reduce harmonics and improve digital-PWM
(DPWM) resolution in a PDDC, which uses two discrete frequencies
under a periodic modulation [157].
4.3. Control devices
Due to the dramatical advances of Very-large-scale-integration
(VLSI) technology, digital control of the aforementioned various
modulation and control techniques can be implemented by different
control devices as:
1. Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
2. Field Programming Gate Array (FPGA)
3. Custom Hardware
4. Combination form of software and custom hardware
The ability the DSP chip offers, by means of reprogramming and the
capacity of tending to numerous functions is counterbalanced by the
cost and speed of the DSP (29). FPGA, on the other hand, have the
ability of quicker operation than DSP, though they are expensive.
However, these are drawing in additional consideration and committed
attempt to verification in modeling, simulation, and design. Devoted
custom ICs is to be designed, layout and fabricated, despite that they
are less expensive than DSPs and FPGAs and offer better functioning.
Combination form of software and custom hardware are also used to
design PDDCs.
5. DC/DC converter with MPPT
Photovoltaic (PV) energy source is one of the notable parts of the
Global energy portfolio, and by 2040, it will become the leading source
of electricity globally, due to its cleanness; emission-free and renewable
electric power generation behavior with higher reliability [158,159].
However, the poor energy conversion efficiency is the remarkable
limitation to their growth. Therefore, maximum power extraction is
known as Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is essential to ensure
maximum available power harnessed from the PV panel [160–162].
Unfortunately, the output voltage of PV panels are relatively low and
varies with respect to sunlight intensity. In order to fulfill the required
input voltages to the load and inverter as well during MPPT realization,
a DC/DC converter as a Power processing unit (PPU) is utilized.
Dozens of MPPT techniques have been developed and implemented to
track the maximum power point of the PV modules [103,163,164].
However, the PV systems using DC/DC converters may be grouped into
two major categories corresponding to load interfacing as stand-alone
PV (SA-PV) system [165–167], and grid-connected PV (GC-PV) system
[168–171], pictured in Fig. 30(a) and (b) respectively. Different DDC
DC
bus
DC-DC
DC-AC
VBat converter
inverter Grid
(with
PV C
MPPT)
(b)
218
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

topological and control aspects related to MPPT techniques are

addressed in this section.

5.1. Different factors effect on MPPT

It has been uncovered that there is a trade-off between the expense

and reliability for parallel and series converters. The parallel DC/DC
converters design, in which each of them has its own particular MPPT,
the reliability quality is higher than series arrangement. On account of,
e.g. fractional shading on a few PV panels or when a PV module is
taken out from the framework is fit for working properly and the other
converters will have the capacity to take after their own MPPT to
provide the maximum power to the system. Nonetheless, this config-
uration requires high voltage quick recovery active devices, which are
at a performance versus cost disadvantages. However, the MPPT
performances in PV arrays depend on several parameters concerning
to the system such as DC/DC converter architecture, solar intensity,
temperature of PV array and load resistance magnitude, Rload. The
instantaneous tracking efficiency of a MPPT can be calculated by
considering all the aforementioned parameters as:
P (QA,TC ,Rload )
ηMPPT =
PM ,
where ηMPPT is the theoretical MPPT efficiency, and PM is the maximum
power under few specific environmental conditions (QA,TC and Rload ).
The effect of these parameters on the efficiency are not equal. The
Fig. 31(a) shows that the PV module short circuit current increases
with increase in solar irradiance, while the voltage change is very low
and significant effect on MPP [172]. In contrast, the effect of
temperature change on PV voltage is significantly and minor effect
on MPP as shown in Fig. 31(b) [172]. Again, if the value of Rload is not
matching to the DC/DC converter topology, MPPT capacity decreases.
Therefore, it is significant to present the MPPT performance of
converter in PV system, which can be derived by utilizing the numerical
relationship between the input resistance seen by the converter, which
means by equivalent resistance (ER) of PV module, RPV and load
resistance. For simplicity, the basic equation of a DC/DC buck
converter is considered here and hence the ER can be calculated as
in Eqs. (2) and (3) [15].
Vload = Iload Rload = DVPV = DIPV RPV
(a)
6 MPP
----------> Current (A)
Fig. 32. Effect of irradiance on capability of MPPT [172].
Rload
RPV =
D2 (3)
where Vload and Iload are the voltage and current at the load respectively,
VPV and IPV are the voltage and current of the PV module respectively. D
is the duty ratio of the gate control signal of the switching devices used
in converter. The Fig. 32 shows the effect of solar irradiance changes on
MPPT capability [172]. The lines A and B represent the highest values
(1) of ER corresponding to two different solar irradiances as QPV1 and
QPV2. It is seen from this figure that if Rload exceeds the line A for QPV1,
and line B for QPV2 respectively, the specific buck converter will not
extract maximum power from the PV module. The various parameters
of the other DC/DC converters, which are derived from the basic buck
and boost converters are tabulated in Table 5.
5.2. Comparison of MPPT performances
The performance of MPPT in different basic DC/DC converters
irrespective of various aspects can be explained from the literature and
Table 5. Among the four buck converters, FB and Push-pull with higher
winding ratio have the better MPPT capacity than the conventional
Buck and Forward converters, whereas, the circuit and control are less
complex of the latter two converters [172–178]. In addition, FB and
(2) Push-pull topologies are used for higher power application. The
forward, push–pull or FB converters have better MPPT capability with
the help of transformer compared to the conventional buck converters
due to their some constraints in terms of ER of PV module.
The Boost converter topologies are also utilized to obtain maximum

power from PV system [179–182]. The maximum load resistance

4

2 2
MPP
. increases with the decrease in solar irradiance, which, therefore,
degrades the MPPT performance for Boost topology. However, the
Buck-boost converter has better performance than the Buck and Boost
1000 W/m
600 W/m 2 Minor change architecture corresponding to wider input voltage handling capacity. In
0 addition, it has no constraints regarding solar irradiance on all load
0 5 10 15 20 25 conditions. Hence, the Buck-boost topologies are considered as the
----------> Voltage (V)
preferable choice for MPPT principle [183–185]. Furthermore, Flyback
(b) converters [186,187], and non-isolated Sepic and Cúk converters

6
.
Minor effect on MPP
[188–191], can be derived from the basic Buck-boost topologies. The
MPPT performance of Flyback converter is better than the conven-
----------> Current (A)

Negligible tional Buck-boost converter respect to response time at similar loading

difference
4 condition. Whereas the non-isolated Sepic and Cúk converters offer
some advantages over basic Buck-boost converters such as output
2 voltage polarity, voltage, and current ripple, and so on. The principle
T = 25 o C
Q= 1000 W/m 2 dissimilarity between the isolated and non-isolated is the duty cycle
T = 75 o C
0 change. From the literature it is seen that due to the small changes in
0 10 20 30 40 50
----------> Voltage (V) duty cycle compared to other non-isolated Buck-boost converters,
Flyback converter has higher tracking speed, resulting better overall
Fig. 31. Effect of irradiance and temperature on MMPT of DDC [172]. (a) I–V curve for
MPPT performances.
600 W/m2 and 1000 W/m2 and (b) I–V curve for different temperature of PV module.

219
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

Table 5
Comparison of MPPT performances in DC/DC converter [15,172–187].

Parameterstopology Equivalent resistance (RPV) Power circuit Control complexity Duty cycle change

Buck Buck RPV =

Rload Buck < Forward < Push-pull < FB Buck < Forward, Push-pull < FB Np
Buck < Push-pull, FB ( = 1.1)
D2 Ns
Forward ⎛ Np ⎞2 Np
R
= load < Forward ( = 1.5) < Push-pull,
RPV ⎜ ⎟ Ns
D 2 ⎝ Ns ⎠
Push-Pull / FB Rload ⎛ Np ⎞
2 Np
FB ( = 1.5)
RPV = ⎜ ⎟ Ns
2D 2 ⎝ Ns ⎠
Buck-Boost Buck-Boost (1 − D )2 Buck-Boost = Flyback < Sepic, Cúk Sepic, Cúk < Flyback, Buck-Boos Flyback > Buck–Boost,
RPV = Rload
D2 Sepic, Cúk
Flyback ⎛ Np ⎞2 (1 − D )2
RPV = Rload ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ns ⎠ D2
Cúk / Sepic –
Boost RPV = Rload (1 − D )2 – – –

Np
N.B.: is the primary and secondary winding ratio of the DC/DC converter.
Ns

6. Design and optimization
The design of different parameters is a significant focus in order to
achieve the optimize performances of PDDCs. Typically a power DC/
DC converter contains the following major components:
• Passive components (Filters / HF Transformers)
• Active Devices (Semiconductor switches and Diodes)
• Control and Driver circuits
• Interconnections
• Packaging elements
• Thermal management
However, the sizing and selection criterion of these parameters
strongly depend on the various factors, e.g., power rating, topology
used, operating frequency, type of application, etc. Hence, not only
design, optimizations are also the important research focuses as well,
briefly described in this section.
6.1. Passive component design and optimization
During the PDDC filter design, especially output filter (Lo and / or
Co), there are some significant constraints must be counted. At the
steady state condition, the output voltage must agree with maximum
ripple (ΔVmax), ΔVop-p < ΔVmax, where ΔVop-p is the peak-peak value of
output voltage ripple [192]. Dynamic behavior, efficiency, and cost also
rely on filter parameters, and a designer has to keep in mind to
optimize of these features as well. An acceptability boundary curves
(ABC) based output filter design method is developed in [192], which
limiting the region in the space parameters. The output filter inductor
Lo operates as a filter component to reduce the ripple at the output side
due to the HF switching, resulting the increase of the converter
efficiency. Therefore, sizing of the filter inductor depends upon the
required filtering and to achieve the HP density [91]. Furthermore, the
low frequency (LF) ripple puzzle is also an important point need to be
resolved in designing HF power converters [193,194]. Some design
directions were also appeared as to achieve higher efficiency. Given an
allowable voltage ripple (ΔVo) magnitude for a MM-HPDDC, the filter
parameters (Lo and Co), based on [91] can be determined by
θ1
Vo
m m ⎡ ⎧ ⎫ ⎤
Lo =
2πfΔL oT
∫ ∑ ⎢⎣ π2 sin ⎨⎩ωt+ (k−1) π
m ⎭ ⎦
⎬−1⎥ dωt
θ 2 k =1
m (4)
where Vo,ΔIL oT ,m, and f are converter output voltage, total inductor
current ripple, number of modules and switching frequency respec-
tively. Indeed, inductor used in PDDC at high frequencies, which is the
main cause of inductor losses rather than lower inductance values.
Therefore, this losses generally consists of inductor core loss and
winding loss, due to core materials, and DC and AC resistances (RDC
and RAC) of winding respectively as shown in Table 6. This is based on
the design described in [98]. In where it is seen that the core loss of
ferrite materials is much lower than powered materials. Low-pass (LP)
input filter is also utilized to reduce PDDCs switching ripple to worthy
levels [195,196]. However, the conventional LP filter utilization limited
with significant drawbacks such as increasing of parallel path impe-
dance at high frequency due to capacitor parasitic inductance, and
volume and cost of magnetic components as well [197,198].
In order to eliminate these limitations, Coupled-magnetic (CM)
filter is developed, which boosts the filter order and provides higher
robustness [199]. Moreover, literature [200,201] have analyzed the
efficiency and power density optimization by optimizing different
parameters including switching frequency, switching devices, transfor-
mer, etc. The Fig. 33 shows the possible optimization step by step
procedures as a flowchart presentation, in which the converter specific
design ratings such as input and output voltages, output power,
temperature boundary, material features and so on are the initial stage
of the optimization process. Including these specifications, the starting
values for the complimentary parameters like NP, NS or CS, LS/LOUT
have to be preselected by the designer [200,201].
High-frequency transformer (HFT) is also a key component for
PDDC design, which directly effects the performances. The benefits of
using HFT in power converters like as low volume and light weight,
which also increases the converter power density and low cost. There
are different types of transformers that can utilize power converter
design such as U-core type, which is based on single magnetic core with
both legs winding [202], shell type containing of two pairs of U type
cores with E-core configuration [202,203], matrix type consisting by
interwiring several magnetic cores in series or parallel [204], etc. In
order to optimize winding designs of the HFT, a hybrid strategy for
particle swarm optimization and differential development is proposed
for HP converter in [205]. All together to enhance the operation
execution of PDDCs at light load, a transformer with double leakage
inductor and VF is proposed in [206]. The proposed double HFT has a
winding design that yields a high leakage inductance at low current and
vice versa. Like [206], a versatile inductor is proposed as the principle
energy transfer component, in which, the output current is used as
inductor bias current [207].

