Engineering Mathematics Ebook Updated

About This eBook (Updated)
The Previous version of this eBook contains only 153

pages which include most of the important topics of GATE
Engineering Mathematics Syllabus and ONLY FEW
SOLVED QUESTIONS of GATE in the end of every topic.
In the new update of this eBook WE HAVE ADDED
MORE THAN 190 PAGES which includes Previous Year
Solved Questions of GATE for all the stream in the end of
the each chapter and we have also added some missed
out topic of the previous edition.
DISCLAIMER
Every effort has been made to avoid any error or omission
in this update. Inspite of this, some error might have crept
in. Any mistake, error or discrepancy noted may be
brought to our notice which shall be taken care of in the
next edition.
For any type of Clarifications Regarding this eBook you

may comment on any videos of our channel to get quick
response.
CONTENTS
SL. CHAPTERS PAGES

1. LINEAR ALGEBRA Contain
33 pages
1.1 PREVIOUS YEAR SOLVED QUESTIONS OF GATE Contain
FROM LINEAR ALGEBRA 36 pages
2. CALCULUS Contain
48 pages
FROM CALCULUS 54 pages
3. PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS Contain
24 pages
FROM PROBABILITY & STATISTICS 26 pages
4. LAPLACE TRANSFORMS Contain
13 pages
FROM LAPLACE TRANSFORMS 27 pages
5. COMPLEX FUNCTIONS Contain
16 pages
FROM COMPLEX FUNCTIONS 15 pages
6. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Contain
20 pages
FROM LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 21 pages
7. NUMERICALS METHODS Contain
12 pages
LINEAR ALGEBRA
1.2 ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
1.2.1 Definition of Matrix
A system of mn number arranged in the form of a rectangular array having m rows and n columns is
called an matrix of order m x n.
If A = [aij]m x n be any matrix of order m x n then it is written in the form:
[ ]
[ ]
Horizontal lines are called rows and vertical lines are called columns.
1.2.2 Special Types of Matrices
1. Square Matrix: An m x n Matrix for which m = n (The number of rows is equal to number of columns)
is called square matrix. It is also called an n rowed square matrix. i.e. The elements aij | i = j i.e. a11,
a12……. are called DIAGONAL ELEMENTS and the line along which they lie is called PRINCIPLE DIAGONAL
of matrix. Elements other than a11, a22, etc are called off-diagonal elements i.e. aij | i j.
Example: A = [ ]
Note: A square sub-matrix of a square matrix A is called a “principle sub-matrix” if its diagonal elements
are also the diagonal elements of the matrix A. So * + is a principle sub matrix of the matrix A given
avobe, but * + is not.
2. Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which all off-diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal
matrix. The diagonal elements may or may not be zero.
Example: A= [ ] is a diagonal matrix
The above matrix can also be written as A = diag [3, 5, 9]
Properties of Diagonal matrix:
diag [x, y , z] diag [p, q, r] = diag [x p, y q, z r]
diag [x, y , z] diag [p, q, r] = diag [xp, yq, zr]
(diag [x, y , z]-1 = diag [1/x, 1/y,1/ z]
(diag [x, y , z]t = diag [x, y,z]
TECHNICAL CAMPUS Page 1

LINEAR ALGEBRA
(diag [x, y , z]n = diag [xn, yn, zn]
Eigen value of diag [x, y, z] = x, y and z.
Determinant of diag [x, y, z] = | diag [x, y, z] | = xyz
3. Scalar Matrix : A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements being equal.
Example: A= [ ] is a scaler matrix.
4. Unit matrix or Identity Matrix: A square matrix each of whose diagonal elements is 1 and each of
whose non-diagonal elements are zero is called unit matrix or an identity matrix which is denoted by I.
Identity matrix always square.
Thus a square matrix A = [aij] is a unit matrix if aij = 1 when i = j and aij =0 when i j.
Example: I3 = [ ] is unit matrix, I2 = * +.
Properties of Identity Matrix:
(a) I is Identity elements for multiplication, so it is called multiplication identity.

(b) AI = AI = A
(c) In = I
(d) I-1 = I
(e) |I| = 1
5. Null Matrix: the m x n Matrix whose elements are all zero is called null matrix. Null matrix is
denoted by O. Null matrix need not be square.
Example: O3 = [ ], O2 = * + O2 x 1 = * +
Properties of Null Matrix:
(a) A + O = O + A = A
So, O is additive identity.
(b) A + (-A) = O
6. The Triangular matrix : An upper Triangular matrix is a square whose lower off-diagonal
elements are zero, i.e. aij = 0 where i > j
It is denoted by U.
The diagonal and Upper off-diagonal elements may or may not be zero.
Example: U = [ ]

LINEAR ALGEBRA
7. Lower Triangular matrix: A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix whose upper off-diagonal
triangular elements are zero, i.e. aij = 0 whenever i > j. The diagonal and lower off-diagonal elements
may or may not be zero.
It is denoted by L,
Example: L = [ ]
8. Idempotent Matrix: A Matrix A is called Idempotent iff A2 = A.
Example: * +, * +, [ ] are example of Idempotent matrices.
9. involutory Matrix: A matrix A is called Involutory iff A2 = I.
Exmple: * + is Involutory, Also [ ] is Involutory since A2 = I.
10. Nilpotent Matrix: A matrix A is said to be nilpotent of class x or index x iff Ax = O and Ax – 1 O i.e x is
the smallest index which makes Ax = O.
Example: The matrix A = [ ] is nilpotent class 3, since A 0 and A2 0, but A3 = 0.
1.2.3 Equality of two matrices
Two matrices A = [aij] and B=[bij] are said to be equal if,
1. They are same size.

2. The elements in the corresponding places of two matrices are the same i.e. aij = bij for each pair
of subscripts i and j.
Example: Let * +=* +
Then x – y = 2, p + q = 5, p – q = 1 and x + y = 10
x = 6, y = 4, p = 3 and q = 2.
1.2.4 Addition of Matrices
Two matrices A and B are compatible for addition only if they both have exactly the same size say m
x n. Then their sum is defined to be the matrix of the type m x n obtained by adding corresponding
elements of A and B. thus if, A = [aij]m x n & B = [bij]m x n then A + B = [aij + bij]m x n.
Example: A = * +B=* +;
A+ B = * ++* +=* +

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Properties of matrix addition:
1. Matrix addition is commutative A + B = B + A.

2. Matrix addition is associative (A + B ) + C = A + (B + C)
3. Existence of additive indentity: if O be m x n matrix each of whose elements are zero then, A + O
= A = O +A for every m x n matrix A.
4. Existence of additive inverse: Let A = [aij]m x n.
Then the negative of matrix A is defined as matrix [-aij]m x n and denoted by –A.
Matrix – A is additive inverse of A, because (-A) + A = O = A + (-A). Here O is null matrix of
order m x n.
5. Cancellation laws holds good in case of addition of matrices, whice is X = -A.
A+X= B+X A=B
X+A=X+B A=B
6. The equation A + X = 0 has a unique solution in the set of all m x n matrices.
1.2.5 Substraction of Two matrices
If A and V are two m x n matrices, then we define, A – b = A + (-B).
Thus the difference A – b is obtained by substracting from each element of A corresponding elements of
B.
Note: Subtruction of matrices is neither commutative nor associative.
1.2.6 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar
Let A be any m x n matrix and k be any real number called scaler. The m x n matrix obtained by
multiplying every elements of the matrix A by k is called scalar multiple of A by k nd is denoted by kA.
If A = [aij]m x n then Ak = kA = [kA]m x n.
If A = [ ] then, 3A = [ ]
Properties of Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar:
1. Scalar multiplication of matrices distributes over the addition of matrices i.e., k(A+B)=kA +kB.
2. If p and q are two scalars and A is any m x n matrix then, (p+q)A = pA+qA.
3. If p and q are two matrices and A = [aij]m x n then, p(qA) = (pq)A.
4. If A = [aij]m x n be a matrix and k be any scalar then, (-k)A = -(kA) = k(-A).
1.2.7 Multiplication of Two Matrices
Let A = [aij]m x n: b = [bk]n x p be two matrices such that the number of columns in A is equal to the number
of rows in B.
Then the matrix C = [cik]m x p such that ck = ∑ is called the product of matrices A and B in that
order and C = AB.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication:

LINEAR ALGEBRA
1. Multiplication of matrices is not commutative. In fact, if the product of AB exists, then it is not
necessary that the product of BA will also exist. For example, A3 x 2 X B2 x 4 = C3 x 4 but B2 x 4 X A3 x 2
does not exist since these are not compatible for multiplication.
2. Matrix multiplication is associative, if conformability is assured, i.e. A (BC) = (AB)C where A, B, C
are m x n, n x p, p x q matrices repectively.
3. Multiplucation of matrices is distributive with respect to addition of matrices i.e. A (B+C) = AB +
AC.
4. The equation AB = O does not necessarily imply that at least one of matrices A and B must be a
zero matrix, For example, * +* +=* +.
5. In the case of matrix cancellation if AB = O then it is not necessarily imply that BA = O. In fact, BA
may not even exist.
6. Both left and right cancellation laws hold for matrix multiplication as shown below:
AB = AC B = C (iff A is non-singular matrix) and
BA = CA B = C (iff A is non-singular matrix).
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 Consider the matrices X(4 x 3). Y(4 x 3) and P(2 x 3). The order of [P(XTY)-1PT]T will be
(a) (2 X 2) (b) (3 X 3)
(c) (4 X 3) (d) (3 X 4)
Solution: (a)
With the given order we can say that order of matrices are as follows:
XT 3X4
Y 4X3
XTY 3X3
(XTY)-1 3X3
P 2X3
PT 3X2
P(XTY)-1PT (2 X 3) (3 X 3) (3 X 2) 2X2
(P(XTY)-1PT)T 2X2
Q.2 There are three matrixes P(4 X 2), Q(2 X 4) and R(4 X 1). The minimum of multiplication requires
to compute the matrix PQR is
Solution:
The minimum number of multiplication required to multiply

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Am x n with Bn x p is mnp. To compute PQR if we multiply PQ first and then R the number of multiplication
required would be 4 x 2 x 4 to get PQ and then 4 x 4 x 1 multiplications to mulyiply PQ with R. So total
multiplications required in this method is
4 x 2 x 4 + 4 x 4 x 1 = 32 + 16 = 48
To compute PQR if we multiply QR first and then P the number of multiplications required would be 2 x
4 x 1 to get QR and then 4 x 2 x 1 multiplications to multiply P with QR. So total multiplications required
in tjis method is
2 x 4 x 1 + 4 x 2 x 1 = 8 + 8 = 16
Therefore, the minimum of multiplication required to computed the matrix PQR is = 16
1.2.8 Trace of a Matrix
Let A be a square matrix of order n. The sum of the elements lying along principal diagonal is called the
trace of A denoted by Tr(A).
Thus if A = [aij]n x n then, Tr(A) = ∑ = a11 + a22 ……… am
Let A=[ ]
Then, trace (A) = tr(A) = 1+(-3)+5 =3
Properties of Trace of a Matrix:
Let A and B be two square matrices of order n and be a scalar. Then,
1. tr ( A) = tr A
2. tr (A + B) = tr A + tr B
3. tr (AB) = tr (BA)
1.2.9 Transpose of a Matrix
Let A =[aij]m x n Then the n x m matrix obtained from A by changing its rows into column and columns
into rows is called the transpose of A and is denoted by A’ or AT.
Let A = [ ] then, AT = A’ = * +
If B = [1 2 3] then
B’ = *1 2 3+’ = *1 2 3 +t = [ ]
Properties of Transpose of a Matrix:
If A’ and B’ be transposes of A and B respectively then,

LINEAR ALGEBRA
1. (A’)’ = A
2. (A + B)’ = A’ + B’
3. (kA)’ = kA’, k being any complex number
4. (AB)’ = B’A’
5. (ABC)’ = C’ B’ A’
1.2.10 Conjugate of a Matrix
The matrix obtained from given matrix A on replacing A on replacing elements by the corresponding
conjugate complex number is called the conjugate of A and is denoted by ̅ .
Example: If A = * +
̅=* +
Properties of Conjugation of Matrix:
If ̅ & ̅ be the conjugation of A & B respectively, then,
1. ̅̅̅̅̅
(̅) = A
2. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) =̅+̅
3. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) = ̅ ̅ , k being any complex number
4. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) = ̅ ̅, A & B being conformable to multiplication
5. ̅ = A iff A is real matrix
̅ = -A iff A is purely imaginary matrix
1.2.11 Transposed Conjugate of matrix
The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by or
A* or (̅ )T. It is also called conjugate transpose of A.
Example: If A = * +
To find , we first find ̅ = * +
Then =(̅̅̅) T = * +
Some properties: If & be the transposed conjugates of A and B respectively then,
1. ( )=A
2. ( ) = +
3. ( ) = ̅ , k complex number
4. ( ) =
1.2.12 Classification of Real Matrices
Real matrices can be classified into the following three types based on the relation between AT and A,
1. Symmetric Matrices (AT = A)

LINEAR ALGEBRA
2. Skew symmetric Matrices (AT = -A)

3. Orthogonal Matrices (AT = A-1 or AAT = I)
1. Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be symmetric if its (I, j)th elements is same as its
(j, I)th element i.e. aij = aji for all i & j.
In a symmetric matrix, AT = A
Example: A = [ ] is a symmetric matrix, since AT = A
Note: for any matrix A,
(a) AAt is always a symmetric matrix.

(b) is always symmetric matrix.
Note: If A and B an symmetric, then
(a) A + B and A – B are also symmetric.

(b) AB, BA may or may not be symmetric.
2.Skew Symmetric Matric: A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew symmetric if (i, j)th elements of A is
the negative of the (j, i)th elements of A if aij = -aji A i, j.
In a skew symmetric matrix AT = -A.
A skew symmetric matrix must have all 0’s in the diagonal.
Example: A = [ ] is a skew-symmetric matrix.
Note: For any matrix A, the matrix is always skew symmetric.
3.Orthogonal matrix: A square A is said be orthogonal if:
AT = A-1 AAT = AA-1 = |. Thus A will be an orthogonal matrix if, AAT = I = ATA.
Example: the identity matrix is orthogonal since |t = |-1 +I.
Note: Since for an orthogonal matrix A,
AAT =|
|AAT| = |I| = 1
|A| |AT| = 1
(|A|)2 = 1
|A| = 1

LINEAR ALGEBRA
So the determinant of an orthogonal matrix always has a modulus of 1.
1.2.13 Classification of Complex matrices
Complex matrice can be classified into the followings three types based on relationship between and
A.
1. Hermitian Matrix ( = A)
2. Skew-Heemitian matrix ( = -A)
3. Unitary Matrix ( = A -1 or A = I
1.Hermitian matrix: A necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix A to be Hermitian is that =
A.
Example: A = * + is skew-Hermitian.
2.Skew-Hermitian Matrix: A necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix to be skew-Hermitian if

= -A.
Example: A = * + is a Hermitian matrix.
3.Unitary Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be unitary iff;
Multiplying both sides by A, we get an alternate definition of unitary matrix as given below:
A square matrix A is said to be unitary iff:
=I=
Example: A = [ ] is an example of a unitary matrix.
Q.1 A square matrix B is skew-symmetric if
(a) BT = -B (b) BT = B
© B-1 = B (d) B-T = BT
Solution:
A square matrix B is defined as skew-symmetric if and only if BT = -B, by definition.
Q.2 [A] is square matrix which is neither symmetric nor skew-symmetric and [A]T is its transpose.
The sum and difference of there matrices are defined as [S] = [A]+[A]T and [D] = [A] – [A]T,
respectively. Which of the followings statements is TRUE?

LINEAR ALGEBRA
(a) Both [S] and [D] are symmetric
(b) Both [S] and [D] are skew-symmetric
(c) [S] is skew-symmetric and [D] is symmetric
(d) [S] is symmetric and [D] is skew-symmetric
Solution:
Since St = (A +At)t += At + (At)t
= At + A = S
i.e. St = S
S is symmetric
Since Dt = (A – At)t = At –(At)t = At – A = -(A – At) = -D
i.e. Dt = -D
So D is skew-symmetric.
1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.1 Definition
Let a11, a12, a21, a22 be any four numbers. The symbol =* + represents the a11 a12 –a12 a21
and is called determinants of order2. The number a11, a12, a21, a22 are called elements of the
determinant and the number a11a22-a21a12 is called the value of determinant.
1.3.2 Mirrors and Cofactors
Consider the determinant | |
Leaving the row and column passing through the elements aij, then the second order determinant
thus obtained is called the minor of element aij and we will be denoted by Mij.
Example: The minor of elements a21 = | | = M21
Similarly Minor of element A32 = | | = M32
1.3.3 Cofactors
The minor Mij multiplied by (-1)i + j is called the cofactor of element aij. We shall denoted the cofactor
of an element by corresponding capital latter.
Example: Cofactor of aij = Aij = (-1)i + j Mij.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Cofactor of element a21 = A21 = (-1)2 +1 M21 = | |
By cofactor of element a32 = A32 = | |
We define for any matrix, the sum of the products of the elements of any row or column with
corresponding cofactor is equal to the determinant of the matrix.
Example: If A= [ ]
Then, cof(A) = [ ]
| A | = (1 x 12) + (2 x 4) + (0 x -12)
=(-1 x -4) + (6 x 2) + ( 1 x 4)
=(2 x 2) + (0 x -1) + (2 x 8) = 20
1.3.4 Determinant of order n
A determinant of order n has n-row and n columns. It has n x n elements.
A determinant of order n is a square array of n x n quantities enclosed between vertical bars.
=| |
Cofactor of Aij of element aij in D is equal to (-1)i + j times the determinants of order (n – 1) obtained
from D by leaving the row and column passing through element aij.
If A is a 3 x 3 matrix, then | A | = ∑ ( )=∑ ( )=∑ ( )=

∑ ( ) , etc.
Therefore, determinant can be expanded using any row or column.
1.3.5 Properties of Determinants
1. The value of a determinant does not change when rows and columns are interchanged. i.e. |AT| =
|A|
2. If any row (or column) of a matrix A is completely zero, then |A| = 0.
Such a roe (or column) in called a zero row (or column).
Also if any two rows (or columns) of a matrix A are identical then |A| = 0.
3. If any two rows or two columns of a determinant are interchanged the value of determinant is
multiplied by -1.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
4. If all elements of the one row (or one column) of a determinant are multiplied by same number k
the value of determinant is k times the value of given determinant.
5. If A be n-rowed square matrix, and k be any scalar, the |kA| = kn|A|
6. (a) In a determinant the sum of the products of the elements of any row (or column) with the
cofactors of corresponding elements of any row or column is equal to the determinants value.
(C) In determinant the sum of the products of the elements of any row (or column) with the
cofactors some other row or column is zero.
Example:
=| |
Then a1A1 + b1B1 + c1C1 =
a1A2 + b1B2 + c1C2 = 0
a1A3 + b1B3 + c1C3 = 0
a2A2 + b2B2 + c2C2 =
a2A1 + b2B1 + c2C1 = 0 etc
when A1, B1, C1 etc,. be cofactors of the elements a1, b1. C1 in D.
7. If to the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are added m times the corresponding
elements of another row (or column) the value of determinant thus obtained is equal to the
value of original determinant.
Ri+kRj
i.e. A B then |A| = |B|
Ci+kCj
and A B then |A| = |B|
8. |AB| = |A|*|B| and based on this we can prove the following:

(a) |An| = (|A|)n
(b) |A-1| =
Proof of a:
|An| = |A * A * A … n times|
=|A| * |A| * |A| … n times
=(|A|)n
Proof of b:
|AA-1| = |I|
=1
Now since, |AA-1| = |A | |A-1|

LINEAR ALGEBRA
|A| |A-1| = 1
|A-1| =
Using the fact that A Adj A= |A| . I, the following can be proved for An x n.
(a) |Adj A| = |A|n – 1

(b) |Adj (Adj (A))| = |A|(n-1)2
Q. 15 If any two column of a determinant P = | | are interchanged, which one of the following
statements regarding the value of the determinant is CORRECT?
(a) Absolute value remains unchanged but sign will change
(b) Both absolute value and sign will change
(c) Absolute value will vhange but sign will not change
(d) both absolute value and sign will remain unchanged
Solution: (a)
Property of determinant : If any two rows or column are interchanged, then magnitude of determinant
remains same but sign changes.
Q. 16 Perform the following operations on the matrix [ ].
1. Add the third row to the second row.
2. Substruct the third column from the first column.
The determinant of the resultant matrix is _____.
Solution: (0)
Since operation 1 and 2 are elementary operations of the type of Ri kRj and Ci kCj respectively, the
determinant will be unchanged from the original determinant.
So the required determinant = [ ]
C3 – 15C1
[ ] [ ]=0
So the required determinant = 0
1.4 INVERSE OF MATRIX

LINEAR ALGEBRA
The inverse of a matrix A, exists iff A is non-singular (i.e. |A| 0) and is given by the formula
( )
A-1 = .
Inverse of A when it exists in unique.
1.4.1 Adjoint of a Square Matrix

Let A = [aij] be any n x n matrix. The transpose B of the matrix B = [Aij]n x n where Aij denotes the
cofactor of element aij is called the adjoint of matrix A and is denoted by symbol Adj A.
Adj(A) = [cof (A)]t
Properties of Adjoint:
If A be any n-rowed square matrix, then (Adj A) A = A (Adj A) = |A| In
Where In is the n x n Identity matrix.
1.4.2 Properties of Inverse
1. AA-1 = A-1 A = I
2. A ans B are inverse of each other iff AB = BA = I
3. (AB) -1= B-1 A-1
4. (ABC) -1 = C-1 B-1 A-1
5. If A and be an n x n non-singular matrix, then (A’) -1 = (A-1)’
6. If A be an n x n non-singular matrix then ( ) =( )
7. For a 2 x 2 matrix there is a short-cut formula for inverse as given below.
* + =( )
* +.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 For which value of x will the matrix given below become singular?
[ ]
(a)4 (b)6
(c)8 (d)12
Solution: (a)
For singularity of matrix = [ ]=0
8(0 - 12) - x (0 - 2 x 12) = 0

X=4
Q. 2 Given that the determinant of the matrix [ ] is – 12, the determinant of the matrix
[ ] is
(a)-96 (b)-24
(c)24 (d)96

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Solution: (a)
Let D = -12 for the given matrix
A=[ ] = (2)3 [ ]
Taking 2 common from each row
Det(A) = (2)3 x D = 8 x – 12 = -96
1.5 RANK OF A MATRIX

Rank is defined for any matrix Am x n (need not be square)
Some important concepts:
1. Submatrix of a Matrix: Suppose A is any matrix of the type m x n. Then a matrix obtained by
leaving some rows and some columns from A is called sub-matrix of A.
2. Rank of a Matrix: A number r is a said to be the rank of a matrix A, if it possesses the following
properties:
3. (a) There is at least one square sub-matrix of A of order r whose determinant is not equal to
zero.
(b)If the matrix A contains any square sub-matrix of order (r + 1) and above, then the
determinant of such a matrix should be zero.
Put together property (a) and (b) give the definition of the rank of a matrix as the “size of the
largest non-zero minor”.
Note:
(a) The rank of a matrix is r, if all (r + 1) – rowed minors of the matrix vanish.
(b) The rank of a matrix is r, if there is at least one r-rowed minor of the matrix which is not
equal to zero.
(c) The rank of a transpose of a matrix is same a that of original matrix i.e. r(AT) = r (A).
(d) Rank of a matrix is same as the number of linearly independent row vectors in the matrix as
well as the number of linearly independent column vector in the matrix.
(e) For any matrix A, rank (A) min (m, n)
i.e., maximum rank of Am x n = min(m, n)
(f) Rank (AB) Rank A
Rank (AB) B
So, Rank (AB) min(Rank A, Rank B)
(g) Rank (A1) = Rank (A)

(h) Rank of a matrix is the number of non-zero rows in its echelon form.
Echelon form: a matrix is in echelon form if only if
1. Leading non-zero element in every row is behind leading non-zero element in previous row. This
means below the leading non-zero element in every row all the elements must be zero.
2. All the zero rows should be below all the non-zero rows.
This definition gives an alternate way of calculating the rank of larger matrices (larger than 3 x 3)
more easily. To reduce a matrix to its echelon form use gauss elimination method on the matrix

LINEAR ALGEBRA
and convert it into an upper triangular matrix, which will be in echelon form. Then count the
number of non-zero rows in the upper triangular matrix to get the rank of the matrix.
(i) Elementary transformation do not alter the rank of a matrix.
(j) Only null matrix can have a rank of zero. All other matrices have rank of atlest one.
(k) Similar matrices have the same rank.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 Let A = [aij]. 1 i, j n with n 3 and aij = i, j. The rank of A is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) n – 1 (d) n
Solution: (b)
Rank of A = 1
Because each row will be scalar multiple of first row. So we will get only one non-zero row in row
Echeleaon form of A.
Alternative:
Rank of A = 1
Because all the minors of order greater than 1 will be zero.
Q. 2 The dimension of the null space of the matrix [ ] is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
Solution: (b)
[ ]
Order of matrix = 3
Rank = 2
Dimension of null space of A = 3 – 2 = 1
1.5.1 Elementary matrices

A matrix obtained from a unit matrix by a single elementary transformation is called an
elementary matrix.
1.5.2 Result
1. Elementary transformation does not change the rank of a matrix.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
2. Two matrices are equivalent if one can be obtained from another by elementary row or
column transformations. Equivalent matrices have same rank, since elementary
transformations do not change the rank.
3. The rank of a product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank of either matrix i.e. r(AB)
r(A) and r(AB) r(B).
4. Rank of sum of two matrices cannot exceed the sum of their ranks r(A+B) r(A) + r(B).
5. If A, B are two n-rowed square matrices then Rank (AB) (Rank A) + (Rank B) – n.
1.6.5 Linearly dependent and Linearly independent set of vectors
1.6.5.1 Linearly Dependent set of Vectors
Def. A set { 1, 2………. r} of vectors is said to be a linearly dependent set, if there exist r scalars k1,
k2………..kr.
Not all zero, such that k1 1 + k2 2 + ………. +kr r = 0 where, zero, denoted the n-vector with components
all zero.
1.6.5.2 Linearly Independent Sets of Vectors
Def. A Set { 1, 2………. r} of r vectors is said to be a linearly independent set, if the set, is not linearly
dependent i.e. if k1 1 + k2 2 + ………. +kr r = 0
k1 1 + k2 2 + ………. +kr r =0
1.6.5.3 A vector as a Linear Combination of a Set of Vectors
Def A vectors which can be expressed in the form { k1 1 + ………. +kr r} is said to be a linear
combination of the set {{ 1, 2………. r} of vectors.
Example: Given a linearly dependent set of a vectors, show that at least one member of the set is a
linear combination of the remaining members of the others.
Example:
1. Show that the vectors [1 2 3], [2 -2 0] from linearly independent set.

2. Show that the vectors [2 3 -1 -1], [1 -1 -2 -4], [3 1 3 -2], [6 5 0 -7] form a linearly dependent set.
Also express one of these as a linear combination of the others.
3. Show that the set consisting only of the zero vector. O, is linearly dependent.
Solution:
1. Consider the relation

K1[1 2 3] + k2[2 -2 0] = zero
This relation is equivalent to the ordinary system of liner equations
K1 + 2k2 = 0, 2k1 – 2k2 = 0, 3k1 =0
As k1 = 0, k2 = 0 are the only values of k1, k2 which satisfy these three equations, we see that the
given set is linearly independent.
2. The single relation

LINEAR ALGEBRA
k1 1 + k2 2 + k3 3 +k4 4 =0
where 1, 2, 3, 4 are the four given vectors in the given order, is equivalent to
2k1 + k2 + 3k3 + 6k4 = 0, 3k1 – k2 + k3 + 3k4 = 0
-k1 - 2k2 + 3k3 + 0k4 = 0, -k1 – 4k2 + 2k3 + 7k4 = 0
As this system of 4 linear equations is satisfy by the values
k1 = 1, k2 = 1, k3 = 1, k4 = -1 (after solving above system)
Which are not all zero, the given vectors form a linearly dependent set.
Also we have the relations,
1 + 2 + 3 - 4 = 0 (obtained by substituting (ii) in (i))
By means of which any one of the four given vectors can be expressed as a linear combination of
the remaining three others.
3. Let X = (0, 0, 0 …………. 0) be an n-vector whose components are all zero. Then that relation kX =
0 is true for some non-zero value of the number k, For example 2x = 0 and 2 0
Hence the vectors 0 is linearly dependent.
1.6.6 Some properties of linearly independent and dependent Set of Vectors
In the following, if is understood that the vectors belong to a given space Vm(F).
1. If is a linear combination of the set { 1 …….. r} then the set { , 1, 2…… r} is linearly
dependent we have
= k1 1 + k2 2 +…………+ kr r
– k1 1 – k2 2 –………….– kr r =0
As at least one of the coefficients viz that of , in this latter relation is not zero, we establish the
linear dependent of the set
( 1……… r)
2. Also, If { 1……… r} is a linearly independent and { 1……… r, } is a linearly independent set.

Then is a linear combination of the set { 1........... r}.
3. Every super-set of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
4. It may also be easily shown that every sub-set of a linearly independent.
1.6.7 Subspaces of a N-Vector space Vn
Definition: Any non-empty set S, of vectors od Vn(F) is called a subspace of Vn(F), if when
1. 1, 2 are any two members of S, then 1 + 2 is also a members of S; and

2. is a member of S and k is a scalar, then k is also a member of S.
Briefly, we may say that a set D of vectors of Vn(F) is a subspace of Vn(F) it closed w.r.t the
compositions of “addition” and “multiplication with scalar”.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Every subspace of Vn contains the zero vectors; beings the products of any vector with the scalar
zero.
Example: = [a, b, c] is a non-zero vectors V3. Shows that the set of vectors k is a subspace of
V3; k being variable.
1.6.7.1 Construction of Subspaces
Theorem 1 : The set S, of all linear combination of a given set of r fixed vectors of Vn is a subspace of Vn.
Def. 1 A subspace spanned by a Set of Vectors. A subspace which arises as a set of all linear
combinations of any given set of vectors is said to be spanned by the given set of vectors.
Def. 2. Basis of a subspace. A set of vectors is said to be basis of a subspace, if
1. The subspace is spanned by the set and

2. The set linearly independent.
It is important to notice that the set of vectors
e1 = *1 0 0 ……. 0+, e2 = *0 1 0 …..0+, …………., en = *0 0 …….0 1+
is a basis of the vector space Vn for if
k1e1 + k2e2 +………+ knen = 0
then, k1 = 0, …… k1 = 0 so that the set is linearly independent and any vector
= [a1, a2, ……… an]
Of Vn is expressible as
= a1e1 + a2e2 + ……… anen
Theorem 2 : A basis of a subspace S can always be selected from a set of vectors which span S.
Let ( 1………….. r)
Be a set of vectors which span a subspace S.
If this set is linearly independent then it is already a basis. In case it is linearly dependent then some
member of the set is a linear combination of the preceding members. Deleting this member we
obtained another set which also spans S.
Continuing in this manner, we shall ultimately, in a finite number of steps arrive at a basis os S.
Note: It has yet to be shown that every subspace S of Vn possesses a basis and that the number of
vectors in every basis of S in the same.
Example: Show that the following two sets of vectors span the same subspace of V3(F).
1. {[2 -1 4], [0 1 2 ]} : {[6 -1 18], [4 0 12]}

Same operation for the sets of vectors for the same subspace of V4(F).
2. {[2 3 4], [1 2 3 4]} : {[2 5 8 11], [3 5 7 9]}

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Example: Show that the following set of vectors constitute a basis of V3:
{[2 3 4]}, [0 1 2], [-1 1 -1]}
Example: determine a basis of the subspace spanned by the vectors:
{[2 -3 1], [3 0 1], [0 2 1], [1 1 1]}
Invariant Character of the number of Vectors in a basis:
Result 1: the number of members in any one basis of a subspace in the same as in any other basis.
Result 2: Every basis of Vn possesses n members for as seen before Vn possesses one basis of n
members.
Theorem 3: Every linear independent set of vectors { 1, 2,…….. 3} can be extended so as constitute a
basis of vn.
Result 3: Every set of (n + 1) Vectors of Vn is Linearly Dependent: Either the set in linearly dependent or
linearly independent. In the case of linearly independence, the set can be extended so as to constitute a
basis of Vn (by theorem 3 above) and the basis thus obtained will contain at least (n + 1) members, but
this is not possible (since, every basis of Vn possesses exactly n members). Thus the set must be linearly
dependent.
Result 4: Existence of a basis: Every subspace S of Vn has a basis.
Note: the numbers of vectors in any basis of a subspace is called the dimension of the subspace. In
Particular, we see that the dimension of Vn is n.
1.6.8 Row and Column space of a matrix. Row and Column ranks of a Matrix
Let A, be any m x n matrix over a field F.
Each of the m rows of A, consisting of n elements is an n-vector and is as such a member of Vn(F). The
space spanned by the m rows which is a subspace of Vn is called the Row space of the m x n matrix A.
Again each of the n columns consisting of m elements is an m-vector and is a member of Vm(F). The
space spanned by the n columns which is a subspace of Vm is called the Column space of the m x n matrix
A.
The dimension of these row and column space of matrix are respectively called the Row rank and the
Column rank of the matrix.
Theorem 1: Pre-multiplication by a non-singular matrix does not alter the rank of a matrix. In a similar
manner, we may prove that post-multiplication with a non-singular matrix does not alter the column
rank of a matrix.
1.6.8.1 Equality of row rank, column rank and rank
Theorem 2: The row rank of a matrix is the same as its rank.
Theorem 3: The column rank of a matrix is the same as its rank.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Corollary 1: The rank of a matrix is equal to the maximum number of its linearly independent rows and
also to the maximum number of its linearly independent columns. Thus a matrix of rank r has a set of r
linearly independent rows (columns), such that each of the other rows (columns) is a linearly
combination of the same.
Corollary : The rows and columns of an n-rowed non-singular square matrix form linearly independent
sets and are as such bases of Vn.
1.6.8.2 Connection between Rank and Span
A set of n vectors X1, X2, X3………..Xn spans Rn iff they are linearly independent which can be checked by
constructing a matrix with X1, X2, X3………..Xn as its rows (or columns) and checking that the rank of such a
matrix is indeed n. If however the rank is less than n, say m, then the vectors span only a subspace of Rn.
Example: Cheek of the vectors [1 2 -1], [2 3 0], [-1 2 5] span R3.
Solution:
Step 1: Construct a matrix A = [ ]
Step 2: Find its rank
Since | | = 1(15-0)-2(10-0)-1(4+3)
= 15-20-7 = -12
So, rank = 3
The vectors are linearly independent and hence span R3.
Example: Cheek if the vectors [ 1 2 3], [4 5 6] and [7 8 9] span R3.
Solution:
Since, A=[ ]
Has a |A| = | |
= 1(45-48)-2(36-42)+3(32-45)
So its = 0
Rank 3

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Since, | | = 5 – 8 = -3 0
Rank = 2
So the vectors [1 2 3], [4 5 6] and [7 8 9] span a subspace of R3 but do not span R3.
1.6.9 Orthogonality of Vectors
1. Two vectors X1 and X2 are orthogonal iff each is non-zero and the dot product X1 ‘ X2 = 0.
Example: The vectors [a b c] and [d e f] are orthogonal iff
[a b c]t x [d e f] = 0
i.e. ad + be + cf = 0
Example: the vectors [1 2] and [-2 1] are orthogonal since
[1 2]t x [-2 1] = * + x [-2 1]
= (1 x -2) + (2 x 1)
=0
Example: The vectors [1 2 3] and [-1 2 5] are not orthogonal since
(1 x -1) + (2 x 2) + (3 x 5) = 18 0
3. Three vectors X1, X2 and X3 are orthogonal iff each is non zero and they are pair wise orthogonal.
i.e. X1 ‘ X 2 = 0
and X1 ‘ X 3 = 0
and X2 ‘ X 3 = 0
Example: The vectors [1 0 0], [0 1 0] and [0 0 1] are orthogonal since
[1 0 0]t [0 1 0] = [0 0 0]
And [0 1 0]t [0 0 1] = [0 0 0]
And [1 0 0]t [0 0 1] = [0 0 0]
3.If n vectors X1, X2, X3………..Xn each of which is in Rn, are orthogonal, then they are surely linearly
independent and hence span Rn and therefore form a basis for Rn.
Example: The vector [1 0 0], [0 1 0] and [0 0 1] are orthogonal and hence are linearly independent
and hence span R3. They form a basis for R3.
The vectors [ 0 -2], [-2 0] are orthogonal and hence are linearly independent and span R2 and form a
basis of R2.
4.The set of n vectors X1, X2, X3………..Xn are called orthogonal if they are
(a) orthogonal and
(b) if each vector has unit length.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
The two conditions together can be written as
X’I . Xj = ij ={
A set of orthogonal vectors X can be converted to a set of orthonormal vectors by devising each vector
in the orthogonal set by its length (Euclidean norm || X ||).
Example: The set [1, 2, 2], [2, 1, -4] and [3, -2, 1] is an orthogonal basis of vectors for R3, since these are
pair wise orthogonal and hence are linearly independent and hence span R3. To convert this set to an
orthonormal basis of R3. We need to divide each vector by its length
||u1|| = √ =√
||u1|| = √ =√
||u1|| = √ =√
So an orthonormal basis of R3 is ( ), ( ) and ( ).

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 Chose the CORRECT set of functions, which are linearly dependent.
(a) sin x, sin2 x and cos2 x (b) cos x, sin x and tan x
(c) cos 2 x, sin2 x and cos2 x (d) cos 2x, sin x and cos x
Solution: (c)
Since, cos 2 x = cos2 x – sin2 x, therefore cos 2 x is a linear combination of sin2 x and cos2 x and hence
these are linearly dependent.
Q. 2 If V1 are V2 are 4-dimensional subspace of a 6-dimensional vector space V, the smallest possible
dimension of V1 V2 is __________.
Solution:
V = {a, b, c, d, e, f}
V1 = {a, b, c, d} and V2 = {e, f, . }
Smallest possible dimension of V1 V2 = 2
1.7 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

1.7.1 Homogenous Linear Equations
Suppose
a11x1 + a12x2 + …………. +a1nxn = 0
a21x1 + a22x2 + …………. +a2nxn = 0
……………………………………………….
……………………………………………….

LINEAR ALGEBRA
am1x1 + am2x2 + …………. +amnxn = 0

is a system of m homogenous equations in n unknowns X1, X2, ……….. Xn.
Let A = [ ]
X = [ ]
O =[ ]
Where A, X, O are m x n, n x 1, m x 1 matrices respectively. Then obviously we can write the

system of equation in the form of a single matrix equation A X = O
The matrix A is called coefficient matrix of the system of equation (i).
The set S = {X1 = 0, X2 = 0,….. Xn = 0} i.e. X = 0 is always a solution of equation (i).
But in general there may be infinite number of solutions to equation (ii)
Again suppose X1 and X2 are two solutions of (ii). The their linear combination, R1X1 + R2X2 when
R1 and R2 are any arbitrary numbers is also solution of (ii).
1.7.1.1 imortant Results
the number of linearly independent infinite solutions of m homogenous linear equations in n
variables.
AX = O, is (n – r), where r is rank of matrix A.
n – r is also the number of parameters in the infinite solution.
1.7.1.2 Some important results regarding nature of solutions of equation A X = O
Suppose there are m equations in n unknown. Then the coefficient matrix A will be of the type
m x n.
Let e be rank of matrix A. Obviously r cannot greater than n. therefore we have either r = n or r <
n.
Case 1: inconsistency: This is not possible in a homologous system since such a system is always
consistent (since the trivial solution X = *0, 0, 0….+t always exists for a homogeneous system).
Case 2: Consistent unique Solution: If r = n; the equation AX = O will have only the trivial unique
solution X = *0, 0, 0……+t.
Note: That r = n |A| 0 i.e. A is non-singular.
Case 3: Consistent Infinite Solution: If r < n we shall have n – r linearly independent non-trivial
infinite solutions. Any linear combination of these (n – r) solutions will also be a solution of AX =
O
Thus in this case, the equation AX = O will have infinite solutions.
Note: That r < n |A| = 0 i.e. A is a singular matrix.
1.7.2 System of Linear Non-homogeneous Equations
a11x1 + a12x2 + …………. +a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + …………. +a2nxn = b2
……………………………………………….
……………………………………………….
am1x1 + am2x2 + …………. +amnxn = bm
be a system of m non-homogenous equation in n unknown X1, X2………Xn.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
If we write A = [ ]
X = [ ]
B =[ ]
Where A, X, B are m x n, n x 1 and m x 1 matrices respectively. The above equations cab be

written in the form of a single matrix equation A X = B.
Any set values of X1, X2 …………Xn which simultaneously satisfy all these equation is called a
solutions of the system. When the system of equations has one or more solutions, the equations
are said to be consistent otherwise they are said to be inconsistent”.
The matrix [A B] = [ ]
Is called augmented matrix of the given system of equations.

Condition for Consistency: The system of equations AX = B is consistent i.e. possess a solution iff
the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A B] are of the same rank. i.e. r(A) = r(A, B).
Case 1: Inconsistency: If r(A) r(A|B) the system A x = B, has no solution. We say that such a
system is inconsistent.
Case 2 and 3: Consistent systems: Now, when r(A) = r(A|B) = r, The system is consistent and has
solution.
We say, that the rank of the system is r. Now two cases arise.
Case 2: Consistent Unique Solution: If r(A) = r(A|B) = r = n (where n is the number of unknown
variable of the system), then the system is not only consistent but also has a unique solution.
Case 3: Consistent Infinite Solution: if r(A) = r(A|B) = r < n, then the system is consistent but has
infinite number of solutions.
In summary we can say the following:
1. If r(A) r(A|B) (Inconsistent and hence, no solution0
2. If r(A) = r(A|B) = r = n (consistent and unique solution)
3. If r(A) = r(A|B) = r < n (consistent and infinite solution)
The rank of a equations as well as its solution (if it exists) can be obtained by a produre called
Gauss – Elimination method, which reduces the matrix A to its Echelin form and then by
counting the number of non-zero rows in that matrix we get the rank of A.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 In the matrix equation Px = q, which of the following is a necessary condition for the
existences of least one solution for the unknown vector x
(a) Augmented matrix [Pq] must have the same rank as matrix P
(b) Vector q must have only non-zero elements

LINEAR ALGEBRA
(c) matrix P must be singular
(d) Matrix P must be square
Solution: (a)
Rank [Pq] = rank [P] is necessary for existence of at least one solution to Px =q.
Q. 2 A is a 3 x 4 real matrix and A x = b is an inconsistent system of equations. The hightest

possible rank of A is
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
Solution: (b)
R(Am x n) min (m, n)
So, Highest possible rank = least value of 3 and 4.
i.e. highest possible rank (based on size of A) = 3
however if the rank of A = 3 then rank of [A|B] also would be 3, which means the system would
become consistent. But it is given that the system is inconsistent. So the maximum rank of A
could only be 2.
1.8 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

Let A = [aij]n x n be any n-rowed square matrix and is a scalar. The equation AX = X is called
eigenvalue problem. We wish to find non zero solutions to X satisfying the eigen value problem and
these non zero solution to X are called as the eigen vectors of A. The corresponding values are
called eigen values of A.
1.8.1 Definitions
The matrix A - | is called characteristic matrix of A, where I is the unit matrix of order n. Also
the determinant
|A – | | =
Which is ordinary polynomial in of degree n is called “Characteristic polynomial of A”. The equation
|A– | = 0 is called “characteristic equation of A”.
Characteristic Roots: The roots of the characteristic equation are called “characteristic roots or
characteristic values or latent roots or proper values or eigen values” of the matrix A. The set of
eigenvalue of A is called the “spectrum of A”.
If | is a characteristic root of the matrix A, then if |A– | = 0, then the matrix A – is singular.
Therefore these exist a non-zero vector X such that (A– )X = 0 or AX = X, which is the eigen value
problem.
Characteristic vectors: If is a characteristic root of an n x n matrix A then a non-zero vector X such that
AX = X is called characteristic vectors or eigenvector of A corresponding to characteristic root .

LINEAR ALGEBRA
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 The lowest eigenvalue of the 2 x 2 matrix * + is ____________.
Solution: (2)
A= * +
|A– |=0
* + = (4 – )(3 – ) – 2 = 0
( – 4)( – 3) – 2 = 0
- 7 + 10 = 0
= 5, 2
Minimum value = 2
Q. 2 For the matrix * + the eigenvalue corresponding to the eigenvector * + is
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
Solution: (c)
M=* + , [M – ]=* +
Given eigen vector * +
[M – I] ̂ = 0
* +* +=0
(4 – ) (101) + 2 x 101 = 0
=6
1.8.2 Some Results Regarding characteristic roots and Characteristic vectors

1. is a characteristic root of a matrix A iff there exist a non-zero vector X such that AX = X.
2. If X is a characteristic vector of matrix A corresponding to characteristic value , then kX is laso a
characteristic vector of A corresponding to the same characteristic value , where k is non-zero
vector.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
3. If X is a characteristic vector of a matrix A, then X cannot correspond to more than one

characteristic value of A.
4. If a matrix A is of size n x n and if it has n distinct eigen value, then there will be n linearly
independent eigen vectors. However, if the n eigen values are not distinct, then there may or
may not be n linearly independent eigen vectors.
5. The characteristic roots (Eigen values) of a Hermitian matrix are real.
6. The characteristic roots (eigen values) of a real symmetric are all real, since every such matrix is
Hermitian.
7. Characteristic roots (eigen values) of a skew Hermitian matrix are either pure imaginary or zero.
8. The characteristic roots (Eigen values) of a real skew symmetric are either pure imaginary or
zero, for every such matrix is skew Hermitian.
9. The characteristic roots (Eigen Values) of a unitary matrix are of unit modules i.e. | | = 1.
10. The characteristic roots (Eigen values) of an orthogonal matrix is also of unit modulus, since
every such matrix is unitary.
1.8.3 Process of Finding the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix
Let A = [aij]n x n be a square matrix of order n, first we should write the characteristic equation of
the matrix A. i.e., the equation |A – I | = 0. This equation will be of degree n in . So it will
have n roots. These n roots will be the n eigenvalues of the matrix A.
If 1 is an eigenvalues of A, the corresponding eigenvectors of a will be given by the non-zero
vectors X1 = [X1, X2,…………..Xn+’ satisfying the equation AX1 = 1X1 or [a - 1I] X1 = 0
1.8.4 Properties of eigen values
1. If 1, 1……………… n are the eigenvalues of A the k 1, k 2 …………k n are eigenvalues of kA.
2. The eigenvalues of A-1 are the reciprocals of the eigenvalues of A.
i.e. if 1, 2,………… n are two eigen value of A, then , , …….. are the eigen value of A-1.
3. If 1, 2,………… n are two eigen values of A, then , ,……. are the eigen values of Ak.
4. If 1, 2, 3, ………… n are two eigen values of a non-singular matrix A, then , ……… are
the eigen values of Adj A.
5. Eigen values of A = Eigen values of AT.
6. maximum no. of distinct eigen values = size of A.
7. Sum of eigen values = Trace of A = Sum of diagonal elements.
8. Product of eigen values = |A| (i.e. At least one eigen value is zero iff A is singular).
9. In a triangular and diagonal matrix, eigen values are diagonal elements themselves.
10. Similar matrices have same eigen values. Two matrices A and b are said to be similar if there
exist a non singular matrix P such that b = P-1 AP.

