Electronic Instrumentation

Analog and Digital

Voltmeters/Ammeters/Ohmmeters
Design & Usage
* In this presentation definitions and examples
from Wikipedia, HowStaffWorks and some other sources
were used

Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov

 Items to be
defined/refreshed/discussed
• Operation of Analog Galvanometer
• Converting Galvanometer to Voltmeter
• Multi-Range Analog Voltmeter & Ammeter
• AC Analog Ammeter
• Analog Ohmmeter
• Outdated Analog Multimeter design
• Analog Multimeter with Analog Amplifier

2
 Items to be
defined/refreshed/discussed
• Digital Multimeter
• Arduino based Multimeter
• Usage of Digital Voltmeter to measure
resistance (Why not to use Ohmmeter ?)
• Wheatstone Bridge Usage
• What about Capacitance measurements ?

3
 Analog Galvanometer
http://pediaa.com/difference-between-galvanometer-and-voltmeter/

Galvanometer is a device which has parts that move in response to an electric current
4
 Analog Voltmeter
http://pediaa.com/difference-between-galvanometer-and-voltmeter/

A voltmeter is a device which,

when connected across two points on an electric circuit,
measures the potential difference between those two points

Galvanometers can be used to make voltmeters.

The needle of a galvanometer moves in response to current,
but if we know the resistance of the coil,
then we can use Ohm’s law to determine
the corresponding potential difference
between the two ends of a voltmeter.

Voltmeter Calibration: Analog Voltmeter: Problems

We could set up a scale next to the needle Periodical Calibration is needed
that reads the values of potential difference Low accuracy
corresponding to the needle’s position Values must be logged manually
+ Manual ZERO correction (rotate spring…)
5
Galvanometer  Voltmeter
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-8/voltmeter-design/

Using Ohm’s Law (V=IR),

we can determine how much voltage
will drive this meter movement
directly to full scale:
V=IR
V = (1 mA)(500 Ω)
V = 0.5 volts

How to measure bigger voltages ?

Add additional resistor.

6
Multi-Range Analog Voltmeter
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-8/voltmeter-design/

More practical design

7
Analog Voltmeter Impact on Measuring Circuit
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-8/voltmeter-design/

Every meter impacts the circuit it is measuring to some extent.

While some impact is inevitable, it can be minimized through good meter design.

Voltmeters are always connected in parallel with the component under test.
A perfect voltmeter has infinite resistance, so that it draws no current from the circuit under test.
However, perfect voltmeters only exist in the pages of textbooks, not in real life!

Loading Effect

Wrong !!!

8
 Multi-Range Analog Ammeter design
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-8/voltmeter-design/

To measure current
EE must break the circuit.
This is why Ammeters are
practically never used in
Shunt resistor values are very low! real life electronics
To achieve these low resistances, ammeter shunt resistors often have to be
custom-made from relatively large-diameter wire or solid pieces of metal.
9
AC Analog Ammeter design
https://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/AC/AC_12.html

Problem: Diodes are NON LINEAR

 Scale is not linear
 Special Scale for AC must be printed

10
 Analog Ohmmeter design
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-8/voltmeter-design/

Current is a function of R + Rx between black and red leads

But scale is NOT Linear !!!

Example: if current of 0.5 mA then
R + Rx = 9V/0.5 mA = 18 k
 Rx = 18 – 8.5 – 0.5 = 9 k

Q. Can EE measure resistance of the component on the PCB ?

11
Outdated Analog Multimeter design

12
 Analog Voltmeter with Analog Amplifier
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-8/voltmeter-design/

Amplifier can has nearly INFINITE input resistance. (FET, OA)

In case galvanometer is used, Voltage to Current converter must be used

13
High Impedance DC Votmeter
http://www.circuitstoday.com/high-impedance-dc-voltmeter

Diodes D1 and D2 protect the IC

from accidental excessive
input voltages
Diodes D3 and D4 protect the
meter from overloads.

14
Analog Ammeter with Analog Amplifier
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-8/voltmeter-design/

Voltmeter with
Amplifier
 Input Resistance can
be set as HUGE

15
Linear AC Analog Voltmeter with Analog Amplifier
http://www.angelfire.com/planet/funwithtransistors/Book_CHAP-7.html

16
Digital Voltmeter (of Stone Age)

17
Digital Multimeter
http://www.vsagar.org/how-digital-multimeter-works/

18
Digital Multimeter. Voltage Attenuator
http://www.vsagar.org/how-digital-multimeter-works/

The commercial DMM has a rotary switch used selecting

proper range with many steps in it.

19
 Arduino Based Multimeter. /

Will be proposed as FINAL Project

http://www.instructables.com/id/Digital-multimeter-shield-for-Arduino/

The shield can be inserted on "Arduino" UNO und Duemilanove boards.

It can work in three modes:
standalone - the measurement data can be seen at the character or graphical LCM
connected - the measurement data can be read on the PC screen using the "Arduino" IDE "Serial monitor"
combined - the data can be observed on both devices
The second mode does not require the presence of LCM, what makes the shield very cheap.

The "Arduino" based DMM has the following functions:

voltmeter with 3 ranges : 0-10V; 0-30V; 0-100V
amperemeter - it has a range 0-500mA
ohmmeter with 2 ranhes : 0-1KOhm, 0-250KOhm
diode, LED, connectivity checker
LED functionality tester
NPN BJT Beta meter

20
Digital Multimeter. Current to Voltage Conversion
http://www.vsagar.org/how-digital-multimeter-works/

The commercial DMM has a rotary switch used selecting

proper range with many steps in it.