ΔIL oT
Co =
2πfmΔVo (5)

220
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

Table 6
Inductor losses for different materials [98].

Core material μ Ie (cm) Ae (cm2) Ve (cm3) Turns N Bpk (mT) Core loss (W) PDC_loss PAC_loss
Parameters (W) (W)

Xflux (powered) 135.00 10.74 1.99 21.30 6.00 132.90 63.90 –

−66 (Powered) 130.00 33.1 5.24 173.00 6.2 49.6 88.20
3F3 (Ferrite) 1660.00 12.70 2.80 35.5 6.60 86.95 2.00
3C94 (Ferrite) 1770.00 12.70 2.80 35.5 6.50 87.85 1.60 1.420 13.80

6.2. Active devices
Power DC/DC converters may be categorized into three major
groups as low-voltage non-isolated (LV-NI), LV-isolated (LV-I) and
HV-isolated (HV-I) in the aspect of voltage levels in different applica-
tions. The very common applications of LV-NI PDDCs are in tele-
communication and automotive fields. In these field the significant
point of consideration is the cost because of as low as possible cost
requirements and market competition. The weight and power density
are also important for both of the areas. In recent years, the most key
parameter is efficiency, especially in renewable energy application. In
the case of automotive applications such as EV or HEV, DDCs are used
as power management devices in between batteries, supercapacitors
and/or FCs providing bi-directional power flows [208,209], in where
power MOSFET and/ or IGBT are chosen as switching devices. A
comparison study between HPDDCs for HEV or FCV, one build by Si-
MOSFET and the other one by Si-IGBT with anti-parallel novel SiC
diode has analyzed [210]. The result shows that despite the utilization
of SiC devices, the later one is more cost efficient whether the chip size
required for Si-MOSFET technology is greatly higher even to keep the
low conduction losses. The LV-I DDCs are widely used in telecommu-
nication power supply, in where often, resonant type or FB converters
are applied. References [211,212] have analyzed such type of LV-I
HPDDCs using MOSFET and diodes (APT5OM75 and APT10OS20
both from Microsemi), where, power density optimization has also
developed. In addition, thermal management has studied in [213], in
which Microsemi 500V MOSFETs (APT5OM72B2) has chosen to build
the converter as well.
The researchers choice for high switching frequency (> 10 kHz)
converter switches are the MOSFET and IGBT with blocking voltage up
to the 1.2 kV. However, these are usually unattractive for HV and HP
converter applications as the requirement of higher number of
modules. Although due to higher switching losses the switching
frequency is constrained to around 1 kHz. Thus for HV-HP converters,
the widely utilized switching devices are the IGBT with the maximum
blocking voltage up to 6.5 kV [214] and the integrated gate commu-
tated thyristor (IGCT) with maximum breakdown voltage up to 6.9 kV
[215]. However, with the innovative advancement of semiconductor
devices manufacturing, this frequency limitation is overcome, and a HV
(12 kV/ 1.2 kV) isolated-bidirectional HPDDC operating at 20k Hz
switching frequency has studied for renewable energy application
[216]. In this conversion system, the DAB with triangular modulation
and series-resonant (SR) converter with FF technique are considered,
in where two types of HV IGBTs are utilized at the HV side as 4.5 kV

Specialization of the
parameters

Initial values of the free

parameters

Model of the (integrated)

Transformer / Output
inductors

Calculation of the Operating

Points

Transformer /
Output inductor
optimization
Reduction of Degrees of Volume of Losses in the
Freedom (Window width / Filter / Semiconductor
LPF) Resonant s
Capacitors
Losses of the Trans. / induc.
as function of Geometry Volume of the
Cooling
System
Hot-spot temperature as
function of Geometry

Global Optimization Algorithm

Minimization of the Transf. / Minimization of the Overall Volume
induc. + Heat sink volume and/ or
Maximization of the Efficiency

Fig. 33. Automatic step by step process for optimizing the HPDDC efficiency [200,201].

221
M.Z. Hossain et al.
Powrex IGBT and 4.5 kV Pres-Pack IGBT. As aforementioned, the
bipolar like as MOSFET, IGBT, IGCT, etc. devices are limited by
switching speed and higher switching losses, and hence alternate
solution has been developed by introducing unipolar SiC JFEET device,
which offers higher off-state voltage, faster switching and enable to
cascade connection [217]. These are as higher blocking voltage up to
6.5 kV and only 5–6 A current SiC JFEET from SiCED also available
[216]. Another bidirectional DAB HV (5 kV/700 V) HPDDC has
developed by cascading cooperatively lower voltage (1.5 kV, 8 A) SiC
JFEETs at HV side and 600 V IGBTs at LV side with higher switching
frequency (50 kHz) [218]. However, a details performance comparison
between SiC and Si devices for power converter applications has
analyzed in [53], and the result shows overall better performances,
and even some specific cases are not achievable with Si devices.
Furthermore SiC, other wide band gap material based devices as GaN
offers better material properties, having lower gate charge and also
smaller output capacitance [219].
7. Real field applications of PDDC
As can be seen from above, several research efforts are inscribing
the PDDCs issue as a key component in the field of renewable energies
like as PV, wind power, FC, HVDC power transmission and distribution
system and so on. The use of these switch mode converters has been
widely expanded in a wide range of applications in recent years because
of their compactness, lower weight, high effectiveness and power
density, and different points of interests. Therefore, the various
applications of PDDCs are highlighted in brief in this section.
7.1. PV power
Grid-connected PV (GC-PV) systems may be classified on the basis
of converter applications into three sub-classes: the modularized type,
string or multistring type and central type, and ratings may be as small
scale (< 2 kW), medium scale (2–5 kW) and large scale (> 5 kW)
respectively [95,220–222]. Generally, the LV and low current (LC)
outputs, and the higher initial investment of the first PV system type
due to demand of individual converter with MPPT for each PV module
may be become it unpopular for HP applications, as shown in
Fig. 34(a). In contrast, currently, the latter two topologies are used
Grid
dc dc
dc ac
PV
Module
(a)
dc
PV PV
String String
(c)
Fig. 34. Grid connected PV systems. (a) Modularized type. (b) String type [222]. (c) Central type [1].
222
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
for interfacing the higher power PV plants [1]. The string or multistring
structure utilizes a DDC for each string to supply a DC-bus, which is
connected to a central grid inverter as shown in Fig. 34(b). The notable
advantages of this principle are enhanced modularity, the capability to
connect various type of modules in spite of DDC in each string,
separating of grid inverter and string DDC control resulting of string
independent MPPT, boosting the output power which increases con-
verter efficiency and long period functioning. Nevertheless, the high
expense, and implementing complexity due to extra converters, sensors
and controls are its principle limitations.
The centralized configuration as shown in Fig. 34(c), on the other
hand, a large number of PV modules are connected in series, which
make a string and several this type of string are paralleled in order to
achieve required voltage in string and power level in the PV plant. Then
the DC power is interfaced to the grid by DC/AC converter through a
key component of the PV system is like a central DDC. The main
benefits of this configuration are the architectural and control simpli-
cities and cost reduction. Contrastingly, it also suffers by some barriers:
as single MPPT for the entire PV system is influenced by significant
modules partial shading and mismatch, it provides comparatively lower
output power
Hence, the PV module that converts PV power (PVP) directly to the
electric power (EP) is the most efficient way of utilizing PV energy.
However, in the case of large scale PV system, the HP DC/AC converter
is the key element of the system to supply the EP to the grid, in where
DC/DC converter is essential to achieve MPPT of PV modules. The
various features of passive components of a HPDDC (2 MW) for HP-PV
system are studied in [95]. However, in this single HPDDC topology for
large scale PV system needs too bulky and costly filter components to
satisfy the following HP inverter for grid connection. Two DDCs are
also used in PV, one of which is a high step-up converter converts low
PV voltage to higher voltage (380 V for FB and 760 V for HB) as
demand to the inverter, whereas, the other one is bidirectional DC/DC
converter to provide the energy supply continuity by charging and
discharging battery during poor grid condition [4].
7.2. Wind power
Presently, the attraction of offshore wind farms (OWF) has been
dramatically expanded due to their higher and stable wind speed,
Grid
dc dc
PV modules dc ac
dc
PV modules dc
(b)
Grid
dc
ac
dc
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

