I.

Introduction
The coefficient of permeability, also known as the hydraulic conductivity,
is a constant that pertains to the ability of the soil to transmit water. Other
definitions for hydraulic conductivity is that, it is a property that describes how
easily water flows through the interconnected void spaces of the soil (Şen, 2015).
Hydraulic conductivity has several applications, both in the fields of agriculture
and engineering. It is needed for the design of water control structures such as
dams, earthen storage water facilities and runoff forecasting (Sarki, et. al, 2014).
Laboratory tests and field tests are done to determine the hydraulic conductivity
of soil. In the laboratory, which is the focus of this exercise, two methods are used
to determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil: the constant head test and the
falling head test.
The constant head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of
coarse-grained soils.

Figure 1. Set-up for constant head permeameter test

In the figure above, it can be seen that the head (h) is measured from the
surface of water in the mariotte bottle upto the opening of the outflow and L
refers to the height of the soil. Using Darcy’s formula,
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 where: 𝑖 = ℎ/𝐿 and 𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴

Substituting i and Q,
𝑄 ℎ
= 𝑘
𝐴 𝐿

Rearranging the equation to compute for the hydraulic conductivity,

This equation can be used to measure coefficient of permeability for

coarse-grained soils only.
 Meanwhile, falling head test is used to measure the hydraulic
conductivity of fine-grained soils.

Figure 2. Set-up for falling head permeability test

In the figure above, same variables can be seen except for the change in
height, dh per change in time in the standpipe. Using the continuity equation,
𝑑ℎ
Qin = Qout where: Qin = - a 𝑑𝑡
ℎ
Qout = 𝐴𝑘 𝐿 from Darcy’s equation
Substituting Qin and Qout,

Separating the variables h and t and integrating them, the result will be

where k is the hydraulic conductivity for fine-grained soils (Budhu, 2011). The
two formulas mentioned can be used in the laboratory exercise.
There are different values of hydraulic conductivity per different types of
soil, which is listed in the table below. These theoretical values can be compared
to its values from the two laboratory tests which will be done in this exercise.

Table 1. Hydraulic conductivity for sediments (Source: C.W. Fetter)

Material Hydraulic Conductivity (cm/s)

Well-sorted gravel 10-2 to 1

Well-sorted sands, glacial outwash 10-3 to 10-1

Silty sands, fine sands 10-5 to 10-3

Silt, sandy silts, clayey sands, till 10-6 to 10-5

Clay 10-9 to 10-6

 I. Objectives
This aims for the students to measure the hydraulic conductivity of
saturated soils using a constant head permeameter for coarse-grained soils and a
head permeameter for fine-grained. Furthermore, this aims for the students to
relate hydraulic conductivity with the soil type.

II. Methodology
The exercise consists two parts: constant head test for coarse-grained soil
and falling head test for fine-grained soil. The class was divided into two groups,
the first group did the constant head test and the second group did the falling
head test. After finishing both tests, the group exchanged places in order to do
the other test.
The constant head test starts by filling the container with the coarse-
grained soil that will be tested. Its length and the diameter of the container was
measured in order to compute the area of the soil. A tube which is connected to a
funnel is inserted to the container for the water to flow through the soil profile.
The water level in the funnel is maintained at a constant level, hence the
constant head test. A graduated cylinder is placed at the outlet of the water in
order to measure the volume of the water that passes through the soil in a given
time. A timer was used in order to record the time increments. This process was
repeated until enough data was gathered to compute the hydraulic conductivity if
the soil.
The falling head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of fine-
grained soils. In this test, the water head changes every measurement. The setup
for falling head test is the same as the constant head test except for the outlet of
the container in falling head test which is directed upwards. The valve was
opened and then closed for every measurement. The initial head and final head is
measured and the time is also recorded. This process was repeated until enough
data was gathered to compute the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.