LINEAR ALGEBRA
11. If A and b are two matrices of same order then the matrix AB and BA will have same
characteristic roots.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 The sum of eigen value of matrix [M] is
Where [M] = [ ]
(a)915 (b)1355
(c) 1640 (d)2180
Solution: (a)
Sum of eigen values = trace of matrix
= 215 + 150 + 550 = 915
Q. 2 the sum of the eigen values of the matrix given below is [ ].
(a) 5 (b) 7
(c) 9 (d) 18
Solution: (b)
Sum of eigen values of given matrix = sum of diagonal element of given matrix = 1 + 5 + 1 = 7.
1.8.5 The Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

This theorem is an interesting one that provides an alternative method for finding the inverse of
matrix A. Also any positive integral power of A can be expressed, using this theorem as a linear
combination of those of lower degree. We give below the statement of the theorem without
proof.
Statement of the theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.
This means that, if C0 n + C1 n -1 + …………..+ Cn -1 + Cn = 0 is the characteristic equation of a
square matrix A of order n, then
C0An + C1An -1 + …………..+ Cn -1 A + Cn I = 0
Note: When is replaced by A in the characteristic equation the constant term cn should be replaced by
cn I to get the result of Cayley-Hamilton theorem, where I is the unit matrix of order n.
Also 0 in the R.H.S of (i) is a null matrix of order n.
1.8.5.1 Finging Inverse off a Matrix bu using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Example: Find A-1 by Cayley-Hamilton theorem, if

A = * +
The characteristic equation of A is
|A – I| = 0
* +=0
(1 – ) (2 – ) – 12 = 0
2
- 3 - 10 = 0
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem
A3 - 3A – 10 | = 0
I = [ ]
-1
Pre-multiplying by A we get
A-1 = [ ] = (* + * +)
= * +=[ ]
1.8.5.2 Finding Higher Power of a Matrix in Terms of its Lower Powers

Example: If A = * + express A5 as a linear polynomial in A.
Characteristic equation is 2 - 3 - 10 = 0
A2 = 3A + 10 I
If A is n x n matrix any power of A can be written as a polynomial of maximum degree n -1. Here,
since A is 2 x 2 we can write any power of A as a polynomial of degree 1, i.e. a linear polynomial
of A as shown below.
A2 = 3A + 10I
A3 = 3A2 + 10A
Substituting (i) again in(ii) we get
A3 = (3A + 10I) + 10A = 19A + 30 I
Now A4 = 19A2 + 30A
Again substituting equation (i) in equation (iv) we get
A5 = 87 (3A + 10) + 190 A = 451 A + 970 I
Which is the dedired result.
1.8.5.3 Expressing Any Matrix Polynomial in A of size n x n as a Polynomial of degree n -1 in A by
Caycley-hamilton Theorem
Example: Process to express a polynomial of a 2 x 2 Matrix as a linear polynomial in A:
Example: Let A = * + Express 2A5 – 3A4 + A2 -4I as a linear polynomial in A.
Step 1: first of all write the characteristic equation of A.
In this case.
|A – I| = | |
= (3 – )(2 – ) + 1
LINEAR ALGEBRA
= 2-5 +7
Thus the characteristic equation of A is |A – I| = 0
2
i.e. is -5 +7=0
Step 2: By cayley-Hamilton theorem, matrix A satisfies the equation (i). Therefore, putting A =
linear
(i)We get
A2 – 5A + 7 = 0
A2 = 5A – 7I
Step 3: Finding the A5, A4, A3 with the help of (ii). In this case
A3 = 5A2 – 7A
A4 = 5A3 – 7A2
A4 = 5A4 – 7A3
2A5 – 3A4 + A2 – 4I = 2(5A4 – 7A3) - 3A4 + A2 – 4I
= 7A4 – 14A3 + A2 – 4I = 7(5A3 – 7A2) – 14A3 + A2 – 4I
= 21A3 – 48A2 – 4I = 21(5A2 – 7A) – 48A2 - 4I
= 57A2 – 147A – 4I = 57[5A – 7I) – 14A – 4I = 138A – 403I
Which is linear polynomial in A.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 A satisfies the relation
(a) A + 3I + 2A-1 = 0 (b) A2 + 2A + 2I = 0
(c) (A + I) (A + 2I) = I (d) exp (A) = 0
Solution: (a)
A = * +
|A – I| = 0
* +=0
(-3 – ) (- ) + 2 = 0
2
+3 +2=0
A will satisfy this equation according to Cayley-Hamilton theorem
i.e. A2 + 3A + 2I = 0
multiplying by A-1 on both sides we get

LINEAR ALGEBRA
A-1 A2 + 3A-1 A + 2A-1 I = 0
A + 3I + 2A-1 = 0
Q. 2 The Characteristic equation of a (3 x 3) matrix P is defined as
a( ) = | | - PI = 3 + 2 + 1 = 0
If I denotes identify matrix, then the inverse of matrix P will be
(a)(P2 + P + 2I) (b)(P2 + P + 1)
(c)-(P2 + P + 1) (d)-(P2 + P + 2I)
Solution: (d)
If characteristic equation is
3 2
+ + +1 =0
Then by cayley-hamilton theorem,
P3 + P2 + 2P + I = 0
I = -P3 – P2 – 2P
Multiplying by P-1 on both side,
P-1 = -P2 – P - 2I = - (P2 + P + 2I)
1.8.6 similar matrices

Two matrices A and B are said to be similar, if there exist a non-singular matrix P such that
B = P-1 AP.
1.8.6.1 Properties of Similar Matrices
1. A is always similar to A
Proof: Since A = I-1 A | and I is always non-singular, therefore A is similar to A.
2. If A similar to B then B is also similar to A.
Proof: If A is similar to B then B = p-1 AP (where P is non-singular)
Premultiplying above equation by P and postmultiplying by P-1, we get PBP-1 = PP-1 = A.
i.e. A = PBP-1
So B is also similar to A.
3. If A is similar to B and B is similar to C when A is similar to C.
Proof: A is similar to B B + P-1 AP
-1
B is similar to C C = Q BQ
Substituting eq. (i) and (ii) we get
C = Q-1P-1APQ

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Now putting PQ = D, we get C = D-1AD, Which proves that A is similar to C.

4. Combining properties 1, 2 and 3 above we can say that the similarity relation between
matrices is reflexive, symmetric and transitive and hence an equivalence relation.
5. Similar matrices have the same eigen values.
1.8.7 Diagonalisation of a matrix
Finding the a matrix D which is a diagonal matrix and which is similar to A is called
diagonalisation.
i.e. we wish to find a non-singular matrix m such that
A = M-1 DM
Where D is a diagonal matrix.
Condition for a Matrix to be diagonalizable:
1. A necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix An x n to be diagonalizable is that the matrix
must have n linearly independent eigen vectors.
2. A sufficient (but not necessary) condition for matrix An x n to be diagonalizable is that the
matrix must have n linearly independent eigen values.
This is because if a matrix has n linearly independent eigen values then it surely has a
linearly independent eigen vectors (although the converse of this is not true).
When A is diagonalizable A = M-1DM, where the matrix D is diagonal matrix constructed using the eigen
values of A as its diagonal elements. Also the corresponding matrix M can be obtained by constructed a
n x n matrix whose column are the eigen vectors of A.
Practical application of Diagonalisation:
One of the uses of diagonalisation is for computing higher powers of a matrix efficiently.
If A = M-1DM then An = M-1DnM
The above property makes it easy to compute higher powers of a matrix A, since computing Dn is much
more easy compared with computing An.

PREVIOUS YEAR SOLVED QUESTIONS OF GATE FROM LINEAR ALGEBRA
ALGRBRA OF MATRIX
⎡1 ⎤
⎡2 −0.1⎤ ⎢ 2 a ⎥ Then (a + b) =
1. Let, A = ⎢ and A–1 = [EC: GATE-20005
⎣0 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 b ⎥⎦
7 3 19 11
(a) (b) (c) (d)
20 20 60 20
1.(a)
We know AA −1 = I2
⎛1 ⎞
⎛ 2 −0.1 ⎞ ⎜ a ⎟ ⎛ 1 2a − 0.1b ⎞ ⎛ 1 0 ⎞
⇒⎜ ⎟ 2 = ⎟=⎜
⎝0 3 ⎠ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 0 3b ⎠ ⎝0 1⎠
⎟
⎝0 b⎠
1 1
⇒ b = and a =
3 60
7
∴a + b =
20
⎡ 1 1 1 1⎤
⎢ 1 1 −1 −1⎥
2. Given an orthogonal matrix A = ⎢ ⎥ [AAT]–1 is [EC: GATE-2005]
⎢ 1 −1 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢0 0 1 −1⎦⎥
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
⎢ 4 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ 2 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 1 0 0⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 0⎥
⎢ 4 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
(a) ⎢ ⎥ (b) ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ 1⎥
⎢0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢0 0 0 ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡1 ⎤
⎢ 4 0 0 0⎥
⎡1 0 0 0⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 ⎢ 0 1 0 0⎥
1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ 4 ⎥
(c) ⎢ (d) ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 1 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢0 0 0 1⎦⎥ 4
⎢ 1⎥
⎢0 0 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
2.(c).
We know
AA t = I4
−1 −1
⎡⎣ AA T ⎤⎦ = ⎣⎡I4 ⎦⎤ = I4
⎡1 1 1⎤
3. The rank of the matrix ⎢⎢1 −1 0 ⎥⎥ is [EC: GATE-2006]
⎢⎣1 1 1⎥⎦
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
3. (c)
⎛1 1 1 ⎞ ⎛1 1 1 ⎞ ⎛1 2 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ R3 − R1 ⎜ ⎟ R1 − R2 ⎜ ⎟
⎜1 −1 0 ⎟ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎜ 1 −1 0 ⎟ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎜ 1 −1 0 ⎟ = A1 (say).
⎜1 1 1 ⎟ ⎜0 0 0⎟ ⎜0 0 0⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
∴ rank(A) = 2.
5. The eigen values of a skew-symmetric matrix are [EC: GATE-2010]

(a) Always zero (b) always pure imaginary
(c) Either zero or pure imaginary (d) always real
5. (c)
⎡ 0 2 2⎤
6. Rank of the matrix ⎢ 7 4 8 ⎥ is 3. [ME: GATE-1994]
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ -7 0 -4⎥⎦
6.Ans. False
As.det A = 0 so,rank(A) < 3
0 2
But = −14 ≠ 0
7 4
∴ rank(A) = 2.
7. Rank of the matrix given below is: [ME: GATE-1999]

⎡ 3 2 -9 ⎤
⎢ -6 -4 18 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣12 8 -36 ⎥⎦
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 2
7. (a)
3 2 −9 3 2 −9
R3 − 4R1
−6 −4 18 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
R 2 + 2R1
→0 0 0
12 8 −36 0 0 0
∴ rank = 1.
8. The rank of a 3×3 matrix C (=AB), found by multiplying a non-zero column matrix A
of size 3×1 and a non-zero row matrix B of size 1×3, is [ME: GATE-2001]
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
8.(b)
a1
LetA = a 2 ,B = [b1 b2 b3 ]
a3
⎡ a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Then C = AB = ⎢a2 b1 a 2 b2 a2 b3 ⎥ .Then det (AB) = 0.
⎢⎣a3 b1 a3 b2 a3 b3 ⎥⎦
Then also every minor
of order 2 is also zero.
∴ rank(C) = 1.
9. A is a 3 x 4 real matrix and A x = b is an inconsistent system of equations. The

highest possible rank of A is [ME: GATE-2005]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
9.(b). Highest possible rank of A= 2 ,as Ax = b is an inconsistent system.
10. Match the items in columns I and II. [ME: GATE-2006]

Column I Column II
P. Singular matrix 1. Determinant is not defined
Q. Non-square matrix 2. Determinant is always one
R. Real symmetric 3. Determinant is zero
S. Orthogonal matrix 4. Eigenvalues are always real
5. Eigenvalues are not defined
(a) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2 (b) P-2, Q-3, R-4, S-1
(c) P-3, Q-2, R-5, S-4 (d) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1
10.(a) (P) Singular matrix Æ Determinant is zero

(Q) Non-square matrix Æ Determinant is not defined
(R) Real symmetric Æ Eigen values are always real
(S) Orthogonal Æ Determinant is always one
[ A ] is its
T
Q1. [A] is a square matrix which is neither symmetric nor skew-symmetric and
[ S] = [ A ] + [ A ] and
T
transpose. The sum and difference of these matrices are defined as
[ D] = [ A ] − [ A ]
T
, respectively. Which of the following statements is TRUE? [CE-2011]
(a) both [S] and [D] are symmetric
(b) both [S] and [D] are skew –symmetric
(c) [S] is skew-symmetric and [D] is symmetric
(d) [S] is symmetric and [D] is skew-symmetric.
Ans. (d)
Exp. Take any matrix and check.
⎡4 2 1 3 ⎤
11. Given matrix [A] = ⎢⎢ 6 3 4 7 ⎥⎥ , the rank of the matrix is [CE: GATE – 2003]
⎢⎣ 2 1 0 1⎥⎦
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 1
11.(c)
⎡4 2 1 3 ⎤ ⎡0 0 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0 0 1 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ R1 −2R3 ⎢ ⎥ R2 −4R1 ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢6 3 4 7 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
R 2 −3R3
→ ⎢0 0 4 4 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎢0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢⎣2 1 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣2 1 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣2 1 0 1 ⎥⎦
∴ Rank(A) = 2
12. Real matrices [A]3 × 1 , [B]3 × 3 , [C]3 × 5 , [D]5 × 3 , [E]5 × 5 and [F]5 × 1 are given. Matrices [B] and
[E] are symmetric. [CE: GATE – 2004]
Following statements are made with respect to these matrices.
1. Matrix product [F]T [C]T [B] [C] [F] is a scalar.
2. Matrix product [D]T [F] [D] is always symmetric.
With reference to above statements, which of the following applies?
(a) Statement 1 is true but 2 is false
(b) Statement 1 is false but 2 is true
(c) Both the statements are true
(d) Both the statements are false
12.(a)
T
Let ⎡⎣I⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣F⎤⎦ 1T×5⎡⎣C⎤⎦5×3 ⎡⎣B⎤⎦ 3×3 ⎡⎣C⎤⎦ 3×5⎡⎣F⎤⎦ 5×1
= ⎣⎡I⎦⎤1×1 = scalar.
T
Let ⎡⎣I'⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣D⎤⎦3×5 ⎡⎣F⎤⎦5×1 ⎡⎣D⎤⎦5×3 is not define.
13. Consider the matrices X (4 × 3), Y (4 × 3) and P (2 × 3). The order or P (XTY)–1PT] T will be
[CE: GATE – 2005]
(a) (2 × 2) (b) (3 × 3)
(c) (4 × 3) (d) (3 × 4)
13.(a)
T
⎡P X T Y
( ) P3T×2 ⎤
−1
⎢⎣ 2×3 3×4 4×3 ⎥⎦

T
= ⎡⎣ P2×3 Z3−×13 P3T×2 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣Take Z = XY,⎦⎤
T ⎡ T = PZ−1PT ⎤
⎡ ⎤
= ⎣ T2×2 ⎦ = ⎣⎡T'⎦⎤2×2 ⎢ ⎥
T
⎢⎣ T' = T ⎥⎦
⎡1 2⎤
14. The inverse of the 2 × 2 matrix ⎢ is, [CE: GATE – 2007]
⎣5 7 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ −7 2⎤ 1 ⎡7 2 ⎤
(a) ⎢ (b)
3 ⎣ 5 −1⎥⎦ 3 ⎢⎣5 1⎥⎦
1 ⎡ 7 −2 ⎤ 1 ⎡ −7 −2⎤
(c) ⎢ −5 1⎥ (d) ⎢ −5 −1⎥
3 ⎣ ⎦ 3 ⎣ ⎦
14(a).
−1
⎡1 2⎤ 1 ⎡ −7 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ =
⎣5 7 ⎦ 3 ⎢⎣ 5 −1⎥⎦
15. The product of matrices (PQ)–1 P is [CE: GATE – 2008]

(a) P–1 (b) Q–1
(c) P Q P
–1 –1 (d) PQ P–1
15.(b)
( PQ )
−1
P = Q−1P−1P = Q−1
16. A square matrix B is skew-symmetric if [CE: GATE – 2009]

(a) BT = –B (b) BT = B
(c) B–1 = B (d) B–1 = BT
16.(a)
BT = − B
⎡3 + 2 i i ⎤
17. The inverse of the matrix ⎢ is [CE: GATE – 2010]
⎣ −i 3 − 2 i ⎥⎦
1 ⎡3 + 2 i −i ⎤ 1 ⎡3 − 2 i −i ⎤
(a) (b) ⎢
⎢
12 ⎣ i ⎥
3 − 2 i⎦ 12 ⎣ i 3 + 2 i ⎥⎦
1 ⎡3 + 2 i −i ⎤ 1 ⎡3 − 2 i −i ⎤
(c) ⎢ ⎥ (d) ⎢ ⎥
14 ⎣ i 3 − 2 i⎦ 14 ⎣ i 3 + 2 i⎦
17.(b)
−1
⎛ 3 + 2i i ⎞ 1 ⎡3 − 2i −i ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥
⎝ −i 3 − 2i ⎠ 12 ⎣ i 3 + 2i ⎦
18. For a given 2 × 2 matrix A, it is observed that [IE: GATE-2006]
⎡ 1⎤ ⎡ 1⎤ ⎡ 1⎤ ⎡ 1⎤
A ⎢ ⎥ = – ⎢ ⎥ and A ⎢ ⎥ = –2 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ –1⎦ ⎣ –1⎦ ⎣ –2⎦ ⎣ –2⎦
Then matrix A is
⎡ 2 1⎤ ⎡ −1 0⎤ ⎡ 1 1⎤
(a) A = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 −1⎦ ⎣ 0 −2⎦ ⎣ −1 −2⎦
⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 2 1⎤
(b) A = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 −2⎦ ⎣0 2 ⎦ ⎣ −1 −1⎦
⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡ −1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 2 1⎤
(c) A = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 −2⎦ ⎣ 0 −2⎦ ⎣ −1 −1⎦
⎡0 −2 ⎤
(d) A = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 −3⎦
18.(c)
From these conditions eigen values are -1 and -2.
⎛1 1 ⎞
Let P = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 −2 ⎠
⎛2 1 ⎞
⇒ P−1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 −1 ⎠
⎛ −1 0 ⎞
∴ P−1 A P = ⎜ ⎟ = D(say)
⎝ 0 −2 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 0 ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
⇒ A = PDP−1 = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 −2 ⎠ ⎝ 0 −2 ⎠ ⎝ −1 −1 ⎠
⎡2 1 ⎤
Q27. The matrix [ A ] = ⎢ ⎥ is decomposed into a product of a lower triangular matrix [ L ] and
⎣4 −1⎦
an upper triangular matrix [ U] . The properly decomposed [ L ] and [ U] matrices
respectively are
⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡2 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1⎤
(a) ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ 4 −1⎥ (b) ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4 −1⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 4 −1⎦ ⎣ 0 1⎦
⎡1 0⎤ ⎡2 1 ⎤ ⎡2 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0.5⎤
(c) ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ (d) ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ [EE-2011]
⎣4 1⎦ ⎣ 0 −1⎦ ⎣ 4 −3 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
Ans. (d)
Systems of Linear Equations
1. The system of linear equations [EC: GATE-2008]

4x + 2y = 7
2x + y = 6
has
(a) A unique solution (b) no solution
(c) An infinite number of solutions (d) exactly two distinct solutions
1.(b)
⎛4 2⎞
This can be written as AX = B Where A = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2 1⎠
⎡4 2 7 ⎤
Angemented matrix A = ⎢ ⎥
⎣2 1 6 ⎦
R1 − 2R2 ⎡0 0 −5 ⎤
A ⎯⎯⎯⎯ →=⎢ ⎥
⎣2 1 6 ⎦
( )
rank ( A ) ≠ rank A . The system is inconsistant .So system has no solution.
2. Using Cramer’s rule, solve the following set of equations [ME: GATE-1995]
2x + 3y + z = 9
4x + y = 7
x – 3y – 7z = 6
2. Ans.
Given equations are
2x + 3y + 1z = 9
4x + 1y + 0z = 7
1x – 3y – 7z = 6
By Cramer’s Rule
x y z 1
= = =
9 3 1 2 9 1 2 3 9 2 3 1
7 1 0 4 7 0 4 1 7 4 1 0
6 -3 -7 1 6 -7 1 -3 6 1 -3 -7
x y z 1
or = = =
9 3 1 2 9 1 −10 0 -12 2 3 1
7 1 0 4 -7 0 4 1 7 4 1 0
69 18 -7 15 69 0 13 0 27 15 18 0
x y z 1
or = = = Hence x=1; y=3; z=-2
57 171 −114 57
4. For the following set of simultaneous equations: [ME: GATE-1997]

1.5x – 0.5y = 2
4x + 2y + 3z = 9
7x + y + 5z = 10
(a) The solution is unique (b) Infinitely many solutions exist
(c) The equations are incompatible (d) Finite number of multiple solutions exist
4. (a)
⎡3 1 ⎤
⎢2 − 0 2⎥ ⎡3 / 2 −1 0 2⎤
2 2
⎢ ⎥ R2 −2R1 ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢4 2 3 9 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ R3 − 4R1
→ ⎢ 1 3 3 5 ⎥
⎢7 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 5 10 ⎢ 1 3 5 2⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦
⎡3 / 2 −1 0 2⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥
R3 − R 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯ →⎢ 1 3 3 5⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 2 −3⎥
⎣ ⎦
_
∴rank of ( A ) = rank of ( A ) = 3
∴The system has unique solution.
5. Consider the system of equations given below: [ME: GATE-2001]

x+y=2
2x + 2y = 5
This system has
(a) One solution (b) No solution (c) Infinite solution (d) Four solution
5. (b)
Same as Q.1
6. The following set of equations has [ME: GATE-2002]

3x+2y+z=4 x–y+z=2 -2 x + 2 z = 5
(a) No solution (b) A unique solution (c) Multiple solution (d) An inconsistency
6.(b)
⎡ 3 2 1 4⎤ ⎡0 5 −2 −2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ R1 −3R2 ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢ 1 −1 1 2 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
R3 + 2R2
→ ⎢1 −1 1 2 ⎥
⎢ −2 0 2 5 ⎥ ⎢0 −2 4 9 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 5 −2 −2 ⎥ − 2
⎢0 5 −2 ⎥
−1
2 3
R ⎢ ⎥ R 2 + R3 ⎢ 5⎥
⎯⎯⎯→ ⎢1 −1 1 2 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 1 0 −1 −
⎢ 2⎥
⎢0 −1 −2 −9 ⎥ ⎢0 1 −2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 9⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ −
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
( )
∴ rank(A) = rank A = 3
∴ The system has unique solution
7. Consider the system of simultaneous equations [ME: GATE-2003]

x + 2y + z = 6
2x + y + 2z = 6
x+y+z=5
This system has
(a) Unique solution (b) Infinite number of solutions
(c) No solution (d) Exactly two solution
7. (c )
⎡1 2 1 6 ⎤ ⎡0 1 0 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ R1 − R3 ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢2 1 2 6 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯R 2 − 2R3
→ ⎢0 −1 0 −4 ⎥
⎢1 1 1 5 ⎥ ⎢1 1 1 5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡0 1 0 1 ⎤
R 2 + R1 ⎢ ⎥
⎯⎯⎯
R3 − R1
⎯
→ ⎢0 0 0 −3 ⎥
⎢1 0 1 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
∴ rank(A) = 2 ≠ 3 = rank A .( )
∴ The system is inconsistent and has no solution.
8. Multiplication of matrices E and F is G. Matrices E and G are [ME: GATE-2006]

⎡cos θ -sinθ 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 0⎤
E = ⎢sinθ cosθ 0 ⎥ and G= ⎢⎢0
⎢ ⎥ 1 0 ⎥⎥ . What is the matrix F?
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡cos θ -sinθ 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos θ cosθ 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos θ sinθ 0 ⎤ ⎡sin θ -cosθ 0 ⎤
(a) ⎢sinθ cosθ 0 ⎥ (b) ⎢⎢-cosθ
⎢ ⎥ sinθ 0 ⎥ (c) ⎢-sinθ cosθ 0 ⎥ (d) ⎢⎢cosθ sinθ 0 ⎥⎥
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
8.(c)
Given EF = G = I3
⇒ F = E−1G = E−1I3 = E−1
9. For what value of a, if any, will the following system of equations in x, y and z have a
solution? [ME: GATE-2008]
2x + 3y = 4
x+y+z = 4
x + 2y - z = a
(a) Any real number (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) There is no such value
9. (b)
⎡2 3 0 4 ⎤ ⎡0 1 −2 −4 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ R1 −2R2 ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢1 1 1 4 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
R3 − R 2
→ ⎢0 −1 1 4 ⎥
⎢1 2 −1 a ⎥ ⎢0 1 −2 a − 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡0 1 −2 −4 ⎤
R3 − R1 ⎢ ⎥
⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎢0 1 1 4 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 a ⎥
⎣ ⎦
If a = 0 then rank (A) = rank(A) = 2. Therefore the
system is consistant
∴ The system has sol n .
Page 12
33. Solution for the system defined by the set of equations 4y + 3z = 8; 2x – z = 2 and 3x + 2y =
5 is [CE: GATE – 2006]
4 1
(a) x = 0; y = 1; z = (b) x = 0; y = ; z = 2
3 2
1
(c) x = 1; y = ; z = 2 (d) non-existent
2
33. Ans.(d)
⎡0 4 3 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Consider the matrix A = ⎢2 0 −1⎥ , Now det( A ) = 0
⎢⎣3 2 0 ⎥⎦
So, byCramer ′s Rule, the system has no solution.
10. Consider a non-homogeneous system of linear equations representing mathematically an

over-determined system. Such a system will be [CE: GATE – 2005]
(a) consistent having a unique solution
(b) consistent having many solutions
(c) inconsistent having a unique solution
(d) Inconsistent having no solution
10. Ans.(b)
In an over determined system having more equations than variables, it is necessary to have
consistent having many solutions .
11. For what values of α and β the following simultaneous equations have an infinite number
of solutions? [CE: GATE – 2007]
x + y + z = 5; x + 3y + 3z = 9; x + 2y + αz = β
(a) 2, 7 (b) 3, 8 (c) 8, 3 (d) 7, 2
11.(d)
⎡1 1 1 5 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 5⎤ 1
⎡1 1 1 5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ R3 − R1 ⎢ ⎥ R2 ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢1 3 3 9 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯ R 2 − R1
⎯
→ ⎢0 2 2 4 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯ 2
→ ⎢0 1 1 2 ⎥
⎢1 2 α β ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 α − 1 −5 ⎥ ⎢0 1 α − 1 β − 5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡1 0 0 3 ⎤
R3 − R 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎯⎯⎯⎯
R1 − R2
→ ⎢0 1 1 2 ⎥
⎢0 0 α − 2 β − 7 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
For infinite solution of the system
α − 2 = 0 and β − 7 = 0
⇒ α = 2 and β − 7.
12. The following system of equations [CE: GATE – 2008]
x+y+z =3
x + 2y + 3z = 4
x + 4y + kz = 6
Will NOT have a unique solution for k equal to
(a) 0 (b) 5
(c) 6 (d) 7
12. (d)
⎡1 1 1 3 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 3⎤ ⎡1 1 1 3⎤
⎢ ⎥ R3 − R1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
R3 −3R2 ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢1 2 3 4 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯R 2 − R1
⎯
→ ⎢0 1 2 1⎥ → ⎢0 1 2 1⎥
⎢1 4 k 6 ⎥ ⎢⎣0 3 k − 1 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 k − 7 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
For not unique solution k − 7 − 0
⇒ k = 7.
14. For the set of equations [EE: GATE-2010]

x1 + 2 x + x3 + 4 x4 = 2
3 x1 + 6 x2 + 3 x3 + 12 x4 = 6
(a) Only the trivial solution x1 = x2 = x3 = x4 = 0 exists.
(b) There are no solutions.
(c) A unique non-trivial solution exists.
(d) Multiple non-trivial solutions exist
14.(d)
Because number of unknowns more them no. of equation.
15. Let A be a 3 × 3 matrix with rank 2. Then AX = 0 has [IE: GATE-2005]

(a) Only the trivial solution X = 0
(b) One independent solution
(c) Two independent solutions
(d) Three independent solutions
15. (b)
We know , rank (A) + Solution space X(A) = no. of unknowns.
⇒ 2 + X(A) = 3 . [Solution space X(A)= No. of linearly independent vectors]
⇒ X(A) = 1.
17. Let P ≠ 0 be a 3 × 3 real matrix. There exist linearly independent vectors x and y such that
Px = 0 and Py = 0. The dimension of the range space of P is
[IE: GATE-2009]
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
17. (b)
Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
⎡ −4 2⎤
1. Given the matrix ⎢ , the eigenvector is [EC: GATE-2005]
⎣ 4 3 ⎥⎦
⎡3 ⎤ ⎡4 ⎤ ⎡ 2⎤ ⎡ −2⎤
(a) ⎢ ⎥ (b) ⎢3 ⎥ (c) ⎢ ⎥ (d) ⎢ ⎥
⎣2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ −1⎦ ⎣ 1⎦
1. (c)
Characteristic equation
A − λI2 = 0
−4 − λ 2
⇒ =0
4 3−λ
⇒ λ = −5,4
Take λ = −5, then AX = λX becomes
⎡ −4 2 ⎤ ⎡x1 ⎤ ⎡ −5x1 ⎤
⎢ 4 3⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣x 2 ⎦ ⎣ −5x 2 ⎦
⎡ −4x1 + 2x 2 ⎤ = ⎡ −5x1 ⎤
⇒⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣4x1 + 3x 2 ⎦ = ⎣ −5x 2 ⎦
−4x1 + 2x 2 = −5x1 ⎫
∴ ⎬ ⇒ x1 = −2x 2
−4x1 + 3x 2 = −5x 2 ⎭
∴ if x 2 = −1 then x1 = 2
⎡2 ⎤
∴ ⎢ ⎥ is eigen vector corrosponding to λ = −5.
⎣ −1⎦
2. The eigen values and the corresponding eigen vectors of a 2 × 2 matrix are given by
[EC: GATE-2006]
Eigenvalue Eigenvector
⎡1⎤
λ1 = 8 v1 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣1⎦
⎡ 1⎤
λ2 = 4 v2 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1⎦
The matrix is
⎡6 2 ⎤ ⎡4 6 ⎤
(a) ⎢ ⎥ (b) ⎢ ⎥
⎣2 6 ⎦ ⎣6 4 ⎦
⎡2 4 ⎤ ⎡4 8 ⎤
(c) ⎢ ⎥ (d) ⎢ ⎥
⎣4 2 ⎦ ⎣8 4 ⎦
2. (a)
We know, sum of eigen values = trace (A). = Sum of diagonal element of A.
Therefore λ 1 + λ 2 = 8 + 4 = 12
Option (a)gives , trace(A) = 6 + 6 = 12.
⎡4 2 ⎤ ⎡101⎤
3. For the matrix ⎢ ⎥ , the eigen value corresponding to the eigenvector ⎢ ⎥ is
⎣2 4 ⎦ ⎣101⎦
[EC: GATE-2006]
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
3. (c)
⎡4 2 ⎤ ⎡101⎤ ⎡101⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ =λ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 4 ⎦ ⎣101⎦ ⎣101⎦
⎡606 ⎤ ⎡101λ ⎤ ⇒ 101λ = 606
=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣606 ⎦ ⎣101λ ⎦ ⇒ λ = 6
⎡p p12 ⎤
6. All the four entries of the 2 × 2 matrix P = ⎢ 11 ⎥ are nonzero, and one of its eigen
⎣ p21 p22 ⎦
values is zero. Which of the following statements is true? [EC: GATE-2008]
(a) P11P22 – P12P21 = 1 (b) P11P22 – P12P21 = –1
(c) P11P22 – P12P21 = 0 (d) P11P22 + 12P21 = 0
6.(c) One eigen value is zero

⇒ det P = 0
⇒ P11P22 − P12 P21 = 0
7. The eigen values of the following matrix are [EC: GATE-2009]

⎡ −1 3 5⎤
⎢ −3 −1 6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 3⎥⎦
(a) 3, 3 + 5j, –6 – j (b) –6 + 5j, 3 + j, 3 – j
(c) 3+ j, 3 – j, 5 + j (d) 3, –1 + 3j, –1 – 3j
7. (d)
Let the matrix be A.
We know, Trace (A)=sum of eigen values.
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
8. Find the eigen value of the matrix A = ⎢ 2 3 1⎥ for any one of the eigen values, find out
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 2 4⎥⎦
the corresponding eigenvector. [ME: GATE-1994]
8.
Same as Q.1
9. The eigen values of the matrix [ME: GATE-1999]

⎡5 3 ⎤
⎢3 -3⎥
⎣ ⎦
(a) 6 (b) 5 (c) -3 (d) -4
9. (a), (d).
10. The three characteristic roots of the following matrix A [ME: GATE-2000]
1 2 3
A= 0 2 3
0 0 2 are
(a) 2,3 (b) 1,2,2 (c) 1,0,0 (d) 0,2,3
10.(b)
A is lower triangular matrix. So eigen values are only the diagonal elements.
⎡ 4 1⎤
11. For the matrix ⎢ ⎥ the eigen value are [ME: GATE-2003]
⎣1 4 ⎦
(a) 3 and -3 (b) –3 and -5 (c) 3 and 5 (d) 5 and 0
11. (c)
12. The sum of the eigen values of the matrix given below is [ME: GATE-2004]
⎡1 2 3 ⎤
⎢1 5 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣3 1 1⎥⎦
(a) 5 (b) 7 (c) 9 (d) 18
12.(b)
Sum of eigen values of A= trace (A)
13. For which value of x will the matrix given below become singular?
[ME:GATE-2004]
⎡ 8 x 0⎤
⎢ 4 0 2⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣12 6 0 ⎥⎦
(a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) 12
13. (a)
Let the given matrix be A.
A is singular.
⇒ det A = 0
⎡ 8 x 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
⇒ ⎢ 4 0 2⎥ = 0
⎢⎣12 6 0 ⎥⎦
⇒ x = 4.
14. Which one of the following is an eigenvector of the matrix [ME: GATE-2005]
⎡5 0 0 0⎤
⎢0 5 5 0 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢0 0 2 1⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 3 1⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ -2 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ -1 ⎥
(a) ⎢ ⎥ (b) ⎢ ⎥ (c) ⎢ ⎥ (d) ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢1 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣0 ⎦ ⎣ -2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
14. (a)
Let the given matrix be A.
Eigen values of A are. 5, 5,
Take λ = 5, then AX = λX gives.
⎡5 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡5x1 ⎤
⎢0 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 5 5 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ x 2 ⎥ ⎢5x 2 ⎥
=
⎢0 0 2 1 ⎥ ⎢ x 3 ⎥ ⎢5x 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 3 1 ⎦ ⎢⎣ x 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣5x 4 ⎥⎦
5x1 = 5x1
5x 2 + 5x 3 = 5x 2 ⇒ x 3 = 0
2x 3 + x 4 = 5x 3 ⇒ x 4 = 0 ⎡⎣∴ x 3 = 0
3x 3 + x 4 = 5x 4
Thus the system of four equation has solution in the form ( K1 ,K 2 ,0,0 ) where K1 ,K 2 any real
numbers. If we take K1 = K 2 = −2 than (a) is ture.
⎡3 2 ⎤
15. Eigen values of a matrix S = ⎢ ⎥ are 5 and 1. What are the eigen values of the matrix S
2
⎣ 2 3 ⎦
= SS?
[ME: GATE-2006]
(a) 1 and 25 (b) 6 and 4 (c) 5 and 1 (d) 2 and 10
15. (a)
We know If λ be the eigen value of A
⇒ λ 2 is an eigen value of A 2 .
16. If a square matrix A is real and symmetric, then the eigenvaluesn [ME: GATE-2007]
(a) Are always real (b) Are always real and positive
(c) Are always real and non-negative (d) Occur in complex conjugate pairs
16. (a)
⎡ 2 1⎤
17. The number of linearly independent eigenvectors of ⎢ ⎥ is [ME: GATE-2007]
⎣0 2⎦
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) Infinite
17. (d)
Here λ = 2,2
For λ = 2, AX = λX gives,
⎡2 1 ⎤ ⎡x1 ⎤ ⎡2x1 ⎤
⎢0 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣x 2 ⎦ ⎣2x 2 ⎦
2x + x 2 = 2x1 ⎫
⇒ 1 ⎬ ⇒ x2 = 0
2x 2 = 2x 2 ⎭
⎡k ⎤
∴ ⎢ ⎥ is the form of eigen vector corrosponding to λ =2. where k ∈ R.
⎣0 ⎦
⎡1 2 4 ⎤
18.
⎢ ⎥
The matrix 3 0 6 has one eigenvalue equal to 3. The sum of the other two eigenvalues
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 1 p ⎥⎦
is [ME: GATE-2008]
(a) p (b) p-1 (c) p-2 (d) p-3
18.(c) Let the given matrix be A.

we know we know ∑ λi = trace(A).
Here λ1 = 3 and trace(A) = 1 + 0 + P = P + 1
∴ λ2 + λ3 = P + 1 − 3 = P − 2
⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
19. The eigenvectors of the matrix ⎢ ⎥ are written in the form ⎢ a ⎥ and ⎢ b ⎥ . What is a + b?
⎣0 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
[ME: GATE-2008]
(a) 0 (b) ½ (c) 1 (d) 2
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
19.(b) Here λ1 = 1, λ 2 = 2, Given X1 = ⎢ ⎥ and X 2 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣a ⎦ ⎣b⎦
For λ1 = 1, AX1 = λ1 X1 gives
⎡1 2⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 2 ⎦ ⎣a ⎦ ⎣a ⎦
1 + 2a = 1
⇒ ⇒a=0
2a = a
For λ 2 = 2, AX 2 = λX 2 gives
⎡1 2⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 2⎦ ⎣ b ⎦ ⎣2b ⎦
1 + 2b = 2
⇒ ⇒ b =1 2
2b = 2b
∴a + b = 1
2
⎡3 4⎤
⎢5 5⎥
20. For a matrix [ M ] = ⎢ ⎥ , the transpose of the matrix is equal to the inverse of the
⎢x 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
matrix, [M]T = [M]-1. The value of x is given by [ME: GATE-2009]
4 3 3 4
(a) - (b) - (c) (d)
5 5 5 5
20. (a)
T −1
Given ⎡⎣M ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣M⎤⎦
⇒ M is orthogonal matrix
⇒ MMT = I2
⎡3 4 ⎤ ⎡3 ⎤ ⎡ 3x 12 ⎤
⎢5 x⎥ ⎢ 1 +
5 ⎥ ⎢5 5 25 ⎥
Now, MMT = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢x 3 ⎥ ⎢4 3 ⎥ ⎢ 3x 12 2 9 ⎥
+ x +
⎣⎢ 5 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 5 5 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 5 25 25 ⎦⎥
∴ MMT = I2
⎡ 3x 12 ⎤
⎢ 1 +
5 25 ⎥ 12 5 4
⇒⎢ ⎥=x=− × =−
⎢ 3x + 12 9 ⎥ 25 3 5
x2 +
⎢⎣ 5 25 ⎥
25 ⎦
⎡2 1⎤
21. One of the Eigen vectors of the matrix A = ⎢ is [ME: GATE-2010]
⎣1 3⎥⎦
⎧2 ⎫ ⎧2 ⎫ ⎧4 ⎫ ⎧1 ⎫
(a) ⎨ ⎬ (b) ⎨ ⎬ (c) ⎨ ⎬ (d) ⎨ ⎬
⎩−1⎭ ⎩1 ⎭ ⎩1 ⎭ ⎩−1⎭
21. (a)
The eigen vectors of A are given by AX= λ X
So we can check by multiplication.
⎡2 2 ⎤ ⎡2 ⎤ ⎡2 ⎤ ⎡2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ =1⎢ ⎥
⎣1 3 ⎦ ⎣ −1⎦ ⎣ −1⎦ ⎣ −1⎦
⎡2 ⎤
⇒ ⎢ ⎥ is an eigen vactor of A. corrosponding to λ = 1
⎣ −1⎦
⎡ 4 −2 ⎤
22. The eigen values of the matrix ⎢ ⎥ [CE: GATE – 2004]
⎣ −2 1⎦
(a) are 1 and 4 (b) are –1 and 2
(c) are 0 and 5 (d) cannot be determined
22. (c)
23. Consider the system of equations A (n × n) x (n × t) = λ(n × l ) where, λ is a scalar. Let ( λ i , x i ) be an eigen-pair
of an eigen value and its corresponding eigen vector for real matrix A. Let l be a (n × n) unit matrix.
Which one of the following statement is NOT correct?
(a) For a homogeneous n × n system of linear equations, (A – λΙ) x = 0 having a nontrivial solution, the
rank of (A – λΙ) is less than n. [CE: GATE – 2005]
m m
(b) For matrix A , m being a positive integer, ( λ i , x i ) will be the eigen-pair for all i.
m
(c) If AT = A–1, then |λ i | = 1 for all i.

(d) If AT = A, hen λ i is real for all i.
23. (b)
If λ be the eigen value of A. then λ m be the eigen value of A m .X m is no the eigen
vector of A m
⎡ 2 −2 3 ⎤
24. For a given matrix A = ⎢⎢ −2 −1 6 ⎥⎥ , one of the eigenvalues is 3. [CE: GATE – 2006]
⎢⎣ 1 2 0 ⎥⎦
The other two eigenvalues are
(a) 2, –5 (b) 3, –5
(c) 2, 5 (d) 3, 5
24(b).
we know λ1 + λ 2 + λ 3 = trace(A).
⇒ 3 + λ2 + λ3 = 2 − 1 + 0 = 1
⇒ λ 2 + λ 3 = −2
Only choice (b) is possible.
⎡1 1 3 ⎤
25. The minimum and the maximum eigen values of the matrix ⎢⎢1 5 1 ⎥⎥ are –2 and 6, respectively. What
⎢⎣3 1 1 ⎥⎦
is the other eigen value? [CE: GATE – 2007]
(a) 5 (b) 3
(c) 1 (d) –1
25. (b)
We know λ1 + λ 2 + λ 3 = trace(A)
by the condition, − 2 + 6 + λ3 = 7
⇒ λ3 = 3
⎡4 5⎤
26. The Eigen values of the matrix [P] = ⎢ ⎥ are [CE: GATE – 2008]
⎣ 2 −5 ⎦
(a) – 7 and 8 (b) –6 and 5
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2
26. (b).
29. The state variable description of a linear autonomous system is, X= AX,
⎡0 2 ⎤
Where X is the two dimensional state vector and A is the system matrix given by A = ⎢ ⎥
⎣2 0 ⎦
The roots of the characteristic equation are [EE: GATE-2004]
(a) -2 and +2 (b)-j2 and +j2
(c)-2 and -2 (d) +2 and +2
29. (a)
30. In the matrix equation Px = q which of the following is a necessary condition for the
existence of at least one solution for the unknown vector x: [EE: GATE-2005]
(a) Augmented matrix [Pq] must have the same rank as matrix P
(b) Vector q must have only non-zero elements
(c) Matrix P must be singular
(d) Matrix P must be square
30. (a).
⎡3 −2 2⎤
31. For the matrix P= ⎢⎢0 −2 1⎥⎥ , s one of the eigen values is equal to -2. Which of the following
⎢⎣0 0 1⎥⎦
is an eigen vector?
⎡3⎤ ⎡ −3 ⎤
⎢
(a) ⎢ −2⎥ ⎥ (b) ⎢⎢ 2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
⎡1⎤ ⎡2⎤
⎢
(c) ⎢ −2⎥ ⎥ (d) ⎢⎢5 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 ⎥⎦
31.(d).
AX = −2X
⎡3 −2 2 ⎤ ⎡x1 ⎤ ⎡ −2x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⇒ ⎢0 −2 1 ⎥ ⎢x 2 ⎥ ⎢ −2x 2 ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣x 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −2x 3 ⎥⎦
3x1 − 2x 2 + 2x 3 = −2x1 −(i)
⇒ − 2x 2 + x 3 = −2x 2 −(ii)
x 3 = −2x 3 − (iii)
From (ii)and (iii) we get
x 2 = 0 and x 3 = 0
From (i)5x1 = 2x 2 − 2x 3 −(iv)
only choice (d) satisfies equation (iv).
⎡ 1 0 −1⎤
32. If R = ⎢⎢ 2 1 −1⎥⎥ , then top row of R-1 is [EE: GATE-2005]
⎢⎣ 2 3 2 ⎥⎦
(a) [5 6 4] (b) [5 − 3 1]
(c) [ 2 0 -1] (d) [ 2 − 1 1/ 2]
32(b).
1
R −1 = adj R
det R
Now, det R = 1
t
⎡ 5 −6 4⎤ ⎡5 −3 1⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
adj R = ⎢ −3 4 −3⎥ = ⎢ −6 4 −1⎥
⎢⎣ 1 −1 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 −3 1 ⎥⎦
∴ top row of R −1 = ⎡⎣5 −3 1⎤⎦. as det R = 1.
35. x=[x1x2…..xn]T is an n-tuple nonzero vector. The n×n matrix V=xxT [EE: GATE-2007]
(a) has rank zero (b) has rank l
(c) is orthogonal (d) has rank n
35 (b).
As every minor of order 2 is zero.
Statement for Linked Answer Questions 37 & 38

Cayley - Hamiltion Theorem states that square matrix satisfies its own characteristic
equation, Consider a matrix
⎡ −3 2 ⎤
A=⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 0 ⎦
37. A satisfies the relation [EE: GATE-2007]
(a) A +3I + 2A -2 =0 (b) A2+2A+2I=0
(c) (A+I)(A+2I)=0 (d) exp(A)=0
37. (c)
Characteristic equation of A is
A − λI2 = 0
⇒ λ 2 + 3λ + 2 = 0
⇒ ( λ + 3)( λ + 2) = 0
By Cayley theorem ( A + 3I2 )( A + 2I2 ) = 0
38. A9 equals [EE: GATE-2007]

(a) 511 A +510I (b) 309A +104I
(c) 154A +155I (d) exp (9A)
Page 26
38.(a)
From Q.37. we get A 2 + 3A + 2I = 0
⇒ A 2 = − ( 3A + 2I ) . −(i)
∴ A 4 = A 2 .A 2 = (3A − 2I).(3A − 2I)
= 9A 2 + 12A + 4I
= −15A − 14I
Similarly, A = A 4 .A 4 = −225A − 254I(by calculatoin)
8
and A 9 = A.A 8 = 511A + 510I
39. The characteristic equation of a (3×3) matrix P is defined as

α (λ ) = λI − P = λ 3 + λ 2 + 2λ + 1 = 0
If I denote identity matrix, then the inverse of matrix P will be [EE: GATE-2008]
(a) (P2+P+2I) (b) (P2+P+I)
(c) – (P +P+I)
2 (c) – (P2+P+2I)
39. (d)
Given ch. equn of A is
λ3 + λ 2 + 2λ + 1 = 0
⇒ P3 + P2 + 2P + I = 0 (By Cayley theorem).
⇒ P(P2 + P + 2I) = −I
(
⇒ P −1 = − P2 + P + 2I . )
40. If the rank of a (5×6) matrix Q is 4, then which one of the following statements is correct?
[EE: GATE-2008]
(a) Q will have four linearly independent rows and four linearly independent columns
(b) Q will have four lineally independent rows and five lineally independent columns
(c) QQT will be invertible
(d) QTQ will be invertible
40. (a).
Rank of a matrix is equal to the No. of linearly independent row or no. of
linearly independent column vector.
G
42. Let P be a 2×2 real orthogonal matrix and x is a real vector [x1, x2]T with length
G 1
x = ( x 12 + x 22 ) 2 .Then which one of the following statements is correct?
[EE: GATE-2008]
G G G G
(a) Px ≤ x where at least one vector statisfies Px < x
G G G
(b) Px = x for all vector x
G G G G
(c) Px ≥ x where at least one vector satisfies Px > x
G G
(d) No relationship can be established between x and Px
42. (b)
⎛ cos θ − sin θ ⎞
Let P = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ sin θ cos θ ⎠
∴ PP' = I
⎛ cos θ − sin θ ⎞ ⎛ x1 ⎞ ⎡ x1 cos θ − x 2 sin θ ⎤
Now, PX = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥
⎝ sin θ cos θ ⎠ ⎝ x 2 ⎠ ⎣ x1 sin θ + x 2 cos θ ⎦
( x1 cos θ − x 2 sin θ ) + ( x1 sin θ + x 2 cos θ )
2 2
∴ PX =
∴ PX = x12 + x 22
∴ PX = X for all vector x.
43. The trace and determinate of a 2 × 2 matrix are known to be – 2 and – 35 respectively. Its
eigenvalues are [EE: GATE-2009]
(a) -30 and – 5 (b) – 35 and – 1
(c) – 7 and 5 (d) 17.5 and - 2
43. (c)
Given λ1 + λ 2 = −2 −(i)
λ1λ 2 = −35
∴ ( λ1 − λ 2 ) = ( λ1 + λ 2 ) − 4λ1λ 2 = 4 + 140 = 144
2 2
⇒ λ1 − λ 2 = ±12
take λ1 − λ 2 = −12 −(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) we get
λ1 = −7 and λ 2 = 5
⎛1 1 0 ⎞
44. An eigenvector of P = ⎜⎜ 0 2 2 ⎟⎟ is
⎜0 0 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) [-1 1 1] T (b) [1 2 1]T (c) [1 -1 2]T (d) [2 1 -1]T
44.(b)
Eigen values of P are 1,2,3
Take λ =3
AX = λX
⎡1 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡3x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⇒ ⎢⎢0 2 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢ x 2 ⎥ = ⎢3x 2 ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3x 3 ⎥⎦
⇒ x1 + x 2 = 3x1
2x1 + 2x 3 = 3x 2
3x 3 = 3x 3 ⇒ x 3 = 1
∴ x 2 = 2 and x1 = 1
⎡1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
∴ For λ = 3, X = ⎢2⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
16. Identify which one of the following is an eigenvector of the matrix

⎡1 0⎤
A= ⎢ ⎥ [IE: GATE-2005]
⎣ −1 − 2 ⎦
(a) [–1 1] T (b) [3 –1] T
(c) [1 –1] T (d) [–2 1] T
16. (b)
Eigen Value (λ ) are −1,
2. ⎡ x ⎤
Take λ = 1and if ⎢ ⎥ be the eigen vector of A. Corresponding
⎣y⎦
To λ then.
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡x ⎤ ⎡x ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 −2 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡x ⎤
⇒⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ −x − 2y ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦
⇒ −x = 3y
when y = −1 then x = 3
⎡3 ⎤
∴ ⎢ ⎥ be the eigen vector corrosponding to λ = 1
⎣ −1⎦
47. Let A be an n × n real matrix such that A2 = I and y = be an n – dimensional vector.