AC/DC MV DC/DC Grid

Wind turbine rectifier converter MVDC bus
generator
HV DC/DC
~ = converter
= VLV = VMV HVDC
1 kV 40 kV
transmisssion
=
= VHV
~ =
= =
Fig. 35. Simplified schematic of OWF with MVDC-grid collection and HVDC transmis-
sion with MV and HV HPDDCs [3].
which prompt a higher power generation; longer life span, reduced
noise, and visual impact and area crisis of large wind farms [223,224].
The DC/DC power conversion arrangements are turning out to be more
famous for satisfying the developing difficulties in the HVDC offshore
wind power system. The power electronic converter system used in
OWF may be classified into three main categories [3,91,225]. The
widely used system in the existing WF is as conventional MVAC output
of each WT is connected to HVAC transmission through a MVAC to
HVAC line frequency transformer (LFT) is the first one. The second one
is the MVAC output is step-up by AC transformer and then rectified to
HVDC. Finally, an HV inverter fed the electric power to grid on the land
[226]. The IGBT based HVDC transmission system manufactured by
ABB and installed in BorWin OWF in Germany in 2009 is the first
worldwide [227]. The main limitation of these two systems is the using
of heavy LFT in OWF. To overcome this problem many researchers
have introduced different architectures as the third category is a DC
system, utilizing MV-HPDDCs and / or HV-HPDDCs [60,85,228]. In
this architecture, the output voltage of every WT is collected and
converted to MVDC level, after that, the output power of a few wind
turbines is collected and feed to an offshore platform, by then, the main
HV-HPDDC converter is used for converting up MVDC to HVDC power
for transmission. A simplified form of this type of system is shown in
Fig. 35. Hence, the HPDDCs should be efficient, more minimized size,
and exceptionally reliable because of a more complex equipment’s
related from the shore to the establishment destinations and viability of
the wind turbines.
A dozen of manufacturers have been designing and supplying
various types of OWT to different sites worldwide, among those few
WTs with their key features has addressed in Table 7 [229]. From
Table 7, it is seen that Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
(PMSG) type systems are utilized by six manufacturers, Induction
Generator (IG) system is used by Siemens (SWT-4.0-130), Vestas
(V117-3.45 MW) and Envision; whereas, Double Fed-IG (DFIG)
systems is used only in 2-B Energy. The triple digit of the turbine type
in the second column of Table 7 normally indicates the rotor diameter.
For example, the turbine type V164-8.0 MW, the rotor diameter is
AC bus PCC switch
150 kV
AC AC load/
DC PHEV
DC bus
DC DC DC DC load
AC DC DC
Biofuel Storage
PV
Gen. /PHEV
Fig. 36. Residential micro grid system [99].
164 m. The maximum generator power rating is 8.0 MW, and if the
power rating of an individual WT increase continuously will reduce the
installation cost of WTs, especially of OWFs. Therefore, the MV-
HPDDC power rating will be the same as the generator power rating.
Furthermore, the input voltage of the DDC is the generator output
voltage (usually 400 ~ 690 VAC).
However, in order to minimize the cable conduction losses, the WT
generator output voltage try to increase continuously, and higher
voltages output like 1 KVAC, 3.3 KVAC, 4 KVAC, and so on are also
available [88,230]. The DDC output voltage, i.e., the MV grid voltage
depends on the overall voltage gain between the WT generator and the
HVDC line, and the availability of MVDC cables as well, and ranges
may fluctuate from 30 to 60 KVDC [3]. There are various PDDC
topologies have been used in OW power applications, for example,
cascaded with Boost and Buck/Boost [231], MM-resonant [91], DAB
and SRC [216], SAB [60], unidirectional-resonance [88], etc. The
semiisolated multiinput DC/DC converter (S-MIC) has described in
[100], applicable both for PV and wind power. Therefore, it simplifies
the system, reduced cost and delivers uninterrupted power flows.
7.3. MV/HV DC power system
In the future, Smart grid (SG) and Distributed grid (DG) will play a
significant role in power system arena and DC grid will coexist with
conventional AC system. One of the key-empowering equipment for
HVDC and MVDC grids is the DC/DC converter. This DC/DC converter
must be highly efficient, simple to control and with redundant facilities.
Hybrid unidirectional or asymmetric architecture of power conversion
system has less power loss and total cost compared to conventional
VSC multiterminal systems [232]. The PDDC converters are also an
essential component to connect the energy- sources-storage devices to
the micro-grid (MG). The residential MG system shown in Fig. 36
consists of two distributed sources, PV and biofuel, and a battery bank

Table 7
Offshore wind turbines (OWTs) [229].

Parameters Turbine type Generator Power rating (MW) Features

Manufacturer Country

Vestas (Denmark) V164–8.0 MW MSG-PMG 8.00 500 tons head mass with Flanged tube-shaped drivetrain
Siemens (Germany) SWT-7.0–154 DD-PMG 7.00 Service friendly and favorable head mass with a single rotor bearing.
GE Haliade (US/France) 150–6 MW DD-PMG 6.00 Pure-torque decouples rotor-bending moments and generator drive torque.
2-B Energy (Netherlands) 2B6 HSG-DFIG 6.00 Radical two-blade pitch-controlled downwind design with the non-integrated drivetrain.
Hitachi HTW5.0–126 (Japan) HTW5.0–126 MSG-PMG 6.00 Three-blade pitch-controlled downwind design, stationary main shaft supports the
rotor.
Aerodyn (Germany) 6 MW SCD MSG-PMG 6.00 Two-blade downwind turbine with semi-integrated drivetrain.
Siemens (Germany) SWT-4.0–130 SG-IG 4.00 Scaled-up and upgrade development of the SWT-3.6–120.
Vestas (Denmark) V117–3.45 MW HSG-IG 3.45 IEC 1A standard satisfies, and upgraded and optimized from initial Vestas V112–
3.0 MW model.
Adwen (Spain/France) AD 5–135 LSG-PMG 5.00 Upgrade of M5000–116 with low-speed hybrid-drive design.
Envision (Denmark/ China) 4.0–136 HSG-IG 4.00 Traditional drivetrain, main shaft and two rotor bearings.

223
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

Port 1 Port 2 DC Link

A A Bus
AC DC DC AC-DC Isolated
AC Input DC Output

Interleaving of DC links
DC DC AC PFC C DC-DC Vo
Vi Filter Filter
Converter Converter
AC DC DC
DC DC AC

AC DC DC
DC DC AC X DSP /
Microcontroller
A
AC DC DC
X X Fig. 39. Universal-input battery charger system for EV/ PHEV [20].
DC DC AC
Port 3

Fig. 37. Three-port UNIFLEX-PM system based on PDDCs and CHB MCs [234].
as storage device. The MG can supply to both the DC and AC loads as
well as PHEV [99]. Besides these, galvanic isolation with high-voltage
insulation level is required not just for safety purpose yet, additionally,
when a number of converters operate in parallel and in series
connection. Moreover, the DC/DC converters must have the capability
of bi-directional power flow regarding energy storage and MG systems
as well [233].
A bidirectional high-step ratio HPDDC applicable for HVDC
transmission or interfacing to Flexible AC transmission (FACT) is
reported in [89]. The Universal Flexible Power Management
(UNIFLEX-PM) system can provide optimized interconnecting facil-
ities with different distributed energy resources, energy storage inter-
connection and management, transmission / distribution optimization,
quality of supplies and superior control access over the network. Fig. 37
presents a PDDC based three port UNIFLEX-PM system, which is fit
for interconnecting three different points of common coupling are
figured as three-phase networks. It consists a back-to-back (B2B)
connection of 3P-CHB multilevel converters (MCs) with PDDC con-
verter and MFT in order to decouple the grids and offer galvanic
isolations [234].
7.4. Automobiles and other applications
Another interesting field for PDDC is the automotive applications,
especially in electric vehicle (EV) / hybrid-EV (HEV) / plug-in-HEV
(PHEV) / fuel-cell vehicle (FCV). Vehicles energy storage devices are in
low voltage and low power range. Therefore, DC/DC converters needed
for this field with the key characterization of high step-up ratio, higher
power density due to space limitation, and high efficiency. Many
researchers have proposed various types of DC/DC converter based
power management system in automotive applications [20,30,235–
240].
A HEV energy management system consists of a bidirectional DC/
DC converter which allows the power flow between the LV batteries
and DC bus as shown in Fig. 38(a) is proposed [235]. Similar to
Fig. 38(a), FCV can also be designed with a DC/DC converter to enable
energy transfer between the LV battery and HV FC, in which bidirec-
tional DC/DC converter plays a significant role in the energy manage-
ment system, shown in Fig. 38(b). Furthermore, a universal schematic
diagram of EV/ PHEV as shown in Fig. 39, where AC/DC inverter is
used as the power factor correction (PFC) function followed by a PDDC,
which provides regulated DC output voltage [20].
Power DC/DC converters are also widely used in telecommunica-
tion power systems [8,25,36,241]. In general, the DC output from AC/
DC rectifier followed by a HF DC/DC converter to provide required
output voltage with higher current is used in telecom application. In
where, usually the input voltage is as wide as 36–75 V, whereas, for
server and other PC applications, the range is restricted and generally
42–53 V [242]. However, the output voltages for most of the modern
telecommunication systems is as 12 V or 48 V [8,241]. A 550 V/48 V
DC distribution system for server power supply is shown in Fig. 40, in
which a Uninterruptable power supply (UPS) is utilized to supply the
Power distribution unit (PDU) from a MV bus through an isolated DC/
DC converter as Power conversion unit (PCU), and then another same
type DC/DC converter as Power supply unit (PSU) to deliver power to
the server [241]. The Fig. 41 also demonstrates a generalized schematic
diagram of the telecommunication DC power supply system, in which
more than one PDDCs are used to step-up the LV (Usually 48 V) of
batteries, and deliver power to various cards through shelf bus-bar or
different system’s backplane [25]. The MV and HV DC/DC converter
can also be used in subsea power transmission and distribution system
[10], in order to supply power to distribution system containing
variable speed drivers as shown in Fig. 42. Another shipboard MVDC
power system has proposed, in which, several number of MV con-
verters (both AC/DC and DC/DC) are used in different stages, to
transfer power from generation to various loads as shown in Fig. 43, as
a simplified form [9].
8. Design recommendation and future trends
8.1. General design recommendation
As per the past examination, the general should that the topology
selection is the initial step, the optimization of the modulation and
control strategy is the next step, the choice of the active devices is the
third stage, and design of the passive devices (filter and transformer if
necessary) is the fourth part, and finally the hardware package have to
be optimized.
From the analysis of the several architectures of PDDCs in article 3,

Bidirectional
Bidirectional DC-DC
DC-DC
converter
converter
Fuel Cell Generator DC-AC
DC-AC
stack inverter
inverter

Batteries Batteries
Motor Engine Motor
Energy Management Energy Management
Transmission

(a) (b)
Fig. 38. DC/DC converter based energy management systems [235]. (a) HEV and (b) FCV.

224
M.Z. Hossain et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230

PCU PDU
480V UPS PSU
MV 550V 48V 12V
AC DC DC DC
AC AC/ DC
DC/DC Server
DC DC

Storage

Fig. 40. Isolated DC/DC converter based server power supply system [241].