21
Measuring resistance with DC. Circuit A
Extremely simple circuit.
Problem: Two identical
voltmeters are needed.

Q. Why not to use Digital Ohmmeter ?

A. We want to control the voltage and current while
measurements. (We do not know which current and I
which direction flows

Q041. Derive relevant equation for R2 calculation

by known V1, R1, and Vr2 (Voltage on R2)

Q042. Calculate numerical value of R2

22
Measuring resistors with DC. Circuit B
Switch added
 Only one Voltmeter is needed
Problem: Operator must manually log and process the data

The accuracy of an analog ammeter or voltmeter

is usually stated as a percent of the full-scale reading.
Example:
The Ququ analog meters are accurate to ±2% of the full scale reading.
Thus for a reading of 1.00V on a 3 volt scale, the uncertainty is ±0.06V.
A reading of 1.0V on the 30 volt scale will have an uncertainty of 0.6V.

For a digital multimeter (DMM : XMM1),

accuracy is usually specified as a percent of the reading
So a meter with a specification of 1% of the reading will read an actual
value of 100.0V as something between 99.0V and 101.0V.

23
Measuring resistors with DC. Circuit B.
Measurement Error
𝑅2
𝑉𝑅2 = × 𝑉1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 Reminder:
Absolute Error
𝑉1 and Relative Error
𝑅2 = × 𝑅1
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑅2

Equation for Error evaluation is not trivial even in this trivial case

Fast evaluation Option is: Worst Case Evaluation

R1 value is known with 1% accuracy.

Digital voltmeter XMM1 accuracy is 1%
Q043. Calculate Worst Case Range of R2: {R2min .. R2max}

24
 Wheatstone Bridge
(By TI Precision Analog Applications Seminar)
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

A load cell is important sensor. Used in weight scales (balances)

25
Strain Gauge
http://www.sensorland.com/HowPage002.html

Strain gauge is used to measure pressure, load, torque

(depending on mechanical design)

Inside: resistive foil

which is mounted on a backing material.
When the foil is subjected to stress,
the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way

BUT: Change of the resistance of the foil is VERY SMALL

 Special circuitry is required to measure force properly

26
 Wheatstone Bridge
(By TI Precision Analog Applications Seminar)
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

Problems
1. Relation between Rg and Vo is not linear
2. Vo has a big “DC offset”. Then it is not easy to measure small voltage changes.
Example: DC offset is 5V, “Voltage change” is 1 mV

27
 Wheatstone Bridge
(By TI Precision Analog Applications Seminar)
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

Invented by Hunter Christie (1833). Studied by Charles Wheatstone

If the current (or voltage) in the cross branch is zero,

and THREE resistance are known,
the FOURTH resistance can be calculated

1. IMPORTANT: Voltage of VE is not important

2. “ZERO” Voltage / Current is easy to detect

28
 Wheatstone Bridge
(By TI Precision Analog Applications Seminar)
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

==

R1:=R
𝑅𝑔 = 𝑅1 + ∆
Removing the offset:
𝑅 1
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑒
R1==R is selected close to “some” value of Rg 2𝑅 + Δ 2
Then offset is eliminated −∆
And Vo is nearly proportional to “DELTA” Vo = 𝑉𝑒
(Because R >> “Delta”0 4𝑅+2∆
29
 Wheatstone Bridge
(By TI Precision Analog Applications Seminar)
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

Two identical “Load Sensors” can be positioned in

This configuration is called : TWO points (Two Point Bridge)
“Single-point Bridge Sensor” Upper and Bottom strain gauges connected
Actually, Voltage and not current is measured here oppositely: (R+Delta) and (R-Delta)
Q044. Prove that THIS improves scales sensitivity
by a factor 2.
30
 Wheatstone Bridge
(By TI Precision Analog Applications Seminar)
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

Very Linear and Very Sensitive Configuration !!!

This configuration is called :
(May be I’ll ask to prove this on final exam…)
“Four-point Bridge Sensor”

31
 Strain Gauge in Weighting Scales
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

Typical parameters:
Resistances are in the range of 1k
“Sensitivity” is expressed in mV/V
This means that 10 V excitation with 2mV/V sensor results in change 20 mV only

Additional important parameters:

Offset error: Voltage Produced when the measurement parameter is zero
Full-scale Error: Difference between the ideal voltage when the measurement parameter is at maximum
Temperature Drift: change of the above as temperature varies
Aging error: change of the above as time is running
Non-linearity: Deviation of graph {Output Parameter - Measured Parameter”} from a straight line

32
 Offset calibration for a Weight Scale
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

In “Analog” scales some “potentiometer” can be manually rotated.

Digital Scales uses software to evaluate and store current offset value (Think How before exam)

33
 Gain calibration for a Weight Scale
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

In “Analog” scales some “potentiometer” can be manually rotated.

Digital Scales uses software to evaluate and store current “Gain” value (Think How before exam)

34
 Exemplary Design of Weight Scale
http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp163/slyp163.pdf

Signal from Wheatstone Bridge is amplified by some Diff OA (or Instrumental OA)
Then 0-20 mV range  0-5V range.
LPF is a must (remind why)
ADC of different types can be used.
Vexcitation is used as for Wheatstone Bidge as for REF for ADC
(For better ADC Accuracy)

MCU is Arduino pin A0.

5 Sec after power ON Arduino measure “offset” and store it
Then “weight” measurements starts.
Q045. Write short Arduino Sketch that take into account stored “OFFSET”
Send results every 1 sec to Serial Monitor
35
Measuring Capacitors with DC and Voltmeter ?

Practically impossible:
Voltmeter is too slow

Oscilloscope and Signal Generator must be used

36
 Control Questions
• What have I learned ?

37
 Literature to read
1. TBD

38