Figure 9.1. Container for both tests

III. Results and Discussion

 The hydraulic conductivities for both coarse-grained and fine-grained soils
were calculated using the data gathered from the constant and falling head test,
respectively. The following data and table were obtained from the constant head
permeameter.
Diameter of Soil Length of Soil Head of Soil Area of Soil
Column Column Column Column

6.4 cm 15 cm 127.5 cm 32.17 cm2

Table 2. Data from the constant head permeameter

TRIAL VOLUME TIME CONDUCTIVIT CONDUCTIVIT
(cm3) (s) Y (cm/s) Y (cm/day)

1 32 2.3 0.050880592 4396.083148

2 40 2.9 0.050441966 4358.18588

3 38 2.24 0.062039115 5360.179509

4 38 2.23 0.062317317 5384.216188

5 37 2.69 0.050301329 4346.034804

6 37 2.58 0.052445959 4531.330862

7 37 2.63 0.051448888 4445.183887

8 39 2.5 0.057049864 4929.10823

9 40 2.56 0.05714129 4937.007442

10 38 2.53 0.054927912 4745.771581

11 40 2.49 0.058747671 5075.798816

12 37 2.48 0.054560715 4714.045816

13 35 2.42 0.052891111 4569.792013

 14 33 2.23 0.05411767 4675.76669

15 34 2.57 0.048381108 4180.127702

AVERAGE 0.054512834 4709.908838

On the other hand, these following data and table were obtained from the
falling head permeameter.

Table 3. Hydraulic conductivity results from falling head test

Diameter of Stand Length of Soil Area of Stand Area of Soil
Pipe Column Pipe Column

0.6 cm 12.6 cm 0.28 cm2 32.17 cm2

Table 4. Data from the Falling head permeameter

INITIA
L FINAL
HEAD HEAD TIME CONDUCTIVIT CONDUCTIVITY
TRIAL (cm) (cm) (s) Y (cm/s) (cm/day)

1 90.56 32.06 5 0.0227758 1967.829121

2 32.06 19.06 1.46 0.039060915 3374.863031

3 19.06 9.56 1.45 0.052186868 4508.945354

4 9.56 5.36 0.81 0.078340936 6768.656834

5 5.36 1.56 1.06 0.127698176 11033.12237

6 88.06 58.56 1.78 0.025135183 2171.679796

7 58.56 34.06 1.32 0.04502413 3890.08484

 8 34.06 25.96 0.73 0.040797289 3524.885759

9 25.96 11.76 1.52 0.057131874 4936.193874

10 11.76 3.16 0.79 0.182427114 15761.70262

11 90.06 68.06 1.33 0.023095 1995.408003

12 68.06 49.36 1.37 0.025715746 2221.840438

13 49.36 34.36 1.32 0.030095996 2600.294055

14 34.36 21.46 1.25 0.04129656 3568.022799

15 21.46 8.66 1.59 0.062591527 5407.907926

AVERAG
E 0.056891541 4915.429122

Table 4. Hydraulic Conductivity Results from Falling Head Test

Provided below are sample calculations of getting the hydraulic
conductivity.
For the constant head permeameter,
(32)(15) 𝑐𝑚
𝑘= = 0.050880592
(32.17)(2.3)(127.5) 𝑠