V1 applications, 3) predominant harmonic feature, 4) non-appearance of

48VDC DC-DC
Converter
V2 DC-link capacitors, etc. So, MMC is recommended as the top choice
#1 V3 from the voltage level, modularity and MP/HP application aspects.
Card Card Card
In control schemes of PDDCs, space-vector-modulation (SVM) has
#1 #2 #n
the significant degrees of flexibility to optimize switching waveforms
that can be extended and popularized surprisingly for even n-level
converters utilizing 2-D and 3-D SVM algorithms. It improves the
features such as computational expense, voltage distortion even in
worst unbalanced conditions, number of commutation of multilevel
Card Card Card converter’s, etc. where, the computational cost is very low and not
#n+1 #n+2 #n+m dependent of the number of levels. In addition, there is no effect of DC-
48VDC DC-DC
Converter link capacitance voltage unbalance on total harmonic distortion (THD),
#1 consequently, reduction in capacitance size and cost. Therefore, SVM
technique can be the optimal control method from these technical view
Fig. 41. Centralized DC/DC converter based power distribution system for telecommu- point. In selection of control devices, the custom hardware with a
nication [25]. combination of the processor-based controller is recommended as the
top choice of the researchers to get effectively implemented system
HV DC-DC
AC with optimization in costing and performance.
Rectifier Converter
Generator + HVDC MVDC In choosing semiconductor devices, due to the innovative advance-
+
G ~~ = ment of wide bandgap (WBG) devices in assembling has brought a
= = - significant change of the working voltage range for unipolar devices
-
and of the switching speed compared with silicon devices in PDDCs
Variable design. Therefore, the silicon carbide (SiC) or gallium nitride (GaN) as
Speed = = WBG materials based power devices are recommended.
Driver ~~ ~~ The key parameters such as input and output voltages Vi and Vo,
switching frequency fs have to be specified. Usually the first two terms
Induction
Machine
M M depend on applications as briefly described in article 7, whereas the fs
mainly depends on topology and active devices used. In passive
Fig. 42. HV-PDDC based DC subsea power transmission and distribution system [10]. component design, low loss components are recommended.
Therefore, for output filter inductor Lo, it is seen from the Table 6
MV DC
that ferrite materials has much lower core loss than powered materials.
Bus
This can be also used for leakage inductance, Ls (if necessary). For
G1 ~~ = =~ M1
magnetic component (transformer), recommendation is the iron-based
= = nanocrystaline material with shell type configuration. Because the
cooling of the shell type model is done by conduction, which is simpler
than cooling by convection [202]. In addition, this type is easier to
G2 ~~ = = Mn
design.
~
= = The hardware packaging of PDDCs mainly depends on the topology
used. In general, integrating several components into a single module
LV AC is recommended structure, which minimizes the total number of
= =~ loads components used in the converter, and increases power density,
= flexibility and reliability as well.

Gn ~~ = LV DC 8.2. Future research trends

= = = loads
=
Fig. 43. Multi converters based onboard MVDC power system [9].
FB topologies are widely used as PDDCs in various circuit configura-
tions. However, in recent years, the MC topology, especially the MMC
has significant attraction in the scholarly community and industrial
sector as well for MP and HP applications. In comparisons with other
converter topologies, the remarkable elements of the MMC include: 1)
its modularity and adaptability to meet any voltage level prerequisites,
2) its high efficiency, which is of critical significance for MP / HP
In perspective of the research status of PDDCs previously stated,
many researchers worldwide have focused on the fundamental char-
acteristics, architecture, modulation and control strategies, design and
optimization, and several applications. However, the future power DC/
DC converter will be essential with the following key features:
i) Low loss, higher voltage and current, and higher operating
temperature switching devices,
ii) Low loss passive elements with HF transformer,
iii) Overall low losses with DC fault handling capabilities.