Then the linear system of equations Ax = y has [IE: GATE-2007]
(a) No solution
(b) a unique solution
(c) More than one but finitely many independent solutions
(d) Infinitely many independent solutions
47. (b)
A2 = I
⇒ AA = I
⇒ det(AA) = 1
⇒ det A.det A = 1
⇒ det A = ± 1 ≠ 0
By Cramer’s rule AX = y has unique solution.
48. Let A = [a ij ], 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n, with n ≥ 3 and a ij = i.j. Then the rank of A is

[IE: GATE-2007]
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) n – 1 (d) n
48.(b)
⎡1 2 3 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢2 4 6 ⎥ , by the given condition
⎢⎣3 6 9 ⎥⎦
⎡1 2 3 ⎤
R 2 − 2R1 ⎢ ⎥
Now,A ⎯⎯⎯⎯
R3 −3R1
→ ⎢0 0 0 ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 0 ⎥⎦
∴ Rank (A) = 1
51. A real n × n matrix A = {a ij } is defined as follows:
a ij = i = 0, if
i = j, otherwise
The summation of all n eigen values of A is [IE: GATE-2010]
n(n + 1) n(n − 1)
(a) (b)
2 2
n(n + 1) (2 n + 1)
(c) (d) n2
6
51.(a) It’s a diagonal marix diagonal contain’s n elements 1,2,----,n.

(n + 1)
∴1 + 2 + ...... + n = n
2
As diagonal elements are eigen valves.
n(n + 1)
∴ ∑ λi =
2
Q40. Consider the matrix as given below.

⎡1 2 3⎤
⎢0 4 7 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 3⎥⎦
What one sof the following options provides the CORRECT values of the eigenvalues of the
matrix?
(a) 1, 4, 3 (b) 3, 7, 3 (c) 7, 3, 2 (d) 1, 2, 3 [CS-2011]
Ans. (a)
Exp. it’s an upper triangular matrix.
52. F is an n × n real matrix. b is an n × 1 real vector. Suppose there are two n × 1 vectors, u
and v such that u ≠ v, and Fu = b, Fv = b.
Which one of the following statements is false? [CS: GATE-2006]
(a) Determinant of F is zero
(b) There are an infinite number of solutions to Fx = b
(c) There is an x ≠ 0 such that Fx = 0
(d) F must have two identical rows
52(d).
If F is non singular, then it has a unique inverse.
Now, u = F–1 b and v = F–1 b
Since F–1 is unique u = v but it is given that u v. This is a contradiction. So F must be
singular. This means that
(a) Determinate of F is zero is true. Also
(b) There are infinite number of solution to Fx = b is true since |F| = 0.
Given that Fu = b and Fv = b
(c) There is an X ≠ 0 such that F X = 0 is also true, since X has infinite number of solutions,
including the X = 0 solution.
(d) F must have 2 identical rows is false, since a determinant may become zero, even if two
identical columns are present. It is not necessary that 2 identical rows must be present for |F| to
become zero
53. Consider the set of (column) vectors defined ty X = {x ∈ R3| x1 + x 2 + x 3 = 0, where xT =

[x1 , x 2 , x 3 ]T }. which of the following is TRUE? [CS: GATE-2007]
(a) {[1, –1, 0]T, [1, 0, –1]T} is a basis for the subspace X.
(b) {[1, –1, 0]T, [1, 0, –1]T} is linearly independent set, but it does not span X and therefore is
not a basis of X
(c) X is not a subspace for R3
(d) None of the above
53.(b)
54. The following system of equations [CS: GATE-2008]

x1 + x 2 + 2x 3 = 1
x1 + 2x 3 + 3x 3 = 2
x1 + 4x 2 + ax 3 = 4
has a unique solution. The only possible value(s) for a is/are
(a) 0 (b) either 0 or 1
(c) one of 0, 1 or –1 (d) any real number other than 5
54. (d)
⎡1 1 2 ⎤ 1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 2 ⎤1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎥ R2 − R1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
A = ⎢1 2 3 ⎥ 2⎥ ⎯⎯⎯ R3 − R1
⎯
→ ⎢0 1 1 ⎥1 ⎥
⎢⎣1 4 a ⎥⎦ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 3 a − 2⎥⎦ 3⎥⎦
⎡1 1 2 1⎤
R3 −3R2⎢ ⎥
⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎢0 1 1 1⎥
⎢⎣0 0 a − 5 0 ⎥⎦
System has unique Sol n if rank (A) = rank (A) = 3 . It is possible if a ≠ 5.
55. How many of the following matrics have an eigenvalue 1? [CS: GATE-2008]
⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡0 1 ⎤ ⎡1 −1⎤ ⎡ −1 0⎤
⋅ ⋅ and ⎢
⎢0
⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 1⎦⎥
⎣1 −1⎥⎦
(a) One (b) two
(c) Three (d) four
55. (a)
⎡1 −1⎤
Eigen valves of ⎢ ⎥ are 1 + i,1 − i
1 ⎣ 1⎦
Rest given matrix are triangular matrix. so diagonal elements are the eigen values.
⎡1 0 ⎤
∴⎢ ⎥ has one eigen value 1.
⎣0 0 ⎦
56. Consider the following matrix. [CS: GATE-2010]

⎡2 3 ⎤
A= ⎢ ⎥
⎣x y ⎦
If the eigen values of A are 4 and 8, then
(a) x = 4, y = 10 (b) x = 5, y = 8
(c) x = –3, y = 9 (d) x = –4, y = 10
56.(d)
We know,
λ1 + λ 2 = 2 + y and λ1λ 2 = det A = 2y − 3x
⇒ 2 + y = 8 + 4 = 12 ⇒ 2y − 3x = 8.4 = 32
2.10 − 32
⇒ y = 10 ⇒x= = −4
3
57. Consider the following system of linear equations [CS: GATE-2003]

⎡ 2 1 −4 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡α ⎤
⎢4 3 −12 ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 2 −8 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 7 ⎥⎦
Notice that the second and the third columns of the coefficient matrix are linearly dependent. For how
many values of α, does this system of equations have infinitely many solutions?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) infinitely many
57. (b)
⎡ ⎤ ⎤
⎡2 1 −4 ⎤ α ⎤ ⎢2 1 −4 ⎥ α ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎥ R2 −2R1 ⎢
A = ⎢4 3 −12⎥ 5 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1 → 0 1 −4 ⎥ 5 − 2α ⎥
R3 − R1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣1 2 −8 ⎥⎦ 14 ⎦⎥ 2
⎢⎣0 3 2 −6 ⎥⎦ 7 − α 2 ⎦⎥
⎡2 1 −4 ⎤ α ⎤ ⎡2 1 −4 ⎤ α ⎤
2R3 ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ R3 −3R2 ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎯⎯⎯ → ⎢0 1 −4 ⎥ 5 − 2α ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎢0 1 −4 ⎥ 5 − 2α ⎥
⎢⎣0 3 −12 ⎥⎦ 14 − α ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 0 ⎥⎦ −1 + 5α ⎥⎦
The system has infinitely many solution
if − 1 + 5α = 0 ⇒ α = 1 .
5
∴ for only one value of α.
58. The number of different n × n symmetric matrices with each element being either 0 or 1 is:
(Note : power (2, x) is same as 2x) [CS: GATE-2004]
(a) Power (2, n) (b) power (2, n )
2
(c) Power (2, (n2 + n)/2 (d) power (2, (n2 – n)/2)
58. Ans.(c)
In a symmetric matrix, the lower triangle must be the minor image of upper triangle using
the diagonal as mirror. Diagonal elements may be anything. Therefore, when we are
counting symmetric matrices we count how many ways are there to fill the upper triangle
and diagonal elements. Since the first row has n elements, second (n – 1) elements, third
row (n – 2) elements and so on upto last row, one element.
Total number of elements in diagonal + upper triangle
= n + (n – 1) + (n – 2) + … + 1
n(n + 1)
=
2
Now, each one of these elements can be either 0 or 1. So that number of ways we can fill
these elements is
n(n + 1)
⎛ (n 2 + n) ⎞
2 2 = power ⎜ 2, ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ (n 2 + n) ⎞
Since there is no choice for lower triangle elements the answer is power ⎜ 2, ⎟ which
⎝ 2 ⎠
is choice (c).
59. Let A, B, C, D be n × n matrices, each with non-zero determinant, If ABCD = 1, then B–1 is
[CS: GATE-2004]
(a) D–1 C–1 A–1 (b) CDA
(c) ADC (d) does not necessarily exist
59. (b).
ABCD = 1.
⇒ ABCD D−1C−1 = D−1C−1
⇒ AB = D−1C−1
⇒ A −1 AB = A −1D−1C−1
⇒ B = (CDA)−1
⇒ B−1 = CDA.
60. In an M × N matrix such that all non-zero entries are covered in a rows and b column. Then
the maximum number of non-zero entries, such that no two are on the same row or column,
is [CS: GATE-2004]
(a) ≤ a + b (b) ≤ max (a, b)
(c) ≤ min[M–a, N–b] (d) ≤ min {a, b}
60. (d)
61. How many solutions does the following system of linear equations have
[CS: GATE-2004]
–x + 5y = – 1
x–y=2
x + 3y = 3
(a) Infinitely many (b) two distinct solution
(c) Unique (d) none
61. (c)
⎡ −1 5 ⎤ −1⎤ ⎡ −1 5 ⎤ −1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎥ R2 + R1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
A = ⎢ 1 −1⎥ 2 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯ R3 + R1
⎯
→ ⎢ 0 4⎥ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 .3 ⎥⎦ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 8 ⎥⎦ 2⎥⎦
⎡ −1 5 ⎤ −1⎤
R3 − 2R 2 ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎢ 0 4 ⎥ 1 ⎥ ∴ rank(A) = rank(A) = 2
⎢⎣ 0 0 ⎥⎦ 0 ⎦⎥
63. Consider the following system of equation in three real variables x1 , x 2 and x 3
2x1 − x 2 + 3x 3 = 1
3x1 − 2x 2 + 5x 3 = 2
−x1 − 4x 2 + x 3 = 3
This system of equations has [CS: GATE-2005]
(a) No solution
(b) A unique solution
(c) More than one but a finite number of solutions
(d) An infinite number of solutions
63. Ans. (b)
⎡ ⎤ ⎤
⎢2 −1 3 ⎥1 ⎥
⎡ 2 −1 3⎤ 1 ⎤ 3 ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎥ R3 − 2 R1 ⎢ −1 1⎥ 1⎥
A = ⎢ 3 −2 5⎥ 2 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 0
⎢ 2⎥ 2⎥
1
R3 + R1 2
⎢⎣ −1 −4 ⎥
1⎦ 3⎦⎥ 2
⎢ −9 5⎥ 7⎥
⎢0 ⎥ ⎥
⎣ 2 2⎦ 2⎦
⎡2 −1 3 ⎤ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎥
−1 1 ⎥ 1 ⎥
R3 − 9R2
⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎢0
⎢ 2 2 ⎥2 ⎥
⎢0
⎣ 0 −2⎥⎦ −1⎥⎦
∴ Rank (A) = Rank (A) = 3
64. What are the eigen values of the following 2 × 2 matrix? [CS: GATE-2005]
⎡ 2 −1⎤
⎢ −4 5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
(a) –1 and 1 (b) 1 and 6
(c) 2 and 5 (d) 4 and –1
64. (b).
65. The determinant of the matrix [EE: GATE-2002]
⎡ 1 0 0 0⎤
⎢100 1 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ is
⎢100 200 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣100 200 300 1⎦
(a) 100 (b) 200 (c)1 (d) 300
1.Ans(c)
CALCULUS
2.1.2 Right hand and left Hand Limits
If x approaches a from the right that is from larger value of x that a the limit of f as defined before is
called the right hand limit of f(x) and is written as:
f(x) or f(a+0) or f(x)
Working rule for finding right hand limit is put a+h for x in f(x) and make h approach zero.
In short we have f(a+0) = f(a+h)
Similarly if x approaches a from left that is from smaller values of x than a the limit of f is called the left
hand limit and is written as:
f(x) or f(a-0) or f(x)
In this case we have f(-0) = f(a-h)
If both right hand and left hand limit of f, as x a exist and are equal in value their common value
evidently will be the limit of f as x a. if however, either or both of these limit do not exist the limit of f
as x a does not exist. Even if both these limit exist but are not equal in value then also the limit of f as
x a does not exist.
when f(x) f(x)
Then f(x) = f(x) = f(x)
Limit of a function can be any real number, or - . It an sometimes be or - , which are also
allowed values for limit of a function.
2.1.3 Various Formulae
These formulae are sometimes useful while taking limits.
(1+x)n = 1 + nx + + +…
(1 – x) = 1 + x + x2 +x3 + …
ax = 1 + xloga + + +…
ex = 1 + x + + +…
sin x = x - -…

CALCULUS
cos x = 1 - = -…
tan x = x + + x5 + …
log(1+x) = x - + + + … I x |<|
log(1 – x) = ( )
sin-1 x = x + + +…
tan-1 x = x - + …
sin h x = x + + +…
cos h x = 1 + + +…
Remember log 1 = 0; log e = 1; log = ; log 0 =
2.1.4 Some Useful Results
1. =1 2. cosx = 1 3. =1 4. =e
5. = en 6. =e 7. = ea
2.1.5 Indeterminate Forms
A fraction whose numerator and denominator both tend to zero as x a is an example of an

indeterminate form written as 0/0. It has no definite values. Other indeterminate forms are ,
, , , 00, .
(Indeterminate form are not any definite number and hence are not acceptable as limits. To find limit in
such cases, we use the L’hospital’s rule)
2.1.5.1 Indeterminate Form-I ( )
Use L’hospital’s Rule.
L’Hospital Rule: If (x) and be two function of x and if.
= 0 and =0
Or if = and = ,

CALCULUS
Then =
Provided the latter limit exist, finite or infinite.
Working Rule: If the limit of f(x)/ (x) as x a takes the form 0/0, differentiate the numerator and
denominator separately with respect to x and obtain a new function / . Now as x a if it
again takes the form 0/0 differentiate the numerator and denominator again with respect to x and
respect the above process. Until the indeterminate form is removed and we get either a real number.
or as a limit.
Caution: Before applying L’Hospital’s rule at any stage be sure that the form is 0/0. Do not go on
applying this rule, if the form is not 0/0.
2.1.5.2 Indeterminate form-II (0 x )
This form can be reduced to the form 0/0 or to the form / and then L’Hospital’s rule may be
applied.
Let = 0 and = .
Then we can write
= [form 0/0] or [form / ]
Thus is reduced to the form 0/0 or / which can now be evaluated by L’Hospital
rule.
2.1.5.3 Indeterminate From-III (00 or or )
Suppose [ ] takes any one of these three forms.
Then let y = [ ]
Taking log on both sides we get
Log y = .
Now in any of these above cases log y takes the form 0 x which is change to the form 0/0 or /
then it can be evaluated by previous methods.

CALCULUS
Q. 1 is equal to
(a) 0 (b)
(c) 1 (d) -1
Solution: (a)
= ( ) =1x0=0
Q. 2 What is equal to?
(a) (b) sin
(c) 0 (d) 1
Solution: (d)
2.2.2 Continuity from Left and Continuity form right
Let be a function defined on an open interval I and let a be any point in I. We say that f is continuous
form the left at a. if exists and is equal to f(a). Similarly f is said to be continuous from the
right at a. if exists and is equal to f(a).
A function f(x) is continuous at x = a, iff it is continuous form left as well as continuous from right.
2.2.3 Continuity in an Open Interval
A function f is said to be continuous in open interval (a,b) iff it is continuous at each point of open
interval.
2.2.4 Continuity in a Closed Interval
Let f be function defined on the closed interval (a, b) f is said to be continuous on the c;losed interval [a,
b] iff it is:
1. Continuous form the right at a and

2. Continuous form the left at b and
3. Continuous on the open interval (a, b).
2.3 DIFFERENTIABILITY

CALCULUS
Derivative at a point: Let-I denote the open interval (a, b) in R and let x0 I. then a function f I R is said
to be differentiable at x0, iff:
* + or * +
Exist (finitely and is denoted by f’(x0).
2.3.1 Progressive and Regressive derivatives
The progressive derivative of f ( or right derivation of f) at x = x0 is given by
* + .h > 0 and is denoted by Rf’(x0) or by f’(x0+0) or by f’(x0+).
The regressive derivative of f(or left derivative of f) at x = x0 is given by
* + . h > 0 and is denoted by Lf’(x0) or by f’(x0-0) or by f’(x0-).
2.3.2 Differentiability in an open Interval
A function f is said to be differentiable in a open interval (a, b) iff it is differentiable at ech point of the
open interval.
2.3.3 differentiability in a Closed Interval
A function f: [a, b] R is said to be differentiable in closed interval [a, b] iff it is
1. Differentiable form right a t a *i.e. R f’(a) exists+ and

2. Differentiable form left at b *i.e. Lf’(a) exists and
3. Differentiable in the open interval (a, b).
2.3.4 Relationship between Differentiability and Continuity
Theorem: If a function is differentiable at any point then it is necessarily continuous at that point proof
of the theorem follows form definitions of differentiability and continuity.
Note: The converse of this theorem not true.
i.e. Continuity is a nessary but not a sufficient condition for the existence of a finite derivations
(differentiability).
i.e. differentiability continuity
But continuity differentiability
EXAMPLES FROM GATE

CALCULUS
Q. 1 The integrating factor for differential equation +k2P = K1L0e-k1t is
(a) e-k1t (b) e-k2t
(c) ek1t (d) ek2t
Solution: (d)
Q.2 If a function is continuous at a point.
(a) the limit of the function may not exist at the point.
(b) then function must be derivable at the point.
(c) the limit of the function at the pont tends to infinity.
(d) the limit mustat the point and the value of limit should be same as the value of the function at the
point.
Solution: (d)
f(x) is continuous at any point
if = = f(a)
2.4.1 Rolle’s Theorem
If function f(x) is such that
1. F(x) is continuous in the closed interval a x b and

2. F’(x) is exists for every point in the open interval a < x < b and
3. F(a) = f(b).
Then there exists at least one value of x, say c where a < c < b such that f’© = 0.
Note: Rolle’s theorem will not hold good.
1. If f(x) is discontinuous at some point in the interval a < x < b

2. If f’(x) does not exist at same point in the interval a < x < b or
3. If f(a) f(b)
2.4.2 Geometrical Interpretation
Let A, B be the points on the curve y = f(x) corresponding to the real numbers a, b respectively.
Since f(x) is continuous in [a, b] the curve y = f(x) has a tangent at each point between A and b. Also as
f(a) = f(b) the ordinary of the points A and B are equal i.e. MA = NB

CALCULUS
Then roll’s theorem asserts that there is at least one point lying between A and B such that the tangent
at which is parallel to x-axis i.e. there exist at least one real number c in (a, b) such that f’(c) = 0
There may exist more than one point between a and B the tangent at which are parallel to x-axis i.e.
there exist more than one real number c in (a, b) such that f’(c) = 0.
Rolle’s theorem ensure the existence of at least one real number c in (s, b) such that f’(c) = 0.
Remarks:
1. Rolle’s theorem fails even if one of the three conditions is not satisfies by the function.
2. The converse of rolle’s theorem is not true since, f’(x) may be zero at a point in (a, b) without
satisfying all the three conditions of Rolle’s theorem.
2.4.3 Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem
If a function f(x) is
1. Continuous in closed interval a x b and

2. Differentiable in open interval (a, b) i.e., a < x < b,
Then there exist at least one value c of the x lying in the open interval a < x < b such that
F’(c) =
2.4.4 Geometrical Interpretation
Let A, B be the points on the curve y = f(x) corresponding to the real numbers a, b respectively.
Since f(x) is continuous in [a, b] the graph of the curve y = f(x) has a tangent at each points between a
and b. Also as a b, the slope of the chord AB exist and the slope of the chord AB = .
Then Lagrangee’s Mean value Theorem asserts that there is at least one point lying between A and b
such that the tangent at which is parallel to the chord AB. There may exist more than one point between
A and b the tangents at which are paralle; to the chord AB. Lagrange’s mean value theorem ensures the
existence of at least one real number c in ( a, b) such that f’(c) = .
Remarks:
1. Lagrangee’s Mean value Theorem fails for the function which does not satisfy even one of the
two conditions.
2. The converse of Lagrangee’s Mean value Theorem may not be true for f’(c) may be equal to
at a points c in (a, b) without satisfying both the conditions of Lagrangee’s Mean value
Theorem.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE

CALCULUS
Q. 1 A rail engine accelerates form its stationary position for 8 seconds and travels a distance of 280m.
According to the Mean value Theorem, the speedometer at a certain time during acceleration must read
exactly
(a) 0 (b) 8 kmph
(c) 75 kmph (d) 126 kmph
Solution: (d)
Since the position of rail engine S(y) is continuous and differentiable function, according to lagranges
mean value theorem
t where 0 t 8 such that
S’(t) = v(t) = = m/sec
= m/sec = x kmph = 126kmph
2.4.5 Some applications of Lagrage’s mean Value theorem
1. If a function f(x) is
(a) Continuous in [a, b]
(b) derivable (a, b) and
(c) f’(x) > 0 for all x in (a, b) then f(x) is stricktly increasing in [a, b].
Proof. Let x1, x2 be any two member of[a, b] such that a x1 < x2 b then f(x) satisfied both the
conditions of Lagrange’s mean value theorem in [x1, x2], therefore there exist at least one real number c
in (x1, x2) such that
F’(C) =
(x2-x1) f’(C) = f(x2) – f(x1)
But f’(x) > 0 for all x in (a, b) f’(c) > 0 for all c in (x1, x2) Also x1 < x2 i.e. x2 - x1 > 0
(x2 – x1) f’(c) > 0
f(x2) – f(x1) > 0
f(x2) > f(x1) for all x1, x2 such that a x1 < x2 b.
Hence f(x) is strictly increasing in [a, b]

CALCULUS
2. Ifa function f(x) is
(a) continuous in [a, b]
(b) derivable in (a, b)
(c) f’(x) < 0 for all x in (a, b) then f(x) is strictly decreasing function in [a, b].
(for the proof, proceed as above)
2.4.6 Some Important Deductions from Mean Value Theorems
1. If a function f(x) be such that f’(x) is zero throughout the interval, then f(x) must be constant
hroughout the interval.
2. If f(x) and (x) be two functions such that f’(x) = ’(x) throughout the interval (a, b), then f(x) and (x)
differ only by a constant.
3. If f’(x) is:
(a) continuous in closed interval [a, b]
(b) differentiable in open interval (a, b)
(c) f’(x) is –ve in a < x < b, then f(x) is monotonically decreasing function in the closed interval [a, b] and
f’(x) is positive in a < x < b, then f(x) is monotonically increasing function in the closed interval [a, b].
2.4.7 Some standard Result on Continuity and Differentiability of Commonly used functions
It is important to remember the following facts regarding common functions while checking applicability
of Rolle’s and Largrange’s mean value theorems:
1. Constant function is differentiable everywhere *f’(x) = 0, x].

2. Any polynomial function is continuous and differentiable everywhere.
3. The exponential function (ex, ax etc) sin x as well as cos x are also continuous and differentiable
everywhere.
4. Log function, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric function are differentiable within their
domains.
5. tan x is discontinuous at x = /2, /2, …
6. |x| is continuous but not differentiable at x = 0.
7. If f’(x) as x k, then that function is not differentiable at x = k.
8. Sum difference, product, quotient and compositions of continuous and differentiable functions
are continuous and differentiable.
2.5 COMPUTING THE DERIVATIVE
Rules of Differentiation:

CALCULUS
( f + g)’ = f’ + g’
(f – g)’ = f’ – g’
(f,g)’ = fg’ + gf’
( )’ =
( ) =
Using the above five rules, we can differentiate most of the cases where y is an explicit function of x.
The following is the table of derivatives of commonly occurring functions:
Most explicit function can be differentiated by using above table along with the five rules of
differentiation. For more complicates cases, we have to resort to more advance methods of
differentiation as given below:
1. Differentiation by substitution
2. Implicit differentiation
3. Logarithmic differentiation
4. Parametric differentiation
2.5.1 Differentiation by Substitution
There are no hard and fast rules for making suitable substitutions. It is the experience which guides us
for the selection of a proper substitution. However, some useful suggestions are given below:
If the function constants an expression of the form
1. a2 – x2 put x = a sin t or x = a cos t

2. a2 + x2 put x = a tan t or x = a cot t
3. x2 – a2 put x = a sec t or x = a cosec t
4. √ or √ put x = a cos t
5. A cos x b sin x put a = r cos and b = r sin , r > 0.
2.5.2 Implicit Differentiation
If y be a function of x defined by an equation such as
Y = 7x4 – 5x3 + 11x2 + √ –3
Y is said to be defined explicitly in terms of x and we write y = f(x) where
F(x) = 7x4 – 5x3 + 11x2 + √ –3

CALCULUS
However if x and y are connected by an equation of the form
X4y3 – 3x3y5 + 7y3 – 8x2 + 9 = 0
i.e. f(x, y) = 0 then y cannot be expressed explicitly in terms of x But still the value of y depends upon
that of x and there may exist one more functions ‘f’ connecting y with x so as to satisfy equation (ii) or
there may not exist any of the functions satisfying equation (ii).
For example consider the equations
x2 + y2 – 25 = 0
And x2 + y2 + 25 = 0
In equation (ii) y may be expressed explicitly in terms of x, but y is not a function of x. here we have two
functions of x (or two functions of y if y were considered to be independent variable) f1 and defined by
f1(x) = √ and f2(x) = √ which satisfy equation (iii).
In equation (iv) there are no real values of x that can satisfy it.
In cases (ii), (iii) and (iv) we say that y is an implicit function of x (or x is an implicit function of y ) and in
all such cases, we find the derivative of y with regard to x (or the derivative of x with regard to by the
process called implication differentiation. Of course, wherever we differentiate implicitly and equation
that defines one variable as an implicit function of another variable we shall assume that the function is
differentiable.
2.5.3 Logarithmic Differentiation
In order to simplify the differentiation of some functions, we first take logarithms and then differentiate.
Such a process is called logarithmic differentiation. This is usually done in two types of problems.
1. When the given function is a product of some functions, then the logarithm converts the
product into a sum and this facilitates the differentiation.
2. When the variable occurs in thee exponent i.e. the given function is of the form [f(x)] (x).
Derivative of u where uv, v are differentiable functions of x
Let y = uv taking logarithm of both sides we get
Log y = v log u differentiating w.r.t x, we get
. = (v log u)
= (v log u) = uv (v log u)
EXAMPLES FROM GATE

CALCULUS
Q. 1 If x = a ( + sin ) and y = a(1 – cos ) then dy/dx will be equal to
(a) sin ( ) (b) cos ( )
(c) tan ( ) (d) cot ( )
Solution: (c)
Given, x = a( + sin ), y = a(1 - cos )
= a(1 + cos ), = a sin
2.6 APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
There are two areas where derivatives are used
1. Increasing and Decreasing functions

2. Maxima and Minima
(a) Relative maxima and minima
(b) Absolute maxima and minima
3. Taylor,s and Maclaurin’s Series expansion of Functions
2.6.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Let f be a real valued function defined in a interval D (a subset of R), then f is called an increasing
function in a interval D1 (a subset of D) iff
For all x1, x2 D1
x1 < x 2 f(x1) f(x2)
and f is called a strict increasing function (or monotonically increasing function) in D1 iff
for all x1, x2 D1
x1 < x 2 f(x1) < f(x2)
analogously, f is called a decreasing function in an interval D2 (a subset of D) iff
for all x1, x2 D1
x1 < x 2 f(x1) f(x2)
and f is called a strict decreasing function (or monotonically decreasing function) in D2 iff
for all x1, x2 D1
x1 < x 2 f(x1) > f(x2)

CALCULUS
2.6.1.1 Conditions for a Increasing or a Decreasing function
Now we shall see how to use derivative of a function to determine where it is increasing and where it is
decreasing.
We know that the derivative (if it exists) at a point P of a curve represents that slope of the tangent to
the curve at P.
Intuitively from above fig. (i) we see that if is a strict increasing function in D1 (a subset of D1) then the
tangent to the curve y = f(x) at every point of D1 makes an acute angle with the positive direction of x-
axis, therefore tan > 0 f’(x) > 0 for all x D1.
Analogously, from above figure (ii) we see thar if f is strict decreasing function in D2 (a subset of D1),
then the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at every point of D2 makes obtuse angle with the positive
direction of x-axis, therefore tan <0 f’(x) < 0 for all x D2.
But this intuition may fail for example consider the function f(x) = x3, D1 = R.
A portion of its graph is shown in above figure. It is a strict increasing function. However, here f’(x) = 3x2
and at x = 0, f’(0) = 0, so the slope of the tangent at x = 0 is not positive it is zero.
In fact, we have:
1. If a function f is increasing in D1 (a subset of D1) then f’(x) 0 for all x D1.

2. If a function f is decreasing in D2 (a subset of D1) then then f’(x) 0 for all x D2.
Conversely, common sense tells us that a function is increasing when its rate of change (derivative) is
positive and decreasing when its rate of change is negative. We state these results as follows:
Theorem 1: If a function f is continuous is [a, b] and derivative in (a, b) and
1. f’(x) 0 for all x (a, b) then f its increasing in [a, b]

2. f’(x) > 0 for all x (a, b) then f strict increasing in [a, b]
Theorem 2: if a function f is continuous in [a, b] and derivable in (a, b) and
1. f’(x) 0 for all x (a, b) then f(x) is decreasing in [a, b]

2. f’(x) < 0 for all x (a, b) then f(x) is strict decreasing in [a, b]
Remark: The formula proof of these theorems are based on Lagrage’s Mean value Theorem.
Corollary. If a function f(x) is continuous in [a, b] derivable in (a, b) ands
1. f’(x) > 0 for all x in (a, b) except for a finite number of points where f’(x) > 0, then f(x) is strict
increasing in [a, b].
2. f’(x) < 0 for all x (a, b) except for a finite number of points where f’(x) = 0, then f(x) is strict
decreasing in [a, b].

CALCULUS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example: 1
Prove that the function f(x) = ax + b is strictly increasing iff a > 0.
Solution:
Given: f(x) = ax + b, D1 = R.
Note that f is continuous and differentiable for all x R.
Differentiating the given function w.r.t x we get f’(x) = a.
Now the given function is strictly increasing iff f’(x) = 0 i.e. iff a > 0.
Hence the given function is strictly increasing for all x R iff a > 0.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 As x increasing from to , the function f(x) =
(a) monotonically increases
(b)monotonically decreases
(c) increases to a maximum value and then decreases
(d) decreases to a minimum value and then increases
Solution: (a)
F’(x) = =
Since ex is +ve for all values of x, f’(x) is +ve for all values of x and hence f(x) monotonically increases.
2.6.2 relative or Local Maxim and Minima (of function of a single independent variable)
Definition: A function f(x) is said to be a local or relative maximum at x = a, if there exist a positive
number such that f(a+ ) < f(a) for all values of other than zero in the interval (- , ).
A function f(x) is said to be a local or relative minimum at x = a, if there exists a positive number such
that f(a+ ) > f(a) for all values of other than zero in the interval (- , ).
Maximum and minimum values of a function are together also called extreme values or turning values
and the points at which they are attained are called points of maxima and minima.
The points at which a function has extreme values are called Turning Points.

CALCULUS
2.6.2.1 properties of relative maxima and minima
1. At least one maximum or one minimum must lie between two equal values of a function.
2. maximum and minimum values must occur alternatively.
3. there may be several maximum or minimum values of same function.
4. a function y – f(x) is maximum at x = am if dy/dx changes sign form +ve to –ve as x passes through a.
5. A function y = f(x) is minimum at x = a, if dy/dx changes sign from –ve and +ve as x passes through a.
6. If the sign of dy/dx does not change while x passes through a then y is neither maximum nor
minimum at x = a.
2.6.2.2 conditions for Maximum of Minimum values
The necessary condition that f(x) should have a maximum or a minimum at x = a is that f’(a) = 0.
2.6.2.3 definition of Stationary Values
A function f(x) is said to be stationary at x = a if f’(a) = 0
Thus for a function f(x) to be a maximum or minimum at x = a it must be stationary at x= a.
2.6.2.4 Sufficient Conditions of maximum or Minimum values
There is a maximum of f(x) at x = a f’(a) = 0 and f’(a) is negative.
Similarly there is a minimum of f(x) at x = a if f’(a) = 0 and f’’(a) is positive.
Note: If f”(a) is also equal to zero, then we can show that for a maximum or a minimum of f(x) at x =a we
must have f”(a) = 0. Then if fiv(a) is negative there will be a maximum at x = a and if fiv(a) is positive there
will be minimum at x = a.
In general if f’(a) = f”(a) = f”(a) = …fn-1(a) =0 and fn(a) 0 then n must a even integer for maximum or
minimum. Also for a maximum. Also for a maximum f”(a) must be negative and for a minimum f”(a)
must be positive.
2.6.2.5 Working rule for Maxima and Minima of f(x)
1. Find f’(x) and equate to zero.
2. Solve the resulting equation for x… Let its roots be a1, a2,…. Then f(x) is stationary at x = a1, a2, …. Thus
x = a1, a2 …. Are the only points at which f(x) can be maximum or a minimum.
3. Find f”(x) and substitute in it by terms x = a1, a2 …. Wherever f”(x) is x we have a maximum and
wherever f”(x) is +ve, we have a minimum.

CALCULUS
4. If f”(a1) = 0, find f”(x) put x = a1 in it f”(a1) 0 there is neither a maximum nor a minimum at x = a1. If
f”(a1) = 0, find fiv(x) and put x = a1 in it. If fiv(a1) is –ve, we have maximum at x = a1. If it is positive there
is a minimum at x = a1. If fiv(a1) is zero, we must find fiv(x) and so on. Repeat the above process for each
root of the equation f’(x) = 0.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 At x = 0 the function f(x) = |x| has
(a) a minimum (b) a maximum
(c) a point of infection (d) neither a maximum nor minimum
Answer: (a)
Q. 2 The function f(x) = 2x – x2 + 3 has
(a) a maximum at x = 1 and a minimum at x = 5 (b) a maxima at x = 1 and a minima at x = -5
(c) only a maxima at x = 1 (d) only a minima at x = 1
Solution: (c)
f(x) = 2x – x2 + 3
f’(x) = 2 – 2x = 0
x = 1 is the stationary point
f”(x) = -2
f”(1) = -2 < 0
So at x = 1 we have a relative maxima.
2.6.3 Working Rules for Finding (Absolute) Maximum and Minimum in Range [a, b]
If a function f is differentiable in [a, b] except (possibly) at finitely many points then to find (absolute)
maximum and minimum values adopt the following procedure:
1. Evaluate f(x) at the points where f’(x) = 0.

2. Evalute f(x) at the points where derivative fails to exist.
3. Find f(a) and f(b).
Then the maximum of these values is the absolute maximum of the given function f and the minimum of
these values is the absolute minimum of the given function f.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE

CALCULUS
Q. 1 The right circular cone of largest volume that can be enclosed by a sphere of 1 m radius has height
of
(a) 1/3 m (b) 2/3 m
√
(c) m (d) 4/3 m
Answer: (c)
Q. 2 Consider the function f(x) = sin(x) in the interval x [ , 7 /4]. The number and location (s) of the
local minima of this function are
(a) One, at (b) One at /2
(c) Two, at /2 and 3 /2 (d) Two at /4 and /2
Answer: (b)
2.6.4 Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series Expansion of Functions
2.6.4.1 taylor’s Series
If (i) f(x) and first (n-1) derivatives be continuous in [a, a +h] and (ii) fn(x) exists for every value of x in (a,
a+h) then there is at least one number (0 < < 1) such that
f(a+h) = f(a) +hf’(a) + f”(a) + … + fn(a+ h)
which is called Taylor’s theorem with Lagrange’s form of remainder Rn being fn(a+ h).
Consider the function
= f(x) + (a+h-x) f’(x) + f”(x) + … + K
Where K is defined by
F(a+h) = f(a) +hf’(a) + f”(a) + … + K
1. Since f(x), f(x)…..fn-1 (x) are continuous in [a, a+h] therefore is also continuous in [a, a+h].
2. exists and = [ ]
3. also =
Hence satifies all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem and therefore, there exists at least one
number ( 0 < < 1), such that (a+ h) = 0 i.e. K = fn(a+ h)(0 < <1)
Substituting this value of K in (2), we get (1)

CALCULUS
Cor. 1. Taking n = 1 in(1) Taylor’s theorem reduces to Lagrange’s Mean value theorem.
Coe. 2. Putting a = 0 and h = x in (1), we get
f(x) = f(0) + xf’(0) + f”(0) + … + fn( x)
which is known as Maclaurin’s theorem with Lagrange’s form of remainder.
2.6.4.2 Maclaurin’s series
If f(x) can be expended as an infinite series then
F(x) = f(0) + xf’(0) + f”(0) + f”(0) + ….
If f(x) possesses derivatives of all order and the remainder Rn in (3) on page 154 tends to zero as n
then the Maclaurin’s theorem becomes the Maclaurins series(1).
2.6.4.3 Expansion by use of Known Series
When the expansion of a function is required only up to first few terms, it is often convenient to
employ the following well-known series
1. sin = – + + +… 2. Sinh = + + + + ……
3. cos =1- + + + …. 4. cosh = 1+ + + + ……
5. tan = + + + ….. 6. Tan-1 x = x – + - ……
7. ex = 1 + x + + + + ….. 8. Log(1+x) = x - + + + ……
9. log (1-x) = ( ) 10. (1+x)n = 1 + nx + x2 + x3 + ….
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 64 The infinite series 1 + x + + + + … corresponds to
(a) sec x (b) ex
(c) cos x (d) 1+sin2x
Solution: (b)
ex = 1 + x + + .... (By McLaurin’s series expansion)
Q. 66 A series expansion for the function sin is

CALCULUS
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution: (b)
sin
2.7 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
2.7.1 Definition of Partial derivative
If a derivative of a function of several independent variables be found with respect to any one of them,
keeping the others as constants it is said to be a partial derivative. The operation of finding the partial
derivative of a function of more than one independent variables is called Partial Differentiation.
The symbols , etc.. are used to denote such differentiations and the expressions ,
etc… are respectively called partial differential coefficients of u with respect to x and y.
If u = f(x, y, z) the partial differential coefficient of u with respect to x i.e. is obtained by

differentiating u with respect to x keeping y and z as constants.
2.7.2 Second order partial differential coefficients
If u = f(x, y) then or fx and or fy are themselves function of x and y and can be again
differentiated partially.
We call ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) as second order partial derivatives of u and these are
respectively denoted by . . . .
Note: If u = f(x, y) and its partial derivatives are continuous, the order of differentiation is immaterial
i.e. = .
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 Let f = yx. What is at x = 2. Y = 1?
(a) 0 (b) in 2
(c) 1 (d)
Solution: (c)

CALCULUS
F = yx
Treating x as constant, we get
= xyx-1
Now we treat y as a constant and get,
= (yx-1 x) = yx-1 + x yx-1 Iny
Whose value at x = 2 and y = 1 is = 1(2-1) (1+2. In 1) =1
2.7.3 Homogenous functions
An expression in which every term is of the same degree is called homogenous function. Thus a0xn + a1xn-
1
y + a2xn-2y2 + … + an-1xyn-1 + anyn is a homogenous function of x and y of degree n. this can also be written
as,
xn{ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) }
or xnf( ), where f( ) is some function of x and y of degree n then
x +y = nu
Note: Euler’s theorem can be extended to a homogenous function of any number of variables. Thus if
f(x1, x2,…xn) be a homogenous function of x1, x2,….xn of degree n them, x1 + x2 + …+ xn = nf
Example:
Show that u = x3 + y3 + 3xy2 is a homogenous function of degree 3.
Solution: and
Now, x = x(3x2 + 3y2) + y(3y2 + 6xy)
= 3(x3 + y3 + 3xy2)
= 3u
So, Euler’s theorem says that u is a homogenous function of degree 3.