And, for the falling head permeameter,

(0.28)(12.6) 90.56 𝑐𝑚
𝑘= × 𝑙𝑛( ) = 0.0227758
(32.17)(5) 32.06 𝑠

It can be seen from the results that the average conductivity of the
coarse-grained soil is lower than that of the fine-grained. This did not match the
typical conductivity values based on soil type according to table 1. The
conductivity of the coarse-grained soil ranged from 0.04 to 0.06 cm/s while that of
the fine-grained soil ranged from 0.02 to 0.18 cm/s. Also, it can be observed that
conductivity was dependent on the height of water flow and the flow rate of water
resulting to an inconsistent range of hydraulic conductivity.
Conductivity of coarse-grained soils is higher than that of fine-
grained because the volume of water that can flow through a soil mass is related
more to the size of the void openings than to the total number of voids. The
falling head test is desirable for soils with low hydraulic conductivity in both
 horizontal and vertical directions. It is not suggested to be executed for samples
with very high or extremely low hydraulic conductivity. Also, the result depends
on large soil sample area to minimize errors. Conversely, the constant head test,
though may also be valid for horizontal or vertical directions of water, depends on
a small sample area only to avoid large random errors (Stibinger, 2014).
Normally, the larger the grain size and the better it is sorted, the
better is the permeability. If they are poorly sorted, smaller grains will go
between larger grains resulting to a reduction of space and paths of water. In the
case of a clay, it has a low conductivity because it has a larger surface area so
water remains in the soil. Since the soil exhibits permeability, water moves
downward through gravity all the way down into the lower layers of soil. So it is
important to know the hydraulic conductivity because a shallow well may not
have sufficient supply of water as compared to a deeper well. High permeability
or conductivity is required for a shallow groundwater well to be suitable (Gartell,
et. al., 1992).
There are many other different methods to determine hydraulic
conductivity especially in the field, and here are a few of them. First is the
Piezometer method in which a non-perforated pipe is placed into a hole under the
level of water, leaving a small cavity where water is allowed to flow. This method
is suggested for measuring conductivity at a relatively large depth. Next is the
double-ring infiltrometer in which a large steel ring is put at a particular depth
in the soil, and a constant water head remains above the soil surface. The
amount of percolating water is then measured. This infiltration process is also
used for determining hydraulic conductivity. Another one is the Auger-hole
method which is used mainly for horizontal hydraulic conductivity, and it is not
suitable for strongly layered soils. Moreover, there are also existing large scale
field methods. One is the pumping test which is applicable for deep, thick soil
layers with really high value of conductivity. It is a more sophisticated method
which is only applicable to thick and homogeneous soils. Lastly, the parallel
drains method is also for larger operations because it is used to determine drain
spacing in similar soils. It is only applicable after a pipe or drainage system is
installed (Stibinger, 2014).

IV. Conclusion
Hydraulic conductivity is one of the important properties in analyzing the
behavior of a certain soil water flow system, usually the saturated ones. It is a
constant that pertains to the ability of a soil that affects the movement and
transmission of water.
In this activity, two methods were used to measure the hydraulic
conductivity of two different types of soil - constant head test for coarse-grained
soil (gravel) and falling head test for fine-grained soil (sand). With 15 trials each
test and other supplement data, different hydraulic conductivity values were
computed. For the constant head test (coarse-grained soil), the hydraulic
conductivity has an average of 0.0545 cm/s. And for the falling head test (fine-
grained soil), the computed average is 0.0568 cm/s. The results show that the
computed value of hydraulic conductivity for coarse-grained soil is lower than the
 one for fine-grained soil. With these, it can be concluded that the results do not
go with what is expected - the hydraulic conductivity from constant head test is
higher than the hydraulic conductivity from falling head test.
Other than the comparison between the computed values of hydraulic
conductivity using two methods, the results also show that these values are
within the ranges for each type of soil. For the coarse-grained soil, which is
gravel, the computed average value is within the range of 10-2 to 1 cm/s. And for
the fine-grained soil, which is sand, the computed average value is also within its
range, 10-2 to 10-1.
As mentioned before, the hydraulic conductivity for coarse-grained soil is
higher than the one for fine-grained soil. The reason behind this is that water
has better movement in gravel than in sand. Hydraulic conductivity is a property
that describes how easily water flows through the interconnected void spaces of
the soil (Şen, 2015). Since gravel has larger grain size, more void spaces are filled
with water as it flows through the soil., hence, easier and faster transmission of
water. Compared to sand, which has smaller grains and void spaces, the water
remains in the surface areas of the soil, hence, slower transmission of water.

V. References
Budhu, M. (2011). Soil Mechanics and Foundations(3rd ed.). Hamilton Printing
Company.
Gartell, J.E. et. al. (1992). Porosity and Permeability . Arlington, VA: National
Science Teachers Association. Retrieved from
https://sitesmedia.s3.amazonaws.com/creekconnections/files/2014/03/Poros
ityPermeability-activity.pdf
Sarki, A., Mirjat, M. S., Mahessar, A. A., Kori, S. M., Qureshi, A. L. (2014).
Determination of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Different Soil
Texture Materials. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science.
56-62. Accessed from
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/23cc/df56d0dca656c22a84d509e90c89865
550bd.pdf
Şen, Z. (2015). Chapter 2 - Basic Porous Medium Concepts. Practical and Applied
Hydrogeology,43-97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800075-
5.00002-9
Stibinger, J. (2014). Examples of Determining the Hydraulic Conductivity of
Soils, University Handbook on Soil Hydraulics, Jan Evangelista Purkyne
University Faculty of the Environment