225
M.Z. Hossain et al.
The common features are low loss, that is, higher efficiency, whence
lower size, compact and cost effective, etc., with higher reliability for
specific environmental conditions. In addition, electrical and mechan-
ical optimizations based on novel WBG materials like SiC/ GaN with
higher temperature and higher power density, optimization of effective
modulation and control techniques, and proper utilization of multi-
modular architecture will also be the further research key issues.
9. Conclusion
Power DC/DC converters are widely considered as the significant
part of renewable energy, automobile, next HVDC, MVDC and many
other systems. This paper has reviewed the current state of the art in
PDDC technologies by figuring the most recent contribution to
topologies, modulation and control techniques, MPPT effects, para-
meter selection and performance optimization, and emerging applica-
tions. From the aforementioned discussion, it can clearly be remarked
that PDDCs have proved its level of maturity not only in commercially,
in academic development as well. However, the frequency and number
of publications and amount of industrially available patents have
dramatically multiplied in this arena disclose that there is a plenty of
room for further development to address the optimization and control
issues, especially low loss and cost with DC fault handling capability. In
addition, some design recommendations and further research demands
have also pointed out in this study. It can be concluded that the
advancement of semiconductor devices, the progress and success of the
passive components and industrial procedures along with the recently
required standards and regulations will drive and shape the future of
PDDCs innovation and applications.
Acknowledgement
The authors sincerely recognize the financial support incurred by
the High Impact Research (HIR) Grant (UM.C/625/1HIR/MOHE/
ENG/32) of University of Malaya, Malaysia to carry out this research.
References
[1] Blaabjerg F, Chen Z, Kjaer SB. Power electronics as efficient interface in dispersed
power generation systems. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2004;19:1184–94.
[2] Tie SF, Tan CW. A review of energy sources and energy management system in
electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;20:82–102.
[3] Chen W, Huang AQ, Li C, Wang G, Gu W. Analysis and comparison of medium
voltage high power DC/DC converters for offshore wind energy systems. IEEE
Trans Power Electron 2013;28:2014–23.
[4] Wuhua L, Xiangning H. Review of nonisolated high-step-up DC/DC converters in
photovoltaic grid-connected applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
2011;58:1239–50.
[5] Fernandez LM, Garcia P, Garcia CA, Jurado F. Hybrid electric system based on
fuel cell and battery and integrating a single dc/dc converter for a tramway. Energy
Convers Manag 2011;52(5):2183–92.
[6] Luth T, Merlin MMC, Green TC, Hassan F, Barker CD. High-Frequency Operation
of a DC/AC/DC System for HVDC Applications. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2014;29:4107–15.
[7] Ferreira Costa L, Mussa SA, Barbi I. Multilevel buck/boost-type DC-DC converter
for high-power and high-voltage application. IEEE Trans Ind Appl
2014;50:3931–42.
[8] Ratanapanachote S, Ju C Han, Enjeti PN. A digitally controlled switch mode power
supply based on matrix converter. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2006;21:124–30.
[9] Sulligoi G, Bosich D, Giadrossi G, Lin Z, Cupelli M, Monti A. Multiconverter
medium voltage DC power systems on ships: constant-power loads instability
solution using linearization via state feedback control. IEEE Transactions on
Smart Grid 5; 2014. 2543–52.
[10] de Sousa GJ, Heldwein ML. Three-phase unidirectional modular multilevel
converter. In: Proceedings of the 15th European conference on power electronics
and applications (EPE); 2013, p. 1–10.
[11] Yu T, Dongjin F, Ting W, Zhiwei X. Hybrid switched-inductor converters for high
step-up conversion. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2015;62:1480–90.
[12] Lüth T, Merlin MMC, Green TC, Barker CD , Hassan F, Critchley RW. et al. Choice
of AC operating voltage in HV DC/AC/DC system. In: Proceedings of the IEEE
power & energy society general meeting; 2013. p. 1–5.
[13] Sheridan CE. , Merlin M, Green T. Assessment of DC/DC converters for use in DC
nodes for offshore grids. In: Proceedings of the 10th IET international conference
on AC and DC power transmission (ACDC 2012); 2012. p. 1–6.
226
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
[14] Li W, He X. Review of nonisolated high-step-up DC/DC converters in photovoltaic
grid-connected applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2011;58:1239–50.
[15] Taghvaee MH, Radzi MAM, Moosavain SM, Hizam H, Marhaban M Hamiruce. A
current and future study on non-isolated DC–DC converters for photovoltaic
applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;17(1):216–27.
[16] Tomaszuk A, Krupa A. High efficiency high step-up DC/DC converters - a review.
Bull Pol Acad Sci-Tech Sci 2011;59:475–83.
[17] Fan Z, Peng FZ, Zhaoming Q, Study of the multilevel converters in DC-DC
applications. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 35th annual, power electronics
specialists conference. PESC 04. Vol.2; 2004, pp. 1702–1706.
[18] Kawamura A, Pavlovsky M, Tsuruta Y. State-of-the-art high power density and
high efficiency DC-DC chopper circuits for HEV and FCEV applications. In:
Proceedings of the 13th power electronics and motion control conference. EPE-
PEMC; 2008. p. 7–20.
[19] Tie SF, Tan CW. A review of energy sources and energy management system in
electric vehicles. Renew. Sustain Energy Rev. 2013;20:82–102.
[20] Williamson SS, Rathore AK, Musavi F. Industrial electronics for electric trans-
portation: current state-of-the-art and future challenges. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
2015;62:3021–32.
[21] Ahmed OA, Bleijs JAM. An overview of DC-DC converter topologies for fuel cell-
ultracapacitor hybrid distribution system. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2015;42:609–26.
[22] Kolli A, Gaillard A, De Bernardinis A, Bethoux O, Hissel D, Khatir Z. A review on
DC/DC converter architectures for power fuel cell applications. Energy Convers
Manag 2015;105:716–30.
[23] Kirubakaran A, Jain S, Nema RK. A review on fuel cell technologies and power
electronic interface. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:2430–40.
[24] Fernão Pires V, Romero-Cadaval E, Vinnikov D, Roasto I, Martins JF. Power
converter interfaces for electrochemical energy storage systems – a review [10//].
Energy Convers Manag 2014;86:453–75.
[25] Jain P, Pahlevaninezhad M, Pan S, Drobnik J. A review of high-frequency power
distribution systems: for space, telecommunication, and computer applications.
IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:3852–63.
[26] Biao Z, Qiang S, Wenhua L, Yandong S. Overview of dual-active-bridge isolated
bidirectional DC-DC converter for high-frequency-link power-conversion system.
IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:4091–106.
[27] Lachichi A. DC/DC converters for high power application: A survey. In:
Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on electric power and energy
conversion systems (EPECS); 2013. p. 1–4.
[28] Morman WH, Ramsey MH, Hoft RG. 50-kW thyristor DC-to-DC converter. IEEE
Trans Ind Appl 1972;IA-8:617–35.
[29] Schwarz FC, Klaassens JB. A controllable secondary multikilowatt dc current
source with constant maximum power factor in its three phase supply line. In:
Proceedings of the power electronics specialists conference. IEEE; 1975. p. 205–
15.
[30] Bellur, DM, Kazimierczuk, MK. DC-DC converters for electric vehicle applications.
in electrical insulation conference and electrical manufacturing expo; 2007. p.
286–93.
[31] Nakaoka M, Vietson NM, Maruhashi T, Nishimura M. High-power switching
regulator type DC-DC converters controlled by time-sharing high-frequency
thyristor choppers with energy-storage and -transfer reactors. IEEE Trans Magn
1979;15:1794–6.
[32] De Doncker RWAA, Divan DM, Kheraluwala MH. A three-phase soft-switched
high-power-density DC/DC converter for high-power applications. IEEE Trans
Ind Appl 1991;27:63–73.
[33] Eno OA, Thompson DS, Coppin J. High power resonant topology for DC-DC
converter. In: European conference on power electronics and applications; 2005.
p. 7.
[34] Canales F, Barbosa P, Lee FC, A wide input voltage and load output variations
fixed-frequency ZVS DC/DC LLC resonant converter for high-power applications.
In: Proceedings of the 37th IAS annual meeting. Conference record of the industry
applications conference. vol. 4; 2002. p. 2306–13.
[35] Jacobs J, Averberg A, Doncker RDe. A novel three-phase DC/DC converter for
high-power applications. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 35th annual power
electronics specialists conference. PESC 04. Vol.3; 2004. p. 1861–67.
[36] Kolar JW, Zach FC. A novel three-phase utility interface minimizing line current
harmonics of high-power telecommunications rectifier modules. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 1997;44:456–67.
[37] Changrong L, Johnson A, Jih-Sheng L. Modeling and control of a novel six-leg
three-phase high-power converter for low voltage fuel cell applications. In:
Proceedings of the IEEE 35th annual power electronics specialists conference.
PESC 04. Vol. 6; 2004. p. 4715–21.
[38] Jung-Goo C, Ju-Won B, Chang-Yong J, Dong-Wook Y, Kee-Yeon J. Novel zero-
voltage and zero-current-switching full bridge PWM converter using transformer
auxiliary winding. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2000;15:250–7.
[39] Eun-Soo K, Tae-Jin K, Young-Bok B, Tae-Geun K, Yoon-Ho K. High power full
bridge DC/DC converter using digital-to-phase-shift PWM circuit. In: Proceedings
of the IEEE 32nd annual power electronics specialists conference. vol. 1. PESC;
2001. p. 221–5.
[40] Walter J, Doncker RWDe. High-power galvanically isolated DC/DC converter
topology for future automobiles. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 34th annual
proceedings of the power electronics specialist conference. Vol.1. PESC '03; 2003.
p. 27–32.
[41] Junming Z, Fan Z, Xiaogao X, Dezhi J, Zhaoming Q. A novel ZVS DC/DC
converter for high power applications. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2004;19:420–9.
M.Z. Hossain et al.
[42] Zhu L. A novel soft-commutating isolated boost full-bridge ZVS-PWM DC-DC
converter for bidirectional high power applications. In: Proceedings of the IEEE
35th annual power electronics specialists conference. Vol. 3. PESC 04; 2004. p.
2141–46.
[43] Mason AJ, Jain PK. New ZVS-PSM-FB DC/DC converters with adaptive energy
storage for high power SOFC application. In: Proceedings of the conference record
of the 2005 IEEE industry applications conference fortieth IAS annual meeting.
Vol. 1; 2005. p. 607–13.
[44] Pavlovsky M, de Haan SWH, Ferreira JA. "Concept of 50 kW DC/DC converter
based on ZVS, quasi-ZCS topology and integrated thermal and electromagnetic
design. In: Proceedings of the European conference on power electronics and
applications; 2005. p. 9.
[45] Prasad AR, Ziogas PD, Manias S. Analysis and design of a three-phase offline DC-
DC converter with high frequency isolation. In: Proceedings of the conference
record of the 1988 IEEE industry applications society annual meeting. Vol.1;
1988. p. 813–20.
[46] Oliveira DS, Barbi I. A three-phase ZVS PWM DC/DC converter with asymmetrical
duty cycle for high power applications. In: Proceedings of the 34th IEEE annual
power electronics specialist conference. PESC '03. Vol. 2; 2003. p. 616–21.
[47] Changrong L, Johnson A, Jih-Sheng L. A novel three-phase high-power soft-
switched DC/DC converter for low-voltage fuel cell applications. IEEE Trans Ind
Appl 2005;41:1691–7.
[48] Pereira DD, Da Silva MR, Silva EM, Tofoli FL. Comprehensive review of high
power factor ac-dc boost converters for PFC applications. Int J Electron
2015;102:1361–81.
[49] Chuan Y, Xinbo R, Xuehua W, Tse CK. Isolated Buc-Boost DC/DC converters
suitable for wide input-voltage range. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2011;26:2599–613.
[50] Safaee A, Karimi-Ghartemani M, Jain PK, Bakhshai A. Time-domain analysis of a
phase-shift-modulated series resonant converter with an adaptive passive aux-
iliary circuit. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2016;31:7714–34.
[51] Roasto I, Vinnikov D. Control system simulation of a 40 kW half-bridge isolated
DC/DC converter. In: Proceedings of the European conference on power electro-
nics and applications; 2007. p. 1–10.
[52] Infineon, 〈http://www.infineon.com/cms/en/product/power/igbt/igbt-module/
igbt-module-4500v-6500v/channel.html?
Channel=ff80808112ab681d0112ab69f8450396〉. [Accessed 10 April 2016].
[53] Biela J, Schweizer M, Waffler S, Kolar JW. SiC versus Si- evaluation of potentials