CALCULUS
2.8 TOTAL DERIVATIVES
If u = f(x, y) where x = 1(t) and y = 2(t).
Them = . + .
Here is called the total differential coefficient of u with respect to t while and are partial
derivatives of u.
In the same way if u = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are all functions of some variable t, when
= . + . + .
This result can be extended to any number of variables.
Corollary 1: If u be a function of x and y where y is a function of x then
= + .
Corollary 2: If u = f(x, y) and x = f1(t1, t2) and y = f2 (t1, t2) then
= + .
And = . + .
Corollary 3: If x and y are connected by an equation of the form f(x, y) = 0, them
2.9 MAXIMA AND MINIMA (OF FUNCTION OF TWO INDEPENDENT VARIABLES)
2.9.1 definitions
Let f(x, f) be any function of two independent variable x and y supposed to be continuous for all values
of these variables in the neighborhood of their values a and b respectively.
Then f(a, b) is said to be maximum and a minimum value of f(x, y) according as f(a+h, b+k) is less or
greater than f(a, b) for all sufficiently small independent values of h and k positive or negative, provided
both of them are not equal to zero.
2.9.2 Necessary Conditions
The necessary conditions that f(x, f) should have a maximum or minimum at x = a, y = b is that

CALCULUS
| = 0 and | =0
2.9.3 Sufficient Condition for Maxima or Minima
Let r = ( ) ;s=( ) ;t=( )
Case 1: f(x, y) will have a maximum or a minimum at x = a, y =b if rt > s2. Further, f(x, y) maximum or
according as r in negative or positive.
Case 2: f(x, y) will have neither maximum or minimum at x = a, y = b if rt < s2. i.e. x = a, y = b is saddle
point.
Case 3: If rt = s2 this case is doubtful case and further advanced investigation is needed to determine
whether f(x, y) is a maximum or minimum at x = a. y = b or not. For gate problems case 3 will not apply
check only case 1 or case 2.
2.10 THEOREMS OF INTERGRAL CALCULUS
1. the integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to be product of the constant and the
integral of function.
Thus if is constant, then ∫ ∫
2. The integral of a sum of or difference of a finite number of functions is equal to sum or difference of
integral. Symbolically
∫[ ] = ∫[ ∫ ∫ ]
2.10.1 Fundamental Formulae
1. ∫ = 2. ∫ = log x
3. ∫ = cos x 4. ∫ = sin x
5. ∫ = tan x 6. ∫ = -cot x
7. ∫ = sec x 8. ∫ = -cosec x
9. ∫ = sin-1 x 10. ∫ = tan-1 x

√
11. ∫ = sec-1 x 12. ∫ = sin hx

√
13. ∫ = cos hx
2.10.2 Useful trigonometric Identities

CALCULUS
sin 0 √ 1 0 -1 0
√
cos 1 √ 0 -1 0 -1
√
tan 0 1 √ 0 0
√
1. sin(-x) = -sinx
2. cos(-x) = cosx
3. sin(x+y) = sinx cosy + cosx siny
4. sin(x-y) = sinx cosy – cosx siny
5. cos(x+y) = cosx cosy – sinx siny
6. cos(x-y) = cosx cosy + sinx siny
7. cos( ) = sinx
8. sin( ) = cosx
9. (i) sin( ) = cosx (ii) cos( )
(iii) sin( +x) = sinx (iv) cos( -x) = -cosx
(v) sin( +x) = -sinx (vi) cos( +x) = -cosx
(vii) sin(2 -x)= -sinx (viii) cos(2 -x) = cosx
10. Tan(x+y) =
11. Tan(x-y) =
12. tan( )=
13. tan( )=
14. cot(x + y) =
15. cot(x – y) =
16. sin2x = 2sin x cosx =
17. cos(2x) = cos2 x – sin2 x = 2cos2 x – 1 = 1 – 2sin2 x =

18. tan 2x =
19. sin2 x = 1- cos2 x
20. cos2 x = 1-sin2 x
21. eit = cos t + i sin t

CALCULUS
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 S = ∫ dx then S has the value
(a) -1/3 (b) ¼
(c) ½ (d) 1
Solution: (c)
∫ =* + =* + = * + =
Q. 2 Given i = √ what will be the evaluation of the definite integral ∫ ?
(a) 0 (b) 2
(c) –i (d) i
Solution: (d)
∫ =∫ =∫
=* + = [ ]= [ ]
= = =i
2.10.3 Methods of Integration
There are various methods of integration by which we can reduce the given integral to one of the
known standard integrals. There are four principal methods of integration.
1. Integration by substitution: A change in the variable of integration often reduces an integral to

one of fundamental integrals.
Let f = ∫ , then by differentiation w.r.to x we have = f(x). Now put,
X = (t) so that = ’(t)
Then, = . = f(x) . ’(t) = f, (t). ’(t)- for x = (t)
This gives I=∫
Rule to Remember:
To evaluate ∫
Put =t
And = dt
Where is the differential coefficient with respect to x.
Three Forms of Integrals:

CALCULUS
(a) ∫ = log f(x)

Put f(x) = t differentiating we get f’(x). dx = dt
∫ =∫ = log t = log f(x)
Thus the integral of a fraction whose numerator is the exact derivative of its denominator is
equal to the logarithmic of its denominator.
2. Integral of the product of two functions
Integration by parts: Let u and v be two functions of x. then we have from differential calculus.
= u. + v.
Integrating both sides of (1) with respect to x, we have
Uv = ∫ ∫
∫ = uv - ∫
i.e. ∫ = uv – ∫
This can also be written as ∫ = u∫ – ∫[ ∫ ]
The choice of which function will be u and which function will be dv is very important in solving
by integration by parts.
The ILATE method helps to decide this.
ILATE stands for
I : inverse trigonometric functions (sin-1 x, cos-1 x etc)
L : Logarithmic functions (log x, In x etc)
A : Algebraic functions (x2, x3 + x2 + 2 etc)
T: Trigonometric functions (sin x, cox x etc.)
E : Exponential function {ex, ax etc)
Whichever of the two functions comes first in ILATE, get designated as u and other function gets
designated as dv.
Formulae Based upon Above Method:
(a) ∫ = (a sin bx – b cos bx)
(b) ∫ = (a cos bx + b sin bx)
Integration by partial Fractions:
(a) I=∫
= = ( )
∫ = ,∫ ∫ -
= =
Thus ∫ = ,x>a
(b) I=∫

CALCULUS
In this case ∫ = ,x<a
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 The value of the integral ∫ is
(a) – (b) – /2
(c) /2 (d)
Solution: (d)
∫ =[ ]
= tan-1( )-tan-1(- ) = - * +=
Q. 2 Minimum of the real valued function f(x) = (x-1)2/3 occurs at x equal to
(a) - (b) 0
(c) 1 (d)
Solution: (c)
F(x) – (x-1)2/3 –(√ 2
As f(x) is square of √ hence its minimum value be o where at x = 1.
2.11 DEFINITEINTEGRALS
If ∫ [ ] is called the definite integral of f(x) between the limit of a and

b.
b upper limit, a lower limit.
2.11.1 Fundamental properties of definite Integrals
1. We have ∫ = F(x) and ∫ = F(t)
Now ∫ = [F(x)]ba = F(b) – F(a)
∫ = [F(t)]ba = F(b) – F(a)
2. ∫ =∫ Interchanging the limit of a definite integral does not change in the absolute
value but change the sign integrals

CALCULUS
3. we have ∫ =∫ +∫
Note 1: this property also holds true even if the point c is exterior to the interval (a, b).
Note 2: In place of one additional point c we can take several points. Thus several points
Thus, ∫ =∫ +∫ +∫ +…+∫
4. (a) we have ∫ =∫
(b) We have ∫ =∫
Proof: Let I=∫
Put x = a – t dx = -dt where x = 0, t = a and when x = a, t = 0
I=∫ ∫ ∫
5. ∫ = 0 or 2∫ according as f(x) is an odd or even function of x
Odd and Even function
(a) An odd function of x if f(-x) = -f(x)

(b) An even function of if f(-x) = f(x).
6. ∫ = 2∫ if f(2a-x) = f(x)
And ∫ = 0, if f(2a-x) = - f(x)
Corollary: ∫ ∫ ∫
7. ∫ ∫
If f(x) = f(x+a)
8. ∫ = f[ (t)] ’(t) – f[ (t)] (p)
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 If f(x) is an even function and a positive real number then ∫ equals
(a) 0 (b) a
(c) 2a (d) 2 ∫

CALCULUS
Solution: (d)
If f(x) is even function then
∫ ∫
Q. 2 The value of the definite integral ∫ √ is
(a) √ (b) √
(c) √ (d) √
Answer: (c)
2.12 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
We study areas where integration is applied
1. Areas of curves
2. Length of curves
3. Volumes of revolution
2.12.1 Preliminary: Curve Tracing
In order to find area under, curves as well as for evaluating double and triple integrals, it is used to know
how to trace some common curves from their equations.
Circle: Cartesian From:
1. x2 + y2 = a2: Circle with centre (0, 0) and radius a.

2. (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = a2; Circle with centre (h, k) and radius a.
Polar form:
1. r = a: Circle with centre (0, 0) and radius a.

2. r = a sin : Circle with centre ( ) and radius .
3. r = a cos : Circle with centre ( ) and radius .
Parabola:
1. X2 = 4ay: Parabola with vertex at (0, 0) and focus at (0, a) and latus rectum = 4a.
2. X2 = -4ay: Parabola with vertex at (0, 0) and focus (0, a) and latus rectim = 4a.
3. Y2 = 4ax: Parabola with vertex at (0, 0) and focus at (a, 0) and latus rectum = 4a.
4. Y2 = -4ax: Parabola with vertex at (0, 0) and focus at (-a, 0) and latus rectum = 4a.
5. (x-h)2 = 4a(y-k)2 : Parabola with centre at (h, k) foucs at (0+h, a+k) and latus rectum = 4a.

CALCULUS
Ellipse:
1. = 1 : Ellipse with centre at (0, 0) and major axis = 2a and minor axis = 2b.
2. = 1 : Ellipse with centre at (h, k) and major axis = 2a and minor axis = 2b.
Hyperbola:
1. = 1 : Hyperbola with vertex at (a, 0) and (-a, 0) and centre at (0, 0).
2. = 1 : Hyperbola with vertex at (0, b) and (0, -b) and centre at (0, 0).
2.12.2 Areas of Cartesian Curves
Theorem : Area bounded by the curve y = f(x) the x-axis and the ordinates x = a, x = b is
∫ ∫
2. Interchanging x and y in the above formula, we see that the area bounded by the curve x = f(y), the x-
axis and the abscissa y = a, y=b is ∫ ∫ as shown in figure below.
Note 1: The area bounded by a curve, the x-axis and two ordinates is called the area under the curve.
The process finding the area of plane curves is often called quadrature.
Note 2: Sign of an area an whose boundary is described in the anti-clockwise direction (i.e. lies above x-
axis) is considered positive and an area whose boundary is described in the clockwise direction (i.e. lies
below x-axis) iss taken as negative.
And the area CDE ( ∫ ) but their difference
Thus to find the total area in such cases the numerical value of the area of each portion must be
evaluated separately by taking modulus and their results added afterwards.
2.12.4 Derivative of arc Length
Theorem: For the curve y = f(x), we have
√[ ( ) ]
Proof: Let P(x, y), Q(x+ . Y+ y) be two neighboring points on the curve AB. Let arc AP = s, arc PQ = s.
Draw PL, QM s on the x-axis and PN QM.
From the rt, triangle PNQ.
PQ2 = PN2 + NQ2

CALCULUS
i.e. c2 = x 2 + y 2
or ( ) =1+( )
( ) =( ) =( ) [ ( ) ]
Taking limits as Q P (i.e. c 0).
( ) = [ ( ) ]
If s increases with x as in figure above dy/dx is positive.
Thus √[ ( ) ] taking positive sign before the radical…(i)
Cor. 1. If the equation of the curve is x = f(y), then
√[ ( ) ]
Cor. 2. If the equation of the curve is in parametric form x = f(t), y = (t) then
√[ ( ) ] = √[( ) ( ) ]
√[( ) ( ) ]
2.12.5 Length of Curves
Theorem: The length of the arc of the curve y = f(x) between the points where x = a and x = b is
S = ∫ √[ ( ) ]
The length of the arc of the curve x = f(y) between the points where y = a and y = b is
∫ √[ ( ) ]
The length of the arc of the curve x = f(t), y = f(t) between the points where t = a and t = b is
∫ √[( ) ( ) ]
The length of the arc of the curve r = f( ) between the points where = and = is

CALCULUS
∫ √[ ( ) ]
2.12.6 Volumes of Revolution
1. Revolution about x-axis: The volume of the solid generated by the revolution about the x-axis, of the
area bounded by the curve y = f(x) the x-axis and the ordinates x = a, x = b is ∫ . Let AB to the
curve y = f(x) between the ordinates LA (x = a) and MB (x = b).
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 What is the area common to the circles r = a and r = 2a cos ?
(a) 0.524 a2 (b) 0.614 a2
(c) 1.047 a2 (d) 1.228 a2
Solution: (d)
Area common to circles, r = a
And r = 2a cos is 1.228a2
Q. 2 Consider an ant crawling along the curve (x – 2)2 + y2 = 4, where x and y are in meters. The ant starts
at the point (4, 0) and moves counter-clockwise with a speed of 1.57 meters per second. The time taken
by ant to reach the point (2, 2) is (in seconds)___________.
Solution: (2)
(x-2)2 +(y2) = (2)2 is a circle of radus 2 m and centre at (2, 0)
Centre at (2, 0)
Time to reach from (4, 0) to (2, 2) is
( ) ( )
Time = = = = = 2 sec.
2.13 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
1. Double integrals 2. Change of order of integration
3. Double integrals in polar co-ordinates 4. Areas enclosed by plane curves
5. Triple integrals
2.13.1 Double Integrals

CALCULUS
The definite integral ∫ is defined as the limit of the sum
f(x1) x1 + f(x2) x2 + … + f(xn) xn.
where n and each of the length , …..tends to zero. A double integral is its counterpart in
two dimensions.
Consider a function f(x, y) of the independent variables x, y defined at each point in the finite region R of
the xy-planee. Divide R into elementary areas , ……, . Let (x, y) be any point within the rth
elementary area . Consider the sum
f(x1, y1) + f(x2.y2) + ….. + f(xn.yn) i.e. ∑
The limit of this sum, if it exist as the number of sub-division increases indefinitely and area of each sub-
division decreases to zero is defined as the double integral of f(x,f) over the region R and is written as
∫∫
Thus ∫∫ = ∑
The utility of double integrals would be limited if it were required to take limit of sums to evaluate them.
However there is another method of evaluating double integrals by successive single integrations.
For purposes of evaluation (i) is expresses as the repeated integral ∫ ∫ Its value is
found as follows:
1. When y1, y2 are functions of x and x1. x2 are constants f(x, y) is first integrated w.r.t. y (keeping x
fixed) between limits y1.y2 and then the resulting expression is integrated w.r.t x within the limit
x1. x2 i.e.
I1 = ∫ ∫
Where integrations carried from the inner to the outer rectangle.
Fig. (a) below illustrates this process. Here AB and CD are the two curves whose equations are y1 = f1(x)
and y2 = f2(x) PQ is a vertical strip of width dx
Then the inner rectangle integral means that the integration is along one edge of the strip PQ form P to
Q (x remaining constant) while the outer rectangle integral corresponds to the cliding of the edge form
AC to BD.
Thus the whole region of integration is the ABDC.
When x1, x2 are functions of y and y1, y2 are constants f(x, y) is first integrated w.r.t x keeping y fixed
within the limits x1, x2 and the resulting expression is integrated w.r.t between the limits y1, y2 i.e.

CALCULUS
I2 = ∫ ∫ which is geometrically illustrated by Fig (b) above
Here AB and CD are the curve x1 = f1(y) and x2 = f2(y) PQ is a horizontal strip of width dy. Then inner
rectangle indicates that the integration is along one edge of this strip from P to Q while the outer
rectangle corresponds to the sliding of this edge from AC to BD.
Thus the whole region of integration is the area ABDC.
3. When both pairs of limit are constants, the region of integration is the rectangle ABDC
In I1 we integrated along the vertical strip PQ and then slide it from AC to BD.
In I2 we integrated along the horizontal strip P’Q’ and then slide it from AB to CD.
Here obviously I1 = I2.
Thus for constant limits, it hardly mattery whether we first integrate w.r.t x and then w.r.t y or vice
versa.
2.13.2 Change of order of Integration
In a double integral with variable limit the change of order of integration changes the limits of
integration. While doing so, sometimes it is required to split up the region of integration and then given
integral is expressed as the sum of a number of double integrals with changed limits. To fix up the new
limits, it is always advisable to draw a rough sketh of the region of integration.
The change of order of integration quite often facilitates the evaluation of a double integral. The
following examples will make ideas clear.
2.13.3 Double Integrals in Polar Co-ordinates
To evaluate ∫ ∫ we first integrate w.r.t r between limits r = r1 and r = r2 keeping fixed

and the resulting expression is integrated w.r.t from to . In this integral, r1 . r2 are functions of
and are constants.
Here AB and CD are the curves r1 = f1 and f1 and r2 = f2 bounded by the lines = and = . PQ is a
wedge of angular thickness .
Then ∫ indicates that the integration is along PQ from P to Q while the integration w.r.t.
corresponds to the turning of PQ from AC to BD.
Thus the whole region of integration is the area ACDB. The order of integration may be changed with
appropriate changes in the limits.
2.13.4 Area Enclosed by Plane Curves

CALCULUS
The area enclosed by curves y = f1(x) and y = f2(x) and the ordinates x = x1. x = x2 is shown in figure below
and is given by the double integral ∫ ∫
EXAMPLES FFROM GATE
Q. 1 The value of ∫ ∫ is
(a) 13.5 (b) 27.0
(c) 40.5 (d) 54.0
Solution: (a)
∫ ∫ ∫ * + ∫ * +
Q. 2 A surface S(x, y) = 2x + 5y – 3 is integrated once over a path consisting of the points that satisfy
(x+1)2+(y-1)2 = √ . The integral evaluates to
(a) √ (b)
√
√
(c) (d) 0
Answer: (d)
2.13.5 Triple Integrals
Consider a function f(x, y, z) defined at every point of the 3-dimensional finite region V. Divide V into n
elementary volumes , ……. . Let (xr, yr, zr) be any point within the rth sub-division .
Consider the sum ∑
The limit of this sum. If it exists as n and is called the triple integral of f(x, y, z) over the
region V and is denoted by
For purpose of evaluation, it can also be expressed as the repeated integral
∫ ∫ ∫
If x1, x2 are constants y1, y2 are either constants or functions of x and z1, z2 are either constants or
functions of x and y then this integral is evaluated as follows.
First f(x, y, z) is integrated w.r.t. by between the limits z1 and z2 keeping x and y fixed. The resulting
expression is integrated w.r.t. y between the limit y1 ans y2 keeping x constant. The result just obtained
is finally integrated w.r.t x from x1 to x2.

CALCULUS
Thus I=∫ ∫ ∫
Where the integration is carried out from the inner most rectangle to the outermost rectangle. The
order of integration may be different for different types of limits.
2.14.3 Equality of Vectors
By definition, two vectors B and b are equal. Written a = b if they have the same length and the same
direction. Hence a vector can be arbitrarily translated that is its initial point can be chosen arbitrarily.
This definition is practical in connection with forces and other applications.
2.14.4 Components of a Vector
We choose an xyz Cartesian coordinate system in space that is a usual rectangular coordinate system
with the same scale of measurement on the three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes. Then if a
given vector a has initial point P(x1, y1, z1) nad terminal point Q(x1, y2, z2) the three numbers.
1. a1 = x2 – x1, a2 = y2-y1, a3 = z2 – z1. Are called the components of the vector a with respect to the
coordinate system and we write simply a = [a1, a2, a3].
Length in terms of components: By definition the length |a| of a vector a is the distance
between its initial point P and terminal Q. From the Pythagorean theorem and figure (ii) below
we see that
2. |a| = √
2.14.5 Position Vector
A Cartesian coordinate system being given the position vector r of a point A(x, y, z) is the vector with the
vector with the origin (0, 0, 0) as the initial point and A as the terminal point. Thus r = [x, y, z].
Furthermore if we translate a vector a with initial point P and terminal point Q them correspondinates
of P and Q change by the same amount so that the components of the vector remain unchanged. This
proves
2.14.5.1 Vectors as Ordered Triples of Real numbers
Theorem: A fixed Cartesian coordinate system being given each vector is uniquely determined its
ordered triple of corresponding components. Conversely to each ordered triple of real numbers (a1, a2,
a3) there corresponds precisely one vector a = [a1, a2, a3] In particular the ordered triple (0,0,0)
corresponds to the zero vector “0” which has length 0 and no direction.
Hence a vector equation a = b is equivalent to the three equations a1 = b1, a2 = b2, a3 = b3 for the
components.
We see that from our “geometrical” definition of vectors as arrows we have a arrived at an “algebraic”
characterization by above Theorem. We could have started from the latter and reversed our process.
This shows that the two approaches (i.e. “geometrical” and “algebraic” approaches) are equivalent.

CALCULUS
2.14.6 Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication
Applications have suggested algebraic calculations with vectors that are practically useful and almost as
simple as calculations with numbers.
2.14.6.1 Definition: 1
Addition of Vectors: The sum a+b of two vectors a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3] is obtained by adding
a + b = [a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3]
Geometrically place the vector as in above (the initial point of b at the terminal point of a) the a+b is the
vector drawn from the initial point of a to the terminal point of b.
Figure shows that for forces this addition is the parallelogram law by which we obtain the resultant of
two forces in mechanics.
Figure illustrates (for the plane) that the “algebraic way and the “geometric” way of vector addition
amount to the same thing.
Basic properties of Vector addition follow immediately from the familiar laws for real numbers
(a) ̇ + ̇ = ̇ + ̇ (commutatively)
(b) ( ̇ + ̇ ) + ̇ = ̇ + ( ̇ + ̇ ) (associatively)
(c) ̇ +0=0+ ̇ = ̇
(d) ̇ + (- ̇ ) = 0
Where –a denotes the vector having the length |a| and the direction opposite to that of a.
In property (b) above, instead of u + (v + w) or (u + v) + w, we may simple write u + v + w without

brackets and similarly for sums of more than three vectors. Also instead of a + a we also write 2a.
and so on. This (and the notation –a before) suggested that we define the second algebraic
operation for vectors, namely the multiplication of vectors by a scalar as follows.
2.14.6.2 Definition: 2
Scalar Multiplication (multiplication by a number): the product c a any vector a = [a1, a2, a3] and any
scalar c (real number c) is the vector obtained by multiplying each component of a by c.
Ca = [ ca1, ca2, ca3]
Geometrically, if a 0 then ca with c > 0 has the direction of a and with c < 0 the direction opposite
to a. In any case the length of ca is |ca| = |c||a| and ca =0 if a = 0 or c = 0 (or both).
2.14.7 Unit Vectors

CALCULUS
Any vector whose length is 1 is a unit vector I, j and k are example of special unit vectors which are
along x, y and z coordinate axes.
|i| = |j| = |k| = 1
u = cos I + sin j
gives every unit vector in the plane.
2.14.7.1 Representation of vector in Terms of i, j and k
̇ [ ] .
In this representation i, j, k are the unit vectors in the positive directions of the exes of a Cartesian
coordinate system.
i = [1, 0, 0] j = [0, 1, 0] k = [0, 0, 1]
and the right side of a = is a sum of three vectors parallel to the three axes.
2.14.8 Length and Direction of Vectors
Any vector a may be written as a product of its length and direction as follows:
̇
̇ = |a|( ̇ )
̇
Here | ̇ | is the length of vector and ̇ is a unit vector in direction of a
2.14.9 Inner Product (Dot Product)
We shall now define a multiplication of two vectors that gives a scalar as the product and is
suggested by various applications.
Definition. Inner Product (Dot Product) of Vectors
The inner product or dot product a b (read “a dot b”) of two vector a and b is the product of their
length times the cosine of their angle, see fig below.
1. ̇ . ̇ = | ̇ || ̇ | cos
The angle , 0 , between a and b is measured when the vectors have their initial points
coinciding as in fig below
In components a = [a1, a2, a3]. b = [b1, b2, b3] and
2. ̇ . ̇ = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
Can be derived from (i)

CALCULUS
Since the cosine in (i) may be positive, zero or negative so may be the inner product. The case that
the inner product is zero is of great practical interest and suggests the following concept. A vector as
is called orthogonal to a vector b if a.b = 0. Then is also orthogonal to a we call these a s called
orthogonal vectors. Clearly the zero vector is orthogonal to every vector. For nonzero vectors we
have ̇ ̇ = 0 if and only if = 0; thus = /2(90o). This proves the following important theorem.
Theorem: 1 (Orthogonality)
The inner product of two nonzero vectors is zero if and only if these vectors are perpendicular.
Length and Angle in Terms of Inner Product: Equation (i) above with ̇ = ̇ gives a.a = |a|2.
3. |3| = √
From (i) and (iii) we obtain for the angle between two nonzero vectors
4. cos = =
√ √
2.14.10.1 Finding a Unit Vector Perpendicular to two Given Vector a and b
A unit vector perpendicular to two given a and b is given by
a= =
2.14.10.2 Vector Products of the Standard Basis Vectors
Since I, j, k are orthogonal (mutually perpendicular) unit vectors the definition of vector product gves
some useful formulas for simplifying products in handed coordinates these are
ixj=k jxkI k+I = j
j x i = -k k x j = -I I x k = -j
2.14.10.3 General Properties of Vector Products
Vector Product has the property that for every scalar I,
(/a) x b = /(a x b) = a x (/b)
It is distributive with respect to vector addition that is.
̇ ( ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇) ̇ ̇
(̇ ̇) ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
It is not commutative but anti commutative that is

CALCULUS
B x a = -(a x b)
It is not associative that is
a x (b x c) (a x b) x c
so that the parentheses cannot be omitted.
2.14.11 Scalar Triple Product
The scalar triple product or mixed triple product of three vectors
a = [a1, a2, a3], b = [b1, b2, b3] c = [c1, c2, c3]
is denoted by (a, b, c) and is defined by (a b c) and is defined by (a b c) = a.(b x c)
We can write this as a third-order determinant. For this we set b x c = v = [v1, v2, v3]. Then from this dot
product in components we obtain
a.(b x c) = a.v = a1v1 + a2v2 + a3v3
= a1| | ( | |) | |
The expression on the right is the expansion of a third-order determinant by its first row. Thus
(a b c) = a.(b x c) = | |
Geometric Interpretation of Scalar triple Products
The absolute value of the scalar triple product is the volume of the parallelepiped with a, b, c as edge
vectors the base the parallelogram with sides b and c has area |b x c|. Normally if vectors a, b and c are
coplanar then this volume is zero a(b x c) = 0, if a, b and c are coplanar.
We also have for any scalar k.
(ka b c) = k(a b c)
Because the multiplication of a determinant by k multiples the value of the determinant furthermore we
prove that
a.(b x c) = (a x b). c
Proof: LHS of above = | |

CALCULUS
RHS of above = (a x b). c = c.(a x b) = | |
By properties of determinants it can be seen that the LHS and RHS determinants are indeed both equal.
So, a.(b x c) = (a x b). c
In fact a(b x c) = b.(c x a) = c.(a x b)
i.e. the value of triple product depends upon the cycle order of the vectors but is independent of the
position of dot and cross. However if the order is non-cycle then value changes.
i.e. a.(b x c) b.(a x c)
2.14.12 Vector Triple Product
If a, b and c are three vectors then the vector triple product is written as a x (b x c) It can be proved that
a x (b x c) = (a.c)b – (a.b)c
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 The inner (dot) product of two non zero vectors ̅ and ̅ is zero. The angle (degrees) between the
two vectors is
(a) 0 (b) 30
(c) 90 (d) 120
Solution: (c)
̅̅=0
̅ . ̅ = |P| |Q| cos
If ̅.̅=0
|P| |Q| cos = 0
Since, P and Q are non-zero vectors
cos = 0
= 90o
Q. 2 If ̅ and ̅ are two arbitrary vectors with magnitudes a and b respectively, | ̅ ̅ | will be equal to
(a) ( ̅ ̅) (b)ab - ̅ ̅

CALCULUS
(c) ( ̅ ̅) (d) ab + ̅ ̅
Answer: (a)
2.14.13 Vector and Scalar Functions and fields. Derivatives
This is the beginning vector calculus which involves two kinds of functions, vector functions, whose
values are vectors.
v = v(P) = [v1(P). v2(P). v3(P)]
depending on the points P in space and scalar functions whose values are scalars
f = f(P)
depending on P. In applications the domain of definition for such a function is a region of space or a
surface in space or a curve in space. We say that a vector function definite a vector field in that region
(or on the surface or curve). Examples are shown in figures. Similarly a scalar function defines a scalar
field in a region or on a surface or a curve. Examples are the temperature field in a body (scalar function)
and the pressure fields on the air in the earth’s atmosphere. Vector (vector function) and scalar
functions may be also depends on time t or on further parameters.
Comment on Notation. If we introduce cartesion coordinates x, y, z then instead of v(P) and f(P) we can
also write
v(x, y, z) = [v1(x, y, z). v2(x, y, z). v3(x, y, z)]
and f(x, y, z) but we keep in mind that a vector or scalar field that has geometrical or physical meaning
should depend only on the points P where it is defined but not on the particular choice of Cartesian
coordinates.
2.14.13.1 Derivative of a Vector Function
A vector function v(t) is said to be differentiable at a point if the following limit exist:
v’(t) =
exists. The vector v’(t) is called the derivative of v(t). See figure above (The curve in this figure is the
locus of the heads of the arrows representing v for values of the independent variable in some interval
contacting t and t + ).
In terms of components with respect to a given Cartesian coordinate system v(t) is differentiable at a
point t if and only if its three components are differentiable at t and t and then the derivative v’(t) is
obtained by differentiating each component separately.
v’(t) = *v1’(t). v2’(t). v3’(t)+

CALCULUS
It follows that the familiar rules of differentiation yield corresponding rules for differentiating vector
function for example,
(cv)’ = cv’
(u + v)’ = u’ + v’ and in particular
(u . v)’ = u’.v + u.v’
(u x v)’ = u’ x v + u x v’
The order of the vectors must be carefully observed because cross multiplication is not commutative.
2.14.14 Gradient of a Scalar Filed
We shall see that some of the vector fields in applications-(not all of them) can be obtained from scalar
fields. This is a considerable advantage because scalar fields can be handled more easily. The relation
between the two types of fields is accomplished by the “gradient”. Hence the gradient is of great
practical importance.
Definition of Gradient: The gradient grad f of a given scalar function f(x, y, z) is the vector function
defined by
1. grad f = + +
Here we must assume that f is differentiable. It has become popular, particularly with physicists and
engineer to introduce the differential operator.
2. = + +
(read nabla or del) and to write
grad f = f = + +
For instance, if f(x, f, z) = 2x + yz – 3y2, then grad f = f = 2i + (z – 6y) + yk
We show later that grad f is a vector that is although it is defined in terms of components it has a length
and direction that is independent of the particular choice of Cartesian coordinates. But first we explore
how the gradient is relaxed to the rate of change of f in various directions. In the directions of the three
coordinate axes this rate is given by the partial derivatives, as we know from calculus. The idea of
extending this to arbitrary directions seems natural and leads to the concept of directional derivative.
2.14.15 Directional Derivative

CALCULUS
The rate of change of f at any point P in any fixed direction given by a vector b is defined as in calulus.
We denote if by D0f or df/ds. Call it the directional derivative of f at P in the direction of b and define it
by figure
3. Dbf = = (s = distance between P and Q)
Where Q is a variable point on the ray C in the direction of b as in fig below
The next idea is to use Cartesian xyz-coordinates and for b a unit vector. Then the ray C is given by
4. R(s) = s(s)I + y(s)j + z(s)k = p0 + sb (s 0.|b| =1)
(p0 the position vector of p). Equation (3) now shows that Dbf = df/ds is the derivative of the function
f(x(s), y(s), z(s)) with respect to the arc length s of C. Hence assuming that f has continuous partial
derivatives and applying the chain rule. We obtain
5. Dbf = =
Where primes denote derivatives with respect to s (which are taken at s = 0) But here r’ = x’i +y’j + z’k =
b by (4). Hence (5) is simply inner product of b and grad f [see (2) sec 8.2]
6. Dbf = = b.grad f (|b| = 1)
Attention! In general, if the direction is given by a vector a of any length then
Dbf = = a.grad f (where is a nuit vactor is direction of a)
2.14.16 Gradient Characterizes Maximum Increase
Theorem 1 (Gradient maximum increase)
Let f(P) = f(x, y, z) be a scalar function b=having continuous first partial derivatives. Then grad exists and
its length and direction are independent of the particular choice of Cartesian coordinates in space. If at a
point P the gradient of f is not the zero vector it has the direction of maximum increase of f at P. Proof
from (6) and the definition of inner product we have
7. Dbf = |b| |gead f| cos = |grad f| cos
Where is the angle between b and grad f. Now f is a scalar function. Hence its value at a point P
depends on P but not on the particular choice of coordinates. The same holds for the arc length s of the
ray c ( see hence also for Dbf. Now (7) shows that Dbf is maximum when cos = 1 i.e. = 0 and the Dbf =
|grad f|. If follows that the length and direction of grad f are independent of the coordinates. Since = 0
if and only if b has the direction of grad 1, the latter is the direction of maximum increase of f at P.
provided grad f 0 at P.

CALCULUS
Gradient as Surface Normal Vector: another basic use of the gradient results in connection with surface
S in space given by
8. f(x, y, z) = c = constant
As follows. We recall thet a curve C in space cab be given by
9. r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k
Now if we want C to lie on S, its components must satisfy (8): Thus
10. f(x(t), y(t). z(t)) = c
A tangent vector of C is
r’(t) = x’(t)i + y’(t)j + z’(t)k.
If C lies on S. This vector tangent to S. At a fixed point P o S these tangent vector of curve on S through P
will generally form a plane called the tangent plane of S at P (Figure above). It normal (the straight line
through P and perpendicular to the tangent plane) s called the surface normal of S at P.A vector parallel
to it is called a surface normal vector of S at P. Now if we differentiate (10) with respect to t, we get by
the chain rule.
11. = (grad f)r’ >0
This means orthogonality of grad f and all the vectors r’ in the tangent plane. This result in shown
pictorially in the figure above. Where grad f is as normal to tangent plane of vectors r’. So we have
the theorem 2 given below
Theorem. 2 (Gradient as Surface Normal Vector)
Let f be a differentiable scalar function that represents a surface S: f(x, y, z) = c = constant. Then if the
gradient of f at a point P and S is not the vector, it is normal vector of S at P
Comment. The surface given by (8) with carious values of c are called the level surface of the scalar
function f.
2.14.17 Vector Fields that are gradients of a scalar Field (“Potential”)
Some vector fields have the advantage that they can be obtained from scalar fields which can handled
more easily. Such a vector field is given by a vector function v(P) which is obtained as gradient of a scalar
function say v(P) = grad f(P). the function f(P) is called a potential function or a potential of v(P). Such a
v(P) and the corresponding vector field are called conservative because in such a vector fields, energy is
conserved: that is no energy is lost (or gained) in displacing body ( or a charge in the case of an electrical
field) from a point P to another point in the field a back to P.
2.14.18 Divergence of a Vector Field

CALCULUS
Vector calculus owes much of its importance in engineering and physic to the gradient, divergence and
curl. Having discussed the gradient we turn next to the divergence. The curl follows in next section. Let
v(x, y, z) be a differentiable vector function, where x, y, z are Cartesian coordinates and Let v1, v2, v3 be
the components of v. Then the function
div v = + +
Is called the divergence of v or the divergence of the vector field defined by v. Another common
notation for the divergence of v is .v.
div v = .v
=( ) (v1i + v2i + v3k)
= + +
With the understanding that the “product” ( )v1 in the dot product means the partial derivative
etc. This is a convenient notation, but nothing more. Note that .v means the scalar div v.
whereas. f means the vector grad f.
2.14.19 Curl of a Vector Field
Gradient divergent and curl as basic in connection with fields. We now define and discuss the curl,
Let x, y, z be right-handed Cartesian coordinate and let
v(x, y, z) = v1i + v2j + v3k
be a differentiable vector function, then the function
curl v = xv=| |
curl v = ( )+( )+( )+
is called the curl of the vector function v or the curl of the vector field defined by v.
Instead of curl v the notation rot v is also used. (since one application of curl is to signify rotation of a
rigid body)
2.14.19.1 Important Repeated Operations by Nable Operator ( )
1. div grad f= =
2. curl grad f = x t=0

CALCULUS
3. div curl f = .(
4. curl curl f = grad div F - F=
5. Grad div f = curl curl F + = x xF+ xF
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 Potential function = x2 – y2, what will be the stream function ( ) with the condition = 0 at x = y
= 0?
(a) 2xy (b) x2y3
(c) x2-y2 (d) 2x2y2
Solution: (a)
Stream solution =
Q. 2 The divergence of the vector field (x – y) ̂ + (y + x) ̂ + (x + y + z) ̂ is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
Solution: (b)
Div{(x-y)i+(y-x)j+(x+y+)k} = (x-y)+
2.14.20 Vector Integral Calculus: Integral theorems
2.14.20.1 Line Integral
The concept of a integral is a simple and natural generalization of a definite integral
1. ∫ known from calculus. In (1) we integrate the integrand f(x) form x = a along the x-axis
to x = b. In a line integral we shall integrate a given function called the integrand along a curve C
in space (or in the plane). Hence curve integral would be a better term but fine integral is
standard. We represent the curve C by a parametric representation.
2. r(t) = [x(t). y(t). z(t)] = x(t)i + y(t)I + z(t)k
we call c the path of integrating A r(a) its initial point and B r(b) its terminal point C is now
oriented. The direction from A to B in which t increases is called the positive direction on C. We
can points A and b may coincide ( as in above figure (b)). Then C is called a closed path. We call C
a smooth curve if C has a unique tangent at each of its points whose direction varies
differentiable and the derivative r’(t) = dx/dt is continuous and different from the zero vector at
every point of C.

CALCULUS
2.14.20.2 Definition and Evaluation of Line Integrals
A line integral of a vector function F® over curve C is defined by
3. ∫ ∫ ( )
In terms of components with dr = [dx, dy, dz] and = d/dt formula (3) becomes
3’. ∫ ∫
=∫ ∫
If the path of integrating C in (3) is a closed curve then instead of
∫ ∮
We see that the integral in (3) on the right is a sefinite integral of a function of t taken over the interval a
t b on the t-axis in the positive direction ( the direction of increasing t). This definite integral exists
for continuous F and piecewise smooth C because this makes Fr’ piecewise continuous.
2.14.20.3 General Properties of the Line Integral (3)
From familiar properties of integrals in calculate we obtained corresponding formulas for thr line
integrals where in third formula above the path C is subdivided into two arcs C1 and C2 that the same
orientation as C (Fig Below). In (second formula above) the orientation of C is the same in both integrals.
If the sense of integration along C is reversed, the value of the integral is multiplied by -1
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 The line integral ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅ of the vector ̅ ̅ = 2xyzi +x2zj+x2yk from the origin to the point P(1, 1, 1)
(a) is 1 (b) is zero
(c) is -1 (d) cannot be determined without specifying path
Solution (a)
fx = 2xyz, fy = x2z, fz = x2y
By integrating we get f = potential function of ̅
line integral of the vector function from points A (0, 0, 0) to the point B (1, 1, 1) is
= f(B) – f(A) = (x2yz)1,1,1 –(x2yz)(0,0,0) = 1-0 =1
2.14.22.2 Stokes theorem

CALCULUS
Having seen the great usefulness of Gauss’s theorem we now turn to the second “big” theorem in this
chapter. Stokes’s theorem which transform line integrals into surface integrals and conversely. Hence
this theorem generalizes Green’s theorem. It involves the curl,
Curl F = | |
Theorem 2 (Stockes’ Theorem)
Transformation between surface integrals and line integrals
Let S be a piecewise smooth oriented surface in space and let the boundary of S be a piecewise smooth
simple closed curve C. let F(x, y, z) be a continuous vector function that has continuous first partial
derivatives in a space containing S then
∬ ∮
Where n is a unit normal vector of S and depending on n the integration around C is taken in the sense
shown in figure above. Furthermore r’ = dr/ds is the unit tangent vector and s the arc length of C.
Formula 2 can be written in terms of components:
Q. 160 Stokes teorem connects
(a) a line integral and a surface integral
(b) a surface integral and a volume integral
(c) a line integral and a volume integral
(d) gradient of a function and its surface integral
Solution: (a)
A line integral and a surface integral is related by Stoke’s theorem.
Q. 1 ∬ where P is a vector is equal to
(a) ∮ (b) ∮
(c) ∮ (d) ∭
Solution: (a)
∬ ∮ (Stokes theorem)

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION OF GATE FROM CALCULUS
2. As x is increased from – ∞ to ∞ , the function [EC: GATE-2006]

ex
f(x) =
1 + ex
(a) Monotonically increases
(b) Monotonically decreases
(c) Increases to a maximum value and then decreases
(d) Decreases to a minimum value and then increases
2. (a)
ex
f ′(x) = > 0, ∀x ∈ ( −∞, ∞ )
(1 + ex )2
3. A function is given by f(t) = sin2 t + cos 2t. Which of the following is true?
[EC: GATE-2009]
1
(a) f has frequency components at 0 and Hz.
2π
1
(b) f has frequency components at 0 and Hz.
π
1 1
(c) f has frequency components at and Hz .
2π π
0,1 1
(d) f has frequency components at and Hz .
2π π
3. Ans.(a)
f(t) = sin2t + cos2t
(i) f(t) = sin2t + 1 – 2 sin2t
= 1 – sin 2t
= cos2 t
1
Hence have frequency components
2π
1 − cos 2 t
(ii) f(t) = + cos 2 t
2
1 + cos 2 t
=
2
= cos2t
⎛θ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
4. lim ⎝ 2 ⎠ is [EC: GATE-2007]
θ→0 θ
(a) 0.5 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) not defined
4. (a)
sin( θ / 2) sin( θ / 2) 1 1
lim = lim . =
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ/2 2 2
dy
5 Following are the values of a function y(x) : y(-1) = 5, y(0), y(1) = 8 at x = 0 as per Newton’s central
dx
difference scheme is: [ME: GATE-1999]
(a) 0 (b) 1.5 (c) 2.0 (d) 3.0
5. Ans.(b)
⎛ dy ⎞ y − y1 y(1) − y( −1) 8 − 5
⎜ dx ⎟ = 2 = = = 1.5
⎝ ⎠at x=0 x 2 − x1 1 − ( −1) 2
6. If , y = x+ x + x + x + ...∞, then y (2)= [ME: GATE-2007]

(a) 4 or 1 (b) 4 only (c) 1 only (d) Undefined
6. Ans. (b)
Given y=x+ x + x + x + ...∞ or, (y-x)= x + x + x + ...∞
Square both side, we get
(y-x)2 = x + y=x+ x + x + ...∞ (y-x)2 = y
y 2 − 2x + 1)y + x 2 = 0 put x=2
∴ y − 5y + 4 = 0
2
(y-4)(y-1)=0 ∴ y=1 or 4
But is always greater than x. Hence y = 4 only
⎡ sin x ⎤
7. The value of ⎢Lim is [ME: GATE-1994]
⎣ x →∞ x ⎥⎦
(a) ∞ (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 0
7.(c)
1 sin x sin1 / y
Put x = . Then lim = lim =1
z x →∞ x y →0 1/ y
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
The value of ⎢Lim ⎜ − is
tan x ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
8. [ME: GATE-1994]
x →∞ ⎝ sin x
⎣
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) ∞
8.(d)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
lim ⎜ −
x →∞ sin x
⎝ tan x ⎟⎠
x
2 sin2
⎛ 1 − cos x ⎞ 2 = lim tan x = ∞
= lim ⎜ ⎟ = lim
x →∞
⎝ sin x ⎠ x →∞ x x x→∞ 2
2 sin cos
2 2
9. The function f(x) = |x+1| on the interval [-2, 0] [ME: GATE-1995]

(a) Continuous and differentiable
(b) Continuous on the integral but not differentiable at all points
(c) Neither continuous nor differentiable
(d) Differentiable but not continuous
9. (b)
f (x) = x + 1
f is continuous in [ −2,0]
but not differentiable at
x = −1 because we can draw
infinite number of tangents at x = −1
-2 -1 0 1 2
x 3 − cos x
10. lim equal [ME: GATE-1995]
x →∞ x 2 + (sin x)2
(a) ∞ (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) Does not exist
10. Ans. (a)

cos x and sin x are finite whatever x may be
x 3 − cos x x3
∴ lim 2 = lim = ∞.
x →∞ x + (sin x)2 x →∞ x 2
11. If y=|x| for x<0 and y=x for x ≥ 0, then [ME: GATE-1997]
dy
(a) is discontinuous at x = 0 (b) y is discontinuous at x = 0
dx
dy
(c) y is not defend at x = 0 (d) Both y and are discontinuous at x = 0
dx
11. (b)
12. Lt (x 2 -1)/(x-1) is [ME: GATE-2000]

x →1
(a) ∞ (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) 1
12. (c)
x2 − 1
lim = lim( x + 1) = 2
x →1 x −1 x →1
13. What is the derivative of f(x) = |x| at x = 0? [ME: GATE-2001]

(a) 1 (b) -1 (c) 0 (d) Does not exist
13. (d)
f (x) = x .
y
y=x
(0,0)
At x = 0, we can draw infinitely many tangents at x=0.So limit does not exists.
14. Which of the following functions is not differentiable in the domain [-1,1]?
[ME: GATE-2002]
(a) f(x) = x2 (b) f(x) = x-1 (c) f(x) = 2 (d) f(x) = Maximum (x,-x)
14. Ans.(a)
Sin2 x
15. Lt is equal to [ME: GATE-2003]
x →0 x
(a) 0 (b) ∞ (c) 1 (d) -1
15. (c)
2 2
sin 2 x ⎛ sin x ⎞ ⎛ sin x ⎞
lim = lim ⎜ ⎟ .x = ⎜ lim ⎟ .lim x
x →0 x x →0
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x →0 x ⎠ x →0
= 1.0 = 1
2 x2 − 7 x + 3
16. If f(x)= , then lim f(x) will be [ME: GATE-2006]
5 x 2 − 12 x − 9 x →3
(a) – 1/3 (b) 5/18 (c) 0 (d) 2/5
16. (b)
2x 2 − 7x + 3 ⎡ 0 ⎤
lim form ⎥
x →3 5x 2 − 12x − 9 ⎢ 0
⎣ ⎦
4x − 7
lim ⎡use L' Hospital rule⎤⎦
x →3 10x − 12 ⎣
4.3 − 7
10.3 − 12
5
=
18
⎛ x2 ⎞
e x − ⎜1 + x + ⎟
17. lim ⎝ 2⎠
= [ME: GATE-2007]
x →0 3
x
(a) 0 (b) 1/6 (c) 1/3 (d) 1
17. (b)
⎛ x2 ⎞ x2 x3 x4 ⎛ x2 ⎞
ex − ⎜1 + x + ⎟ 1+x + + + + ........... − ⎜1 + x + ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2! 3! 4 ! ⎝ 2 ⎠
lim 3
= lim 3
x →0 x x → 0 x
1 x
+
lim 3! 4! (negelecting higher order term)
= x→o 1
1
=
6
x1/3 − 2
18. The Value of lim [ME: GATE-2008]
x →8 ( x − 8)
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16 12 8 4
1 1
x3 − 2 x3 − 2 1 1
18.(d) lim = lim 1
= lim 2/3 1/3
=
x →8 x − 8 x →8 x →8 x + 2x + 4 4
(x − 2)(x 2/3 + 2x1/3 + 4)
3
19. The function Y=| 2-3x | [ME: GATE-2010]

(a) is continuous ∀ x ∈ R and differentiable ∀x∈R
(b) is continuous ∀ x ∈ R and differentiable ∀ x ∈ R except at x = 3/2
(c) is continuous ∀ x ∈ R and differentiable ∀ x ∈ R except at x = 2/3
(d) is continuous ∀ x ∈ R except at x = 3 and differentiable ∀ x ∈ R
19 (c)
same as 9.
Q27. What should be the value of λ such that the function defined below is continuous at x =
π/22?
⎧ λ cos x
⎪ π if x ≠ π
⎪ 2
f ( x) ⎨ 2 − x
⎪
⎪⎩1 if x = π
2
(a) 0 (b) 2 / π (c) 1 (d) π / 2 [CE-2011]
Ans. (c)
Exp. By the given condition
lim f ( x ) = f π
x→ π
2
( )
2
λ cos x
⇒ lim =1 … (1)
x→π
(
2 π
2 )
−x
λ cos x ⎡ 0 ⎤
Now, lim ⎢ 0 form ⎥ … (2)
x→ π
2
π −x ⎣ ⎦
2
−λ sin x
= lim [use L’Hospital Rule]
x→ π
2 −1
=λ
From (1), λ = 1
20. Given that one root of the equation x3 – 10x2 + 31x – 30 = 0 is 5, the other two roots are
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 3 and 4 (d) – 2 and –3 [CE: GATE – 2007]
20. (a)
Given x3 − 10x 2 + 31x − 30 = 0......(i) and x = 5 is one root of (i)
∴ (x − 5) is a factor of (i)
∴ x 3 − 10x 2 + 31x − 30 = 0
⇒ x 3 − 5x 2 − 5x 2 + 25x + 6x − 30 = 0
⇒ x 2 (x − 5) − 5x(x − 5) + 6(x − 5) = 0
⇒ (x − 5)(x 2 − 5x + 6) = 0
⇒ x = 5,3,2.
x3 + x 2
21. The value of the function f(x) = lim is [CE: GATE – 2004]
x →0 2 x3 − 7 x 2
1
(a) 0 (b) −
7
1
(c) (d) ∞
7
21. (b)
x3 + x 2 x +1 1
lim 3 2
= lim =−
x →0 2x − 7x x → 0 2x − 7 7
⎡2 ⎤
sin ⎢ x ⎥
22. The lim ⎣ 3 ⎦ is [CE: GATE – 2010]
x →0 x
2 3
(a) (b) 1 (c) (d) ∞
3 2
22. (a)
sin x
H int s : − lim =1
x →0 x
24. If , y = x+ x + x + x + ...∞, then y (2)= [ME: GATE-2007]

(a) 4 or 1 (b) 4 only (c) 1 only (d) Undefined
24. Ans. (b)

Given y=x+ x + x + x + ...∞ or, (y-x)= x + x + x + ...∞
Square both side, we get
(y-x)2 = x + y=x+ x + x + ...∞ (y-x)2 = y
y 2 − 2x + 1)y + x 2 = 0 put x=2
∴ y 2 − 5y + 4 = 0 (y-4)(y-1)=0 ∴ y=1 or 4
But is always greater than x. Hence y = 4 only
26. Consider the function f(x) = |x|3, where x is real. Then the function f(x) at x = 0 is
[IE: GATE-2007]
(a) Continuous but not differentiable
(b) Once differentiable but not twice
(c) Twice differentiable but not thrice
(d) Thrice differentiable
26. (a)
same as 13.
sin x
27. lim is [IE: GATE-2008]
x→ 0 x
(a) Indeterminate (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) 2
27. Ans. (c)
28. The expression e–ln x for x > 0 is equal to [IE: GATE-2008]

(a) –x (b) x (c) x–1 (d) –x–1
28. (c)
1
In 1
e− Inx = e x
=
x
sin t
29. At t = 0, the function f (t ) = has
t
(a) a minimum (b) a discontinuity
(c) a point of inflection (d) a maximum
29. (d)
sin t
lim =1
t →0 t
Page 45
30. Consider the following two statements about the function f(x) = |x|
P: f(x) is continuous for all real values of x
Q: f(x) is differentiable for all real values of x
Which of the following is TRUE? [CS: GATE-2007]
(a) P is true and Q is false (b) P is false and Q is true
(c) Both P and Q are true (d) Both P and Q are false
30. Ans. (a)

f(x) = |x|
⎧ x x≥0
or f(x) = ⎨
⎩ −x x < 0
The graph of f(x) is
y
x′ x
o
f(x) is continuous for all real values of x

Lim |x| = Lim |x| = 0
x → 0– x → 0+
as can be seen from graph of |x|.
Lim f(x) = –1
x → 0–
and Lim f(x) = +1 as can be seen from graph of |x|
x → 0+
Left derivative ≠ Right derivative
So |x| is continuous but not differentiable at x = 0.
x − sin x
31. lim equals [CS: GATE-2008]
x→∞ x + cos x
(a) 1 (b) –1
(c) ∞ (d) – ∞
31(a).
sin x sin x
1− 1 − lim
x − sin x x = x →∞ x
lim = lim
x →∞ x + cos x x →∞ cos x cos x
1+ 1 + lim
x x →∞ x
1
put x = As x → ∞ ⇒ y → 0
y
1 1
1 − lim y sin 1 − lim y sin
x →0 y y →0 y 1−0
= = = =1
1 1 1+0
1 + lim y cos 1 + lim y cos
y →0 y y →0 y
2n
⎛ 1⎞
32. What is the value of lim ⎜1 − ⎟ ? [CS: GATE-2010]
n−∞
⎝ n⎠
(a) 0 (b) e–2
(c) e–1/2 (d) 1
32. (b)
2 2
⎛ 1⎞
2n
⎡⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
n
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
n
lim ⎜1 − ⎟ = lim ⎢⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢lim ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥

n →∞
⎝ n⎠ n →∞
⎢⎣⎝ n ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ n →∞ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎥⎦
( )
2
= e−1 = e−2
Mean Value Theorems
1. The value of ξ in the mean value of theorem of f(b) – f(a) = (b-a) f’ ( ξ ) for
f(x) = Ax2 + Bx + C in (a, b) is [ME: GATE-1994]
(b + a) (b − a)
(a) b + a (b) b – a (c) (d)
2 2
2. A rail engine accelerates from its stationary position for 8 seconds and travels a distance of
280 m. According to the Mean Value Theorem, the speedometer at a certain time during
acceleration must read exactly [CE: GATE – 2005]
(a) 0 (b) 8 kmph
(c) 75 kmph (d) 126 kmph
Answer with Explanation

1. Ans. (c)
Exp. - Given f(x) = Ax 2 + Bx + C
f'(x) = 2Ax + B
f(b) - f(a) (Ab2 + Bb + C) - (Aa2 + Ba + C)
and = f'(ξ), or 2Aξ + B =
b-a b-a
A(b2 + a2 ) + B(b - a) b+a
= = A (b + a) + B Hence ξ =
b-a 2
2. Ans. (d)
Since the position of rail engine S(t) is continuous and differentiable function, according to
Lagranges mean value theorem
∃t Where 0 ≤ t ≤ 8 such that
S(8) − S(0)
S′ (t) = v (t) =
8−0
(280 − 0)
= m/sec
(8 − 0)
280
= m/sec
8
280 3600
= × kmph
8 1000
= 126 kmph
Where v (t) is the velocity of the rail engine.
Theorems of Integral
Calculus
∞
1 ⎛ x2 ⎞
2π ∫0
1. The value of the integral I = exp ⎜ − ⎟ dx is [EC: GATE-2005]
⎝ 8 ⎠
(a) 1 (b) π
(c) 2 (d) 2π
1.(a)
∞
1 ⎛ −x 2 ⎞
I=
2π 0
∫ ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠dx
exp
x2
put z =
8
xdx
⇒ dz =
4
4dz 2dz
⇒ dx = =
8z z
∞
1 2
∫e
−z
= . dz
2π 0 z
∞
1
∫e
− z −1/2
= z dz
π 0
1
∞ 1
− −1 ⎡ ∞
⎤
∫e dz ∴ ⎢Γ(n) = ∫ e− z zn −1dz,n > 0 ⎥
−z
= z 2
π 0 ⎣ 0 ⎦
1
= Γ (1 / 2 ) ⎡∴Γ(1 / 2) = π ⎤
π ⎣ ⎦
1
= π =1
π
∫ sin
3
2. The integral θ d θ is given by [EC: GATE-2006]
0
1 2
(a) (b)
2 3
4 8
(c) (d)
3 3
2. (c)
π π
∫ sin 3θdθ =∫ (1 − cos 2θ ) sin θdθ.

0 0
putz = cos θ
dz = − sin θdθ.
−1 1
(
= − ∫ 1 − z2 dz = ) ∫ (1 − z ) dz
2
1 −1
1 1
⎡ z3 ⎤ 3
( ⎣
2
3 ⎦0
)
= 2∫ 1 − z dz = 2 ⎢z − ⎥ = 2 (1 − 1 / 3 ) =
4
1
3. The following plot shows a function y which varies linearly with x. The value of the integral I =
2
∫ ydx
1
is [EC: GATE-2007]
x
–1 0 1 2 3
(a) 1.0 (b) 2.5
(c) 4.0 (d) 5.0
3(b).
Here the points (0,1) and (-1,0) are on the time
∴ The equn of the line is
0 −1
y −1 = (x − 0)
−1 − 0
⇒ y −1 = x
⇒ y = x +1
2 2 2
⎡ x2 ⎤
∴ ∫ ydx = ∫ ( x + 1 ) dx = ⎢ + x ⎥ = 2.5
1 1 ⎣2 ⎦1
4. Which one of the following function is strictly bounded? [EC: GATE-2007]

1
(a) (b) ex
x2
2
(c) x2 (d) e− x
4. (d)
For a strictly bounded function f(x), limit should be finite
2
Here lim e− x → = (finite).
x →∞
∞ 1
The The value of ∫ y 2 e − y dx is .......
3
6. [ME: GATE-1994]
0
6. Ans.
∞
∫y .e− y dy
3
1/2
put y 3 = z
0
⇒ 3y 2 dy=dz
1
⇒ dy= y −2 dz
3
2
1 −3
⇒ dy = z dz
3
1
∞ −2
1 6
= ∫ z .e− z .z 3 dz
30
∞ 1
1 −z − 2
3 ∫0
= e z dz
∞ 1
1 − z 2 −1
3 ∫0
= e z dz
1 1
= Γ( )
3 2
1
= . π
3
π
=
3
a
8. ∫ ( sin x + sin 7 x ) dx is equal to [ME: GATE-2005]
6
−a
a a a
(a) 2∫ sin 6 xdx (b) 2∫ sin 7 xdx (c) 2∫ (sin 6 x + sin 7 x)dx (d) Zero
0 0 0
8. (a)
a
∫ ( sin )
6
x + sin7 x dx
−a
a
= 2∫ sin 6 xdx.
0
sin x is odd function

⇒ sin 6 x is even and sin7 x is odd function.
a a
∫ sin x = 2∫ sin xdx

6
−a 0
a
and ∫ sin7 x = 0.
−a
∞
dx
9. The value of the integral
−∞
∫ 1+ x 2
is [ME: GATE-2010]
(a) − π (b) − π / 2 (c) π / 2 (d) π
9. (d)
∞ ∞
dx
∫−∞ 1 + x 2 = ⎡⎣tan x ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ π / 2 − ( π / 2 )⎤⎦ = π.
−1
−∞
10. Which of the following integrals is unbounded? [ME: GATE-2008]

π /4 ∞ ∞ 1
1 1
(a) ∫ tan x dx (b) ∫ 2 dx (c) ∫ xe − x dx (d) ∫ 1 − x dx
0 0
x +1 0 0
10. (d)
1
At x = 1, is unbounded.
1−x
2 3/2
21. The length of the curve y = x between x = 0 and x = 1 is [ME: GATE-2008]
3
(a) 0.27 (b) 0.67 (c) 1 (d) 1.22
21.(d)
2
1 ⎛ dy ⎞
Length of the wire =∫ ⎜ dx ⎟ + 1 dx
0
⎝ ⎠
1
=∫ x + 1dx
0
= 1.22.
a x
Q28. What is the value of the definite integral, ∫
0
x+ a−x
dx ?
(a) 0 (b) a/2 (c) a (d) 2a [CE-2011]

Ans. (b)
a x
Exp. Let f ( x ) = ∫ dx = I1 (say)
0
x+ a−x
a a−x
f (a − x) = ∫ dx = I2 (say)
0
a−x+ x
We know
a a
∫ f ( x )dx = ∫ f ( a − x )dx
0 0
⇒ I1 = I2 = I (say)
a x+ a−x a
∴ I1 = I2 = ∫ 0
a−x+ x
dx = ∫ dx = a
0
⇒ 2I1 = a
⇒ 2I = a
a
⇒I=
2
∞
11. If S = ∫ x −3 dx, then S has the value [EE: GATE-2005]
1
−1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
3 4 2
11. (c)
∞ ∞
⎡ x −2 ⎤ 1
S = ∫ x dx = ⎢
−3
⎥ =
1 ⎣ − 2 ⎦1 2
1
The value of the quantity P, where P = ∫ xe dx , is equal to
x
16 [EE: GATE-2010]
0
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) e (d) 1/e
16. (b)
1
1
P = ∫ xex dx = ⎡⎣xex − ex ⎤⎦ = 1
0
0
− x (t )
17. A continuous-time system is described by y ( t ) = e where y (t) is the output and x (t) is the
input. y(t) is bounded. [EE: GATE-2006]
(a) only when x(t) is bounded
(b) only when x(t) is non-negative
(c) only or t ≥ 0 if x (t) is bounded for t ≥ 0
(d) even when x(t) is not bounded
17. (d)
As e−∞ → 0(finite)
∴ y(t) is bounded even if x(t) is not bounded.
1
1
17. The value of the integral
−1
∫x 2
dx is [IE: GATE-2005]
(a) 2 (b) does not exist (c) –2 (d) ∞
17. (b)
1
1 1
∫x
−1
2
dx does not exists because at x = 0,
x2
is not bounded.
π
4
(1 − tan x)
20. ∫ (1 + tan x) dx
0
evaluates to [CS: GATE-2009]
1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) ln 2 (d) ln 2
2
20. Ans.(d)
Since
a a
∫0
f (x) dx = ∫ 0
f (a − x) dx
π
1 − tan x
∴ 1= ∫ 0
4
1 + tan x
dx
⎛π ⎞
1 − tan ⎜ − x ⎟ dx
π
= ∫ ⎝4 ⎠4
⎛π 0 ⎞
1 + tan ⎜ − x ⎟
⎝4 ⎠
tan A − tan B
Since tan (A – B) =
1 + tan A tan B
⎡ π ⎤
⎢ tan 4 − tan x ⎥
⎢ π ⎥
π ⎢1 + tan tan x ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
∴ I= ∫ 0
4
⎡ π ⎤
dx
⎢ tan 4 − tan x ⎥
⎢ π ⎥
⎢1 + tan tan x ⎥
⎣⎢ 4 ⎦⎥
⎡1 − tan x ⎤
π
1−⎢ ⎥
⎣1 + tan x ⎦ dx
= ∫ 0
4
⎡1 − tan x ⎤
1+ ⎢ ⎥
⎣1 + tan x ⎦
π
2 tan x
= ∫ 0
4
2
dx
π
= ∫ 0
4
tan x dx
π
4
= [log(sec x)] 0
⎛ π⎞
= ln ⎜ sec ⎟ − ln(sec 0)
⎝ 4⎠
= ln( 2) − ln(1)
1
= ln(21/ 2 ) − 0 = ln 2
2
e
Partial Derivatives
1. Consider the function f(x) = x2 – x – 2. The maximum value of f(x) in the closed interval [–4, 4]
is [EC: GATE-2007]
(a) 18 (b) 10
(c) –2.25 (d) indeterminate
1.(a)
f (x) = x 2 − x − 2
∴ f '(x) = 2x − 1
1
f 1 (x) = 0 ⇒ x = ∈ ⎡⎣−4,4 ⎤⎦
2
Now f "(x) = 2 > 0
∴ f (x)has minimum at x = 1 / 2
It Shows that a maximum value that will be at x = 4 or x = - 4
At x = 4, f (x) = 10
∴ At x = −4, f (x) = 18
∴ At x = −4, f (x) has a maximum.
2. For real values of x, the minimum value of the function f(x) = exp (x) + exp (–x) is
[EC: GATE-2008]
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c) 0.5 (d) 0
2. (a)
f (x) = ex + e− x
For extrema,
f '(x) = 0 ⇒ ex − e− x = 0
⇒ x = 0.
f "(x) = ex − e− x
f "(x) x =0 = 2 > 0
Heve minimum at x = 0, f10) = 2.
1
3. If e y = x x then y has a [EC: GATE-2010]
(a) Maximum at x = e (b) minimum at x = e

(c) Maximum at x = e-1 (d) minimum at x = e-1
3. (a)
1
ey = x
x
Take log both side
1
y = log x
x
For extrema,
dy 1 1
= 0 ⇒ 2 − 2 log x = 0
dx x x
Now
d2y 1
2 x =e
= 3 <0
dx e
∴ Max at x = e.
∂2 f
5. Let f =yx. What is at x = 2, y = 1? [ME: GATE-2008]
∂x∂y
(a) 0 (b) In 2 (c) 1 (d) 1/In 2
5(c).
f = yx
Take log both side
log f = x log y
Differentiate
1 ∂f x ∂f ⎛x⎞
= ⇒ = y x ⎜ ⎟ = y x −1 .x
f ∂y y ∂y ⎝y⎠
∂2f ∂
⇒ = ( y x −1 .x) = xy x −1 ln y + y x −1
∂x∂y ∂x
∂2f
∴ =1
∂xdy (2,1)
∂N ∂N
6. If II (x,y) is a homogeneous function of degree n, then x +y = nH.
∂x ∂y
[ME: GATE-1994]
6. Euler’s Theorem for homogeneous function

x2
dφ
7. If φ(x)= ∫ t dt, then is [ME: GATE-1998]
0
dx
(a) 2x 2 (b) x (c) 0 (d) 1
.
7. (a)
x2
2 3
Φ(x) = ∫
0
t dt =
3
x
dΦ 2 2
∴ = 3x = 2x 2
dx 3
8. If z = f(x,y), dz is equal to [ME: GATE-2000]

(a) (∂f/∂x)dx + (∂f/∂y)dy (b) (∂f/∂y)dx + (∂f/∂x)dy
(c) (∂f/∂x)dx - (∂f/∂y)dy (b) (∂f/∂y)dx - (∂f/∂x)dy
8. (a)
9. The function f(x) = x3- 6x2+ 9x+25 has [ME: GATE-1995]

(a) A maxima at x = 1 and a minima at x = 3
(b) A maxima at x = 3 and a minima at x = 1
(c) No maxima, but a minima at x = 3
(d) A maxima at x = 1, but not minima
9.(a)
f (x) = x 3 − 6x 2 + 9x + 25
For extrema, f 1 (x) = 0 ⇒ 3x 2 − 12x + 9 = 0 ⇒ x = 1,3.
For extrema, f 1 (x) = 0 ⇒ 3x 2 − 12x + 9 = 0 ⇒ x = 1,3.

Now,f "(x) = 6x − 12
∴ f "(x) x =1 = −6 < 0. f(x)has max.value at x = 1
f "(x) x =3 = 6 > 0. f (x) has min . value at x = 3
10. The minimum point of the function f(x) = (x2/3) – x is at [ME: GATE-2001]
1
(a) x = 1 (b) x = -1 (c) x = 0 (d) x =
3
10. (a)
For extrema, f 1 (x) = 0
⇒ x2 − 1 = 0
⇒ x = ±1
f "(x) = 2x
f "(1) = 2 > 0 and f ′′( −1) = −2 < 0
⇒ f has min value at x = 1
11. The function f(x,y) = 2x2 +2xy – y3 has [ME: GATE-2002]

(a) Only one stationary point at (0,0)
(b) Two stationary points at (0,0) and (1/6, -1/3)
(c) Two stationary points at (0,0) and (1,-1)
(d) No stationary point
11. Ans.(b)
See theory.
12. If x=a(θ + sin θ) and y=a(1-cosθ), then dy/dx will be equal [ME: GATE-2004]
⎛θ⎞ ⎛θ⎞ ⎛θ⎞ ⎛θ⎞
(a) sin ⎜ ⎟ (b) cos ⎜ ⎟ (c) tan ⎜ ⎟ (d) cot ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
12. (c)
dx dy
= a(1 + cos θ) = a sin θ
dy dθ
θ θ
dy 2 sin 2 cos 2
∴ = = tan θ
dx 2 cos2 θ 2
2
13. Equation of the line normal to function f(x) = (x-8)2/3+1 at P(0,5) is

[ME: GATE-2006]
(a) y = 3x -5 (b) y = 3x +5 (c) 3y = x+15 (d) 3y = x -15
13.(b)
dy 1
m= =− ∴ mm1 = −1
dx (0,5) 3
⇒ m1 = 3, where m1 = slope of the normal.
∴ Equation of normal at (0,5) is
y − 5 = 3(x − 1)
⇒ y = 3x + 5
14. The minimum value of function y = x2 in the interval [1, 5] is [ME: GATE-2007]
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 25 (d) Undefined
14. (b)
y = x 2 is strictly increasing function on [1,5]
∴ y = x 2 has minimum value at x = 1 is 1.
23. The distance between the origin and the point nearest to it on the surface z2 = 1 + xy is
[ME: GATE=2009]
3
(a) 1 (b) (c) 3 (d) − 2
2
23. Ans(a)
15. The function f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 36x + 2 has its maxima at [CE: GATE – 2004]
(a) x = – 2 only (b) x = 0 only
(c) x = 3 only (d) both x = –2 and x = 3
15. (a)
f (x) = 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 36x + 2
f "(x) = 6x 2 − 6x − 36
For extrema, f 1 (x) = 0
⇒ x2 − x − 6 = 0
⇒ x = 3, −2
f "(x) = 12x − 6
f "(x) x =3 = 30 > 0 ⇒ f has minimum at x = 3
f "(x) x =−2 = −30 < 0 ⇒ f has maximum at x = −2
16. Given a function [CE: GATE – 2010]

f(x, y) = 4x2 + 6y2 – 8x – 4y + 8
The optimal value of f(x, y)
10
(a) is a minimum equal to
3
10
(b) is a maximum equal to
3
8
(c) is a minimum equal to
3
8
(a) is a maximum equal to
3
16. (a)
f (x, y) = 4x 2 + 6y 2 − 8x − 4y + 8
∂f ∂f
= 8x − 8. = 12y − 4.
∂x ∂y
∂f ∂f
= 0 gives x = 1 and only = gives y = 1 / 3
∂x ∂y
∴ (1,1 / 3 ) is only stationary point.
⎡ ∂2f ⎤
Now r = ⎢ 2 ⎥ =8>0
⎣ ∂x ⎦ (1,1/3)
⎡ ∂2f ⎤
t=⎢ 2⎥ = 12 > 0
⎣ ∂y ⎦ (1,1/3)
⎡ ∂2f ⎤
and s = ⎢ ⎥ =0
⎣ ∂xdy ⎦ (1,1/3)
∴ rt − s2 = 96 > 6.
∴ (1,1 / 3 ) is a pointof minima.
1
∴ f (1,1 / 3 ) = 4 × 12 + 6 × − 8.1 − 4.1 / 3 + 8
32
10
= .
3
Q27. What should be the value of λ such that the function defined below is continuous at x =
π/22?
⎧ λ cos x
⎪ π if x ≠ π
⎪ 2
f ( x) ⎨ 2 − x
⎪
⎪⎩1 if x = π
2
(a) 0 (b) 2 / π (c) 1 (d) π / 2 [CE-2011]
Ans. (c)
Exp. By the given condition
lim f ( x ) = f π
x→ π
2
( )
2
λ cos x
⇒ lim =1 … (1)
x→ π
2 π(2
−x)
λ cos x ⎡ 0 ⎤
lim ⎢ form ⎥ … (2)
x→ π
2
π − x ⎣0 ⎦
2
−λ sin x
lim [use L’Hospital Rule]
x→ π
2 −1
=λ
From (1), λ = 1
17. For the function f(x) = x2e-x, the maximum occurs when x is equal to [EE: GATE-2005]
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) -1
17. (a)
f '(x) = 2xe−2 − x 2 e− x
For extrema f '(x) = 0
⇒ 2xe− x − x 2 e− x = 0
⇒ x = 0,2
Now
f "(x) = 2e− x − 2xe− x − 2xe− x + x 2 e− x
= 2e− x − 4xe− x + x 2 e− x
⎡⎣f "(x)⎤⎦x =0 = 2 > 0 and ⎡⎣f "(x)⎤⎦x =2 = −2e−2 < 0
∴ at x = 2,f (x) has a maximum value.
18. Consider function f(x) =(x2-4)2 where x is a real number. Then the function has
[EE: GATE-2008]
(a) Only one minimum
(b) Only two minima
(c) Three minima
(d) Three maxima
18.(b)
f (x) = (x 2 − 4)2
f '(x) = 2(x 2 − 4).2x = 4x(x 2 − 4).
For extrema,f '(x) = 0
⇒ x = 0, −2,2.
f "(x) = 4(x 2 − 4) + 8x 2
= 12x 2 − 16
⎡⎣f "(x)⎤⎦x =0 = −16 < 0
⎡⎣f "(x)⎤⎦x =−2 = 32 > 0
and ⎣⎡f "(x)⎦⎤x =2 = 32 > 0
∴ At x = 0,f (x) has maxima.
At x = −2,2,f (x) has minima.
19. A cubic polynomial with real coefficients [EE: GATE-2009]
(a) Can possibly no extrema and no zero crossings
(b) May have up to three extrema and up to 2 zero crossings
(c) Cannot have more than two extrema and more than three zero crossings
(d) Will always have an equal number of extrema and zero crossings
19. Ans. (c)

F ( x) = Ax 3 + Bx 2 + Cx + D
∴ F ( x) = 3 Ax 2 + 2 Bx + C
First max: F '( x ) = 6 Ax + 2 B
Second max: F ''( x ) = 6 A
F '''( x ) = 0
So maximum two extrema and three zero crossing
20. If f = a 0xn + a1xn - 1y + ...... + a n − 1xyn − 1 + a n yn , where a i (i = 0 to n) are constants, then

∂f ∂f
x +y is [IE: GATE-2005]
∂x ∂y
f n
(a) (b)
n f
(c) nf (d) n f
20. (e)
∂f ∂f
x +y = xf − Euler’s theorem for homogeneous function
∂x ∂y
dy
21. Given y = x2 + 2x + 10, the value of is equal to [IE: GATE-2008]
dx x = 1
(a) 0 (b) 4
(c) 12 (d) 13
21. (b)
Given, y = x2 + 2x + 10
dy
∴ = 2x + 2
dx
dy
⇒ =4
dx x = 1
esin x
22. For real x, the maximum value of is [IE: GATE-2007]
ecos x
(a) 1 (b) e
(c) e 2
(d) ∞
22(c).
y = esin x − cos x
Take log both side
log y = cos x − sin x
1 dy
∴ = cos x + sin x
y dx
dy
⇒ = y(cos x + sin x) = esin x − cos x (cos x + sin x)
dx
dy
For extrema = 0gives.
dx
(
tan x = −1 = tan π − π = tan
4 ) 3π
4
3π
⇒x=
4
2
d y
2
= e(sin x − cos x ) .(cos x + sin x)2 + e(sin x − cos x ) ( − sin x + cos x)
dx
⎡ d2y ⎤ 2
⎢ dx2 ⎥ 3 π = − 2e < 0.
⎣ ⎦x=
4
3π
so ,y has max at x =
4
2
At that point , y= e
23. Consider the function y = x2 – 6x + 9. The maximum value of y obtained when x varies over
the interval 2 to 5 is [IE: GATE-2008]
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 9
23. (b)
y ' = 0 gives 2x − 6 = 0
⇒x =3
y "(x) = 2
24. A point on a curve is said to be an extreme if it is a local minimum or a local maximum.

The number of distinct extrema for the curve 3x4 – 16x3 – 24x2 + 37 is
[CS: GATE-2008]
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
24.(d)
Let f (x) = 3x 4 − 16x 3 − 24x 2 + 37
For extrema, f '(x) = 0gives
12x 3 − 48x 2 − 48x = 0
⇒ x(x 2 − 4x − 4) = 0
⇒ x = 0,2 ± 2 2
∴ f (x) has three extrema po int s.
Gradient
1. ∇ × ∇ × P, where P is a vector, is equal to [EC: GATE-2006]
(a) P × ∇ × P – ∇ 2 P (b) ∇ 2 P + ∇ (∇ • P)
(c) ∇ 2 P + ∇ × P (d) ∇ (∇ • P) – ∇ 2 P
1. (d) (formula)
2. ∫∫ (∇ × P) • ds, where P is a vector, is equal to [EC: GATE-2006]
(a) ∫ P • dl (b) ∫ ∇ × ∇ × P • dl
(c) ∫ ∇ × P • dl (d) ∫∫∫ ∇ • P dv
2. (a) Hints (Stokes Theorem).
1. Consider points P and Q in the x-plane, with P= (1, 0) and Q = (0, 1). The line integral
Q
2 ∫ (xdx + ydy) along the semicircle with the line segment PQ as its diameter [EC: GATE-2008]
P
(a) Is –1 (b) is 0 (c) Is 1

d) depends on the direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) of the semicircle
1.Ans. (b)
The straight line equation is x + y = 1
(0, 1) Q
P
(1, 0)
1 1
Then, I = 2∫ (1 − y) . ( − dy) + 2∫ y dy
0 0
⎡ y2 1
⎤ ⎡y 1
⎤
= 2⎢ − y∫ ⎥ + 2⎢ ∫ ⎥ =0
⎣2 0 ⎦ ⎣2 0 ⎦
5. The value of the integral of the function g(x, y) = 4x3 + 10y4 along the straight line segment from
the point (0, 0) to the point (1, 2) in the x-y plane is [EC: GATE-2008]
(a) 33 (b) 35
(c) 40 (d) 56
5(a).
The equation of the line passing through (0,0) and (1,2)
is y = 2x
Given y ( x,y ) = 4x3 + 10y4 = 4x 3 + 10(2x)4 = 4x3 + 160xy
1
( )
∴ I = ∫ 4x 3 + 160x 4 dx = 33.
0
3. The magnitude of the gradient of the function f = xyz3 at (1,0,2) is [ME:GATE-1998]

(a) 0 (b) 3 (c) 8 (d) ∞
3. (c)
⎛ ∂ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ⎞
∇.f = ⎜ iˆ + j + k ⎟ .xyz3
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
= yz i + xz j + 3xyz2 kˆ
3ˆ 3ˆ
∇.f (1,0,2) = 8jˆ
∴ ∇.f = 8jˆ = 8.
(1,0,2)
4. If V is a differentiable vector function and f is a sufficient differentiable scalar function,

then curl ( (f V) is equal to [ME: GATE-1995]
(a) (grad f)×(v)+(f curl v) (b) O (c) f curl (v) (d) (grade f)×(v)
4.(a)
( ) ( )
−
∇ × f v = ∇f × v + f (∇ × v )
= ( gradf ) × v + f (curl v)
5. The expression curl (grad f), where f is a scalar function, is [ME: GATE-1996]
(a) Equal to ∇2 f (b) Equal to div (grad f)
(c) A scalar of zero magnitude (d) A vector of zero magnitude
5. (d)
⎡ ⎤
⎢ iˆ ˆj kˆ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢∂ ∂ ∂⎥
( )
∇ × ∇.f = ⎢
∂z ⎥⎥
⎢ ∂x ∂y
⎢ ∂f ∂f ∂f ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
⎛ ∂f ∂2f ⎞ ˆ ˆ ⎛ ∂2f ∂2f ⎞ ˆ ˆ ⎛ ∂2f ∂2f ⎞
=⎜ − ⎟ i − j⎜ − ⎟ j + k⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y∂z ∂y∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x∂z ∂x∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x∂y ∂x∂y ⎠
=0
6. The temperature field in a body varies according to the equation T(x,y) = x3+4xy. The
direction of fastest variation in temperature at the point (1,0) is given by
(a) 3i + 8j (b) i (c) 0.6i + 0.8j (d) 0.5i + 0.866j [ME: GATE-1997]
6. Ans. (c)
Given T=x 3 +4xy
∂T
= 3x 2 + 4y
∂x
⎛ ∂T ⎞
⎜ ∂x ⎟ =3
⎝ ⎠(1,0)
∂T
= 4x
∂y
⎛ ∂T ⎞
⎜ ⎟ =4
⎝ ∂y ⎠(1,0)
∴ Direction of fastest variation in temperature at (1,0) is given by
(3i + 4j) or 0.6i + 0.8j
7. If the velocity vector in a two – dimensional flow field is given by v = 2xyi + (2y 2 − x 2 )j, the
vorticity vector, curl v will be [ME: GATE-1999]
(a) 2y 2 j (b) 6y j (c) zero (d) -4xk
7. (d)
⎛ iˆ ˆj kˆ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
∂ ∂ = ( −2x − 4x ) kˆ
∇ × V = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎜
∂x ∂y
⎟ = −4xkˆ
⎜ 2xy 2y − x 2
2
0 ⎟⎠
⎝
8. The divergence of vector r = xi + y j + zk is [ME: GATE-2001]

(a) i + j + k (b) 3 (c) 0 (d) 1
8. (b)
⎛ ∂
∇ × F = ⎜ iˆ +
⎝ ∂x ∂
∂
y
∂ ⎞
∂z ⎠
(
+ kˆ ⎟ . xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ )
=1 +1 +1 = 3
9. The cector field F = xi − y j (where i and j are unit vector) is [ME: GATE-2003]
(a) Divergence free, but not irrotational is
(b) Irrotational, but not divergence free
(c) Divergence free and irrotational
(d) Neither divergence free nor irrotational
9. (c).
⎛ ∂
∇ × F = ⎜ iˆ +
⎝ ∂x
∂ − ∂ ˆ⎞ ˆ ˆ
j+ k ⎟ . xi − yj
∂y ∂z ⎠
( )
= 1 −1 = 0 ⇒ F is devergence free
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F = =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
x −y 0
⇒ F is irrotational vector.
10. The divergence of the vector ( x − y )i + ( y − x ) j + ( x + y + z ) k is

(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
10.(d)
11. The divergence of the vector field 3 xzi + 2 xy j − yz 2 k at a point (1 ,1,1) is equal to
(a) 7 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 0 [ME: GATE-2009]
11. (c)
∇ × F = 3z + 2x − 2yz
∇ × F ⎤⎦ (1,1,1) = 3.1 + 2.1 − 2.1.1
= 3.
JG
12. Velocity vector of a flow field is given as V = 2 xyiˆ − x 2 zjˆ . The vorticity vector at
(1, 1, 1) is [ME: GATE-2010]
(a) 4iˆ − ˆj (b) 4iˆ − kˆ (c) iˆ − 4 ˆj (d) iˆ − 4kˆ
12. (d)
curl V is called vorticity vector.
iˆ ˆj kˆ
∂ ∂ ∂ = x 2 iˆ + 0 + kˆ ( −2xz − 2x )
Now, curl V = ∇ × V =
∂x ∂y ∂z 0
2xy −2x 2z 0
= î + kˆ ( −2 − 2 )
∴ ⎡⎣ curlV ⎤⎦
(1,1,1)
= î − 4kˆ
13. Among the following, the pair of vectors orthogonal to each other is [ME: GATE-1995]
(a) [3,4,7], [3,4,7] (b) [0,0,0], [1,1,0] (c) [1,0,2], [0,5,0] (d) [1,1,1], [-1,-1,-1]
13. (c)
Let a,b be two vector st − a.b = 0. Then we say that they are orthogonal.
Choice (c) is correct.
14. The angle between two unit-magnitude co-planar vectors P (0.866, 0.500, 0) and Q (0.259,
0.966, 0) will be [ME: GATE-2004]
(a) 0 0 (b) 300 (c) 450 (d) 600
14. (c)
cos θ =
P.Q
=
( 0.866 × 0.259 ) + ( 0.5 × 0.966 ) + 0
P Q (.866 ) + (.5 ) + 02 (.259 ) + (.966 ) + 02
2 2 2 2
= 0.707.
⇒ θ = 45º
15.The area of a triangle formed by the tips of vectors a, b, and c is [ME: GATE-2007]
1 1
(a) (a − b).(a − c) (b) (a − b) × (a − c )
2 2
1 1
(c) a × b × c ) (d) (a × b).c
2 2
15.(b)
16. In a flow field in x, y-plane, the variation of velocity with time t is given by v v = (x 2 + yt)i
v = (x 2 + y 2 )i [ME: GATE-1999]
The acceleration of the particle in this field, occupying point (1,1) at time t = 1 will be
(a) i (b) 2i (c) 3i (d) 5i
16. Ans.(d)
v = (x 2 + yt)i
v=x 2 + yt,
at t=1, v (1,1) =1+1×1=2
∂u
= 2x = 2 × 1 = 2,
∂x
∂u ∂u
= y = 1, = t =1
∂t ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = u + v +w + =(2×2+0+0+1)i=5i
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
17. The maximum value of the directional derivative of the function φ = 2x 2 + 3y 2 + 5z2 at a point
(1,1,-1) is [ME:GATE-2000]
(a) 10 (b) -4 (c) 152 (d) 152
17. (c)
∇Φ = 4xiˆ + 6yjˆ + 10zkˆ
∇Φ ⎤⎦ = 4iˆ + 6jˆ − 10kˆ
(1,1,−1)
= 42 + 62 + ( −10 ) = 152
2
∴ ∇Φ
(1,1−1)
18. The directional derivative of the scalar function f(x, y, z) = x2 + 2y2 + z at the point P = (1,1,
2) in the direction of the vector a = 3i − 4 j is [ME: GATE-2008]
(a) – 4 (b) -2 (c) -1 (d) 1
18.(b)
Required directional derivatives at P(1,1,-1)
∧
∴ ∇Φ.nˆ , where n is the unit vector in the direction of a
(1,1,2)
( 1
) (
= 2iˆ + 4jˆ + kˆ . 3iˆ − 4jˆ =
5
a
= )
3i − 4j 1
= 3i − 4j .
5
( )
a 32 + ( −4 )
2
1
= ( 6 − 16 )
5
= −2.
19. If A = xya x + x 2 a y then ∫ A • dl

c
over the path shown in the figure is
2
(a) 0 (b) (c) 1 (d) 2 3
3
19. (a)
∫ A.dl = 0 is the curve is closed.
20. The line integral ∫ V .d r of the vector V .(r ) = 2 xyzi + x z j + x yk from the origin to the point
2 2
P (1, 1, 1) [ME: GATE-2005]

(a) Is 1 (b) Is zero
(c) Is -1 (d) Cannot be determined without specifying the path
20.Ans(a)
∫ V .d r = ∫ [2 xyzi + x z j + x yk ].(dxi + dy j + dzk )

2 2
= ∫ (2 xyzdx + x 2 zdy +x 2 ydz )

Along the line joining (0, 0, 0) to the po int (1,1,1) is given
by the parametric form by
x = t , y = t, z = t
1
∫ V .d r = ∫ (2t.t.tdt + t .tdt + t .tdt )

2 2
Then
0
1
1
= ∫ 4t 3 dt = 4. = 1
0
4
24. The area enclosed between the curves y2 = 4x and X2= 4y is [ME: GATE-2009]
16 32
(a) (b) 8 (c) (d) 16
3 3
24. (a)
Let y2 = 4x be curve (i) =y1 (s a y)

2
x = 4y be curve (ii) =y2 (s a y)
4
∴ Area = ∫ ( y1 − y 2 ) dx
0
4⎛ x2 ⎞ 16
= ∫ ⎜ 4x − ⎟ dx =
0
⎝ 4 ⎠ 3
x2 = 4y
(4,4)
(4,0)
y2 = 4x
25. Stokes theorem connects [ME: GATE-2005]

(a) A line integral and a surface integral
(b) A surface integral and a volume integral
(c) A line integral and a volume integral
(d) Gradient of a function and its surface integral
25. (a)
27. The Gauss divergence theorem relates certain [ME: GATE-2001]

(a) Surface integrals to volume integrals
(b) Surface integrals to line integrals
(c) Vector quantities to other vector quantities
(d) Line integrals to volume integrals
27. (a)
4. For the function φ = ax 2 y - y3 to represent the velocity potential of an ideal fluid ∇2φ should
be equal to zero. In that case, the value of ‘a’ has to be: [ME: GATE-1999]
(a) -1 (b) 1 (c) -3 (d) 3
4. (d)
Φ = ax 2 y − y3
∂2Φ ∂2Φ
= 2ay and = −6y
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2Φ ∂2Φ
∴∇ 2 Φ = 2 + 2 = 2ay − 6y
∂x ∂y
2
∴∇ Φ = 0 ⇒ a = 3.
2
Q29. If a and b are two arbitrary vectors with magnitudes a and b, respectively a × b will be
equal to
( ) ( )
2 2
(a) a2b2 − a.b (b) ab − a.b (c) a2b2 + a.b (d) ab + a.b [CE-2011]
Ans. (a)
∧
Exp. a × b = a b sin θ n
∧
= ab sin θ n [Taking p = P ]
( )
2 2
∴ a×b = a×b
∧ 2
= a2b2 sin θ n
⎡ ∧ ⎤
(
= a2b2 1 − cos2 θ ⎢∵ n = 1⎥ )
⎣ ⎦
2 2 2 2 2
= a b − a b cos θ
= a2b2 − ( ab cos θ )
2
( )
2
= a2b2 − a b cos θ
( )
2
= a2b2 − a.b
28. For a scalar function f(x, y, z) = x2 + 3y2 + 2z2, the gradient at the point P (1, 2, –1) is
→ → → → → →
(a) 2 i + 6 j + 4 k (b) 2 i + 12 j − 4 k [CE: GATE – 2009]
→ → →
(c) 2 i + 12 j + 4 k (d) 56
28. (b)
∇f (1,2,−1) = 2iˆ + 12jˆ − 4kˆ
→ →
29. The inner (dot) product of two vectors P and Q is zero. The angle (degrees) between the two
vectors is [CE: GATE – 2008]
(a) 0 (b) 30
(c) 90 (d) 120
29. (c)
30. If P, Q and R are three points having coordinates (3, –2, –1), (1, 3, 4), (2, 1, –2) in XYZ
space, then the distance from point P to plane OQR (O being the origin of the coordinate
system) is given by [CE: GATE – 2003]
(a) 3 (b) 5
(c) 7 (d) 9
30. (a)
The equation of the plane OQR is (O being origin).
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x 2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x 3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x −0 y−0 z−0
⇒ 1 3 4 =0
2 1 −2
⇒ 2x − 2y + z = 0 −(i)
Now 1 distance from P to plane (1) is

2.3 − 2.( −2) + ( −1)
= 3.
22 + ( −2)2 + (1)2
31. For a scalar function f(x, y, z) = x2 + 3y2 + 2z2, the directional derivative at the point P(1, 2,
→ → →
–1) in the direction of a vector i − j + 2 k is [CE: GATE – 2009]
(a) –18 (b) −3 6
(c) 3 6 (d) 18
31. (b)
Same as Q.18.
∫ (xydy − y dx),
2
32. Value of the integral where, c is the square cut from the first quadrant by
c
the lines x = 1 and y = 1 will be (Use Green’s theorem to change the line integral into
double integral) [CE: GATE – 2005]
1
(a) (b) 1
2
3 5
(c) (d)
2 3
32. (c) Green’s theorem say,

⎛ ∂N ∂M ⎞
∫ ( Mdx + Ndy ) = ∫∫ ⎜⎝ ∂x xy
− ⎟ dxdy
∂y ⎠
∫ ( xydy − y dx )
2
Here
⎛ ∂(xy) ∂ − y 2 ( ) ⎞⎟ dxdy
(
= ∫ − y2dx + xydy = ∫∫ ⎜
⎜ ∂x
) −
∂y ⎟
xy
⎝ ⎠
= ∫∫ ( y + 2y ) dxdy
x =0 y =0
1 1
= ∫ dx ∫ 3ydy
0 0
3
=
2
x2 y 2
34. For the scalar field u= + , magnitude of the gradient at the point(1,3) is
2 3
[EE: GATE-2005]
13 9
(a) (b)
9 2
9
(c) 5 (d) -
2
34. (c)
⎛ ∂ ∂ ˆ⎞
∇u = ⎜ iˆ + j⎟ u
⎝ ∂ x ∂y ⎠
2
= xiˆ + yjˆ ∴∇u (1,3) = iˆ + 2jˆ
3
∴ ∇u = 12 + 22
(1,3)
= 5
35. Let x and y be two vectors in a 3 dimensional space and <x, y> denote their dot product.
⎡ < x, x > < x, y > ⎤
Then the determinant det ⎢ ⎥ [EE: GATE-2007]
⎣ < y, x > < y, y >⎦
(a) is zero when x and y are linearly independent
(b) is positive when x and y are linearly independent
(c) is non-zero for all non-zero x and y
(d) is zero only when either x or y is zero
35. Ans (d)

⎡ x.x x.y ⎤ x.x x.y
det ⎢ =
⎣ y .x y .y ⎥⎦ y .x y .y
is zero only when either x or y is zero.
46. A sphere of unit radius is centered at the origin. The unit normal at a point (x, y,
z) on the surface of the sphere is the vector [IE: GATE-2009]
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
(a) (x, y, z) (b) ⎜ , , ⎟
⎝ 3 3 3⎠
⎛ x y z ⎞ ⎛ x y z ⎞
(b) ⎜ , , ⎟ (d) ⎜ , , ⎟
⎝ 3 3 3⎠ ⎝ 2 2 2⎠
46. (b)
→
47. If a vector R(t) has a constant magnitude, then [IE: GATE-2005]
→ →
dR
→ →
dR
(a) R • =0 (b) R × =0
dt dt
→ →
→
dR→ → →
dR
(c) R • R − (d) R × R =
dt dt
47. (a)
→ ^ ^ ^
Let R(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k
→
|R(t)| = k (constant)
i.e., x2(t) + y2 (t) + z2 (t) = constant.

→
d R(t)
→
On analysing the given (a) option, we find that R(t) . will give constant magnitude, so first
dt
differentiation of the integration will be zero.
( ) ( )
15. F ( x, y ) = x 2 + xy ax + y 2 + xy a y . It’s line integral over the straight line from (x,y) = (0,2) to
(x, y) = (2,0) evaluates to [EE: GATE-2009]
(a) – 8 (b) 4 (c ) 8 (d) 0
15. (d)
The equation of the line passing through (0,2) and (2,0) is x + y = 2
2 0
( )
∴ ∫ F(x,y)dxdy = ∫ x 2 + xy dx + ∫ ⎡⎣ y 2 + y(2 − y) ⎤⎦ dy
0 2
2 0
∴ ∫ ⎡⎣x 2 + x(2 − x) ⎤⎦ dx + ∫ ⎡⎣ y 2 + y(2 − y) ⎤⎦ dy
0 2
= 0.
Multiple Integrals
2. A triangle ABC consists of vertex points A (0,0) B(1,0) and C(0,1). The value of the integral
∫ ∫ 2x dxdy over the triangle is
1 1 1
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d) [ME: GATE-1997]
3 8 9
2. (b)
The equation of the line
AB is
1−0
y−0= ( x − 1) .
0 −1
⇒ y + x =1
∫ {∫ }
1
1− x
∴ ∫∫ 2xdxdy =2 xdy dx
y =0
x =0
1 1
=2 ∫ (
x. (1 − x ) dx = 2∫ x − x 2 dx )
x =0 0
⎛1 1⎞ 1
= 2⎜ − ⎟ =
⎝2 3⎠ 3
B(0,1)
0 A(1,0)
π /2 π /2
3. ∫ ∫ sin(x+y) dx dy is [ME: GATE-2000]
0 0
(a) 0 (b) π (c) π/2 (d) 2
3. (d)
π π
∫ ∫
2 2
sin(x + y)dxdy
0 0
π π π π
= ∫ 2 sin xdx.∫ 2 cos ydy + ∫ 2 cos xdx ∫ 2 sin ydy
0 0 0 0
π π π π
= ⎡⎣− cos x ⎤⎦0 2 ⎡⎣sin y ⎤⎦0 2 + ⎡⎣sin x ⎤⎦0 2 ⎡⎣− cos y ⎤⎦0 2
=1.1 + 1.1 = 2
4. The area enclosed between the parabala y = x 2 and the straight line y = x is
[ME: GATE-2003]
(a) 1/8 (b) 1/6 (c) 1/3 (d) ½
4. (b)
∫ (x )
1
2
∴ Area = − x dx
0
1 1 1
= − = units.
3 2 6
y = x2
y=x
(1,1)
5. The volume of an object expressed in spherical co-ordinates is given by

2π π/3 1
V= ∫ ∫ ∫r
2
sinφ dr dφ dθ The value of the integral is
0 0 0
[ME: GATE-2004]
π π 2π π
(a) (b) (c) (d) 5. (a)
3 6 3 4
2π π 1
V=∫ ∫ ∫
3
r 2 sin φdrdφ.dθ.
0 0 0
1 2π π
= ∫0 r 2dθ∫0 dθ∫0 3 sin φdφ
1 π
= .2π ⎡⎣− cos θ⎤⎦0 3
3
1
= .2π. 1
3 2
=π .
3
5. Ans. (a)
2 π π /3 1 2 π π /3 1
∫ ∫ ∫r ∫ ∫ ∫ sin φ.dφ.dθ,
2
V= sin φ.dr.dφ.dθ, =
0 0 0 0 0 2
2π 2π
1 1 1 1 π
= ∫
2 0
[1 − cos φ]0π /3dθ, = ∫ dθ = × 2π =
302 6 3
6. Changing the order of the integration in the double integral [ME: GATE-2005]
8 2 s q
I =∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dydx leads to I = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y)dxdy. What is q?