for performance improvement of inverter and DC-DC converter systems by SiC
power semiconductors. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2011;58:2872–82.
[54] DeDoncker RW, Kheraluwala MH, Divan DM. Power conversion apparatus for
DC/DC conversion using dual active bridges. US Patent 5 027 264; 1991.
[55] Zhu L. A novel soft-commutating isolated boost full-bridge ZVS-PWM DC-DC
converter for bidirectional high power applications. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2006;21:422–9.
[56] Zhe Z, Thomsen OC, Andersen MAE. Soft-switched dual-input DC-DC converter
combining a boost-half-bridge cell and a voltage-fed full-bridgecell. IEEE Trans
Power Electron, 2013;28:4897–902.
[57] Soo-Hong K, Ehsani M, Choon-Sam K. High-voltage power supply using series-
connected full-bridge PWM converter for pulsed power applications. IEEE Trans
Dielectr Electr Insul 2015;22:1937–44.
[58] Pahlevani M, Eren S, Bakhshai A, Jain P. A series-parallel current-driven full-
bridge DC/DC converter. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2016;31:1275–93.
[59] Tsang CW, Foster MP, Stone DA, Gladwin DT. Analysis and design of LLC
resonant converters with capacitor–diode clamp current limiting. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2015;30:1345–55.
[60] Max L, Thiringer T. Control method and snubber selection for a 5 MW wind
turbine single active bridge DC/DC converter. In Proceedings of the European
conference on power electronics and applications; 2007. p. 1–10.
[61] Kheraluwala MN, Gascoigne RW, Divan DM, Baumann ED. Performance char-
acterization of a high-power dual active bridge DC-to-DC converter. IEEE Trans
Ind Appl 1992;28:1294–301.
[62] Ortiz G, Uemura H, Bortis D, Kolar JW, Apeldoorn O. Modeling of soft-switching
losses of igbts in high-power high-efficiency dual-active-bridge DC/DC Converters.
IEEE Trans Electron Devices 2013;60:587–97.
[63] Hua B, Mi C. Eliminate reactive power and increase system efficiency of isolated
bidirectional dual-active-bridge DC-DC converters using novel dual-phase-shift
control. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2008;23:2905–14.
[64] Rahman MI, Jovcic D, Ahmed KH. Reactive current optmisation for high power
dual active bridge DC/DC converter. PowerTech (POWERTECH) 2013:1–6.
[65] Hanju C, Jungwan C, Enjeti PN. A Three-phase current-fed DC/DC Converter with
active clamp for low-DC renewable energy sources. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2008;23:2784–93.
[66] Rodriguez J, Bernet S, Bin W, Pontt JO, Kouro S. Multilevel voltage-source-
converter topologies for industrial medium-voltage drives. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2007;54:2930–45.
[67] Franquelo LG, Rodriguez J, Leon JI, Kouro S, Portillo R, Prats MAM. The age of
multilevel converters arrives. Ind Electron Mag, IEEE 2008;2:28–39.
[68] Rodriguez J, Franquelo LG, Kouro S, Leon JI, Portillo RC, Prats MAM, et al.
Multilevel converters: an enabling technology for high-power applications. Proc.
IEEE 2009;97:1786–817.
[69] Kouro S, Malinowski M, Gopakumar K, Pou J, Franquelo LG, Wu B, et al. Recent
advances and industrial applications of multilevel converters. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2010;57:2553–80.
[70] Debnath S, Jiangchao Q, Bahrani B, Saeedifard M, Barbosa P. Operation, control,
and applications of the modular multilevel converter: a review. IEEE Trans Power
227
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
Electron 2015;30:37–53.
[71] Barbosa P, Steimer P, Steinke J, Meysenc L, Winkelnkemper M, Celanovic N.
Active Neutral-Point-Clamped Multilevel Converters. In: Proceedings of the IEEE
36th power electronics specialists conference. PESC '05; 2005. p. 2296–2301.
[72] Coccia A, Canales F, Barbosa P, Ponnaluri S. Wide input voltage range compen-
sation in DC/DC resonant architectures for on-board traction power supplies. In:
Proceedings of the European conference on power electronics and applications;
2007. p. 1–10.
[73] Fuxin L, Gaoping H, Xinbo R. Three-phase three-level DC/DC converter for high
input voltage and high power applications-adopting symmetrical duty cycle
control. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:56–65.
[74] Kwang-Min Y, Jun-Young L. A 10-kW two-stage isolated/bidirectional DC/DC
converter with hybrid-switching technique. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
2013;60:2205–13.
[75] Adhikari J, Rathore AK, Panda SK, Ieee. Modelling, design and control of grid
connected converter for high altitude wind power application. In: Proceedings of
the international power electronics conference; 2014, p. 1775–80.
[76] Zhiguo P, Fan Z, Peng FZ. "Power losses and efficiency analysis of multilevel dc-dc
converters. In: Proceedings of the twentieth annual IEEE applied power electro-
nics conference and exposition. APEC 2005. Vol. 3; 2005. p. 1393–98.
[77] Fang Zheng P, Fan Z, Zhaoming Q. A magnetic-less DC-DC converter for dual-
voltage automotive systems. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2003;39:511–8.
[78] Hafez AAA. Multi-level cascaded DC/DC converters for PV applications. Alex Eng
J 2015;54:1135–46, [12//].
[79] Morales-Saldana J, Gutierrez EEC, Leyva-Ramos J. Modeling of switch-mode dc-
dc cascade converters. IEEE Trans Aerosp Electron Syst 2002;38:295–9.
[80] Cai W, Fahimi B, Cosoroaba E, Yi F. "Stability analysis and voltage control method
based on virtual resistor and proportional voltage feedback loop for cascaded DC-
DC converters. In: Proceedings of the energy conversion congress and exposition
(ECCE). IEEE; 2014. p. 3016–22.
[81] Kashani MG, Mobarrez M, Bhattacharya S. Variable interleaving technique for
photovoltaic cascaded DC-DC converters. In: Proceedings of the 40th Annual
Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. IECON; 2014. p. 5612–17.
[82] Khan FH, Tolbert LM. A multilevel modular capacitor-clamped DC-DC converter.
IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2007;43:1628–38.
[83] Gowaid IA, Adam GP, Massoud AM, Ahmed S, Holliday D, Williams BW. Quasi
two-level operation of modular multilevel converter for use in a high-power DC
transformer with DC fault isolation capability. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2015;30:108–23.
[84] Van Hertem D, Ghandhari M, Delimar M. Technical limitations towards a
SuperGrid—A European prospective. In: Proceedings of the IEEE international
energy conference and exhibition (EnergyCon); 2010. p. 302–09.
[85] Parastar A, Yong Cheol K, Jul-Ki S. Multilevel modular DC/DC power converter
for high-voltage DC-connected offshore wind energy applications. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2015;62:2879–90.
[86] Jovcic D, Ooi BT. Theoretical aspects of fault isolation on high-power direct
current lines using resonant direct current/direct current converters. IET Gener
Transm Distrib 2011;5:153–60.
[87] Soong T, Lehn P. A transformerless high boost DC-DC converter for use in
medium / high voltage applications. In: Proceedings of the 38th annual conference
on IEEE industrial electronics society. IECON; 2012. p. 174–9.
[88] Jovcic D., Ooi B.T., High-power, resonant DC/DC converter for integration of
renewable sources. In: PowerTech. IEEE Bucharest; 2009. p. 1–6.
[89] Jovcic D. Bidirectional, High-Power DC Transformer. IEEE Trans Power Deliv
2009;24:2276–83.
[90] Hajian M, Robinson J, Jovcic D, Bin W. 30 kW, 200 V/900 V, thyristor LCL DC/
DC converter laboratory prototype design and testing. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2014;29:1094–102.
[91] Aboushady AA, Ahmed KH, Williams BW. Compact multi-modular design of high
power DC/DC resonant converters for offshore wind energy HVDC transmission.
In: Proceedings of the 39th annual conference of the IEEE industrial electronics
society. IECON;, 2013. p. 5236–41.
[92] Inam W, Afridi KK, Perreault DJ. High efficiency resonant dc/dc converter
utilizing a resistance compression network. In: Proceedings of the twenty-eighth
annual IEEE applied power electronics conference and exposition (APEC); 2013.
p. 1399–1405.
[93] Junhong Z, Rae-Young K, Jih-Sheng L, High-power density design of a soft-
switching high-power bidirectional DC-DC converte. In: Proceedings of the 37th
IEEE, power electronics specialists conference. PESC '06; 2006. p. 1–7.
[94] Zhang J, Lai JS, Kim RY, Yu W. High-power density design of a soft-switching
high-power bidirectional dc–dc converter. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2007;22:1145–53.
[95] Xuning Z, Mattavelli P, Boroyevich D. "Impact of interleaving on input passive
components of paralleled DC-DC converters for high power PV applications.
In: Proceedings of the 15th international power electronics and motion control
conference (EPE/PEMC); 2012, p. LS7d.5-1–LS7d.5-6.
[96] Garcia O, Zumel P, Castro A d, Cobos A. Automotive DC-DC bidirectional
converter made with many interleaved buck stages. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2006;21:578–86.
[97] Liqin N, Patterson DJ, Hudgins JL. "A high power, current sensorless, bi-
directional, 16-phase interleaved, DC-DC converter for hybrid vehicle application.
In: Proceedings of the energy conversion congress and exposition (ECCE).
IEEE; 2010, p. 3611–17.
[98] Liqin N, Patterson DJ, Hudgins JL. High power current sensorless bidirectional
16-phase interleaved DC-DC converter for hybrid vehicle application. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2012;27:1141–51.
M.Z. Hossain et al.
[99] Roggia L, Schuch L, Baggio JE, Rech C, Pinheiro JR. Integrated full-bridge-
forward DC-DC converter for a residential microgrid application. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2013;28:1728–40.
[100] Chen CW, Liao CY, Chen KH, Chen YM. Modeling and controller design of a
semiisolated multiinput converter for a hybrid PV/wind power charger system.
IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;30:4843–53.
[101] Hu YH, Wu JD, Cao WP, Xiao WD, Li P, Finney SJ, et al. Ultrahigh step-up DC-
DC converter for distributed generation by three degrees of freedom (3DoF)
approach. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2016;31:4930–41.
[102] Safaee A, Jain P, Bakhshai A. A ZVS pulsewidth modulation full-bridge converter
with a low-rms-current resonant auxiliary circuit. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2016;31:4031–47.
[103] Fathabadi H. Novel photovoltaic based battery charger including novel high
efficiency step-up DC/DC converter and novel high accurate fast maximum power
point tracking controller. Energy Convers Manag 2016;110:200–11.
[104] Wu H, Sun K, Chen L, Zhu L, Xing Y. High step-up/step-down soft-switching
bidirectional DC–DC converter with coupled-inductor and voltage matching
control for energy storage systems. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2016;63:2892–903.
[105] Chen H, Sabi K, Kim H, Harada T, Erickson R, Maksimovic D. A 98.7% efficient
composite converter architecture with application-tailored efficiency character-
istic. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2016;31:101–10.
[106] Dusmez S, Li X, Akin B. A new multiinput three-level DC/DC converter. IEEE
Trans Power Electron 2016;31:1230–40.
[107] Roasto I, Vinnikov D, Vodovozov V. Simulation and evaluation of control methods
for the rolling stock static auxiliary converter based on three-level NPC inverter
topology. In: Proceedings of the international conference on power engineering,
energy and electrical drives. POWERENG '09; 2009.p. 593–8.
[108] Roasto I., Vinnikov D., Galkin I., 2009. Comparison of control methods for high-
voltage high-power three-level half-bridge DC/DC converters. In: Proceedings of
the compatibility and power electronics. CPE '09; 2009, p. 258–64.
[109] Lin BR, Chiang HK, Wang SL. New series half-bridge converters with the balance
input split capacitor voltages. Int J Electron 2016;103:504–15.
[110] Xu M, Ren Y, Zhou J, Lee FC. 1-MHz self-driven ZVS full-bridge converter for 48-
V power pod and DC/DC brick. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2005;20:997–1006.
[111] Jin K, Sun Y, Xu M, Sterk DR, Lee FC. Integrated magnetic self-driven ZVS
nonisolated full-bridge converter. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2010;57:1615–23.
[112] Wang H, Sun Q, Chung HSH, Tapuchi S, Ioinovici A. A ZCS current-fed full-bridge
PWM converter with self-adaptable soft-switching snubber energy. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2009;24:1977–91.
[113] Adib E, Farzanehfard H. Soft switching bidirectional DC–DC converter for
ultracapacitor–batteries interface. Energy Convers Manag 2009;50:2879–84.
[114] Cha H, Choi J, Kim W, Blasko V. A new bi-directional three-phase interleaved
isolated converter with active clamp. In: Proceedings of the twenty-fourth annual
IEEE applied power electronics conference and exposition. APEC; 2009.p. 1766–
72.
[115] Changrong L, Johnson A, Jih-Sheng L. A novel three-phase high-power soft