0 x /4 r xp
(a) 4 y (b) 16 y2 (c) x (d) 8
6. Ans. (a)
8 2
When I= ∫ ∫ f(x.y)dx dy
0 x/ 4
Figure
2 4Y
I= ∫ ∫ f(x.y)dx dy
0 0
7. By a change of variable x (u, y) = uv, y (u, v) = v/u is double integral, the integrand f(x, y)
changes to f(uv, v/u) φ (u,v). Then, φ (u, v) is [ME: GATE-2005]
2
(a) 2 u/v (b) 2 uv (c) v (d) 1
7. Ans. (a)
∂x
=v
∂u
∂x
=u
∂v
∂y v ∂y 1
and =− 2 =
∂u u ∂v u
∂x ∂x
v u
∂u ∂v v v 2v
and φ(u,v)= = v 1 = + =
∂y ∂y − 2 u u u
u u
∂u ∂v
8. The right circular cone of largest volume that can be enclosed by a sphere of 1 m radius has a
height of [ME: GATE-2005]
2 2
(a) 1/3 m (b) 2/3 m (c) m (d) 4/3 m
3
8. Ans. (c)
9. Consider the shaded triangular region P shown in the figure. What is ∫ ∫ xydxdy ?
P
Y
P
0 X
2
Figure
1 2 7
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1 [ME: GATE-2008]
6 9 16
9. (a)
The equation of the line AB is
x y
+ =1
2 1
⇒ x + 2y = 2 ∞
2 ⎧⎪ 2−2x ⎫⎪
∴ Area = ∫ ⎨ ∫ xydy ⎬dx
⎩⎪ ⎭⎪
x =0 y =0
2−x
⎡ y2 ⎤ 2 1 2
( )
2
∫x =0 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ dx = 8 ∫0 x 4 − 4x + x dx
2
x
0
2
1 ⎡ x4 4 3 2⎤
= ⎢ − x + 2x ⎥
8⎣ 4 3 ⎦0
1⎡ 4 ⎤
= ⎢ 4 − .8 + 8 ⎥
8⎣ 3 ⎦
1
=
6
(0,1)
A(2,0)
11. the parabolic arc y = x,1 ≤ x ≤ 2 is revolved around the x-axis. The volume of
[ME: GATE-2010]
(a) π / 4 (b) π / 2 (c)3π / 4 (d)3π / 2
11. Ans. (d)

Differential volume
dv = π y 2 dy
Volume from x = 1 to x = 2
∫ π y dy
2 2
v=
y1 = x, y2 = x
2
2
⎛ x2 ⎞ 3π
v = π ∫ xdx = π ⎜ ⎟ =
1 ⎝ 2 ⎠1 2
22. A path AB in the form of one quarter of a circle of unit radius is shown in the figure.
Integration of (x + y)2 on path AB traversed in a counterclockwise sense is
[ME: GATE-2009]
X
A
Figure
π π π
(a) -1 (b) +1 (c) (d) 1
2 2 2
22. (b)
∫∫ ( x + y )
2
dxdy
Path AB
π
2
= ∫ (r cos θ + r sin θ)2 .rdθ ,here r = 1
0
π
=∫
0
2
(1 + sin 2θ ) dθ
= π + 1.
2
e
Y
r.
Q
O X
7. Using definite integrals find the area of the region bounded by the curves
y = x2 + 2 [ME: GATE-1995]
y=x
x=0
and x=3
Also sketch the region bounded by these curves.
7.
OABC be the region.
2
y=x +2
B
x
=
y
0
(3,0)
12. What is the area common to the circles r = a and r = 2a cos θ?

(a) 0.524 a2 (b) 0.614 a2 [CE: GATE – 2006]
(c) 1.047 a2 (d) 1.228 a2
12. Ans. (d)

Area common to circles r = a
And r = 2a cos θ is 1.228 a2
3 x
13. The value of ∫ ∫ (6 − x − y) dx dy
0 0
=0 [CE: GATE – 2008]
(a) 13.5 (b) 27.0

(c) 40.5 (d) 54.0
13.(a)
3 x
∫ ∫ ( 6 − x − y ) dxdy
0 0
=∫
3
x =0 {∫
y =0
x
( 6 − x − y ) dy } dx
3⎛ y2 ⎞
= ∫ ⎜ 6y − xy − ⎟ dx
0
⎝ 2 ⎠
3⎛ 3x ⎞
2
= ∫ ⎜ 6x − ⎟ dx
0
⎝ 2 ⎠
3
⎡ x3 ⎤ 27 27
= ⎢3x 2 − ⎥ = 27 − = = 13.5
⎣ 2 ⎦0 2 2
14. A parabolic cable is held between two supports at the same level. The horizontal span between
x2
the supports is L. The sag at the mid-span is h. The equation of the parabola is y = 4 h , where
L2
x is the horizontal coordinate and y is the vertical coordinate with the origin at the centre of the
cable. The expression for the total length of the cable is
L
L 2 2
hx 2
h3 x 2
(a) ∫
0
1 + 64
L4
dx (b) 2 ∫ 1 + 64
0 L4
dx
[CE: GATE – 2010]

L L
2
h2x 2 2
h2x2
(c) ∫0
1 + 64
L4
dx (d) 2 ∫
0
1 + 64
L4
dx
14(d). We know length of the curve f(x) between x = a and x = b given by

2
b ⎛ dy ⎞
∫a 1 + ⎜⎝ dx ⎟⎠ dx
x2
Given λ = 4h 2
L
dy x
= 8h 2
dx L
Since,y = 0. at x = 0
L
and y = h at x =
2
L 2
⎛ 8hx ⎞
∴ ( Length of cable ) = ∫ 2
1 + ⎜ 2 ⎟ dx
0
⎝ L ⎠
Length of cable
L
h2 x 2
= 2∫ 2 1 + 64 dx
o L4
H
15. The expression V = ∫ π R 2 (1 − h / H )2 dh for the volume of a cone is equal to[EE: GATE-2006]
0
R R
(a) ∫ 0
π R 2 (1 − h / H )2 dr (b) ∫
0
π R 2 (1 − h / H )2 dh
2
H R ⎛ r ⎞
(c) ∫ 0
2π r H (1 − r / R )dh (d) ∫
0
2π r H ⎜ 1 − ⎟ dr
⎝ R⎠
15. Ans. (d)

Choices (a ) and ( d ) can be correct becouse
variable is r in these two.
By integrating ( d) , we get
1 2
π r H, which is volume of cone.
3
16. A surface S(x,y)=2x+5y-3 is integrated once over a path consisting of the points that satisfy
( x + 1)2 + ( y − 1)2 = 2 . The integral evaluates to [EE: GATE-2006]
(a) 17 2 (b) 17 / 2
(c) 2 / 17 (d) 0
16. Ans. (d)
18.
f ( x, y )
is a continuous defined over
( x, y ) ∈ [0,1] × [0,1] . Given two constrains,
x > y and y > x , the volume under f ( x, y ) is
2 2
[EE: GATE-2009]
y=1 x=1
y=1 x= y
∫ ∫ f ( x, y) dxdy
(a) ∫ ∫ f ( x, y) dxdy
y=0 x= y2
(b)
y=x2 x=y2
y=1 x=1 y= x x= y
∫ ∫ f ( x, y) dxdy
y=0 x=0
∫ ∫
y=0 x=0
f ( x, y) dxdy
(c) (d)
18. (a)
∴ volume
1
y
∫ ∫
y =0
x = y2
f (x, y)dxdy
x2 >y y2 >x
y2 = 4x
∞∞
∫ ∫e
–x2 2
19. The value of integral e –y dx dy is [IE: GATE-2007]
0 0
π
(a) (b) π
2
π
(c) π (d)
4
19. (d)
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
I=∫ ∫ e e dxdy = ∫ e dx ∫ e dy
2 2 2 2
−x −y −x −y
0 0 0 0
put z = x 2 ,dz = 2xdx
∞ 1 ∞ − z −1 2 1 ∞ 1 −1 1 1 π
∫ ∫ e z dz = ∫ e− z z 2 dz = Γ( ) =
2
e− x dx =
0 2 0 2 0 2 2 2
Page 90
∞ π
∴ ∫ e− y dy =
2
0 2
π
∴I = .
4
PROBABILTY AND STATISTICS
5.1.2 Types of Events
5.1.2.1 Complementary Event
The event Ec is called complementary event for the event E. It consists of all outcomes not in E. but in S.
for example in a disc throw if E = {Even nos} = {2, 4, 6} then Ec = {Odd nos} = {1, 3, 5}
5.1.2.2 Equally likely Events
Two events E and F are equally likely iff
P(E) = p(F)
For example, E = {1, 2, 3}
F = {4, 5, 6}
Are equally likely since p(E) = p(F) = ½.
5.1.2.3 Mutually exclusive Events
Two events E and F are mutually exclusive if E F = i.e p(E F) = 0 In other word if E occurs F cannot
ocem and if F occurs, then E cannot occur (i.e. both cannot occur together).
5.1.2.4 Collectively Exhaustive events
Two events E and E and F are collectively exhaustive, if E F = S i.e. together E and f include all possible
outcomes, p(E F) = p(S) = 1.
5.1.2.5 Independent Events
Two events E and F are independent iff
p(E F) = p(E) * p(F)
Also p(E F) = p(E) and p(F|E) = p(F).
Whenever E and F are independent i.e. when two events E and F are independent the conditional
probability becomes same as marginal probability i.e. probability E is not affected by whether F
happened or not and viceversa i.e. whrn E is independent of F then F is also independent of E.
5.1.3 DeMorgan’s Law
1. ( ) =
2. ( ) =

Example: (E1 E2)0 = E1c E2c
(E1 E2)0 = E1c E2c
Note that E1c E2c is the event neither E1 nor E2.
Demorgan’s law is often used to find the probability of neither E1 nor E2.
i.e. p(E1c E2c) = p[(E1 E2)6]-1 – p(E1 E2).
5.1.4 Approaches Probability
There are 2 approaches to quantifying of an Event E.
1. Classical Approach:
| |
P(E) = =| |
i.e. the ratio of number of ways an event can happen to the number of ways sample space can happen is
the probability of the event. Classical approach assumes that all outcome that all outcomes are equally
likely.
Example:
If out all possible jumbles of the word “BIRD” a random word is picked what is the probability that this
word will start with a “B”.
Solution:
p(E) =
In this problem n(S) = all possible jumbles of BIRD = 4!
N(E) = those jumbles starting with “B” = 3!
So, P(E) = = =
Suppose we uniformly and randomly select a permutation from the 20! Permutations of 1, 2, 3 …., 20.
What is the probability that 2 appears at an earlier position that any other even number in the selected
permutation?
(a) (b)

(c) (d) None of these
Solution: (d)
Number of permutations with ‘2’ in the position = 19!
Number of permutations with ‘2’ in the second position = 10 x 18!
(fill the first space with any of the 10 odd numbers and the 18 spaces after the 2 with 18 of the
remaining numbers in 18! Ways)
Number of permutations with ‘2’ in ‘3rd position = 10 x 9 x 17!
(fill the first 2 places with 2 of the 10 odd numbers and then the remaining 17 places with remaining 17
numbers)
And so on until ‘2’ is in 11th place. After that it is not possible to satisfy the given condition,
perpermutations which satisfies of this happening is given by
Which is clearly not choices (a), (b) or (c) Answer is (d) none of these.
Example:
From the following table find the probability of obtaining “A” grade in this exam.
| | | | |
Solution:
N= total no of students = 100
By frequency approach.
p(A grade) = = = 0.1
5.1.5 Axioms of Probability
Consider an experiment whose sample space is S. For each event E of the sample space S we assume
that a number P(E) is defined and satisfies the following three axioms.
Axiom-1: 0 P(E) 1
Axiom-2: P(s) = 1

Axiom-3: For any sequence of mutually exclusive events E1, E2, …. (that is, events for which E1 E1 =
when 1 |
P( )=∑
Example: P(E1 E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) where (E1, E2 are mutually exclusive).
5.1.6 Rules of Probability
There are six rules of probability using which probability of any compound event involving arbitrary
events A and B can be computed.
Rule 1:
p(A B) = p(A)+p(B)-p(A B)
This rule is also called the inclusion-exclusion principal of probability.
This formula reduces to
p(A B) = p(A)+p(B)
if A and B are mutually exclusive since p(A B) = 0 in such a case.
Rule 2:
p(A B) = p(A) * p(B/A) – p(B) * p(A/B)
where p(A/B) represents the conditional probability of A given B and p(B/A) represents the condition
probability of B given A.
(a) p(A) and p(B) are called the marginal probabilities of A and B respectively. This rule is also called as
the multiplication rule of probability.
(b) p(A B) is called the joint probability of A and B.
(c) If A and B are independent events, this formula reduces to
p(A B) = p(A) * p(B)
since when A and B are independent
P(A/B) = p(A)
And p(B/A) = p(B)
i.e. the conditional probabilities become same as the marginal (unconditional) probabilities.

(d) If A and B are independent then so are A and Bc; Ac and B and Ac and Bc.
(e) Condition for three events to independent:
Events A,B and C are independent iff
p(ABC) = p(A)p(B)p(C)
And p(AB) =p(A)p(B)
And p(AC) = p(A)p(C)
And p(BC) = p(B)p(C)
Note: If A, B, C are independent then A will be independent of any event formed from B and C.
For instance, A is independent of B C.
Q. 1 There are two contains with one containing 4 red and 3 green balls and the other containing 3 blue
and 4 green balls. One ball is drawn at random from each container. The probability that one of the balls
is red and the other is blue will be
(a) 1/7 (b) 9/49
(c) 12/49 (d) 3/7
Solution: (c)
p(one ball is Red & another is blue) = p(first is Red and second is Blue)
= =
Q.2 A fair dice is rolled twice. The probability that an odd number will follow an even number is
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution: (d)
P0 = =
P0 = =
Since both events are independent of each other.

P(odd/even) =
5.5.2 Arithmetic Mean
5.2.2.1 Arithmetic Mean

∑
The formula for calculating the arithmetic mean for raw data is: ̅ =
̅ - arithmetic mean
x –refers to the value of an observation
n – number of observations
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAPLES
Example:
The number of visit made by ten mothers to a clinic were: 8 6 5 5 7 4 5 9 7 4
Calculate the average number of visits.
Solution:
∑ = total of all these number of visits that is the total number of visits made by all mothers.
8 + 6 + 5 + 5 + 7 + 4 + 5 + 9 + 7 + 4 = 60
Number of mothers n = 10
∑
̅= = =6
5.2.2.2 The Arithmatic Mean for Grouped Data (Frequency Distribution)
The formula for the arithmetic mean calculate from a frequency distribution has to be amended to
include the frequency It becomes
∑
̅= ∑
Examples:
To show how we can calculate the arithmetic mean of a grouped frequency distribution, there is a
example of weights of 75 pigs.
The classes and frequencies are given in following table:

Weight (kg) Midpoint of class Number of pigs fx

x f(frequency)
0 & under 20 15 1 15
20 & under 30 25 7 175
30 & under 40 35 8 280
40 & under 40 45 11 495
50 & under 60 55 19 1045
60 & under 70 65 10 650
70 & under 80 75 7 525
80 & under 90 85 5 425
90 & under 100 95 4 380
100 & under 100 105 3 215
Total 75 4305
Solution:
With such a frequency distribution we have a range of values of the variable comprising each
group. As our values for x in the formula for the arithmetic mean we use the midpoint of the classes. In
∑
the case ̅= ∑
= = 57.4 kg
5.2.3 Median
Arithmetic mean is the central value of the distribution in the sense that positive and negative
derivatives from the arithmetic mean balance each other. It is a quantitative average
On the other hand the median is equal to the number of values greater than the median. So median is a
positional average. Median is the central value in a sense different from the arithmetic mean. In case of
the arithmetic mean it is the numerical magnitude of the derivations that balance. But for the median it
is the number of values greater than the median which balance ageinst the number of value of less than
the median.
5.2.3.1 median for raw Data
In general, if we have n values of X they can be arranged in ascending order as:
x1 < x2 < …. < xn
suppose n is odd then Median = the -th value
However, if n is even we have two middle points
( ) ( )
Median =
5.2.3.2 Median for Grouped Data

1. Identify the median class which contains the middle observation ( ) observation) This can be
done by observing the first class in which the cumulation frequency is equal to or more than . Here,
N = ∑ = total number of observations.
2. Calculate Median as follows:
( )
Median = L + * +xh
Where, L = Lower limit of median class
N = Total number of data intems =
F = Cumulative frequency of the class immediately preceding the median class
fm = Frequency of median class
h = Width of median class
Examples:
Consider the following table giving the marks obtained by students in an exam
Mark Range f No of Students Cumulative Frequency

0-20 2 2
20-40 3 5
40-60 10 15
60-80 15 30
80-100 20 50
Solution:
Here, = 25.5
The class 60-80 is the median class since cumulative frequency is 30 > 25.5
Median = x 20 = 69.66 69.7
Median marks of the class is approximately 69.7…
i.e. (at least) half the students got less than 69.7 and (almost) half got more than 69.7 marks.
5.2.4 Mode
Mode is defined as the value of the variable which occurs most frequently.

5.2.4.1 Mode for Raw Data
In raw data the most frequently occurring observation is the mode. That is data with highest frequency
is more. If there is more than one data with highest frequency then each of them is a mode. Thus we
have Unimodal (single mode), Bimodal (two modes) and Trimodal (three modes) data sets.
Example:
Find the mode of the data set: 50, 50, 70, 50, 50, 70, 60
Solution:
1. Arrange in ascending order: 50, 50, 50, 50,60, 70, 70

2. Make a discrete data frequency table: Data Frequency
50 4
60 1
70 2
Since, 50 is the data with maximum frequency mode is 50. This is unimodal data set.
5.2.4.2 Mode for Grouped data
Mode is that value of x for which the frequency is maximum. If the values of x are grouped into the
classes (such that they are uniformly distributed within any class) and we a frequency distribution then:
1. Identify the class which has the largest frequency (modal class)
2. Calculate the mode as
Mode = L +
Where, L = Lower limit of the modal class
f0 = Largest frequency (frequency of modal class)
f1 = Frequency in the class preceding the modal class
f2 = Frequency in the class next to the modal class
h = Width of the modal class
Example:
Data relating to the height of 352 school students are given in the following frequency
distribution.

Calculate the modal height.
Heigh (in feet) Number of students

3.0-3.5 12
3.5-4.0 37
4.0-4.5 79
4.5-5.0 152
5.0-5.5 65
5.5-6.0 7
Total 352
Solution:
Since, 152 is the largest frequency the modal class is (4.5-5.0).
Thus, L = 4.5, f0 = 152, f1=79, f2=65, h-0.5
Mode = 4.5 +
Q. 42 Which one of the followings statements is NOT true?
(a) The measure of skewness is deoendent upon the amount of dispersion
(b) In a symmetric distribution the value of mean, mode and median are the same
(c) In a positively skewed distribution: mean > median mode
(d) In a negatively skewed distribution: mode > mean > median
Solution: (d)
A, b, c are true but (d) is not true since in a negatively skewed distribution, mode > median ? mean.
5.2.5 Properties Relating Mean, Median and Mode
1. Emprical mode = 3median - 2 mean
When an approximate value of mode is required above empirical formula for mode may be used.
2. There are three types of frequency distributions.
Positively skewed, symmetric and negatively skewed distribution.

(a) In positively skewed distribution:

Mode Median Mean
(b) In symmetric distribution:
Mean = median = Mode
(c) In negatively skewed distribution:
Mean Median Mode
5.2.6 Standrad Deviation
Standard Deviation is a measure of dispersion or variation amongst data.Instead of taking absolute

deviation from the arithmetic mean we may square deviation and obtained the arithmetic mean of
squared deviations. This gives us the ‘variance’ of the values.
The positive square root of the variance is called the ‘Standard Deviation’ of the given values.
5.2.6.1 Standard Deviation for Raw Data
Suppose x1, x2 ….. xn are n values of the x, their arithmetic mean is:
̅ = ∑ and x1 - ̅, x2 - ̅ ….. xn - ̅ are thr derivations of the values of x from ̅. Then
= ∑ ̅ 2 is the variance of x. it can be shown that
∑ ̅ ∑ ∑
= = ∑ ̅ =
It is conventional to represents the variance by the symbol . In fact, is is small sigma and ∑ capital
sigma.
Square root of the variance is the standard deviation
∑ ∑
=√ ∑ ̅ 2=√ ∑ ̅ =√
5.2.7 Variance
The square of standard deviation ( ) is called as the variance ( .

So if = 10 then varience = = 100
Alternatively if variance = = 100 then standard deviation = √ =√ = 10
The larger the standard deviation larger will be the variance.
5.2.8 Coefficient of Variation
The standard deviation is an absolute measure of dispersion and hence can not be used for comparing
variability of 2 data sets with different means.
Therefore, such comparisons are done by using a relative measure of dispersion called coefficient of
variation (CV).
CV =
Where is the standard deviation and is the mean of the data set.
CV is often represented as a percentage,
CV % =
When comparing data sets, the data set with lager value of CV% is more variable (less consistent) as
compared to a data set with lesser value of CV%.
For example:
CV%
Data set 1 5 1 20%
Data set 2 20 2 10%
Although = 2 for data set 2 is more than = 1 for data set 1, data set 2 is actually less variable
compared to data set 1 as can be seen by the fact that set 2 has a CV% of 10% while data set 1 has a
CV% of 20%.
So comparison of variability between 2 or more data sets (with different means) should be done by
comparing CV% and not by comparing standard deviations.
Q. 1 If the standard deviation of the spot speed of vehicles in a highway is 8.8kmph and the mean speed
of the vehicles is 33kmph, the coefficients of variation is speed is
(a) 0.1517 (b) 0.1867
(c) 0.2666 (d) 0.3646
Solution: (c)

CV = = = 0.2666
5.3 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
5.3.1 Random Variables
It is frequently the case when an experiment is performed that we are mainly interested in some
function of the outcome as opposed to the actual outcome itself.
For instance in tossing dice we are often interested in the sum of two dice and we are not really
concerned about the separate value of each die. That is we may be interested in known that the sum is 7
and not be concerned over whether the actual outcome was (1,6) or (2,5) or (4,3) or (5,2) or (6,1).
Also in coin flipping we may be interested in the total number of heads that occur and formally these
real valued function defined on the sample space are known as random variables.
Because the value of a random variable is determined by outcome of the experiment we may assign
probabilities to the possible values of the random variable.
Types of Random Variables: Random variable may be discrete or continuous.
Discrete Random Variable: A variable that can take one value form a discrete set of values.
Example: Let x denotes sum of 2 dice. Now x is a discrete random variable as it can take one value form
the set {2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12} since the sum of 2 dice can only be one of these values.
Continuous Random Variables: A variables that can take one value from a continuous range of values.
Example: x denotes the volume of Pepsi in a 500ml cup. Now x may be a number form 0 to 500 any of
which value x may take.
5.3.2 Distributions
Base on this we can divide distributions also into discrete distribution (based on a discrete random
variable) or continuous distribution (based on a continuous random variable).
Examples of discrete distribution are binomial, Poisson and hyper geometric distributions.
Examples of continuous distribution are uniform, normal and exponential distributions.
5.3.2.1 Properties of Discrete Distribution
∑ =1
E(x) = ∑
V(x) = E(x2) – (E(x))2 = ∑ – ∑ 2

E(x) denotes expected value or average value of the random variable x while V(x) denotes the variable
of the random variable x.
5.3.2.2 Properties of Continuous Distribution
∫ =1
F(x) = ∫ (cumulative distribution function)
E(x) = ∫
V(x) = E(x2) – [E(x)]2 = ∫ - [∫ ]
P(a < x < b) = p(a x < b) = P(a < x b) = P( x b) = ∫
5.3.3 Types of Distributions
Discrete Distributions:
1. General Discrete Distribution 2. Binomial Distribution 3. Hypergeometric Distribution
4. Geometric Distribution 5. Poisson Distribution
5.3.3.1 General Discrete Distribution
Let X be a discrete random variable.
A table possible values of verses corresponding probability values p(x) is called as its probability
distribution table.
Example:
Let X be the number which comes on a single throw of a dice.
Then probability distribution table of X is given by
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
p(X)
In this case p(X) in same for all values of X but this is not necessary as following example shows.
For example, let X be sum of the numbers coming on a pair of dice thrown.
Now the probability distribution table can be constructed as follows

X 2 3 4 ….. 10 11 12
p(X)
Notice, that here p(X) is not name for all values of X.
In any probability distribution table
∑ = 1 is always true
Take the case of simple dice
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
p(X)
Notice that ∑ = + + + + + =1
From above table, we can compute the following:
p(X =3) =
p(X 3) = + + + = =
p(X 3) = + + = =
p(X <4) = + + = =
Also from above table we can compute the expected value and variance of x.
E(x) = ∑
V(x) = E(x2) – [E(x)]2 = ∑ - [∑ 2
E(x) is the expected value of x and is similar to an average value of x after infinite number of trials.
So E(x) is sometimes also written as x.
V(x) represents the variability of X. So it is sometimes written as .
So =√ ⁄ , which is the standard deviation of X.
Also expected value of any function g(x) of x can be computed as follows:
E(g(x)) = ∑
For example,
E(x3) = ∑ and E(x2+1) = ∑

For the single dice probability distribution table,
Px = e(x) = ∑ = 1x + 2 x + ….+ 6 x = 3.5
2
And = V(x) = ∑ - [∑
=* +- (3.5)2 = 2.917
=√ = 1.7078
Properties of Expectation and Variable:
If x1 and x2 are two random variance and a and b are constants,
E(ax1 = b) = a E(x1) + b
V(ax1 + b) =2V(x1)
E(ax1 + bx2) = a E(x1) + b e(x2)
V(ax1 + bx2) = a2V(x1) + b2V(x2) + 2ab cov(x1.x2)
Where cov(x1,x2) represents the covariance between x1 and x2
If x1 and x2 are independent then cov(x1.x2) = 0 and the above formula reduces to
V(ax1 + bx2) = a2V(x1) + b2V(x2)
For example form above formula we can say
E(x1 + x2) = E(x1) + E(x2)
E(x1 - x2) = E(x1) - E(x2)
V(x1 + x2) = V(x1 - x2) = V(x1) + ( x2)
Formula for calculating covariance between X and Y
Cov(X,Y) = E(XY) – E(X) E(Y)
If X, y are independent E(XY) = E(X) E(Y)
And hence Cov(X, Y) = 0
Q. 1 In an experiment positive and negative values are equally likely to occur. The probability of
obtaining at most one negative value in five trials is

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution: (d)
Since negative and positive are equally likely, the distribution of number of negative values is binomial
with n = 5 and p =
Let X represent number of negative values in 5trials.
p(at most negative value)
= p(x 1)
= p(x = 0) + p(x = 1)
= 5C0( ) ( ) + 5C1( ) ( ) =
5.3.3.2 Binomial Distribution
Suppose that a trial or an experiment, whose outcome can be classified as either a success or a failure is
performed.
Suppose now that n independent trials, each of which results in a success with probability p and in a
failure with probability 1 –p are to be performed.
If X represents the number of successes that occur in the n trials then X is said to be binomial random
variable with parameters (n, p).
The binomial distribution occurs when experiment performed satisfies the three assumptions of
bernouli trials which are:
1. Only 2 outcome are possible, success and failure

2. Probability of success (p) and failure (1-p) remains same from trial to trial.
3. The trials are statistically indepent i.e. The outcome of trial does not influence subsequent trials
i.e. No memory.
These assumptions are satisfied in following types of problems:
(a) Dice problems.

(b) Coin toss problems.
(c) Sampling with replacement from a finite population.
(d) Sampling with or without replacement from an infinite (large) population.
The probability of obtaining x successes from n trials is given by the binomial distribution formula.

P(X = x) = nCxPx (1-p)n-x
Where p is the probability of success in any trial and (1-p) = q is the probability of failure.
Example: 1
10 dice are thrown. What is the probability of getting exactly 2 sixes.
Solution:
P(X = 2) = 10C2( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) = 0.2907
Q. 55 A coin is tossed 4 times. What is the probability of getting heads exactly 3 times?
(a) ⁄ (b) ⁄
(c) ⁄ (d) ⁄
Solution: (a)
Binomial distribution is used, since this problem involves coins.
p = p(H) = 0.5
Probability of getting head exactly 3times is
P(X = 3) = 4C3(0.5)3(0.5)1 = ⁄
Q. 56 If three coins are tossed simultaneously, the probability of getting at least one head is
(a) ⁄ (b) ⁄
(c) ⁄ (d) ⁄
Solution: (d)
Binomial distribution is used since this problem involve coins.
Here, n= 3
p = p(H) = ⁄
x 1

Now, p(x 1) = 1 – p(x = 0)
= 1-3C0( ) ( )
=1- =
5.3.3.3 Hypergeometric Distribution
If the probability changes from trail to trial one of the assumptions of binomial distribution gets violated
and hence binomial distribution cannot be used. In such lases hypergeometric distribution is used. This
is particularly used is cases of sampling without replacement from a finite population.
Q. 1 From a pack of regular playing cards are drawn at random. What is the probability that both cards
will be Kings. If first card in NOT replaced?
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution: (d)
Problems can be solved by hypergeometric distribution as follows:
p(X = 2) = =
Q. 2 A box contains 20 defective items and 80 non-defective items. If two items are selected at ramdom
without replacement, what will be the probability that both items are defective?
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution: (d)
Problem can be solved by hypergeomertic distribution
p(X = 2) = =
5.3.3.5 Poisson Distribution
A random variable X taking on one of the values 0, 1, 2…. Is said to be a Poisson random variable with
parameter if for some > 0.

P(x = x) =
For Poisson distribution:
Mean = E(x) =
Variance = V(x) =
Therefore, expected value and variance of a Poisson random are both equal to its parameter ,
Here is average number of occurrence of event is an observation period t. So, = t where is no

of occurrences of event per unit time.
Q. 1 A traffic imposes on an average 5 number of penalties daily on traffic violators. Assume that the
number of penalties on different days is independent and follows a Poisson distribution. The probability
that there will be less than 4 penalties in a day is____________.
Solution:
Mean =5
P(x < 4) = p(x = 0) +p(x = 1) + p(x =2) + p(x = 3)
= + + +
= e-5 * + = e-5 ( ) = 0.265
5.3.3.6 General Continuous Distribution
Let X be a continuous random variable. A continuous distribution of X can be defined by a probability

density function f(x) which is such a function such that
P(- X )=∫ =1
The expected value of x is given by
x = E(x) = ∫
i.e. V(x) = E(x2) – [E(x)]2 = ∫ - [∫ ]2
=√
The cumulative probability function (sometimes also called as probability distribution function) is given
by F(x), where

F(x) = p(X x) = ∫
Note: From distribution function we can get probability density fraction by formula below:
F(x) =
Q. 1 A continuous random variable X has a probability density function f(x) = e-x, 0 < x < . Then P{X > 1}
is
(a) 0.368 (b) 0.5
(c) 0.632 (d) 1.0
Solution: (a)
P=∫ =∫ =– | =- = e-1 = 0.368
Q. 2 A continuous random variable X has a probability density f(x) = e-x, 0 < x < Then P{X > 1} is
(a) 0.368 (b) 0.5
(c) 0.632 (d) 1.0
Solution: (a)
P=∫ =∫ =– | = e-1 = 0.368
5.3.3.7 Uniform Distribution
In general we say that X is a uniform random variable on the interval (a, b) if its probability density
function is given by:
F(x) = ,
Since f(x) is a constant, all values of x between and are equally likely (uniform).
Graphically Representation:

For Discrete uniform Distribution:
Mean = E[X] =
Variance = V(X) =
Q. 1 The standard deviation of a uniformly distributed random variable between 0 and 1 is
(a) (b)
√ √
(c) (d)
√ √
Solution: (a)
=√ =√ =
√
5.3.8.1 Standard Normal Distribution
Since the for N ( ) varies with & & the integral can only be evaluated numerically, it is more
reasonable to reduce this distribution to another distribution called standard normal distribution N (0, 1)
for which the shape & hence the integral values remain constant.
Since all N ( ) problems can be reduced to N (0, 1) problems we need only to consult a standard
table giving calculations of area under N (0, 1) from 0 to any value of z.
The conversion from N ( ) to N (0, 1) is effected by the following transformation.
Z=
Where Z is called standard normal variate.
For standard Normal distribution:
Mean = E(X) = 0
Variance = V(X) = 1
Hence the standard normal distribution is also referred to as the N(0, 1) distribution.
Q. 1 Let X be a normal random variable with mean 1 and variance 4. The probability P(X < 0) is
(a) 0.5 (b) greater than zero and less than 0.5

(c) greater than 0.5 and less than 1.0 (d) 1.0
Solution: (b)
Here, =4 =2
P(x < 0) = p( )=p( ) = p( )
Which is the shared area in the picture and its value is clearly between 0 and 0.5
Q. 96 A nationalized bank has found that the daily balance available in its saving account follows a
normal distribution with a mean of Rs. 500 and standard deviation of Rs. 50. The percentage of saving
account holders, who maintain an average daily balance more than Rs. 500 is ________.
Solution:
Given X is normally distributed.
Given, = 500, = 50p(x > 500) = p( ) = p( ) = p(z > 0) = 0.5
Which is equal to 50%.
5.3.3.3 Chebyshev’s Inequality
In probability theory, Chebyshev’s inequality says that the fraction of data in any distribution that lies
within k standard deviation of the mean is at least 1- .
Let x be a random variable with finite expected values and finite non-zero variance . Then for any
real number k > 0.
p( -k x +k ) 1- .
p(|x- | k ) 1- .
This also leads to p(|x- | > k )
This inequality has great utility because it can be applied to completely arbitrary distribution for
example it can be used to prove the weak law of large number.
In practical usage, in constant to the empirical rule ehich applies to normal distributions under
chebyshev’s inequality just 75% of values lies within two standard deviation of the mean and 89% of
values within three standard deviations.
Example:

Let X be a random variable with mean = 40 and standard deviation = 0.5. Use Chebyshev’s inequality
to find a value b for which
P(40 – b 40 + b) 0.95
Solution:
According to chebyshev’s inequality
P( – k x +k ) 1-
Given that
P(40 – b x 40 + b) 0.95
So 1- = 0.95
= 0.5
k2 =
k2 = 20
k = 2√
Then by chebyshev’s inequality
b=k
b = 2√ x 5
b = 10√
b 22.36

Previous Year Solved Questions of GATE
Probability & Statistics

1. A fair dice is rolled twice. The probability that an odd number will follow an even number is
[EC: GATE-2005]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 6 3 4
1. (d) Here the sample space S = 6

3 1
Therefore P(odd number) = =
6 2
3 1
and P(even number) = =
6 2
since events are independent,
1 1 1
therefore, P(odd / even) = × =
2 2 4
2. A probability density function is of the form [EC: GATE-2006]

p(x) = Ke–α|x|, x ∈ (–∞,∞)
The value of K is
(a) 0.5 (b) 1 (c) 0.5 α (d) α
2. (c)
As (x) is a probability density function
∞
∴ ∫ p(x) dx = 1
−∞
∞
∫ ke
−α x
⇒ dx = 1
−∞
0 ∞
⎡∵ x = x,for x > 0 ⎤
∫ keαx dx + ∫ ke
−αx
⇒ dx = 1 ⎢ ⎥
−∞ 0 ⎣ = − x,for x < 0 ⎦
⇒ k = 0.5α
3. Three companies X, Y and Z supply computers to a university. The percentage of computers

supplied by them and the probability of those being defective are tabulated below
[EC: GATE-2006]
Company % of computers Probability of
supplied being
defective
X 60% 0.01
Y 30% 0.02
Z 10% 0.03
Given that a computer is defective, the probability that it was supplied by Y is
(a) 0.1 (b) 0.2 (c) 0.3 (d) 0.4
3. Ans. (d)
4. If E denotes expectation, the variance of a random variable X is given by [EC: GATE-2007]

(a) E[X2] – E2[X] (b) E[X2] + E2[X]
(c) E[X ]
2 (d) E2[X]
4. ans (a)
{ }
Varience of X = E ( X − m ) ,m = mean of the distribution
2
{(
∴ Var(X) = E X 2 − 2mX + m2 )}
( )
= E X 2 − 2mE(X) + m2
= E ( X ) − 2E (X) + E (X) [∵ m = E(X),by defination of mean ]
2 2 2
= E(X 2 ) − E2 (X)
5. An examination consists of two papers, Paper 1 and Paper 2. The probability of failing in Paper
1 is 0.3 and that in Paper 2 is 0.2. Given that a student has failed in Paper 2, the probability of
failing in Paper 1 is 0.6. The probability of a student failing in both the papers is
[EC: GATE-2007]
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.18
(c) 0.12 (d) 0.06
5.Ans(c).
Let A be the event that ‘failed in paper 1’.
B be the event that ‘failed in paper 2’.
Given P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.2.
⎛A⎞
And also given P ⎜ ⎟ = 0.6
⎝B⎠
⎛ A ⎞ P ( A ∩ B)
we know P ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝B⎠ P(B)
⇒ P(A ∩ B) = 0.6 × 0.2 = 0.12
6. Px(x) = M exp(–2|x|) – N exp(–3 |x|) is the probability density function for the real random
variable X, over the entire x axis. M and N are both positive real numbers. The equation relating
M and N is [EC: GATE-2008]
2 1
(a) M − N = 1 (b) 2 M + N = 1
3 3
(c) M + N = 1 (d) M + N = 3
6. Ans.(a)
Given Px (x) is the probability density function for the random variable X.
∞
∫ ( Me )dx = 1
−2 x −3 x
⇒ − Ne
−∞
0 ∞
∫ ( Me ) ( )
− Ne3x dx + ∫ Me−2x + Ne−3x dx = 1
2x
⇒
−∞ 0
⎛M N⎞ ⎛M N⎞
⇒ ⎜ − ⎟ +⎜ − ⎟ =1
⎝ 2 3⎠ ⎝ 2 3⎠
2
⇒ M − N =1
3
7. A fair coin is tossed 10 times. What is the probability that ONLY the first two tosses will yield
heads? [EC: GATE-2009]
2 3 10 10
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
(a) ⎜ ⎟ (b) 10 C2 ⎜ ⎟ (c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) 10 C2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
7. (c)
Let A be the event that first toss is head
And B be the event that second toss is head.
1 1
∴ P(A) = , P(B) =
2 2
By the given condition rest all 8 tosses should be tail
∴ The probability of getting head in first two cases
2 8 10
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
= =
⎜2⎟ ⎜2⎟ ⎜2⎟ .
.
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
8. A fair coin is tossed independently four times. The probability of the event “the number of time
heads shown up is more than the number of times tails shown up” is [EC: GATE-2010]
1 1 1 5
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16 8 4 16
8. Ans (d)
Here we have to find
P(H,H,H,T) + P(H,H,H,H)
3 4 0
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
= 4c3 ⎜ ⎟ . ⎜ ⎟ + 4c 4 ⎜ ⎟ .⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
4 4
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ 5
= 4. ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 16
9 In a manufacturing plant, the probability of making a defective bolt is 0.1. The mean and
standard deviation of defective bolts in a total of 900 bolts are respectively
[ME: GATE-2000]
(a) 90 and 9 (b) 9 and 90
9. Ans (a)
It’s a poission distribution. Here n = 900 ,p = 0.1
∴ mean (m) = np = 900 × 0.1 = 90
Standard deviation ( σ) = npq = 90 × .9, Hereq = 1 − p.
= 81 = 9 (∵ σ > 0).,
10. Consider the continuous random variable with probability density function
f (t ) = 1 + t for -1 ≤ t ≤ 0
[ME: GATE-2006]
=1 - t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
The standard deviation of the random variables is
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 6 3 6
10. Ans. (b)

∞
∫ t f(t)dt,
2 2
Var (T) = σ = t T being the random variable of f(t).
−∞
0 1
∫t (1 + t)dt + ∫ t 2 (1 − t)dt
2
=
−1 0
1
=
6
1
∴ σt ⎡⎣∵ σt > 0⎤⎦
6
11. The standard deviation of a uniformly distributed random variable between 0 and 1 is
[ME: GATE-2009]
1 1 5 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
12 3 12 12
11. (a)
1
Here p.d.f.is f (x) = = 1, 0 < x < 1.
1−0
1 1
1
∴ mean(m) = E(x) = ∫ xf (x)dx = ∫ xdx =
0 0
2
1 2 1
⎛ x −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 1 1 1 1
∴ Var (x) = σ2 = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ .1.dx = ∫ ⎜ x 2 − x + ⎟ dx = − + =
0⎝
2 ⎠ 0⎝
4⎠ 3 2 4 12
1
∴σ = [∵ σ > 0]
12
12 The probability that two friends share the same birth-month is [ME: GATE-1998]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 12 144 24
12. (b)
Let A = the event that the birth month of first friend
And B= that of second friend.
∴ P(A) = 1,as 1st friend can born in any month
1
and P(B) = , by the condition.
12
∴ Probability of two friends share same birth-month
1 1
is 1 × =
12 12
13. The probability of a defective piece being produced in a manufacturing process is 0.01. The
probability that out of 5 successive pieces, only one is defective, is
(a) (0.99)2 (0.01) (b) (0.99)(0.01)4 [ME: GATE-1996]
(c) 5×(0.99)(0.01)4 (d) 5×(0.99) (0.01)
4
13. (d)
The required probability = 5 c1 (.01)1 × (.99)4 = 5 × (0.99)4 × (.01).
14. A box contains 5 block balls and 3 red balls. A total of three balls are picked from the box one
after another, without replacing them back. The probability of getting two black balls and one
red ball is [ME: GATE-1997]
(a) 3/8 (b) 2/15 (c) 15/28 (d) ½
14. (c)
Here the possible combination of picking up three balls without replacement is
BBR, BRB, RBB.
(B = Black ball, R = Red balls)
5 4 3 5
∴ P(BBR) = × × =
8 7 6 28
5 3 4 5
P(BRB) = × × =
8 7 6 28
3 5 4 5
P(RBB) = × × =
8 7 6 28
15
∴ Probability of getting two black balls and one red ball is .
28
15. An unbiased coin is tossed three times. The probability that the head turns up in exactly two
cases is [ME: GATE-2001]
(a) 1/9 (b) 1/8 (c) 2/3 (d) 3/8
15. (d)
2
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ 3
Required probability = 3 c2 × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ 8
16. Two dice are thrown. What is the probability that is the sum of the numbers on the two dice is
eight? [ME: GATE-2002]
(a) 5/36 (b) 5/18 (c) ¼ (d) 1/3
16. (a)
Here sample space = 6 × 6 = 36
Here, there are five such points whose sum is 8. They are (2,6), (3,5), (4,4),
(5,3), (6,2).
5
∴ Re quireprobability =
36
17. Manish has to travel from A to D changing buses at stops B and C enroute. The maximum
waiting time at either stop can be 8 minutes each, but any time of waiting up to 8 minutes is
equally likely at both places. He can afford up to 13 minutes of total waiting time if he is to
arrive at D on time. What is the probability that Manish will arrive late at D?
[ME: GATE-2002]
(a) 8/13 (b) 13/64 (c) 119/128 (d) 9/128
17.Ans(a)
18. Arrivals at a telephone booth are considered to be poison, with an average time of 10 minutes
between successive arrivals. The length of a phone call is distributes exponentially with mean
3 minutes. The probability that an arrival does not have to wait before service is
[ME: GATE-2002]
(a) 0.3 (b) 0.5 (c) 0.7 (d) 0.9
18.Ans(a)
19. A box contains 5 black and 5 red balls. Two balls are randomly picked one after another from
the box, without replacement. The probability for both balls being red is
[ME: GATE-2003]
1 1 19 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
90 2 90 9
19. (d)
The probability of drawing two red balls without replacement
5 4 2
= × =
10 9 9
20. From a pack of regular from a playing cards, two cards are drawn at random. What is the
probability that both cards will be Kings, if first card in NOT replaced
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) [ME: GATE-2004]
26 52 169 221
20. (d)
Here sample space S = 52
∴ The probability of drawing both cards are king without replacement
4 3
c c 1
= 1× 1 =
52 51 221
21. A lot has 10% defective items. Ten items are chosen randomly from this lot. The probability
that exactly 2 of the chosen items are defective is [ME: GATE-2005]
(a) 0.0036 (b) 0.1937 (c) 0.2234 (d) 0.3874
21.(b)
Let A be the event that items are defective and B be the event that items are non- defective.
∴ P(A) = 0.1 and P(B) = 0.9
∴ Probability that exactly two of those items are defective
= 10 c 2 (.1)2 (.9)8 = 0.1937
22. A single die is thrown twice. What is the probability that the sum is neither 8 nor 9?
[ME: GATE-2005]
(a) 1/9 (b) 5/36 (c) 1/4 (d) 3/4
22. (d)
Here sample space = 36
Total No. of way in which sum is either 8 or 9 are
(2,6), (3,5),(3,6), (4,4), (4,5), (5,3), (5,4), (6,2), (6,3)
9 1
So probability of getting sum 8 or 9 = =
36 4
So the probability of not getting sum 8 or 9 = 1 − 1 = 3 .
4 4
24. A box contains 20 defective items and 80 non-defective items. If two items are selected at
random without replacement, what will be the probability that both items are defective?
[ME: GATE-2006]
(a) 1/5 (b) 1/25 (c) 20/99 (d) 11/495
24(d)
20
The probability of defective items = .
100
Therefore the probability of first two defective items
without replacement
20 19 19
= × = .
100 99 495
25. A coin is tossed 4 times. What is the probability of getting heads exactly 3 times?
1 3 1 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) [ME: GATE-
4 8 2 4
2008
25. (a)
Probability of getting exactly three heads
3
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ 1 1
= 4 c3 × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = 4 × 4 =
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠2 2 4
26. If three coins are tossed simultaneously, the probability of getting at least one head is
[ME: GATE-2009]
(a) 1/8 (b) 3/8 (c) 1/2 (d) 7/8
26. (d)
Here the sample space S = 23 = 8.
No. of ways to get all tails =1.
1
∴ probability to get all tails =
8
1 7
∴ Probability to get at least one head is =1- =
8 8
27. A box contains 2 washers, 3 nuts and 4 bolts. Items are drawn from the box at random one at a
time without replacement. The probability of drawing 2 washers first followed by 3 nuts and
subsequently the 4 bolts is [ME: GATE-2010]
(a) 2/315 (b) 1/630 (c) 1/1260 (d) 1/2520
27. (c)
Here sample space = 9
The required probability of drawing 2 washers, 3 nuts and 4 bolts respectively
without replacement
2 1 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
= × × × × × × × ×
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
=
1260
28. If 20 per cent managers are technocrats, the probability that a random committee of 5
managers consists of exactly 2 technocrats is [ME: GATE-1993]
(a) 0.2048 (b) 0.4000 (c) 0.4096 (d) 0.9421
28. (a)
20 1
The probability of technocrats manager = =
100 5
4
∴ Probability of non technocrats manager =
5
2 2 3
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
Now the require probability = 5 c 2 × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = 0.2048
⎝5⎠ ⎝5⎠ ⎝5⎠
29. Analysis of variance is concerned with: [ME: GATE-1999]

(a) Determining change in a dependent variable per unit change in an independent variable
(b) Determining whether a qualitative factor affects the mean of an output variable
(c) Determining whether significant correlation exists between an output variable and an
input variable.
(d) Determining whether variance in two or more populations are significantly different.
29. Ans.(d)
Analysis of variance is used in comparing two or more populations, e.g. Different types of
manures for yelding a single crop.
30. Four arbitrary point (x1,y1), (x2,y2), (x3,y3), (x4,y4), are given in the x, y – plane Using the
method of least squares, if, regressing y upon x gives the fitted line y = ax + b; and regressing y
upon x given the fitted line y = ax + b; and regressing x upon y gives the fitted line x = cy + d
then [ME: GATE-1999]
(a) The two fitted lines must coincide (b) The two fitted lines need not coincide
(c) It is possible that ac = 0 (d) A must be 1/c
30. (d)
y = ax + b − (i) and x = cy + d − (ii)
1 d
From (ii) we get x − d = cy ⇒ y = x − − (iii)
c c
1 −d
comparing (i) and (ii),a = and b =
c c
31. A regression model is used to express a variable Y as a function of another variable X. This
implies that [ME: GATE-2002]
(a) There is a causal relationship between Y and X
(b) A value of X may be used to estimate a value of Y
(c) Values of X exactly determine values of Y
(d) There is no causal relationship between Y and X
31. (b)
32. Let X and Y be two independent random variables. Which one of the relations between
expectation (E), variance (Var) and covariance (Cov) given below is FALSE?
[ME: GATE-2007]
(a) E (XY) = E (X) E (Y) (b) Cov (X, Y) = 0
(c) Var (X + Y) = Var (X) + Var (Y) (d) E (X2 y2) = (E (X))2 (E (y))2
32. (b).
33. A class of first year B. Tech. Students is composed of four batches A, B, C and D, each
consisting of 30 students. It is found that the sessional marks of students in Engineering
Drawing in batch C have a mean of 6.6 and standard deviation of 2.3. The mean and
standard deviation of the marks for the entire class are 5.5 and 4.2, respectively. It is
decided by the course instructor to normalize the marks of the students of all batches to have
the same mean and standard deviation as that of the entire class. Due to this, the marks of a
student in batch C are changed from 8.5 to
(a) 6.0 (b) 7.0 [CE: GATE – 2006]
(c) 8.0 (d) 9.0
33.Ans(d). Let mean and stander deviation of batch C be μ c and σc respectively and mean
and standard deviation of entire class of 1st year students be μ and σ respectively.
Given μ c = 6.6 and σc = 2.3
and μ = 5.5 and σ = 4.2
In order to normalize batch C to entire class, the normalized score must be equated
x −μ
Since Z =
σ
x − μ c 8.5 − 6.6
Zc = c =
σc 2.3
x − μ x − 5.5
Now Z = =
σ 4.2
x − 5.5 8.5 − 6.6
∴ Z = Zc ⇒ =
4.2 2.3
⇒ x = 8.969 ≅ 9.0
34. Three values of x and y are to be fitted in a straight line in the form y = a + bx by the method
of least squares. GivenΣx = 6, Σy = 21, Σx = 14 and Σxy = 46, the values of a and b are
2
respectively. [CE: GATE – 2008]

(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 1 (d) 3 and 2
34.Ans(d)
y = a + bx
Given
n = 3, Σx = 6, Σy = 21, Σx2 = 14
And Σxy = 46
n Σ xy − Σ x Σ y
b=
n Σ x 2 − ( Σ x)2
a = y − bx
Σy Σx
= −b
n n
Substituting, we get
(3 × 46) − (6 × 21)
b= =2
(3 × 14) − (6)2
21 ⎛6⎞
a= − 2×⎜ ⎟ = 3
3 ⎝3⎠
∴ a = 3 and b = 2
35. A box contains 10 screws, 3 of which are defective. Two screws are drawn at random with
replacement. The probability that none of the two screws is defective will be
(a) 100% (b) 50% [CE: GATE – 2003]
(c) 49% (d) None of these
35. (d)
Non defective screws =7
∴ Probability of the two screws are non defective
3
c × 7 c2
= 010 × 100%
c2
7
= × 100% = 46.6 47%
15
36. A hydraulic structure has four gates which operate independently. The probability of failure
off each gate is 0.2. Given that gate 1 has failed, the probability that both gates 2 and 3 will
fail is [CE: GATE – 2004]
(a) 0.240 (b) 0.200
(c) 0.040 (d) 0.008
36.(c)
P(gate to and gate 3/gate 1 failed)
= P(gate 2 and gate 3) ⎡∴ all three gates are
⎢
= P(gate 2) ×P(gate 3) ⎢ independent corrosponding
= 0.2 × 0.2 = 0.04 ⎢ to each other ⎤
⎣ ⎦
37. Which one of the following statements is NOT true?

(a) The measure of skewness is dependent upon the amount of dispersion
(b) In a symmetric distribution, the values of mean, mode and median are the same
(c) In a positively skewed distribution; mean > median > mode
(d) In a negatively skewed distribution; mode > mean > median [CE: GATE – 2005
37. (d)
(d) is not true since in a negatively skewed distribution, mode > median > mean
38. There are 25 calculators in a box. Two of them are defective. Suppose 5 calculators are
randomly picked for inspection (i.e., each has the same chance of being selected), what is the
probability that only one of the defective calculators will be included in the inspection?
[CE: GATE – 2006]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 3 4 5
38. (b)
Probability of only one is defective out of 5 calculators
2
c × 23 c4 1
= 125 =
c5 3
39. If the standard deviation of the spot speed of vehicles in a highway is 8.8 kmph and the mean
speed of the vehicles is 33 kmph, the coefficient of variation in speed is
[CE: GATE – 2007]
(a) 0.1517 (b) 0.1867 (c) 0.2666 (d)0.3645
39. (c)
σ 8.8
Cν = = = 0.2666
μ 33
40. If probability density functions of a random variable X is

f(x) = x2 for –1 ≤ x ≤ 1, and [CE: GATE – 2008]
= 0 for any other value of x
⎛ 1 1⎞
Then, the percentage probability P ⎜ − ≤ x ≤ ⎟ is
⎝ 3 3⎠
(a) 0.247 (b) 2.47 (c) 24.7 (d) 247
40. (b)
1 1
⎛ −1 1⎞ 3
⎡ x3 ⎤ 3 2
P⎜ ≤ x ≤ ⎟ = ∫ x 2dx =⎢ ⎥ =
⎝ 3 3⎠ 1 3
⎣ ⎦− 1 81
− 3
3
2
∴ Percentage probability = × 100 2.47%
81
41. A person on a trip has a choice between private car and public transport. The probability of
using a private car is 0.45. While using the public transport, further choices available are bus
and metro, out of which the probability of commuting by a bus is 0.55. In such a situation, the
probability (rounded up to two decimals) of using a car, bus and metro, respectively would be
[CE: GATE – 2008]
(a) 0.45, 0.30 and 0.25 (b) 0.45, 0.25 and 0.30
(c) 0.45, 0.55 and 0.00 (d) 0.45, 0.35 and
41. (a)
Given
p(private car) = 0.45
p(bus / public transport) = 0.55
Since a person has a choice between private car and public transport
p (public transport)= 1 – p(private car)
= 1 – 0.45 = 0.55
p (bus) = p(bus ∩ public transport)
= p(bus| public transport)
× p(public transport)
= 0.55 × 0.55
= 0.3025 0.30
Now p (metro) = 1 – [p(private car) + p(bus)]
= 1 – (0.45 + 0.30) = 0.25
∴ p (private car) = 0.45
p (bus) = 0.30
and p(metro) = 0.25
42. The standard normal probability function can be approximated as

1
F(x N ) = [CE: GATE – 2009]
1 + exp( −1.7255 x n |x n |0.12 )
Where x N = standard normal deviate. If mean and standard deviation of annual
precipitation are 102 cm and 27 cm respectively, the probability that the annual
precipitation will be between 90 cm and 102 cm is
(a) 66.7% (b) 50.0% (c) 33.3% (d) 16.7%
42. (d)
Here μ = 102cm and σ = 27cm
⎛ 90 − 102 102 − 102 ⎞
P ( 90 ≤ x ≤ 102 ) = P ⎜ ≤x≤ ⎟ = P ( −0.44 ≤ x ≤ 0 )
⎝ 27 27 ⎠
This area is shown below
-0.44
The shaded area in above figure is given by F ( 0 ) − F ( −0.44 )
1 1
= −
1 + exp(0) 1 + exp( −1.7255 × ( −0.44) × (0.44)0.12 )
= 0.5 − 0.3345
= 0.1655 16.55%
43. Two coins are simultaneously tossed. The probability of two heads simultaneously appearing
is [CE: GATE – 2010]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 6 4 2
43.(c)
1 1 1
Probability of two head = × =
2 2 4
Q3. There are two containers, with one containing 4 Red and 3 Green balls and the other
containing Blue and 4 Green balls. One bal is drawn at random form each container. The
probability that one of the ball is Red and the other is Blue will be
(a) 1/7 (b) 9/49 (c) 12/49 (d) 3/7 [CE-2011]
Ans. (c)
45. A fair coin is tossed three times in succession. If the first toss produces a head, then the
probability of getting exactly two heads in three tosses is [EE: GATE-2005]
1 1 3 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 2 8 4
45.(d)
1 1 1
After first head in first toss, probability of tails in 2nd and 3rd toss = . =
2 2 4
1 3
∴ Probability of exactly two heads = 1 − =
4 4
46. Two fair dice are rolled and the sum r of the numbers turned up is considered
[EE: GATE-2006]
1 5
(a) Pr ( r > 6 ) = (b) Pr(r/3 is an integer)=
6 6
5 1
(c) Pr(r=8|r/4 is an integer) = (d) Pr(r=6|r/5 is an integer)=
9 18
46. (c)
47. A box contains 4 white balls and 3 red balls. In succession, two balls are randomly selected and
removed from the box. Given that the first removed ball is white, the probability that the
second removed ball is red is [EE: GATE-2010]
(a) 1/3 (a) 3/7
(a) 1/2 (a) 4/7
47. (c)
After first ball is drawn white then sample space has 4 + 3 – 1 = 6 balls.
Probability of second ball is red without replacement
3
c × 3 c1 1
= 0 =
6 2
14. X is a uniformly distributed random variable that takes values between 0 and 1. The value
of E{X3} will be [EE: GATE-2008]
1 1 1
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d)
8 4 2
14. Ans. (c)
⎧1,0 < x < 1

fx ( x ) = ⎨
⎩ 0, other wise
∞ 1 1
x4
( )
E X3 = ∫ x 3 f x ( x )dx = ∫ x dx =
3
4
−∞ 0 0
1 1
= −0=
4 4
48. Consider a Gaussian distributed random variable with zero mean and standard
deviation σ. The value of its cumulative distribution function at the origin will be
[IE: GATE-2008]
(a) 0 (b) 0.5 (c) 1 (d) 10σ

48 Ans. (b)
49. A random variable is uniformly distributed over the interval 2 to 10. Its variance will
be [IE: GATE-2008]
16 256
(a) (b) 6 (c) (d) 36
3 9
49. (a)
1 1
The p.d.f f (x) = = , x ∈ (2,10)
10 − 2 8
10
10 1 1 ⎡ x2 ⎤ 1
mean of x = E(x) = ∫ x dx = ⎢ ⎥ = .96 = 6.
2 8 8 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 2 16
Varience of x = ( σ2x ) = E ⎡( x − 6 ) ⎤
2
⎣ ⎦
10 2 1 1 ⎡ x 12x
3 2
⎤
= ∫ ( x − 6 ) dx = ⎢ − + 36x ⎥
2 8 8⎣ 3 2 ⎦
16
=
3
50. The probability that there are 53 Sundays in a randomly chosen leap year is
1 1 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7 14 28 7
[IE: GATE-2005]
50. (d)
No. of days in a leap year are 366 days. In which there are 52 complete weeks and 2 days
extra.
This 2 days may be of following combination.
1. Sunday & Monday
2. Monday & Tuesday
3. Tuesday & Wednesday
4. Wednesday & Thursday
5. Thursday & Friday
6. Friday & Saturday
7. Saturday & Sunday
There are two combination of Sunday in (1.) and (7).
∴ Re quired probability
2
=
7
51. You have gone to a cyber-café with a friend. You found that the cyber-café has only
three terminals. All terminals are unoccupied. You and your friend have to make a
random choice of selecting a terminal. What is the probability that both of you will
NOT select the same terminal? [IE: GATE-2006]
1 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
9 3 3
51.(c)
1
Out of three terminals probability of selecting terminals of two friends is =
3
1 2
∴ Probability of not selecting same terminal = 1 − =
3 3
52. Probability density function p(x) of a random variable x is as shown below. The
value of α is [IE: GATE-2006]
2 1 2 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
c c (b + c) (b + c)
p(x)
X
0 a a+b a+c
∞
52.(a) p(x) is p.d.f. ⇒ ∫ p(x)dx = 1
−∞
1 αc
From figure, area of traiangle = .c.α =
2 2
αc 2
∴ =1 ⇒ α =
2 c
53. Two dices are rolled simultaneously. The probability that the sum of digits on the
top surface of the two dices is even, is [IE: GATE-2006]
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.167 (d) 0.125
53. (a)
Here sample space S= 6 × 6 = 36
Total no. of way in which sum of digits on the top surface of the two dice is is even
is 18.
18
∴ The require probability = = 0.5 .
36
55. Poisson’s ratio for a metal is 0.35. Neglecting piezo-resistance effect, the gage factor
of a strain gage made of this metal is [IE: GATE-2010]
(a) 0.65 (b) 1 (c) 1.35 (d) 1.70
55. (d)
Poission’s ratio σ = 0.36
Gage factor, Gr = 1 + 2σ = 1 + 2 × 0.35 = 1.70
56. Assume that the duration in minutes of a telephone conversation follows the
1 –x
exponential distribution f(x) = e 5 , x ≥ 0. The probability that the conversation will
5
exceed five minutes is [IE: GATE-2007]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) 1 − (c) 2 (d) 1 − 2
e e e e
56. (a)
∞
1 −x 1
Required probability = ∫ e 5 dx =
5
5 e
22. Using the given data points tabulated below, a straight line passing through the origin is
fitted using least squares method. The slope of the line is
x 1.0 2.0 3.0
y 1.5 2.2 2.7
[IE: GATE-2005]
(a) 0.9 (b) 1.0
(c) 1.1 (d) 1.5
22. Ans.(c)
Suppose the line being, y = mx
Since, it has been fit by least square method, therefore
∑ y = μ∑ x, and ∑ x y = μ∑ x
2
∴ m = 1.1
23. The function y = sin φ, (φ > 0) is approximated as y = φ, where φ is in radian. The maximum
value of φ for which the error due to the approximation is with in ±2% is
[IE: GATE-2006]
(a) 0.1 rad (b) 0.2 rad
(c) 0.3 rad (d) 0.4 rad
23. Ans.(c)
Q3. If two fair coins are flipped and at least one of the outcome is know to be a head, what is the
probability that both outcomes are heads?
(a) 1/3 (b) ¼ (c) ½ (d) 2/3 [CS-2011]
Ans. (c)
( E [ X ])
2
Q18. If the difference between the expectation of the square of a random variable is
denoted by R, then
R=0 (b) R< 0 (c) R ≥ 0 (d) R > 0 [CS-2011]
(a)
Ans. (c)
Exp. We know,
The second control momnt,
μ2 = E {( X − m )} [ m = mean of the distribution of X ]
2
( )
= E X 2 − 2m × E ( X ) + m 2
= E ( X ) − 2 ⎡⎣ E ( X ) ⎤⎦ + E( X) ⎡⎣∵ m = E ( X ) ⎤⎦
2 2
E ( X ) − ⎡⎣ E ( X ) ⎤⎦
2 2
μ2 ≥ 0
( )
∴ E X 2 − ⎡⎣ E ( X ) ⎤⎦ ≥ 0
2
Q34. A deck of 5 cards (each carrying a distinct number from 1 to 5) is shuffled thoroughly. Two
cards are then removed one at a time from the deck. What is the probability that the two
cards are selected with the number on the first card being one higher than the number on
the second card?
(a) 1/5 (b) 4/25 (c) ¼ (d) 2/5 [CS-2011]
Ans. *
57. For each element is a set of size 2n, an unbiased coin is tossed. The 2n coin tossed are
independent. An element is chosen if the corresponding coin toss were head. The probability
that exactly n elements are chosen is [CS: GATE-2006]
⎛ 2n ⎞ ⎛ 2n ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n⎠ n 1 1
(a) (b) ⎝ n ⎠ (c) (d)
4 n
2 ⎛ 2n ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟
⎝n⎠
57.(a)
The probability that exactly n elements are chosen
= the probability of getting n heads out of 2n tosses
n 2n −n
2n ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
= cn ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
2n
c
= 2nn
2
2n
c
= nn
4
59. Suppose we uniformly and randomly select a permutation from the 20! permutations of 1, 2, 3
….., 20. What is the probability that 2 appears at an earlier position that any other even number
in the selected permutation? [CS: GATE-2007]
1 1 9!
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
2 10 20!
59. (d)
Number of permutations with ‘2’ in the first position = 19!
Number of permutations with ‘2’ in the second position = 10 × 18!
(fill the first space with any of the 10 odd numbers and the 18 spaces after the 2 with 18 of
the remaining numbers in 18! ways)
Number of permutations with ‘2’ in 3rd position = 10 × 9 × 17!
(fill the first 2 places with 2 of the 10 odd numbers and then the remaining 17 places with
remaining 17 numbers)
and so on until ‘2’ is in 11th place. After that it is not possible to satisfy the given condition,
since there are only 10 odd numbers available to fill before the ‘2’. So the desired number of
permutations which satisfies the given condition is
19! + 10 × 18! + 10 × 9 × 17! + 10 × 9 × 8 × 16! + … + 10! × 9!
Now the probability of this happening is given by
19! + 10 × 18! + 10 × 9 × 17! ... + 10! × 9!

20!
Which is clearly not choices (a), (b) or (c)
Thus, Answer is (d) none of these.
60. Aishwarya studies either computer science or mathematics everyday. if the studies computer
science on a day, then the probability that she studies mathematics the next day is 0.6. If she
studies mathematics on a day, then the probability that she studies computer science the next
day is 0.4. Given that Aishwarya studies computer science on Monday, what is the probability
that she studies computer science on Wednesday? [CS: GATE-2008]
(a) 0.24 (b) 0.36 (c) 0.4 (d) 0.6
60. (c)
Let C denote computes science study and M denotes maths study.

P(C on monday and C on wednesday)
= p(C on monday, M on tuesday and C on wednesday)
+ p(C on monday, C on tuesday and C on wednesday)
= 1 × 0.6 × 0.4 + 1 × 0.4 × 0.4
= 0.24 + 0.16
= 0.40
61. Let X be a randon variable following normal distribution with mean +1 and variance 4. Let Y be
another normal variable with mean –1 and variance unknown. If P(X ≤ –1) = P(Y ≥ 2) the
standard deviation of Y is [CS: GATE-2008]
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 1

61. Ans. (a) Given Ψ x = 1, σ2x = 4 ⇒ σx = 2 and μ Y = –1, σ Y is unknown
given, p(X ≤ –1) = p(Y ≥ 2)
Converting into standard normal variates,

⎛ −1 − μ x ⎞ ⎛ 2 − μy ⎞
p⎜z ≤ ⎟ = p ⎜⎜ z ≥ ⎟
⎝ σx ⎠ ⎝ σ y ⎟⎠
⎛ −1 − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 − ( −1) ⎞
p⎜z ≤ ⎟ = p⎜z ≥ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜ σ y ⎟⎠
⎝
⎛ 3 ⎞
P(z ≤ –1) = p ⎜ z ≥ ⎟ … (i)
⎜ σ y ⎟⎠
⎝
Now since us know that in standard normal distribution,
P(z ≤ –1) = p(z ≥ 1) … (ii)
Comparing (i) and (ii) we can say that
3
= 1 ⇒ σy = 3
σy
62. An unbalanced dice (with 6 faces, numbered from 1 to 6) is thrown. The probability that the face
value is odd is 90% of the probability that the face value is even. The probability of getting any
even numbered face is the same.
If the probability that the face is even given that it is greater than 3 is 0.75, which one of the
following options is closed to the probability that the face value exceeds 3?
[CS: GATE-2009]
(a) 0.453 (b) 0.468 (c) 0.485 (d) 0.492
62. (b)
It is given that
P(odd) = 0.9 p(even)
Now since Σp(x) = 1
∴ p(odd) + p (even) = 1
⇒ 0.9 p(even) + p (even) = 1
1
⇒ p(even) = = 0.5263
1.9
Now, it is given that p (any even face) is same
i.e p(2) = p(4) = p(6)
Now since,
p(even) = p(2) or p(4) or p(6)
= p(2) + p(4) + p(6)
1
∴ p(2) = p(4) = p(6) = p(even)
3
1
= (0.5263)
3
= 0.1754
It is given that
p(even|face > 3) = 0.75
p(even ∩ face > 3)
∴ = 0.75
p(face > 3)
p(face = 4, 6)
⇒ = 0.75
p(face > 3)
p(face = 4, 6) p(4) + p(6)
⇒ p(face > 3) = =
0.75 0.75
0.1754 + 0.1754
=
0.75
= 0.4677 0.468
63. Consider a company that assembles computers. The probability of a faulty assembly of any
computer is p. The company therefore subjects each computer to a testing process. This testing
process gives the correct result for any computer with a probability of q.
What is the probability of a computer being declared faulty? [CS: GATE-2010]
(a) pq + (1 – p) (1 – q) (b) (1 – q)p (c) (1 – p)q (d) pq
63.(a)
(declared faulty)
q
faulty
p 1-q
(declared not faulty)
(declared faulty)
1-q
1-p
not faulty
q
(declared not faulty)
From the diagram,
P ( declared faulty ) = pq + (1 − p)(1 − q )
64. What is the probability that a divisor of 1099 is a multiple of 1096? [CS: GATE-2010]
1 4 12 16
(a) (b) (c) (d)
625 625 625 625
64. Ans. (a)

p(multiple of 10% |divisor of 1099)
n(multiple of 1096 and divisor of 1099)
=
n(divisor of 1099 )
Since 10 = 2.5
1099 = 299 . 599
Any divisor of 1099 is of the form 2a . 5b where 0 ≤ a ≤ 99 and 0 ≤ b ≤ 99.
The number of such possibilities is combination of 100 values of a and 100 values of b = 100
× 100 each of which is a divisor of 1099.
So, no. of divisors of 1099 = 100 × 100.
Any number which is a multiple of 1096 as well as divisor of 1099 is of the form 2a . 5b where
96 ≤ a ≤ 99 and 96 ≤ b ≤ 99. The number of such combinations of 4 values of a and 4 values
of b is 4 × 4 combinations, each of which will be a multiple of 1096 as well as a divisor of 1099.
∴ p(multiple of 1096|divisor of 1099)
4×4 1
= =
100 × 100 625
1 ⎛A⎞
65. Let P(E) denote the probability of the even E. Given P(A) = 1, P(B) = , the values of P ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝B⎠
⎛B⎞
and P ⎜ ⎟ respectively are [CS: GATE-2003]
⎝A⎠
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) , (b) , (c) ,1 (d) 1,
4 2 2 4 2 2
65.(d)
1
Here, P(A) = 1,P(B) =
2
Since A, B are independent events,
∴ P(AB) = P(A)P(B)
⎛ A ⎞ P(AB) P(A)P(B)
P⎜ ⎟ = = = P(A) = 1
⎝B⎠ P(B) P(B)
⎛ B ⎞ P(A)P(B) 1
P⎜ ⎟ = = P(B) =
⎝A⎠ P(A) 2
66. A program consists of two modules executed sequentially. Let f1 (t) and f2 (t) respectively
denote the probability density functions of time taken to execute the two modules. The
probability density function of the overall time taken to execute the program is given by
[CS: GATE-2003]
t
(a) f1 (t) + f2 (t) (b) ∫ f (x)f (x)dx
0
1 2
t
(c) ∫ f (x)f (t − x)dx
0
1 2 (d) max {f1 (t), f2 (t)}
66.(c)
Let the time taken for first and second modules be represented by x and y and
total time = t.
and y and total time = t.
∴t = x + y is a random variable
Now the joint density function
t
g(t) = ∫ f (x, y) dx
0
t
= ∫ f (x, t − x) dx
0
t
= ∫ f (x) f (t − x) dx
0
1 2
which is also called as convolution of f1 and f2 , abbreviated as f1 * f2 .

Correct answer is therefore, choice (c).
67. If a fair coin is tossed four times. What is the probability that two heads and two tails will
result? [CS: GATE-2004]
3 1 5 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 2 8 4
67. (a)
1
Here P ( H ) = P ( T ) =
2
It’s a Bernoulli’s trials.
∴ Re quired probability
2 2
4 ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
= c2 . ⎜ ⎟ .⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
4
c 3
= 42 =
2 8
68. An examination paper has 150 multiple-choice questions of one mark each, with each question
having four choices. Each incorrect answer fetches – 0.25 mark. Suppose 1000 students choose
all their answers randomly with uniform probability. The sum total of the expected marks
obtained all these students is [CS: GATE-2004]
(a) 0 (b) 2550 (c) 7525 (d) 9375
68. (d)
Let the marks obtained per question be a random variable X. It’s probability distribution
table is given below:
X 1 -0.25
1 3
P (X) 4 4
Expected mark per question = E ( x ) = ∑ x p( x )

1 3 1
=1× + ( −0.25 ) × = marks
4 4 16
Total marks expected for 150 questions
1 75
= × 150 = marks per student.
16 8
Total expected marks of 1000 students
75
= × 1000 = 9375 marks .
8
69. Two n bit binary strings, S1 and S2 are chosen randomly with uniform probability. The
probability that the Hamming distance between these strings (the number of bit positions
where the two strings differ) is equal to d is [CS: GATE-2004]
n n
C C d 1
(a) nd (b) d d (c) n (d) d
2 2 2 2
69.(a)
It’s a binomial distribution
d n −d
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
P ( x = d ) = n cd ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
n
c
= nd
2
70. A point is randomly selected with uniform probability in the X-Y. plane within the rectangle
with corners at (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 2) and (0, 2). If p is the length of the position vector of the
point, the expected value of p2 is [CS: GATE-2004]
2 4 5
(a) (b) 1 (c) (d)
3 3 3
70. (d)
y
(0,2) (1,2)
P(x,j)
p
X
O (0,0) (1,0)
∴ p = x 2 + y2 ⇒ p2 = x 2 + y2
∴ E(p2 ) = E(x 2 + y2 ) = E(x 2 ) + E(y2 )
Since x and y are uniformly distributed
in the int erval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 2 respectively.
∴ Pr obability density function of x,
1
p(x) = =1
1−0
and probability density function of y,
1 1
p(y) = =
2−0 2
1 1
1
∴ E(x 2 ) = ∫ x 2 p(x)dx = ∫ x 2 dx =
0 0
3
2 2
y2 4
And E(y2 ) = ∫ y2 p(y)dy = ∫ dy =
0 0
2 3
1 4 5
∴ E(p2 ) = E(x 2 ) + E(y2 ) = + =
3 3 3
71. Let f(x) be the continuous probability density function of a random variable X. The probability
that a < X ≤ b, is [CS: GATE-2005]
b b
(a) f (b –a) (b) f(b) – f(a) (c) ∫ f (x)dx
a
(d) ∫ xf (x)dx
a
71.(c)
For continuous cases,
b
P ( a < × ≤ b ) = ∫ f (x)dx
a
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
7.2 DEFINITION
Let f(t) be a function of t defined for all positive values of t. Then the Laplace transforms of f(t), denoted
by L{f(t)} is defined by
L{f(t)} =∫ ( )
Provided that the integral exist, s is a parameter which may be a real or complex number.
̅ or as F(s).
L{f(t)} being clearly a function of s in briefly written as (s)
i.e. ̅
L{f(t)} = (s),
which can be written as
̅
f(t) = L-1 { (s)}
̅ The symbol L…which transforms f(t) into (s).

Then f(t) is called the inverse Laplace transform of (s). ̅ is
called the Laplace transformation operator.
Example:
It f(t) = 1
L[f(t)] =∫ e-t . 1dt = * + = =
Similarly Laplace transforms of other common functions can also be evaluated and is shown below:
7.3 TRANSFORMS OF ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
The direct application of the definition gives the following formulae:
1. L(t) = (s > 0)
( )
2. L(tn) = when n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…. ( )
3. L(tnt) = (s > a)
4. L(sin at) = (s < 0)
5. L(cos at) = (s > 0)
6. L(sinh at) = (s > |a|)
7. L(cosh at) = (s > |a|)
Q. 1 Laplace transform of the function sin t is

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution: (b)
L [sin t] =
Q. 2 The function f(t) satisfies the differential equation + f = 0 and the auxiliary conditions. F(0)
= 0, (0) = 4. The Laplace transform of f(t) is given by
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Answer: (c)
7.4 PROPERTIES OF LAPPLACETRANSFORMS
7.4.1 Linearity Property
If a, b, c be any constant and f, g, h any functions of t then
L [af(t) + bg(t) – ch(f(t)] = a L(f(t)} + bL[g(t)] – cL{h(t)}
7.4.2 First Shifting Property
̅ – a)
If L{f(t)} = (s
Application of the property leads us to the following useful results:
1. L(eat) =
2. L(eattn) = ( )
at
3. L(e sin bt) = ( )
at
4. L(e cos bt) = ( )
at
5. L(e sinh bt) = ( )
at
6. L(e cosh bt) = ( )
Where in each case s > a.
7.4.3 change of scale Property

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
̅ then L{f(a)} =
If L {f(t)} = (s), ̅( )
Proof: L{f(a)} = ∫ f(at)dt
=∫ f(u).du/a
= ∫ f(u)du = ̅
(s/a).
Example: Find L , -.
Given that, L, - = tan-1 ( )
By the above property,
L, - = tan-1 ,( )
- = tan-1( )
L, - = tan-1 , -
7.4.4 Existence Conditions
∫ f(t)dt exist if ∫ f(t)dt can actually be evaluated and its limit as exists. Otherwise we
may use the following theorem:
If f(t) is continuous and {e-at f(t)} is finite; then the Laplace of f(t). i.e. ∫ f(t)dt exists for s > a.
It should however be noted that the above conditions are sufficient rather than necessary.
For example, L(1/√ ) exists though 1/√ is infinite at t = 0. Similarly a function f(t) for which {e-at
f(t)} is finite and having a finite discontinuity will have
A Laplace transform for s > a.
Q. 1 Laplace transform of cos( t) is . The laplace transform of e-2t cos(4t) is
(a) ( )
(b) ( )
(c) ( )
(d) ( )
Solution: (d)
L(eat cos bt) = ( )

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
a = -2, b= 4
L[e-2t cos(4t)] = ( )
Q. 8 In what range should re(s) remain so that the Laplace transform of the function e(a+2)t + 5 exists.
(a) Re(s) > a+ 2 (b) Re(s) > a + 7
(c) Re(s) < 2 (d) Re(s) > a + 5
Solution: (a)
f(t) = e(a+2)t + 5 = e5. e(a+2)t
F(s) = * ( )
+ e5
With L. T. to exist, Re(s) > a + 2
7.4.5 Transforms of Derivatives
̅ then
1. If f’(t) be continuous and L(f(t)} = (s).
̅ – f(0)
L(f(t)} = s (s)
2. If f’(t) and its first (n-1) derivatives be continuous, then
̅
L(f(t)} =sn (s)-s n-1
(0) – sn-2f’(0)-…..-fn-1(0)
7.4.5.1 Differential Equations, Initial value problems
We shall now discuss how the Laplace transform method solved differential equations.
We begin with initial value problem.
Y’ + ay’ + by = r(t).
Y(0) = k0. Y’(0) = k1
With constant a and b. Here ® is the input (driving force) applied to the mechanical system and y(t) is the
output (response of the system). In Laplace’s method we do three steps.
1st step: taking Laplace transform of LHS and RHS of 1 we get
L (y’) + a L(y’) + b L(y) = L(r).
Now substituting L(y’) = sL(y) – f(0) and L(y’) = s2 L(y) – sf(0) – f’(0) we get
[s2L(y) – sy(0) – y’(0)+ + a*sL(y) – y(0)] + by = L(r).

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Now writing Y = L(y) and R = L(r). this gives
[s2Y(s) – sy(0) – y’(0)+ + 0(oY(s)- y(0)] + by = R(s)
This is called the subsidiary equation. Collecting Y-terms we have
(s2 + as + b) Y(s) = (s + a) y(0) + y’(0) + R(s).
2nd Step: We solve the subsidiary equation algebraically for Y. Division by s2 + as + b and use of the so-
called transfer function
Q(s) =
Gives the solution
Y(s) = *(s+a)y(0) + y’(0)+Q(s)+R(s) Q(s)
If y(0) = y’(0) this is simple Y = RQ thus Q is the quotient
( )
Q= = ( )
And this explains the same of Q Note that Q depends only on a and b, but does not depend on either r(t)
or on the intial conditions.
3rd Step: We reduce (ii) (usually by partial fractions as in calculus) to a sum of terms whose invers can be
found form the table, o that the solution y(t) = L-1(Y) of (i) is obtained.
Example 1:
Initial problem: Explanation of thebasic steps
Solve
Y’ – y = t y(0) = 1 y’(0) = 1
Solution. 1st step.
By taking Laplace transform of LHS and RHS of y’ – y = t we get the following subsidiary equation
S2L(y) – sy(0) – y’(0) – L(y) = 1/s2. Thus(s2 – 1)Y = s+1+1/s2
Where Y = L(y)
2nd Step. The transfer function is Q = 1/(s2-1) and
Y = (s + 1)Q+ Q = + ( )
= +( ).
3rd Step. From this expression for Y. we obtain the solution by inverse Laplace transform as follows

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Y(t) = L-1(Y) = L-1, -+Q+ + (

= +( ).
3rd step. From this expression for Y. we obtain the solution by inverse Laplace transform as follows
y(t) = L-1(Y) – L-1, - + L-1, - - L-1, - =e1 +sinh t –t.
= et + -t=
The diagram in fig. below summarizes our approach.
Comparison with the usual method
The problem can also be solved by the usual method without using Laplace transforms as shown below:
y(0) = 1, y’(0) = 1
( )
Auxiliary equation
D2 -1 = 0
(D + 1)(D – 1) = 0
m1 = 1 and m2 = -1
So complementary function is y = c1 et + c2 e-t
Now particular integral
P.I. = ( )
= -(1 + D2 – D4 ….)t = -t + 0 – 0….. = -1
So complete solution is
Y=c1et + c2e-t
Y’= c1et - c2e-t
Putting initial conditions y(0) = 1 and y’(0) = 1 we get
c1 + c2 = 1 and c1 - c2 = 2
c1 = and c2 =

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
So C.S is y = et - e-t –t = (3et – e-t – 2t)
Which is exactly the same solution as obtained by laplace transform method.
Note: Laplace transform method has obtained the solution directly without any evaluation of costants
c1, c2 etc.
7.4.6 Transforms of Integrals
̅ then L,∫
If L{f(t)} = (s) ( ) -= ̅
(s)
Q. 1 If f(s) is the Laplace transform of function f(t) then Laplace transform of ∫ ( ) is
(a) ( ) (b) ( ) ( )
(c) sF(s) – f(0) (d) ∫ F(s) ds
Solution: (a)
L*∫ ∫ ∫ ( ) +
In this problem n=1
So, L*∫ ( ) + = F(s)
7.4.7 Multiplication By tn
If L{f(t)} = f(s) then L{tnf(t)} = (-1)n ̅

[ (s)+ where n = 1, 2, 3 …..
7.4.8 Division By t
̅ then
If L{f(t)} = (s) L, ( )- = ∫ (̅ )
Provided the integral exists.
7.5 EVALUTION OF INTEGRALS BY LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Q. 1 Evaluate ∫
(a) (b)

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
(c) (d)
Solution: (b)
Since, L(sin mt) = ( )

= f(s) say
L( )=∫ ( ) =∫ =| |
Or by Definition,
∫ =
Now tan-1 ( ) = 0 if m > 0 or < 0.
Thus taking limit as we get
∫ = if m > 0 or - if m < 0.
In this problem m = 1 which is > 0 therefore the answer is
7.6 INVERSETRANSFORMS – METHOD OF PARTIAL FRANCTIONS
Having found the Laplace Transform of a few function let us now determine the inverse transforms of
given function of s. We have seen that L{f(t)} in each case is a rational algebraic function. Hence to find
the transforms we first express the given function of s into partial fractions which will then be
recognizable as one of the following standard forms:
1. L-1* + = 1 2. L-2* + = eat
3. L-1* + = ( )
n = 1, 2, 3 … 4. L-1*( )
+= ( )
5. L-1* += 6. L-1* + = cos at
7. L-1* + = sinh at 8. L-1* + = cosh at
9. L-1*( )
+= sin bt 10. L-1*( )
+ = eat coss bt
11. L-1*( )
+= t sin at 12. L-1*( )
+= (sin at – at cos at
All these results need to be memorized. The results (1) to (10) follow at once from their corresponding
results in transforms of elementary functions and properties of Laplace transforms. Results (11) and (12)
can be proved.

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Note on Partial Fractions:
To resolve a given fraction into partial fractions we first factories the denominator into real factors.
These will be either linear or quadratic and some factor repeated we know from algebra that a proper
fraction can be resolved into a sum of partial fractions such that
1. to a non-repeated linear factor s – a in the denominator corresponds the sum of r partial fractions of
the form A/(s-a)
2. to repeated repeated linear factor (s – a) in the denominator corresponds the sum of r partial
fractions of the form +( ) ( )
+…+( )
3. to a non-repeated quadratic factor (s2 + as +b) in the denominator corresponds a partial fraction of
the from
4. to a repeated quadratic factor (s2 + as +b)r in the denominator corresponds a partial fraction of the
from +( )
+…+( )
Then we have to determine the unknown costant A, A1, B1 etc.
In all other cases equate the given fraction to a sum suitable partial fractions in accordance with 1 to 4
above having found the partial fractions corresponding to the non-repeated linear factors by the above
rule. Then multiply both by the denominator of the given fraction and equate the coefficient of like
powers of s or substitute convenient numeric values of s on both sides. Finaly solve the resulting
equations to find the unknown constants.
Q. 1 The inverse Laplace transform of ( )

is
(a) 1 + et (b) 1-et
(c) 1-e-t (d) 1+e-t
Solution: (c)
L-1( )=?
= ( )
= -
L-1( ) L-1( )- L-1( )
=1 – e-t

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
L-1( ) = 1
L-1( ) = e-at+
L-1( ) = eat
Q. 2 the inverse Laplace transform of the function F(s) = ( )

is given by
(a) f(t) = sin t (b) f(t) = e-t sin t
(c) f(t) = e4 (d) f(f(t) = 1- e-t
Solution: (d)
( ) ( )
F(s) = = + =
( ) ( )
A(s+1) + B(s) = 1
Put s=0
A=1
And s = -1
B = -1
So F(s) = -
Now f(t) = F-1(f(s)) = e0t – e-t
F(t) = 1 – e-t
7.7 UNIT STEP FUNCTION
At limes we come across such fractions of which the inverse transform cannot determined from the
formulae so far derived. In order to cover such cases we introduce the unit step fuction (or Heaviside’s
unit function*).
Def the unit step function u(t-a) is defined as follows
U(t-a) = {
Where a is always positive.
7.7.1 Transform of unit function

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
L[(u(t-a)] = ∫ ( )
=∫ ∫ = 0+ | |
Thus, L{u(t-a)} = e-as/s
The product f(t) u(t-a) = {

( )
The function f(t-a). u(t-a) represents the graph f(t) shifted through a distance a to the right and is of
special importance.
Q. 1 A delayed unit step function is defined as u (t – a) = { Its Laplace transform is
(a) a.e –as (b)
(c) (d)
Solution: (d)
L[U (t – a)] = ∫ ( )
=∫ ) ∫ =0+∫ =* + =
Q. 2 g(t) an be expressed as
(s) g(t) = f(2t-3) (b) g(t) = f( )
(c) g(t) = f( ) (d) g(t) = f( )
Solution: (d)
We need g(3) = f(0) and g(5) = f(1)
Only choice (d) satisfies both these conditions as seen below:
Choice (d) is g(t) = f( )
g(3) = f( )= f(0)
and g(5) = f( ) = f(1)

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
7.8 SECOND SHIFT PRPERTY
If ̅ then
L{(t)} = (s)
̅
L{(t –a)x u (t-a)} = e-as (s)
Proof: L{(t –a)x u (t-a)} = ∫ f(t –a)u(t-a)dt
=∫ f(t –a)(0)dt + ∫ f(t –a)dt [Put t-1 = U]
=∫ ( )
f(u)du = e-as ∫ ̅
f(u)du = e-as (s)
8. UNIT IMPULES FUNCTION
The idea of a very large force acting for a very short time is of frequent occurrence in mechanics. To deal
with such and similar ideas we introduce the unit impulse function (also called Dirac function).
Thus unit impulse function is considered as the limiting form of the function
(t-a) = 1/ , a t a+
= 0 otherwise
As . It is clear from figure that as the height of the strip increases indefinitely and the width
decreases in such a way that its area is always unity.
Thus the unit impulse function (t-a) is defined as follows:
(t-a) = for t = a
=0 for t a
Such that ∫ (t-a)dt = 1 (a 0)
As an illustration a load w0 acting at the point x = a of a beam may be considered as the limiting case of
uniform loading w0/ per unit length over the portion of the beam between x = a and x = a +
Thus
w(x) = w0/ a< x < a +
= 0 otherwise
i.e. w(x) = w0 (x+a)
7.9.1 Transform of Unit Impulse function

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
If (t) be a function of t continuous at = 1 then
∫ () ( ) =∫ () = (a+ -a)f( ) = f( ) where a< <a+ .
By mean value theorem for integrals.
Aa we get ∫ () ( ) = f(a)
In particular, putting f(t) = e-st in above integral
We have ∫ ( ) = e-as
Now LHS is nothing but L{ (t-a)}
L{ (t-s)} = e-as
Q. 1 A solution for the differential equation ̇ (t) + 2x(t) = (t) with intial condition x(0-) = 0 is
(a) e-2tu(t) (b) e2tu(t)
(c) e-t u(t) (d)et u(t)
Solution: (a)
̇ (t) + 2x(t) = (t)
Taking L.T on both sides
sX(s) – x(0) + 2X(s) = 1
X(5) [s+2] = 1
X(s) =
X(t) = e-2t u(t)
7.10 PERIODIC FUNCTIONS
If f(t) is a periodic function with period T i.e. f(t-T) = f(t), then
∫ ()
L[f(t)] =

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION OF GATE FROM
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS AND FOURIER SERIES
1. Choose the function f(t); –∞ < t < ∞, for which a Fourier series cannot be defined.
[EC: GATE-2005]
(a) 3 sin (25 t) (b) 4 cos (20 t + 3) + 2 sin (710 t)
(c) exp (–|t|) sin (25 t) (d) 1
1.(c)
2. The Fourier series of a real periodic function has only [EC: GATE-2009]
P. cosine terms if it is even
Q. sine terms if it is even
R. cosine terms if it is odd
S. sine terms if it is odd
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) P and S (b) P and R
(c) Q and S (d) Q and R
2. (a) Because sine function is odd and cosine is even function.
3. The trigonometric Fourier series for the waveform f(t) shown below contains
[EC: GATE-2010]
(a) Only cosine terms and zero value for the dc component
(b) Only cosine terms and a positive value for the dc component
(c) Only cosine terms and a negative value for the dc component
(d) Only sine terms and a negative for the dc component
3. (c) From figure it’s an even function. so only cosine terms are present in the series and for DC
value,
1 T2
T ∫− T 2
So = f (t)dt
⎡ T
2 ⎤
1 ⎢ −T4 T
⎥
T ⎢ ∫− T 2 ∫−T 4 ∫
4
= − ' 2Adt + Adt + −2Adt
T ⎥
⎣ 4 ⎦
1⎡ ⎛T T⎞ ⎛T T⎞ ⎛ T T ⎞⎤
= ⎢ −2A ⎜ + ⎟ + A ⎜ + ⎟ − 2A ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
T⎣ ⎝4 2⎠ ⎝4 4⎠ ⎝ 2 4 ⎠⎦
1⎡ T AT 2AT ⎤
= ⎢ −2A. + −
T⎣ 4 2 4 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ − AT ⎤
=
T ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎛A⎞
= −⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
So DC take negative value.
5. For the function e–x, the linear approximation around x = 2 is [EC: GATE-2007]
–2
(a) (3 – x) e (b) 1 – x
(c) [3 + 2 2 − (1 + 2) x]e−2 (d) e–2
5. Ans.(a)
(x − x 0 ) f ′(x 0 ) (x − x 0 )2 f ′′(x 0 )
f(x) = f(x 0 ) + + + .......
1 2
(x − 2)2
= e−2 + (x − 2) ( − e−2 ) + ( + e−2 ) ........
2
⎛ (x − 2)2 ⎞ −2
e−2 + ⎜ 2 − x + ⎟ e + ........
= ⎝ 2 ⎠
= (3 − x ) e−2
(neglecting higher power of x)
6. Which of the following functions would have only odd powers of x in its Taylor series
expansion about the point x = 0? [EC: GATE-2008]
(a) sin (x3) (b) sin (x2)
(c) cos (x3) (d) cos (x2)
6. (a)
x 3 x 5 x7
We know, sin x = x − + − + ....
3! 5! 7!
x 9 x15 x 21
∴ sin x 3 = x 3 − + − + .....
3! 5! 7!
7. In the Taylor series expansion of exp(x) + sin(x) about the point x = π, the coefficient of (x –
π)2 is [EC: GATE-2008]
(a) exp (π) (b) 0.5 exp(π)
(c) exp (π) + 1 (d) exp(π) – 1
7. (b)
Let f (x) = ex + sin x
Taylor ' s series is
(x − a)
2
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a)f '(a) + f "(a)

2!
where a = π
(x − π)
2
f (x) = f ( π ) + ( x − π ) f ' ( π ) + f " ( π) .