switched DC/DC converter for low voltage fuel cell applications. In: Proceedings of
the nineteenth annual IEEE applied power electronics conference and exposition.
APEC '04. Vol.3; 2004. p. 1365–71.
[116] Inoue S, Akagi H. A bidirectional isolated DC-DC converter as a core circuit of the
next-generation medium-voltage power conversion system. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2007;22:535–42.
[117] Inoue S, Akagi H. A bidirectional DC-DC converter for an energy storage system
with galvanic isolation. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2007;22:2299–306.
[118] Bai H, Mi CC, Gargies S. The short-time-scale transient processes in high-voltage
and high-power isolated bidirectional DC-DC converters. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2008;23:2648–56.
[119] Zhao B, Yu Q, Sun W. Extended-phase-shift control of isolated bidirectional DC-
DC converter for power distribution in microgrid. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2012;27:4667–80.
[120] Oggier G, Ledhold R, Garcia GO, Oliva AR, Balda JC, Barlow F. Extending the ZVS
operating range of dual active bridge high-power DC-DC converters.
In: Proceedings of the 37th IEEE power electronics specialists conference. PESC
'06; 2006, p. 1–7.
[121] Oggier G, García GO, Oliva AR. Modulation strategy to operate the dual active
bridge DC-DC converter under soft switching in the whole operating range. IEEE
Trans Power Electron, 26 2011; 2011. p. 1228–36.
[122] Bai H, Mi C. Eliminate reactive power and increase system efficiency of isolated
bidirectional dual-active-bridge DC-DC converters using novel dual-phase-shift
control. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2008;23:2905–14.
[123] Zhao B, Song Q, Liu W. Efficiency characterization and optimization of isolated
bidirectional DC-DC converter based on dual-phase-shift control for DC distri-
bution application. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2013;28:1711–27.
[124] Zhao B, Song Q, Liu W, Sun W. Current-stress-optimized switching strategy of
isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter with dual-phase-shift control. IEEE Trans
Ind Electron 2013;60:4458–67.
[125] Wu K, Silva CW d, Dunford WG. Stability analysis of isolated bidirectional dual
active full-bridge DC-DC converter with triple phase-shift control. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2012;27:2007–17.
[126] Krismer F, Kolar JW. Accurate Small-signal model for the digital control of an
automotive bidirectional dual active bridge. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2009;24:2756–68.
[127] Krismer F, Kolar JW. Closed form solution for minimum conduction loss
modulation of DAB converters. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2012;27:174–88.
[128] Zhu L. A novel soft-commutating isolated boost full-bridge ZVS-PWM DC-DC
converter for bidirectional high power applications. IEEE Trans Power Electron
228
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
2006;21:422–9.
[129] Wu K, Dunford WG. An unusual full bridge converter to realize ZVS in large load
scope. Asian Power Electron J 2008;2:66–71.
[130] Franceschini G, Lorenzani E, Cavatorta M, Bellini A. 3boost: a high-power three-
phase step-up full-bridge converter for automotive applications. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2008;55:173–83.
[131] Melhem W, Baptiste GW, Ernest P. Experimental investigation of the current
synchronized control: application to high voltage/high power DC/DC converters.
In: Proceedings of the European conference on power electronics and applica-
tions; 2005. p. 10.
[132] Amrei SRH, Dian guo X, Lang YQ. High power DC-DC converters under large load
and input voltage variations: a new approach. In: Proceedings of 7th international
power engineering conference. Vol. 2. IPEC; 2005. p. 815–20.
[133] Amrei SRH, Xu DG, Lang YQ. "New control strategy for high power DC-DC
converters under large load and input voltage variations. In: Proceedings of the
IEEE international conference on industrial technology. ICIT; 2005. p. 1289–93.
[134] Utkin V. Sliding mode control of DC/DC converters. J Frankl Inst
2013;350:2146–65.
[135] Labbe B, Allard B, Lin-Shi X, Chesneau D. An integrated sliding-mode buck
converter with switching frequency control for battery-powered applications.
IEEE Trans Power Electron 2013;28:4318–26.
[136] Wang YX, Qin FF, Ou K, Kim YB. Sliding-mode-control-based DC/DC converters
design and implementation for hybrid proton exchange membrane fuel cell/
battery power systemIn. In: Proceedings of the 9th international conference on
power electronics and ECCE Asia (ICPE-ECCE Asia); 2015. p. 2155–60.
[137] Alvarez-Ramirez J, Espinosa-Pérez G. Stability of current-mode control for DC–
DC power converters. Syst Control Lett 2002;45:113–9.
[138] Utkin VI. Sliding mode control design principles and applications to electric
drives. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 1993;40:23–36.
[139] Bartolini G, Ferrara A, Usai E, Utkin VI. On multi-input chattering-free second-
order sliding mode control. IEEE Trans Autom Control 2000;45:1711–7.
[140] Boiko I, Fridman L. Analysis of chattering in continuous sliding-mode controllers.
IEEE Trans Autom Control 2005;50:1442–6.
[141] Boiko I, Fridman L, Pisano A, Usai E. Analysis of chattering in systems with
second-order sliding modes. IEEE Trans Autom Control 2007;52:2085–102.
[142] Ren X, Ruan X, Qian H, Li M, Chen Q. Three-mode dual-frequency two-edge
modulation scheme for four-switch buck-boost converter. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2009;24:499–509.
[143] Xiaobo Y, Xiaofeng S, Weiyang W. A novel bidirectional three phase boost DC/DC
converter as front-end stage for high power applications. In: Proceedings of the
37th IEEE power electronics specialists conference. PESC '06; 2006. p. 1–5.
[144] Zhang R, Boroyevich D, Prasad VH, Mao HC, Lee FC, Dubovsky S. A three-phase
inverter with a neutral leg with space vector modulation. In: Proceedings of the
twelfth annual, applied power electronics conference and exposition. vol.2. APEC
'97; 1997.p. 857–63.
[145] Celanovic N, Boroyevich D. A fast space-vector modulation algorithm for multi-
level three-phase converters. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2001;37:637–41.
[146] Leon JI, Vazquez S, Portillo R, Franquelo LG, Carrasco JM, Wheeler PW, et al.
Three-dimensional feedforward space vector modulation applied to multilevel
diode-clamped converters. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2009;56:101–9.
[147] Bai H, Taylor A, Guo W, Szatmari-Voicu G, Wang N, Patterson J, et al. Design of
an 11 kW power factor correction and 10 kW ZVS DC/DC converter for a high-
efficiency battery charger in electric vehicles. IET Power Electron
2012;5:1714–22.
[148] Khan MSU, Maswood AI, Tafti HD, Roomi MM, Tariq M. Control of bidirectional
DC/DC converter for back to back NPC-based wind turbine system under grid
faults. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on the development in
the in renewable energy technology (ICDRET); 2016. p. 1–6.
[149] Mebarki B, Draoui B, Rahmani L, Allaoua B. Electric automobile Ni-MH battery
investigation in diverse situations. Energy Procedia 2013;36:130–41.
[150] Yanhui X, Ghaemi R, Jing S, Freudenberg JS. Comparative evaluation of linear
and nonlinear Model Predictive Control for a isolated high power DC/DC
converter. In: Proceedings of the American control conference (ACC); 2010. p.
938–43.
[151] Lezana P, Aguilera R, Quevedo DE. Model predictive control of an asymmetric
flying capacitor converter. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2009;56:1839–46.
[152] Camacho EF, Alba CB. Model predictive control. London, UK: Springer Science &
Business Media; 2013.
[153] Kouro S, Cortes P, Vargas R, Ammann U, Rodriguez J. Model predictive control-a
simple and powerful method to control power converters. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2009;56:1826–38.
[154] Scandola L, Corradini L, Spiazzi G. Small-signal modeling of uniformly sampled
phase-shift modulators. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;30:5870–80.
[155] Zurbriggen IG, Ordonez M, Anun M. PWM-geometric modeling and centric
control of basic DC-DC topologies for sleek and reliable large-signal response.
IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2015;62:2297–308.
[156] Choi W, Rho KM, Cho BH. Fundamental duty modulation of dual-active-bridge
converter for wide-range operation. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2016;31:4048–64.
[157] Kapat S. Reconfigurable periodic bifrequency DPWM with custom harmonic
reduction in DC-DC converters. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2016;31:3380–8.
[158] IEA, 〈https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
technologyroadmapsolarthermalelectricity_2014edition. pdf〉. [Accessed 1.04.
2016].
[159] Figueres E, Garcera G, Sandia J, Gonzalez-Espin F, Rubio JC. Sensitivity study of
the dynamics of three-phase photovoltaic inverters with an LCL Grid Filter. IEEE
M.Z. Hossain et al.
Trans Ind Electron 2009;56:706–17.
[160] Jiang W, Fahimi B. Maximum solar power transfer in Multi-port Power Electronic
Interface. In: Proceedings of the twenty-fifth annual IEEE applied power
electronics conference and exposition (APEC); 2010. p. 68–73.
[161] Shenoy PS, Johnson B, Krein PT. "Differential power processing architecture for
increased energy production and reliability of photovoltaic systems.
In: Proceedings of the twenty-seventh annual IEEE applied power electronics
conference and exposition (APEC); 2012. p. 1987–94.
[162] Shenoy PS, Kim KA, Johnson BB, Krein PT. Differential power processing for
increased energy production and reliability of photovoltaic systems. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2013;28:2968–79.
[163] Esram T, Chapman PL. Comparison of photovoltaic array maximum power point
tracking techniques. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2007;22:439–49.
[164] Zhou Z, Holland PM, Igic P. MPPT algorithm test on a photovoltaic emulating
system constructed by a DC power supply and an indoor solar panel. Energy
Convers Manag 2014;85:460–9.
[165] Salas V, Olías E, Lázaro A, Barrado A. New algorithm using only one variable
measurement applied to a maximum power point tracker. Sol Energy Mater Sol
Cells 2005;87:675–84.
[166] de Cesare G, Caputo D, Nascetti A. Maximum power point tracker for portable
photovoltaic systems with resistive-like load. Sol Energy 2006;80:982–8.
[167] Pandey A, Dasgupta N, Mukerjee AK. "Design Issues in Implementing MPPT for
Improved Tracking and Dynamic Performance. In: Proceedings of the Proceedings
of the 32nd annual conference on IEEE industrial electronics, IECON; 2006. p.
4387–91.
[168] Wai RJ, Wang WH. Grid-connected photovoltaic generation system. IEEE Trans
Circuits Syst I: Regul Pap 2008;55:953–64.
[169] Marouani R, Echaieb K, Mami A. Sliding mode controller for buck-boost dc-dc
converter in PV grid-connected system. In: Proceedings of the 16th IEEE
mediterranean electrotechnical conference (MELECON); 2012. p. 281–284.
[170] Chuan Y, Ruan X, Xuehua W. "Isolated Buck-Boost DC/DC converter for PV grid-
connected system. In: Proceedings of the IEEE international symposium on
industrial electronics (ISIE); 2010. p. 889–94.
[171] Hu Y, Cao W, Ji B, Si J, Chen X. New multi-stage DC–DC converters for grid-
connected photovoltaic systems. Renew Energy 2015;74:247–54.
[172] Başoğlu ME, Çakır B. Comparisons of MPPT performances of isolated and non-
isolated DC–DC converters by using a new approach [7//]. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2016;60:1100–13, [7//].
[173] Pernía AM, Arias J, Prieto MJ, Martínez JÁ. A modular strategy for isolated
photovoltaic systems based on microcontroller. Renew Energy 2009;34:1825–32.
[174] Shen CL, Tsai CT, Wu YE, Chen CC. A modified-forward multi-input power
converter for solar energy and wind power generation. In: Proceedings of the
international conference on power electronics and drive systems, 2009. PEDS;
2009. p. 631–6.
[175] Walker GR, Sernia PC. Cascaded DC-DC converter connection of photovoltaic
modules. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2004;19:1130–9.
[176] Gules R, Pacheco JDP, Hey HL, Imhoff J. A maximum power point tracking
system with parallel connection for PV stand-alone applications. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2008;55:2674–83.
[177] Xiao W, Ozog N, Dunford WG. Topology study of photovoltaic interface for
maximum power point tracking. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2007;54:1696–704.
[178] Ghoddami H, Yazdani A. A single-stage three-phase photovoltaic system with
enhanced maximum power point tracking capability and increased power rating.
IEEE Trans Power Deliv 2011;26:1017–29.
[179] Santos JL, Antunes F, Chehab A, Cruz C. A maximum power point tracker for PV
systems using a high performance boost converter. Sol Energy 2006;80:772–8.
[180] Femia N, Petrone G, Spagnuolo G, Vitelli M. Optimization of perturb and observe
maximum power point tracking method. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2005;20:963–73.
[181] Choi W-Y, Lee C-G. Photovoltaic panel integrated power conditioning system
using a high efficiency step-up DC–DC converter. Renew Energy 2012;41:227–34.
[182] Zainuri MM, Radzi MAM, Soh AC, Rahim NA. Development of adaptive perturb
and observe-fuzzy control maximum power point tracking for photovoltaic boost
dc-dc converter. IET Renew Power Gener 2014;8:183–94.
[183] Enrique JM, Durán E, Sidrach-de-Cardona M, Andújar JM. Theoretical assess-
ment of the maximum power point tracking efficiency of photovoltaic facilities
with different converter topologies. Sol Energy 2007;81:31–8, [1//].
[184] Bennett T, Zilouchian A, Messenger R. Photovoltaic model and converter topology
considerations for MPPT purposes. Sol Energy 2012;86:2029–40.
[185] Coelho RF, Concer FM, Martins DC. "A simplified analysis of DC-DC converters
applied as maximum power point tracker in photovoltaic systems. In: Proceedings
of the 2nd IEEE international symposium on power electronics for distributed
generation systems (PEDG); 2010. p. 29–34.
[186] Kasa N, Iida T, Liang C. Flyback inverter controlled by sensorless current MPPT
for photovoltaic power system. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2005;52:1145–52.
[187] Kim H-s, Kim J-H, Min B-D, Yoo D-W, Kim H-J. A highly efficient PV system
using a series connection of DC–DC converter output with a photovoltaic panel.
Renew Energy 2009;34:2432–6.
[188] Veerachary M. Power tracking for nonlinear PV sources with coupled inductor
SEPIC converter. IEEE Trans Aerosp Electron Syst 2005;41:1019–29.
[189] Khateb AE, Rahim NA, Selvaraj J, Uddin MN. Fuzzy-Logic-Controller-Based
SEPIC converter for maximum power point tracking. IEEE Trans Ind Appl
2014;50:2349–58.
[190] Safari A, Mekhilef S. Simulation and hardware implementation of incremental
conductance MPPT with direct control method using Cuk Converter. IEEE Trans
Ind Electron 2011;58:1154–61.
229
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
[191] Irmak E, Güler N. Application of a high efficient voltage regulation system with
MPPT algorithm. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 1// 2013;44:703–12.
[192] De Nardo A, Femia N, Petrone G, Spagnuolo G. Optimal buck converter output
filter design for point-of-load applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
2010;57:1330–41.
[193] Fontes G, Turpin C, Saisset R, Meynard T, Astier S, Interactions between fuel cells
and power converters influence of current harmonics on a fuel cell stack.
In: Proceedings of the IEEE 35th annual power electronics specialists conference.
Vol.6. PESC 04; 2004. p. 4729–35.
[194] Mazumder SK, Burra RK, Acharya K. A ripple-mitigating and energy-efficient fuel
cell power-conditioning system. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2007;22:1437–52.
[195] Choi B, Kim D, Lee D, Choi S, Sun J. Analysis of Input filter interactions in
switching power converters. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2007;22:452–60.
[196] Iftikhar MU, Lefranc P, Sadarnac D, Karimi C. Efficiency investigation of dc-dc
converter with passively damped input filter circuit. Int J Electron
2009;96:961–76.
[197] Neugebauer TC, Phinney JW, Perreault DJ. Filters and components with
inductance cancellation. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2004;40:483–91.
[198] Neugebauer TC, Perreault DJ. Filters with inductance cancellation using printed
circuit board transformers. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2004;19:591–602.
[199] Lymar DS, Neugebauer TC, Perreault DJ. Coupled-magnetic filters with adaptive
inductance cancellation. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2006;21:1529–40.
[200] Biela J, Badstuebner U, Kolar JW. Impact of power density maximization on
efficiency of DC-DC converter systems. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2009;24:288–300.
[201] Badstuebner U, Biela J, Kolar JW. , IEEE, Design of an 99%- Efficient, 5 kW,
phase-shift PWM DC-DC converter for telecom applications," in 2010 Proceedings
of the twenty-fifth annual IEEE applied power electronics conference and
exposition, ed; 2010. p. 773–780.
[202] Kjellqvist T, Norrga S, Ostlund S. Design considerations for a medium frequency
transformer in a line side power conversion system. In: Proceedings of the IEEE
35th annual power electronics specialists conference. Vol.1. PESC 04; 2004. p.
704–10.
[203] Meier S, Kjellqvist T, Norrga S, Nee HP. Design considerations for medium-
frequency power transformers in offshore wind farms. In: Proceedings of the 13th
European conference on power electronics and applications. EPE '09; 2009. p. 1–
12.
[204] Herbert E. High frequency matrix transformer. ed: US Patent 4845606 A; 1989.
[205] Qin H, Kimball JW, Venayagamoorthy GK. Particle swarm optimization of high-
frequency transformer. In: Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference on IEEE
industrial electronics society. IECON; 2010. p. 2914–19.
[206] Guidi G, Pavlovsky M, Kawamura A, Imakubo T, Sasaki Y. Improvement of light
load efficiency of dual active bridge DC-DC converter by using dual leakage
transformer and variable frequency. In: Proceedings of the energy conversion
congress and exposition (ECCE). IEEE; 2010, pp. 830–7.
[207] Fan H, Li H. High-frequency transformer isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter
modules with high efficiency over wide load range for 20 kVA solid-state
transformer. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2011;26:3599–608.
[208] Khan FH, Tolbert LM. 5 kW multilevel DC-DC converter for hybrid electric and
fuel cell automotive applications In: Proceedings of the Conference Record of the
2007 IEEE industry applications conference. 42nd IAS annual meeting; 2007. p.
628–35.
[209] Qian W, Peng FZ, Tolbert LM. Development of a 55 kW 3X dc-dc converter for
HEV systems. In: Proceedings of the Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference.
VPPC '09. IEEE; 2009. p. 433–9.
[210] Waffler S, Preindl M, Kolar JW. Multi-objective optimization and comparative
evaluation of Si soft-switched and SiC hard-switched automotive DC-DC con-
verters. In: Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of IEEE, Industrial
Electronics. IECON '09; 2009. p. 3814–21.
[211] Biela J, Badstubner U, Kolar JW, Design of a 5 kW, 1U, 10 kW/ltr. resonant DC-
DC converter for telecom applications. In: Proceedings of the 29th international,
telecommunications energy conference. INTELEC; 2007. p. 824–31.
[212] Badstuebner U, Biela J, Faessler B, Hoesli D, Kolar J. An optimized 5 kW, 147 W/
in 3 telecom phase-shift DC-DC converter with magnetically integrated current
doubler. In: Proceedings of the twenty-fourth annual IEEE, applied power
electronics conference and exposition. APEC; 2009. p. 21–27.
[213] Biela J, Kolar JW. Cooling concepts for high power density magnetic devices.
In: Proceedings of the power conversion conference - Nagoya. PCC '07; 2007. p.
1–8.
[214] Characterization and comparison of high blocking voltage IGBTs and IEGTs under
hard- and soft-switching conditions. In: Proceedings of the 37th IEEE power
electronics specialists conference. PESC '06; 2006. p. 1–7.
[215] Wu B. High-power converters and AC drives. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley &
Sons; 2006.
[216] Ortiz G, Biela J, Bortis D, Kolar J. "1 Megawatt, 20 kHz, isolated, bidirectional
12 kV to 1.2 kV DC-DC converter for renewable energy applications.
In: Proceedings of the international power electronics conference (IPEC); 2010p.
3212–19.
[217] Biela J, Aggeler D, Bortis D, Kolar JW. 5 kV/200ns pulsed power switch based on
a SiC-JFET super cascode. In: Proceedings of the IEEE international power
modulators and high voltage conference; 2008. p. 358–61.
[218] Aggeler D, Biela J, Kolar JW. A compact, high voltage 25 kW, 50 kHz DC-DC
converter based on SiC JFETs. In: Proceedings of the twenty-third annual IEEE
applied power electronics conference and exposition. APEC; 2008. p. 801–7.
[219] Lidow A. Is it the end of the road for silicon in power conversion? Proceedings of
the 6th international conference on integrated power electronics systems (CIPS);
M.Z. Hossain et al.
2010. p. 1–8.
[220] Survey of the power conditioning system for PV power generation. In: Proceedings
of the 37th IEEE power electronics specialists conference. PESC '06; 2006. p. 1–6.
[221] Alam MK, Khan F, Imtiaz AM. Optimization of subcell interconnection for
multijunction solar cells using switching power converters. IEEE Trans Sustain
Energy 2013;4:340–9.
[222] Rivera S, Kouro S, Wu B, Leon JI, Rodriguez J, Franquelo LG. Cascaded H-bridge
multilevel converter multistring topology for large scale photovoltaic systems. In:
Proceedings of the IEEE international symposium on industrial electronics (ISIE);
2011. p. 1837–44.
[223] Henderson AR, Morgan C, Smith B, Sørensen HC, Barthelmie RJ, Boesmans B.
Offshore wind energy in Europe-a review of the state-of-the-art. Wind Energy
2003;6:35–52.
[224] Carrasco JM, Franquelo LG, Bialasiewicz JT, Galván E, Guisado RCP, Prats MÁM,
et al. Power-electronic systems for the grid integration of renewable energy
sources: a survey. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2006;53:1002–16.
[225] Wu C, Huang A, Lukic S, J. Svensson, L. Jun, and W. Zhenyuan, "A comparison of
medium voltage high power DC/DC converters with high step-up conversion ratio
for offshore wind energy systems. In: Proceedings of the energy conversion
congress and exposition (ECCE). IEEE; 2011. p. 584–9.
[226] Muyeen S, Takahashi R, Tamura J. Operation and control of HVDC-connected
offshore wind farm. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2010;1:30–7.
[227] ABB, 〈http://www.abb.com/cawp/seitp202/
beed0585e8a215a5c12579b2005bc8e4.aspx〉. [Accessed 1 April 2016].
[228] Parastar A, Seok J-K. High-power-density power conversion systems for HVDC-
connected offshore wind farms. J Power Electron 2013;13:737–45.
[229] Windpowermonthly, 〈http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1327230/
turbines-year-offshore-turbines〉. [Accessed 10 April 2016].
[230] Robinson J, Jovcic D, Joós G. Analysis and design of an offshore wind farm using
a MV DC grid. IEEE Trans Power Deliv 2010;25:2164–73.
[231] Denniston N, Massoud A, Ahmed S, Enjeti P. Multiple-module high-gain high-
voltage DC–DC transformers for offshore wind energy systems. IEEE Trans ,Ind
230
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 205–230
Electron 2011;58:1877–86.
[232] de Alegria IM, Santamaria V, Madariaga A, Martin JL, Ceballos S. High power
high voltage DC/DC converter for MVDC distribution applications.
In: Proceedings of the international symposium on power electronics, electrical
drives, automation and motion (SPEEDAM); 2012. p. 1314–19.
[233] Engel SP, Soltau N, Stagge H, De Doncker RW. Dynamic and balanced control of
three-phase high-power dual-active bridge DC–DC converters in DC-grid appli-
cations. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2013;28:1880–9.
[234] Clare J. Advanced power converters for universal and flexible power management
in future electricity networks. In: Proceedings of the 13th European conference
on, power electronics and applications. EPE'09; 2009. p. 1–29.
[235] Lai J-S, Nelson DJ. Energy management power converters in hybrid electric and
fuel cell vehicles. Proc IEEE 2007;95:766–77.
[236] Lukic SM, Cao J, Bansal RC, Rodriguez F, Emadi A. Energy storage systems for
automotive applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2008;55:2258–67.
[237] Ito Y, Tsuruta Y, Bando M, Kawamura A. 50 kHz–25 kW bilateral chopper circuit
SAZZ-1 for HEV. In: Proceedings of the 22nd international battery, hybrid and
fuel cell electric vehicle symposium and exposition, EVS; 2006.
[238] Solero L, Lidozzi A, Pomilio JA. Design of multiple-input power converter for
hybrid vehicles. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2005;20:1007–16.
[239] Schaltz E, Khaligh A, Rasmussen PO. Influence of battery/ultracapacitor energy-
storage sizing on battery lifetime in a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle. IEEE Trans
Veh Technol 2009;58:3882–91.
[240] Prasanna UR, Rathore AK. Dual three-pulse modulation-based high-frequency
pulsating DC link two-stage three-phase inverter for electric/hybrid/fuel cell
vehicles applications. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power Electron 2014;2:477–86.
[241] Pratt A, Kumar P, Aldridge TV. Evaluation of 400V DC distribution in telco and
data centers to improve energy efficiency. In: Proceedings of the 29th interna-
tional telecommunications energy conference. INTELEC; 2007. p. 32–9.
[242] Yuancheng R, Ming X, Julu S, Lee FC. A family of high power density unregulated
bus converters. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2005;20:1045–54.