2!
f " ( π)
∴ cofficient of ( x − π ) is
2
2
Now,f " ( π ) = ex − sin x x =π = eπ
∴ cofficient of ( x − π ) = 0.5 exp ( π ) .
2
sin x
8. The Taylor series expansion of at x = π is given by [EC: GATE-2009]
x−π
(x − π)2 (x − π)2
(a) 1 + + ... (b) −1 − + ...
3! 3!
(x − π)2 (x − π)2
(c) 1 − + ... (d) −1 + + ...
3! 3!
8. (d)
We know.
x3 x 5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ......
3! 5! 7!
( x − π) (x − π) (x − π)
3 5 7
∴ sin ( x − π ) = ( x − π ) − + − + .......
3! 5! 7!
( x − π ) + ( x − π ) − ( x − π ) + .......
2 4 6
− sin x
⇒ =1 −
x−π 3! 5! 7!
( x − π ) − ( x − π ) + ( x − π ) − ........
2 4 6
sin x
⇒ = −1 +
x−π 3! 5! 7!
1. The function x(t) is shown in the figure. Even and odd parts of a unit-step function u(t) are
respectively, [EC: GATE-2005]
x(t)
1
0 t
–1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) , x(t) (b) − , x(t) (c) , − x(t) (d) − , − x(t)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1. Ans.(a)
u(t) + u( − t)
Even part =
2
Now u(t) = 0; t<0
= 1, t≥0
∴ u(–t) = 0, –t < 0
= 1, –t≥0
i.e., u(–t) = 1, t≤0
= 0, t>0
u(t) + u( − t) 1
∴ = ; t≤0
2 2
1
= t>0
2
1
∴ Even [u(t)] =
2
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ − , t ≤ 0⎥
u(t) + u( − t) 2
Odd (u(t)) = ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢ 1 , t > 0⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
x(t)
= from given figure
2
∞
π
9. For x = , the sum of the series ∑ (cos x)2n = cos 2 x + cos 4 x + ........is
6 1
(a) π (b) 3 (c) ∞ (d) 1 [ME: GATE-1998]
9. Ans. (b)
∞
∑ ( cos x )
2n
= cos2 x + cos4 x + ......
n =0
π ∞
( cos x 6 ) π π π
2n
At x = ,∑ = cos2
+ cos4 + cos6 + ......
6 n =0 6 6 6
3 9 27
= + + + ......
4 16 64
3
3 4
= 4 = × = 3.
3 4 1
1−
4
11. In the Taylor series expansion of ex about x = 2, the coefficient of (x - 2)4 is

(a) 1/4! (b) 24/4! (c) e2/4! (d) e4/4! [ME: GATE-2008]
11. (d)
Taylor series of
f(x) in the neighborhood of a,
∞
f (x) = ∑ bn ( x − a ) ,here a = 2.
n
n =0
f n (a) f 4 (2) e4
where bn = ∴ b4 = =
n! 4! 4!
1 1 1
12. The sum of the infinite series, 1 + + + + ... is [ME: GATE-1997]
2 3 4
π2
(a) π (b) infinity (c) 4 (d)
4
12. Ans. ()
14. The Fourier series expansion of a symmetric and even function, f(x) where
⎡ 2 ⎤
x 5 ⎢ 22 ⎥ 5 3
⇒ = +⎢ ⎥= + =4
2 2 ⎢ 1 2 2
1− ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
∴x = 8 ∴S = 2 + 8 = 10.
∞
Q16. The Fourier series expansion f ( t ) = a 0 + ∑ a n cos nωt + bn sin nωt of the periodic signal
n =1
shown below will contain the following nonzero terms
(a) a 0 and bn , n = 1,3,5...∞ (b) a 0 , and a n , n = 1,2,3...∞

(c) a 0 and a n , n = 1,2,3...∞ (d) a 0 and a n , n = 1,3,5...∞ [EE-2011]
Ans. (b)
Exp. from the figure, we can say that
f(t) is an symmetric and even function of t.
as cost is even function so choice (b) is correct.
16. Fourier series for the waveform, f (t) shown in fig. is [EE: GATE-2002]
8 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
(a) 2 ⎢
sin(π t ) + sin(3π t ) + sin(5π t ) + .........⎥
π ⎣ 9 25 ⎦ F(t)
1
(b) 82 ⎡⎢sin(π t ) − 1 cos(3π t ) + 1 sin(5π t ) + .........⎤⎥
π ⎣ 9 25 ⎦ -1 0 1 2 3
8 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
(c) cos(π t ) − cos(3π t ) + cos(5π t ) + .........⎥
π 2 ⎢⎣ 9 25 ⎦ -1
8 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
(d) 2 ⎢
cos(π t ) − sin(3π t ) + sin(5π t ) + .........⎥
π ⎣ 9 25 ⎦
16.(c)
From the figure, we say f (x) is even functions. so choice (c) is correct.
17. The Fourier series for the function f(x)=sin2x is [EE: GATE-2005]
(a) sinx+sin2x
(b) 1-cos2x
⎡ 2 ⎤
x 5 ⎢ 22 ⎥ 5 3
⇒ = +⎢ ⎥= + =4
2 2 ⎢ 1 2 2
1− ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
∴x = 8 ∴S = 2 + 8 = 10.
∞
Q16. The Fourier series expansion f ( t ) = a 0 + ∑ a n cos nωt + bn sin nωt of the periodic signal
n =1
shown below will contain the following nonzero terms
(a) a 0 and bn , n = 1,3,5...∞ (b) a 0 , and a n , n = 1,2,3...∞

(c) a 0 and a n , n = 1,2,3...∞ (d) a 0 and a n , n = 1,3,5...∞ [EE-2011]
Ans. (b)
Exp. from the figure, we can say that
f(t) is an symmetric and even function of t.
as cost is even function so choice (b) is correct.
16. Fourier series for the waveform, f (t) shown in fig. is [EE: GATE-2002]
8 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
(a) 2 ⎢
sin(π t ) + sin(3π t ) + sin(5π t ) + .........⎥
π ⎣ 9 25 ⎦ F(t)
1
(b) 82 ⎡⎢sin(π t ) − 1 cos(3π t ) + 1 sin(5π t ) + .........⎤⎥
π ⎣ 9 25 ⎦ -1 0 1 2 3
8 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
(c) cos(π t ) − cos(3π t ) + cos(5π t ) + .........⎥
π 2 ⎢⎣ 9 25 ⎦ -1
8 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
(d) 2 ⎢
cos(π t ) − sin(3π t ) + sin(5π t ) + .........⎥
π ⎣ 9 25 ⎦
16.(c)
From the figure, we say f (x) is even functions. so choice (c) is correct.
17. The Fourier series for the function f(x)=sin2x is [EE: GATE-2005]
(a) sinx+sin2x
(b) 1-cos2x
(c) sin2x+cos2x
(d) 0.5-0.5cos2x
17. (d)
Here f (x) = sin2 x is even function, hence f(x) has no sine term.
2 π π
Now, a0 = ∫ sin 2 xdx. = ∫ (1 − cos 2x ) dx = 1. we know
π 0 0
a0 ∞
f (x) = + ∑ a n cos nx.
2 n =1
= 0.5 + term contain cos ine
18. X(t) is a real valued function of a real variable with period T. Its trigonometric Fourier
Series expansion contains no terms of frequency ω = 2π (2k ) / T ; k = 1, 2,.... Also, no sine
terms are present. Then x(t) satisfies the equation [EE: GATE-2006]
(a) x ( t ) = − x(t − T )
(b) x ( t ) = − x(T − t ) = − x ( −t ) (c) x ( t ) = x(T − t ) = − x ( t − T / 2 )
(d) x ( t ) = x(t − T ) = x ( t − T / 2 )
18. (d)
No sine terms are present.
∴x(t) is even function.
19. The Fourier Series coefficients, of a periodic signal x (t), expressed as
∑
∞
x (t ) = k = −∞
a
ke
j 2 π kt / T
are given by
a−2 = − j1; a−1 = 0.5 + j 0.2; a0 = j 2; a1 = 0.5 − j 0.2; a2 = 2 + j1; and ak = 0; for \ k \ > 2.
Witch of the following is true? [EE: GATE-2009]
(a) x(t) has finite energy because only finitely many coefficients are non- zero
(b) x(t) has zero average value because it is periodic
(c) The imaginary part of x(t) is constant
(d) The real part of x(t) is even
19. (a)
∞
20. f(x), shown in the figure is represented by f(x) = a 0 + ∑ {a
n =1
n cos(nx) + bn sin(nx)}. The
value of a 0 is [IE: GATE-2010]
f(x)
1.5
1.0
– 2π –π 0 π 2π 3π x
– 1.0
– 1.5
π
(a) 0 (b) (c) π (d) 2π
2
20. (a).
From the figure, we say that , f(x) is odd function.
2 T
∴ a0 =
T0 ∫
0
f (x)dx = 0.
21. Given the discrete-time sequence x[n] = [2, 0, -1, –3, 4,1, –1] , X (ejπ) is
↑
(a) 8 (b) 6π (c) 8π (d) 6[IE: GATE-2005]
21. Ans.(c)
x3 x5 x7
25. The infinite series f(x) = x – + – ....... ∞ converges to [IE: GATE-2010]
3! 5! 7!
(a) cos (x) (b) sin (x)
(c) sin h (x) (d) ex
25. (b).
We know Taylor series at
x2 x3 x 4 iv
f (x) = f (0) + xf '(0) + f "(0) + f '''(0) + f (0) + ......∞
2! 3! 4!
For f (x) = sin x. f '(x) = cos x, f "(x) = − sin x, f '''(x) = − cos x,........
∴ f (0) = 0, f '(0) = 1, f "(0) = 0 f '''(0) = −1,..........
x3 x5
∴ f (x) = x − + − − − −− = sin x
3! 5!
n
⎛1⎞
1. Let x(n) = ⎜ ⎟ u(n), y(n) = x2(n) and Y(ejw) be the Fourier transform of y(n). Then Y(ej0) is
⎝2⎠
[EC: GATE-2005]
1 4
(a) (b) 2 (c) 4 (d)
4 3
1. Ans. (a)
n
⎛1⎞
x(n) = ⎜ ⎟ u(n)
⎝2⎠
2n
⎛1⎞
∴ y(n) = ⎜ ⎟ u2 (n)
⎝2⎠
n
⎛1⎞
2n
⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎞
y(n) = ⎜ ⎟ u(n) = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ u(n)
⎝2⎠ ⎝⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
n
⎛1⎞
∴ y(n) = ⎜ ⎟ u(n)
⎝4⎠
1
∴ y(e10) =
4
•
2. The signal x(t) is described by [EC: GATE-2008]
⎧1 for − ≤ t ≤ + 1
x(:) = ⎨
⎩0 otherwise
Two of the angular frequencies at which its Fourier transform becomes zero are
(a) π , 2π (b) 0.5 π, 1.5 π
(c) 0, π (d) 2π, 2.5 π
2. Ans. (a)
⎡1 −1 < + < 1
Given : x(t) = ⎢
⎣0 otherwise
Fourier transform is
1
1 − i st 1
∫−1 e dt = − i s [e ]−1
− i st
1 i st 2
= s
[e − e− i st ] = [sin st]
i s
= 0 for s = π and 2π
3. Consider the function f(t) having Laplace transform

ω
F(s) = 2 0 2 Re[s] > 0
s + ω0
The final value of f(t) would be [EC: GATE-2006]
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) –1 ≤ f(∞)≤ 1 (d) ∞
3. Ans. (c)
f(t) = L–1 f(x)
= sin w0 t
As –1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1
Thus, –1 ≤ f(∞) ≤ 1
f(t) 2π
T=
ω0
1
ωt
0
T
–1
t
4. Given that F(s) is the one-sided Laplace transform of f(t), the Laplace transform of ∫ f( τ) d τ
0
is [EC: GATE-2009]
s
1 1
(a) sF(s) – f(0) (b)
2
F(s) (c) ∫ F( τ) d τ
0
(d)
2
[F(s) − f(0)]
4. Ans. (b)
4
1
∫ f( τ) d τ =
0 s
f(s) ……(Lapalace formule)
⎡ 3s + 1 ⎤
5. Given f(t) = L–1 ⎢ 3 ⎥ . If lim f (t ) = 1, then the value of K is [EC: GATE-2010]
⎢⎣ s + 4s + ( K − 3 ) s ⎥⎦
2 t →∞
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
5. Ans. (d)
⎪⎧ 3s + 1 ⎪⎫
f ( t ) = L−1 ⎨ 3 ⎬
⎪⎩ s + 4s + ( K − 3 ) s ⎪⎭
2
F (s ) = L ⎡⎣f ( t ) ⎤⎦
=
( 3s + 1)
s + 4s 2 + ( K − 3 ) s
3
lim f ( t ) = lim SF ( s ) = 1
t →∞ s →0
⇒ lim 2
( 3s + 1) =1
s →0 s + 4s + ( K − 3 ) s
⇒ K −3 = 1 ⇒ K = 4
5 6 5 6
(a) |z|< (b) |z|> (c) <|z|< (d)
6 5 6 5
6
<|z|< ∞
5
6. The region of convergence of Z-transform of the sequence

n n
⎛5⎞ ⎛6⎞
⎜ ⎟ u(n) − ⎜ ⎟ u( − n − 1) must be
⎝6⎠ ⎝5⎠
6. Ans. (c)
n n
⎛5⎞ ⎛6⎞
f(n) = ⎜ ⎟ u(n) − ⎜ ⎟ u( − n − 1)
⎝6⎠ ⎝5⎠
n −n
⎛6⎞ ⎛5⎞
Now, ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
5 ⎝6⎠
n −n
5 ⎛6⎞ 5 ⎛5⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = .⎜ ⎟
6 ⎝5⎠ 6 ⎝6⎠
n −n − 1
⎛6⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛5⎞
or ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝5⎠ ⎝6⎠ ⎝6⎠
∴ f(n) =
n −n − 1
⎛5⎞ 5 ⎛5⎞
⎜ ⎟ u(n) − ⎜ ⎟ u( − n − 1)
⎝6⎠ 6 ⎝6⎠
∴ F(z) =
−1
⎛ 5 −1 ⎞ 5 ⎛ 5 −1 ⎞ −1
⎜1 − z ⎟ − ⎜1 − z ⎟ .z
⎝ 6 ⎠ 6⎝ 6 ⎠
6 5
Hence, region of convergence, |z|< and |z|< .
5 6
5 6
For two terms <|z|<
6 5
[EC: GATE-2005]
7. Consider the z-transform X(z) = 5z2 + 4z-1 + 3; 0 < |z| < ∝ . The inverse z-transform x[n] is
[EC: GATE-2010]
(a) 5 δ[n + 2] + 3 δ[n] + 4 δ[n – 1] (b) 5 δ[n – 2] + 3 δ[n] + 4 δ[n + 1]
(c) 5 u[n + 2] + 3 u[n] + 4 u[n – 1] (d) 5 u[n – 2] + 3 u[n] + 4 u[n + 1]
7. Ans. (a)
x(z) = 5z2 + 4z-1 + 3
0<IZl < ∞
x[n] = 5 δ[n + 2] + 4 δ[n – 1] + 3 δ[n]
8. If f(t) is a finite and continuous function for t, the Laplace transformation is given by
∞
F = ∫ e − st f(t) dt. For f(t) = cos h mt, the Laplace transformation is…..[ME: GATE-1994]
0
s
8. Ans. 2
s − m2
w
9. The Laplace transform of cos ωt is . [ME: GATE-1995]
δ + ω2
2
(a) True (b)False
9. Ans. (b)False
w
Laplace transform of cos ωt is .
δ − ω2
2
10. (s+1)-2 is the Laplace transform of [ME: GATE-1998]

(a) t2 (b) t3 (c) e-2t (d) te-t
10. Ans.(d)
1
L(t) =
s2
By first shifting theorem
1
L(e − t .t)=
(s + 2)2
11. Laplace transform of (a + bt)2 where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants is given by:
[ME: GATE-1999]
2 2
1 a 2ab 2b a 2ab b2
2
(a) (a+bs)2 (b) (c) + 2 + 3 (d) + 2 + 3
(a+bs)2 s s s s s s
11. Ans.(c)
(a + bt)2 = a2 + b2 t 2 + 2abt.
1 Ln
Laplace transform of 1= Laplace transform of t n =
s sn + 1
a2 2b2 2ab
∴ L (a+bt)2 = + 3 + 2
s s s
12. The Laplace transform of the function sin2 2t is [ME: GATE-2000]
(a) (1/2s)-s/[2(s2+16)] (b) s/(s2+16)
(c) (1/s)-s/(s2+4) (d) s/(s2+4)
12. Ans.(a)
1 − cos 4t
sin2 2t=
2
⎧1 − cos 4t ⎫ 1 ⎧ 1 s ⎫ ⎧1 s ⎫
∴ L. ⎨ ⎬= ⎨ − 2 ⎬=⎨ − 2 ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ 2 ⎩ s s + 16 ⎭ ⎩ 2s (s + 16) ⎭
13. Laplace transform of the function sin ωt [ME: GATE-2003]

s ω s ω
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 2
s +ω 2
s + ω2 s − ω2 s − ω2
13. Ans. (b)
ω
L[sin ωt] = 2
s + ω2
⎧0, for t<a

14. A delayed unit step function is defined as u(t-a)= ⎨ . Its Laplace transform is
⎩1, for t ≥ a
e-es ees eas
(a) a.e-as (b) (c) (d)
s s s
14. Ans. (d)
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
a
⎡ e − st ⎤ e − as
L[U(t − a)] = ∫ e − st U(t − a)dt, = ∫ e − st .0.dt+ ∫ e −st .1.dt, =0.∫ e −st dt, = ⎢ ⎥ =
0 0 0 a ⎣ −s ⎦ a s
15. If F(s) is the Laplace transform of function f (t), then Laplace transform
t
of ∫ f (τ )dτ is
0
[ME: GATE-2007]
1 1
(a) F(s) (b) F(s) - f(0) (c) sF ( s ) − f (0) (d) ∫ F (s ) ds
s s
15. Ans. (a)
⎡t ⎤ 1
L ⎢ ∫ f(t) dt ⎥ = F(s)
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ s
1
16. The Inverse Laplace transform of is [ME: GATE-2009]
(S + S )
2
(a) 1 + et (b) 1-et (b) 1- e-t (d) 1 + e-t

16. Ans. (c)
⎛ 1 ⎞
L−1 ⎜ 2 ⎟=?
⎝s +s⎠
1 1 1 1
= = −
s + s s(s + 1) s s + 1
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
L−1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ =L−1 ⎜ ⎟ − −L−1 ⎜ ⎟ =1-e− t
⎝ s + s ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
s ⎝ s + 1 ⎠
[Using standard formulae ] Standard formula:
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
L−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 1 ⇒ L−1 ⎜ ⎟=e
− at
⇒ L−1 ⎜ ⎟=e
at
⎝s⎠ ⎝ s + a ⎠ ⎝ s − a ⎠
1
17. The Laplace transform of a function f(t) is . The function f(t) is
s ( s + 1)
2
(a) t-1+e-t (b) t+1+e-t (c) -1+e-t (d) 2t+et

[ME: GATE-2010]
17. Ans. (a)
1
L[ f (t )] =
S ( S + 1)
2
⎧ 1 ⎫
f (t ) = L−1 ⎨ 2 ⎬
⎩ S ( S + 1) ⎭
⎧ 1 ⎫ −t
L−1 ⎨ ⎬=e
⎩ S + 1⎭
⎧ 1 ⎫ t −t
L−1 ⎨ ⎬ = ∫ e dt = 1 − e
−t
⎩ S ( S + 1) ⎭ 0
⎧ 1 ⎫ t
⎬ = ∫1 − e = t −1 + e
−1 −t −t
L ⎨ 2
⎩ S ( S + 1) ⎭ 0
18. If L defines the Laplace Transform of a function, L [sin (at)] will be equal to
a a
(a) 2 (b) 2 [CE: GATE – 2003]
s − a2 s + a2
s s
(c) 2 2
(d) 2
s +a s − a2
18. Ans. (b)
∞
∫e
− st
L [f (t)] = f(t) dt
0
∞
∫e
− st
⇒ L [sin (at)] = sin(at) dt
0
a
=
s2 + a 2
19. Laplace transform for the function f(x) = cosh (ax) is [CE: GATE – 2009]
a s
(a) 2 2
(b) 2
s −a s − a2
a s
(c) 2 2
(d) 2
s +a s + a2
19. Ans. (b)
It is a standard result that
s
L (cosh at) = .
s − a2
2
Q3. There are two containers, with one containing 4 Red and 3 Green balls and the other
containing Blue and 4 Green balls. One bal is drawn at random form each container.
The probability that one of the ball is Red and the other is Blue will be
(a) 1/7 (b) 9/49 (c) 12/49 (d) 3/7 [CE-
2011]
Ans. (c)
Statement for Linked Answer Question (20) and (21)

⎡0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1⎤
A state variable system X(t)= ⎢ ⎥ X ( t ) + ⎢ ⎥ u ( t ) , with the initial condition X(0)[-1 3]T and
⎣0 −3 ⎦ ⎣0 ⎦
the unit step input u(t) has
20. The state transition equation [EE: GATE-2005]
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −t ⎤
1 (1 − e −3 t )⎥ 1 (e − e −3 t )⎥
(a) ⎢ 3 (b) ⎢ 3
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢0 e −3 t ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢0 e −t ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎤
(c) ⎢ 1
1 −t
3
(e − e −3 t )⎥ ⎡1
(d) ⎢
(1 − e )⎤⎥
−t
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣0 e −t ⎥⎦
⎢⎣0 e −3 t ⎥⎦
20. Ans. (a)
−1
⎡s 1 ⎤ Adj (sI − A)
( sI − A ) = ⎢
−1
⎥ =
⎣ 0 s + 3⎦ sI − A
⎡ s + 3 0 ⎤ ⎡ s + 3 −1⎤
⎢ −1 s ⎥ ⎢ 0 s ⎥⎦
=⎣ ⎦=⎣ .
⎡s 1 ⎤ s (s + 3)
⎢ 0 s + 3⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡1 −1 ⎤
⎢s s (s + 3) ⎥
=⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 s + 3 ⎥⎦
∴ φ ( t ) = L−1 ( sI − A )
−1
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ 1 (1 − e −3t ) ⎥
= 3
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 e −3 t ⎦
21. The state transition equation [EE: GATE-2005]

⎡t − e − t ⎤ ⎡t − e − t ⎤
(a) X ( t ) = ⎢ − t ⎥ (b) X ( t ) = ⎢ −3t ⎥
⎣ e ⎦ ⎣ 3e ⎦
⎡t − e ⎤
−3 t
⎡t − e −3t ⎤
(c) X ( t ) = ⎢ −3 t ⎥
(d) X ( ) ⎢ −t ⎥
t =
⎣ 3e ⎦ ⎣ e ⎦
21. Ans. (c)
zero state response =L−1φ ( s ) BU ( S )
⎡1 −1 ⎤
⎢ s s(s + 3) ⎥ ⎡ 1⎤ 1
= L−1 ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎣0 ⎦ s
⎢⎣ 0 s + 3 ⎥⎦
⎡1⎤
−1 ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎡t ⎤
=L s =⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣0 ⎦
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
State transition equation
=zero input response+zero state response.
∴ X ( t ) = φ ( X ) X (0) + t
⎡ −1 + 1 − e −3 t ⎤ ⎡ t ⎤ ⎡t − e −3 t ⎤
=⎢ −3 t ⎥
+⎢ ⎥=⎢ −3 t ⎥
⎣ 0 + 3e ⎦ ⎣0 ⎦ ⎣ 3e ⎦
⎛ 1⎞ 1 1
22. Let x(t)= rect ⎜ t − ⎟ (where rect (x) =1 for − ≤ x ≤ and zero otherwise). Then if since
⎝ 2⎠ 2 2
sin(π x )
(x)= , the Fourier Transform of x(t)+x(-t) will be given by [EE: GATE-2008]
πx
⎛ ω ⎞ ⎛ ω ⎞
(a) sinc ⎜ ⎟ (b) 2sinc ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎝ 2π ⎠
⎛ ω ⎞ ⎛ω ⎞ ⎛ ω ⎞ ⎛ω ⎞
(c) 2sinc ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ 2 ⎟ (d) sinc ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
22. Ans. (c)

−1 1
rect ( x ) = 1 for ≤x≤
2 2
⎛ 1⎞
Given x ( t ) = rect ⎜ t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Simpliying x ( t ) with the help of equation (1) .
∴ x ( t ) = 1,0 ≤ t ≤ 1
=0, therewise
ω
Now, F ⎡⎣ x ( t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ω x ( t ) e
− jωt
at
−
1
= ∫ 1.e − jωt at
0
1 1
= (e − jωt )10 = (1 − e − jω )
− jω jω
⎡ jω − jω
⎤
1 ⎢e 2 − e 2 ⎥
=
jω ⎢ jω ⎥
⎣⎢ e ⎦⎥
2
⎡ jω − jω
⎤ − jω
2 ⎢e 2 − e 2 ⎥ .e 2
=
ω⎢ 2j ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
ω
sin − jω
∴ F ⎡⎣ x ( t ) ⎤⎦ = 2e 2
ω/2
x ( −t ) = t , −1 ≤ t ≤ 0
= 0, otherwise
∞
F ⎡⎣ x ( t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ x ( −t )e
− jωt
at
−∞
0
= ∫ 1. e − jωt at
−1
1
( )
0
= e − j ωt
− jω −1
=
1
jω
(
1 − e jω − 1 )
1 ⎡ j2ω − jω
⎤ j2ω
= ⎢ e − e 2
⎥e
jω ⎣ ⎦
⎡ jω − jω
⎤ jω
2 ⎢e 2 − e 2 ⎥e 2
=
ω⎢ 2j ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
ω
sin jω
F ⎡⎣ x ( −t ) ⎤⎦ = 2 e2
ω/2
ω
sin
2 ⎡e 2 + e 2 ⎤
− jω jω
∴ F ⎡⎣ x ( t ) + x ( −t ) ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
ω/2 ⎣ ⎦
ω
sin
= 2 ⎛ 2 cos ω ⎞
ω / 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ ω ⎞ ⎛ω ⎞
= 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
23. Let s(t) be the step response of a linear system with zero initial conditions; then
the response of this system to an input u(t) is [EE: GATE-2002]
d ⎡ ⎤
t t
(a) ∫ s(t − τ )u (τ ) dτ
0
(b) ⎢ ∫ s ( t − τ ) u (τ ) dτ ⎥
dt ⎣ 0 ⎦
t
⎡t ⎤ t
(c) ∫ s(t − τ ) ⎢⎣ ∫ u (τ ) dτ ⎥ dτ (d) ∫ s(t − τ ) u (τ ) dτ
2
1 1
0 0 ⎦ 0
23. Ans. (b)
24. Let Y(s) be the Laplace transformation of the function y (t), then final value of the function is
[EE: GATE-2002]
(a) LimY ( s ) (b) LimY ( s )
s →0 s →∞
(c) Lim sY ( s ) (d) Lim sY ( s )

s →0 s →∞
24. Ans. (c)
5
25. Consider the function, F(s) = where F(s) is the Laplace transform of the
s(s + 3s + 2) 2
function f(t).The initial value of f(t) is equal to [EE: GATE-2004]

5 5
(a) 5 (b) (c) (d) 0
2 3
25. Ans. (d)
5
Initial value= Lim F (s ) = Lim 2 =0
S →∞ S →∞ s + 3s + 2
5s 2 + 23s + 6
26. The Laplace transform of a function f(t) is F(s)= . As t → ∞, f(t) approaches
s(s 2 + 2s + 2)
17
(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) (d) ∞ [EE: GATE-2005]
2
5s 2 + 23s + 6
26. Ans. (a) Lt f ( t ) = Lt sF ( s ) = Lt =3
t →∞ t →∞ t →∞ s 2 + 2s + 2
27. If u(t), r(t) denote the unit step an unit ramp functions respectively and u(t)* r(t) their
convolution, then the function u(t+1)* r(t-2) is given by [EE: GATE-2007]
(a) (1/2)(t-1) (t-2)
(b) (1/2)(t-1)(t-2)
(c) (1/2)(t-1)2u(t-1)
(d) None of these
27. Ans. (c)
⎡ 1 s ⎤
L ⎢ u ( t + 1) =
⎣ s
( )
e ⎥
⎦
1 − 2 se
L ⎡⎣ r ( t − 2 ) ⎤⎦ = 2 e
s
⎡1 1 ⎤ ⎡ e −s ⎤
∴ L− 1 ⎢ e s 2 e − 2 s ⎥ = L− 1 ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎣s s ⎦ ⎣s ⎦
1
( t − 1) u ( t − 1)
2
=
2
dy ( t )
28. A function y(t) satisfies the following differential equation + y (t ) = δ (t )
dt
Where δ ( t ) is the delta function. Assuming zero initial condition, and denoting the unit
step function by u ( t ) , y ( t ) can be of the form [EE: GATE-2008]
(a) et (b) e-t (c) etu(t) (d) e-tu(t)
28. Ans. (d)
dy ( t )
+ y (t ) = δ t
dt
Taking Laplace transfrom of both sides, we have
sy(s) -y(o)+y(0)=1
⇒ (s + 1)y ( s ) − 0 = 1
1
⇒ y (s ) =
s +1
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
y(t)=e-t u ( t )
29. The Laplace transform of g(t) is [EE: GATE-2010]

1 1
(a) (e3 s − e5 s ) (b) (e−5 s − e−3 s )
s s
e −3s 1
(c) (1 − e−2 s ) (d) (e5 s − e3s )
s s
29. Ans. (c)
Common Data for Questions 30 and 31:

Given f(t) and g(t) as shown below:
30. g (t) can be expressed as [EE: GATE-2010]

⎛t ⎞
(a) g (t ) = f (2t − 3) (b) g (t ) = f ⎜ − 3 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ t 3⎞
(c) g (t ) = f ⎜ 2t − ⎟ (d) g (t ) = f ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2 2⎠
30. Ans. (d)
31. The Laplace transform of g(t) is [EE: GATE-2010]

1 1
(a) (e3 s − e5 s ) (b) (e−5 s − e−3 s )
s s
e −3s 1
(c) (1 − e−2 s ) (d) (e5 s − e3s )
s s
31. Ans. (c)
32. If u(t) is the unit step and δ (t) is the unit impulse function, the inverse z-transform of
1
F(z)= for k>0 is [EE: GATE-2005]
z +1
(a) ( −1) δ ( k ) (b) δ ( k ) − ( −1)
k
(c) ( −1) u( k ) (d) u(k ) − ( −1)

k k
32. Ans. (b)

1 z + 1− z
F (z) = =
z +1 z +1
z
=1 - .
z − ( −1)
( )
∴ z −1 ⎡⎣F ( z ) ⎤⎦ = 8 ( t ) − −1n
⎡ −1 ⎛ z ⎞ n⎤
⎢∵ z ⎜ z − a ⎟ = a ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
12. The running integrator, given by [EE: GATE-2006]

y ( t ) ∫ x ( t ' ) dt '
t
−∞
(a) has no finite singularities in its double sided Laplace Transfrom Y(s)
(b) Produces a bounded output for every causal bounded input
(c) Produces a bounded output for every anticausal bounded input
(d) has no finite zeroes in its double sided Laplace Transfrom Y(s)
12. Ans. (b)
27. The state transition matrix for the system X = AX with initial state X(0) is
[EE: GATE-2002]
(a) (sI-A)-1
(b) eA tX(0)
(c) Laplace inverse of [(s I-A)-1]
(d) Laplace inverse of [(sI-A)-1X (0)]
27. Ans. (c)
⎡ 0 1⎤
4. Consider the matrix P = ⎢ ⎥ . The value of e is [EC: GATE-2008]
p
⎣ −2 −3⎦
⎡2 e−2 − 3 e−1 e−1 − e−2 ⎤ ⎡ e−1 + e−2 2 e−2 − e−1 ⎤
(a) ⎢ −2 −1 ⎥ (b) ⎢ −1 ⎥
⎣2 e − 2 e 5 e−2 − e−1 ⎦ ⎣2 e − 4 e
−2
3 e−1 + 2 e−2 ⎦
⎡ 5 e−2 + e−1 3 e−1 − e−2 ⎤ ⎡ 2 e−1 + e−2 e−1 − e−2 ⎤

(c) ⎢ −2 −1 ⎥ (d) ⎢ ⎥
⎣2 e − 6 e 4 e−2 + e−1 ⎦ −1
⎣ −2 e − 2 e
−2
− e−1 + 2 e−2 ⎦
4. Ans. (d) eP = L–1[(sI – P)–1]

⎡ 0 1⎤
and P= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −2 −3⎦
−1
⎡s 1 ⎤
where (sI – P)–1 = ⎢
⎣ 2 s + 3⎥⎦
1 ⎡s + 3 1 ⎤
=
(s + 1) (s + 2) ⎢⎣ −2 s ⎥⎦
⎡ s+3 1 ⎤
⎢ (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 1) (s + 2) ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −2 s ⎥
⎢ (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 1) (s + 2) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎧⎡ 2 1 1 1 ⎤⎫
⎪⎢ s + 1 − s + 2 −
s + 1 s + 2 ⎥ ⎪⎪
⎪
∴ eP = L−1 ⎨ ⎢ ⎥⎬
⎪ ⎢ −2 + 2 2
−
1 ⎥⎪
⎢ s + 2 s + 1 ⎥⎦ ⎭⎪
⎩⎪ ⎣ s + 1 s + 2
⎡ 2 e−1 + e−2 e −1 − e −2 ⎤
= ⎢ −1 −2 ⎥
⎣ −2 e + 2 e 2 e−2 − e−1 ⎦
Q40. Let the Laplace transform of a function f ( t ) which exists for t > 0 be F1 ( s ) and the
Laplace transform of its delayed version f ( t - τ ) be F2 ( s ) . Let F *1 ( s ) be the complex
F2 ( s ) .F *2 ( s )
conjugate F1 ( s ) with the Laplace variable set as s = σ + jω . If G ( s ) = ,
F1 ( s )
2
then the inverse Laplace transform of G ( s ) is

(a) An ideal impulse δ ( t ) (b) an ideal delayed impulse δ ( t - τ )
(c) An ideal step function u ( t ) (d) an ideal delayed step function u ( t - τ )
[EE-2011]
Ans. (b)
33. If the Fourier transform of x[n] is X(ejω), then the Fourier transform of (–1)n x[n] is
[IE: GATE-2004]
(a) (–j) ω X(ejω) (b) (–1) ω X(ejω)
d
(c) X(ej(ω – π)) (d) (X(e j ω ))
dω
33. Ans. (c)
34. If the waveform, shown in the following figure, corresponds to the second
derivative of a given function f (t), then the Fourier transform of f (t) is
(a) 1 + sin ω (b) 1 + cos ω

2(1 − cos ω) 2(1 + cos ω)
(c) (d) [IE: GATE-2006]
ω2 ω2
d2 f(t)
dt2
t
–1 +1
–2
34. Ans. (c)
d 2 f(t)
= δ (t – 1) + δ (t + 1) – 2δ (t)
dt 2
Taking Laplace transform of both sides, we get
s2 F(s) = e–s + es – 2
⇒ (jω) 2 F (jω) = e–jω + ejω – 2
2(1 − cos ω)
⇒ F (jω) =
ω2
35. The Fourier transform of a function g (t) is given as

ω2 + 21
G(ω) = 2
ω +9
Then the function g (t) is given as [IE: GATE-2006]
(a) δ (t) + 2 exp (–3|t|) (b) cos 3ωt + 21 exp (–3t)
(c) sin 3ωt + 7 cos ωt (d) sin 3ωt + 21 exp (3t)
35. Ans. (a)
g(t) = (t) + 2 exp. (–3|t|)
Taking Laplace transform both sides,
0 ∞
G (ω) = 1+2 ∫
−∞
exp (3 t) exp ( − j ω t) . dt + 2 ∫ exp ( −3 t) . exp ( − j ω t) . dt
0
0 ∞
= 1+2 ∫ exp (3 − j ω) t . dt + 2 ∫ exp ( −3 − j ω) t . dt
−∞ 0
2 2
= 1+ +
3 − jω 3 + jω
ω2 + 21
G (ω) =
ω2 + 9
36. The Fourier transform of x(t) = e–at u(–t), where u(t) is the unit step function,
[IE: GATE-2008]
(a) Exists for any real value of a

(b) Does not exist for any real value of a
(c) Exists if the real value of a is strictly negative
(d) Exists if the real value of a is strictly positive
36. Ans. (d)
37. The fundamental period of x(t) = 2 sin πt + 3 sin 3πt, with t expressed in seconds, is
[IE: GATE-2009]
(a) 1 s (b) 0.67 s
(c) 2 s (d) 3s
37. Ans. (d)
H.C.F. of 2π and 3π is 6π.
Then, fundamental frequency = 6π
6π
∴ Period, T = = 3 sec
2π
38. u(t) represents the unit step function. The Laplace transform of u(t – τ) is
[IE: GATE-2010]
1 1
(a) (b)
sτ s–τ
e− s τ
(c) (d) e–s τ
s
38. Ans. (c)
f(t) = u(t – τ)
L{f(t)} = L{u(t – τ)}
e− s τ
F(s) =
s
39. A measurement system with input x(t) and output y(t) is described by the different
dy
equation 3 + 5y = 8x. The static sensitivity of the system is [IE: GATE-2010]
dt
(a) 0.60 (b) 1.60 (c) 1.67 (d) 2.67
39. Ans. (d)
3 dy
+ 5 y = 8x
dt
Taking Laplace transform, we have
3sy(s) + 5y(s) = 8X(s)
y(s) [3s + 5] = 8X(s)
y(s) 8
=
x(s) 3s + 5
For static sensitivity, s → 0
Y(s) 8 1 8
∴ = × = = 1.6
X(s) 3 0+ 5 5
3
⎛ 5π ⎞
j⎜ ⎟n
40. The fundamental period of the discrete-time signal x[n] = e ⎝ 6 ⎠ is
[IE: GATE-2008]
6 12
(a) (b) (c) 6 (d) 12
5π 5
40. Ans. (b)
5π
ω =
6
2π 5π
or =
T 6
12
or T=
5
2
41. A plant with a transfer function is controlled by a PI controller with Kp = 1 and Ki
s(s + 3)
≥ 0 in a unity feedback configuration. The lowest value of Ki that ensures zero steady state
error for a step change in the reference input is
[IE: GATE-2009]
1 1
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d) 1
3 2
41. Ans. (b)
⎡ k ⎤⎡ 2 ⎤
G’(s) = ⎢k p + i ⎥ ⎢
⎣ s ⎦ ⎣ s(s + 3) ⎥⎦
sR(s) ⎡ 1⎤
ess = lim
s →0 1 + G ′(s) ⎢⎣ R(s) = s ⎥⎦
1
= lim
s →0 ⎡ ki ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
1 + ⎢k p + ⎥ ⎢
⎣ s ⎦ ⎣ s(s + 3) ⎥⎦
s(s + 3)
= lim
s →0 s(s + 3) (k s + k )2
p i
1
Lowest value of ki = for Gs to be zero.
3
COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
4.2 COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
If for each of the complex variable z ( = x + iy) in a given region R, we have one or more values of w ( = u
+ iv). Then w is said to be a complex function of z and we write w = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = f(z) where u, v are
real functions of x and y.
If to each of z, there corresponds one and only value of w, then w is said to be a single-valued function
of z otherwise a multi-valued function. For example w = 1/z is a single-valued function and w = √ is a
multi-valued function of z. The former is defined at all points of the z-plane except at z = 0 and the latter
assumes two values for each value of z except at z = 0.
4.2.1 Exponential Function of a Complex Variablee
When x is real we are already familiar with the exponential function
ex = 1 + + +…+ + .
Similarly, we defined the exponential function of the complex variable z = x + iy, as
ez or exp (z) = 1 + + +…+ + .
Putting x = 0 in (i) we get z = iy and
ey = 1 + + + + +… .
=( ) + i( )
= cos y + I sin y
Thus ez = ex ey = ex (cos y + i sin y)
Also x + iy = r(cos + i sin ) =
exponential form of z = (x + iy) =
4.2.2 Circular Function of a Complex variable
Since, eiy = cos + i sin y
and eiy = cos y - i sin y
The circular functions of real angles can be written as
Sin y = . cos y = and so on.
If is therefore, natural to define the circular function of the complex variable z by the equations:

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Sin z = . Cos z = . Tan z =
With cosec z, sec z and cot z as their respective reciprocals.
Cor. 1 Euler’s Theorem. By definition
Cos z + i sin z = +i = eiz
Also we have shown that eiy = cos y + i sin y, where y is real.
Thus = cos + i sin , where is real or complex. This is called the Euler’s theorem.*
Whether is real or complex we have

(cos + i sin )n = ( )n = = cos n + i sin n
Thus de. Moiver’s theorem is true for all (real or complex).
4.2.3 Hyperbolic Functions
1. Def. If x be real or complex.
(a) is defined as hyperbolic sine of x and is written as sinh x.
(b) is defined as hyperbolic cosine of x and is written as cosh x.
Thus, sinh x = and cosh x =
Also we define, tanh x = = : coth x = =
Sech x = = ; cosech x = =
Cor. Sinh 0 = 0, cosh 0 = 1 and tanh 0 = 0.
2. Realtions between hyperbolic and circular functions.
Since for all values of , sin = = -* + [ = ]
= i2 = i. = i sinh x
and cos ix = = cosh x
Thus, sin ix = i sinh x
Cos ix = cosh x

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
And tan ix = i tanh x
Cor. sinh ix = i sin x
cosh ix = cos x
tanh ix = i tan x
4.2.4 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Def. if sinh u = z, then u is called the hyperbolic sine inverse of z and is written as u = sinh-1 z.
Similarly we define cosh-1 z. tanh-1 z, etc.
The inverse hyperbolic functions like other inverse functions are many-valued, but we shall consider
only their principal values.
4.2.5 Logarithmic Function of a Complex Variable
1. Def. If z( = x + iy) and w ( = u +iv) be so related that ew = z then w is said to be a logarithm of z to the
base e and is written as w = loge z.
Also = . =z
Log z = w + 2in
i.e. the logarithm of a complex number has an infinite number of values and is therefore a multi-valued
function. The general value of the logarithm of z is written as Log z (beginning with capital L) so as to
distinguish if from its principal value which is written as log z. this principal value is obtained by taking n
= 0 in Log z.
thus from (i) and (ii), Log (X + iy) = 2in + log(x + iy).
Obs
(a) If y = 0 then Log x = 2in + log x.

This shows that the logarithm of a real quantity is also multi-valued. Its principal value is real
while all other values are imaginary.
(b) We know that the logarithm of a negative quantity has no real value. But we can now evaluate
this
e.g. loge (-2) = loge 2(-1)
= loge 2 + loge (-1)
= loge 2 + i [ -1 = cos + i sin =
= 0.6931 + i(3.1416)
2. Real and imaginary parts of Log(x+iy).

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Log(x+iy) = 2in + log(x+iy) Put, x = r cos , y = r sin
= 2in + log [r(cos + i sin )] so that r = √
= 2in + log ( ) and = tan-1 (y/x)
= log √ + i[2n + tan-1 (y/x)]
3. Real and imaginary parts of (a + i )x + iy
(a + i )x + iy = {
√
= [ ]
Where A = x log r – y(2n + ) and B = y log r + x( + ).
4.3 LIMIT OF COMPLEX FUNCTION
A function w = f(z) is said to tend to limit l as z approaches a point z0. If for real , we can find a positive
real such that
|f(z) – I| < for | z – z0 | <
i.e. for every z z0 in the - disc (dotted) of z-plan, f(z) has a value lying in the - disc of w-plane (see
figure below). In symbols we write = l.
This definition of limit through similar to that in ordinary calculus, is quite different, for in real calculus x
approaches x0 only along the line whereas here z approaches z0 from any direction in the z-plane.

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Continuity of f(z). A function w = f(z) is said to be continuous at z =z0, if
= f(z0)
Further f(z) is said to be continous in any region R of the z-plane if it is continuous at every point of that
region.
Also if w = f(z) = u(x,y) + iv(x, y) is continuous at z = z0 then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also continuous at z = z0
i.e. at x = x0 and y = y0 Conversely if u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuously at (x0 , y0) then f(z) will be
continuous at z = z0.
4.4 DERIVATIVE OF f(z)
Let w = f(z) be a single-valued function of the variable z = x + iy then the derivative of w = f(z) is defined
to be
Provided the limit exist and has the same value for all the different ways in which z approaches zero.
Suppose P(z) is fixed and Q(z + z) is a neighbouring point (Figure above). The point Q may approaches P
along any straight or curved path in the given region i.e. z may tend to zero in any manner and dw/dz
may not exist It therefore becomes a fundamental problem to determine the necessary and sufficient
conditions for dw/dz to exist. The fact is settled by the following theorem.
Theorem. The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function w = u(x, y) + iv(x,y) =
f(z) to exist for all values of z a region R are
1. , , , are continous of x and y in R.
2. = , =-
The realtion in (ii) are known as Cauchy_Riemann*. Equations or briefly C-R equations.
4.5 ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
A function f(z) which is single-valued and possesses a unique derivative with respect to z at all points
of a region R is called an analytic or a regular function of z in that region
A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called a singular point of the
function.
Thus if u and v are real single-valued functions of x and y such that , , ,

are continuous throughout a region R. then the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
= and =-
Are both nessary and sufficient condition for the function f(z) = u + iv to be analytic in R. The
derivative of f(z) is then given by
F’(z) = ( )= +i = ux + ivx
F’(z) = ( )
= + = -i = vy - iuy
The real imaginary parts of an analytic function are called conjugate function. The relation between two
conjugate function is given by the C-R eqution (i) above.
Q. 1 z = can be expressed as
(a) – 0.5 – 0.5i (b) -0.5 + 0.5i
(b) 0.5 – 0.5i (d) 0.5 +0.5i
Solution: (b)
= x = = = 0.5 +0.5i
Q. 2 The modulus of the complex number ( ) is
(a) 5 (b) √
(c) √ (d) √
Solution: (b)
Z= = = = -1 + 2i

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
|Z| = √ =√
4.6 COMPLEX INTEGRATION
4.6.1 Line integral in the complex plane
As in calculus we distinguish between define integrals and indefinite integrals or antiderivatives. An

indefinite integral is a function whose derivatives equals a given analytic function in a region. By known
differentiation formulas we may find many types of indefinite integrals
Complex definite integrals are called (complex) line integrals. They are written as
C f(z)dz
Here the integrand f(z) in integrated over a given curve c in the complex plane. Called the path of
integration. We may represent such a curve C by a parametric representation.
(1) x(t) = x(t) = iy(t)
The sense of increasing t is called the positive sense on C and we say that in this way (1) orients C. We
assume C to be a smooth curve that is C has a continuous and non-zero derivative z = dz/dt at each point
Geometrically this means that C has a unique and continuously turning tangent.
Definition of the complex line integral
This is similar to the method in calculus. Let C be a smooth curve in the complex plane given by (1). And
let f(z) be a continuous function given (at least) at each point of C We now subdivide (we partition) the
interval a t b in (1) by points
10 (=a). t1. . tn-1. tn (=b)
Where t0 < t1 …….. <tn. To this subdivision there corresponds a subdivision of C by points
z0, z1 …… zn-1, zn (=Z)
where z1 = z(t1) On each portion of subdivision of C we choose an arbitrary point say a point 1 between
z0 and z1 (that is 1 = z(t) where t satisfies t0 t t1 ). A point 2 between z1 and z2 etc.
Then we forms the sum
(2) Sn = ∑ where zm = zm – zm-1
We do this for each n= 2, 3 …… in a completely independent manner but so that the greatest
| tm| = | tm –tm-1| approaches zero as n . This implies that the greatest | zm| also approaches
zero because it can not exceed the length of the arc of C from zm-1 to zm and the latter goes to zero
since the arc length of the smooth curve C is a continuous function of t. The limit of the sequence of

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
complex numbers. S2, s3…… thus obtained is called the line integral (or simply the integral) of f(z)
over the oriented curve C. This
Curve C is called path of integration. The line integral is denoted by
(3) C f(z)dz. Or by C f(z)dz
If C is closed path (one whose terminal point Z coincides with its initial Point Z0.as for a circle or as 8-
shaped curve)
General Assumption. All paths of integration for complex line integrals are assumed to be piecewise
smooth that is they consist of finitely many smooth curves joined end to end.
First method: indefinite integration and substitution of limits
Thus method is simpler that the next ione but is general. It is less general. It is restricted to analutic
functions. Its formula(9)(below) is the analog of the familiar formula from calculus
= F(b) – F(a)
Theorem 1: (Indefinite integration of analytic functions)
Let f(z) be analytic a simply connected domain D A domain D is called simply connected if every
simple closed curve without self-intersections in D encloses only points of D). then there exist an
indefinite integral of f(z) in the domain D. that is an analytic function F(z) such that F(z) = f(z) in D
and for all paths in D joining two points z0 and z1 in D we have
(4) = F(z1) – F(z0)
(Note that we can write z0 and z1 instead of C since we get the same value for all those C from z0 to
z1)
This theorem will be proved in the next section.
Simple connectedness is quite essential in Theorem 1 as we shall see in Example 5. Since analytic
functions are our main concern and since differentiation formulas will often help in finding F(z) for a
given f(z) = F(z) the present method is of great practical interest.
If f(z) is entire we can take for D the complex plane (which is certainly simply connected).

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Example 1: = z3 | = (1+i)3 = + i
Example 2: = sinz| = 2 sin i = 2i sinh = 23.097i
Example 3: = 2ez/2 | = 2( - )=0
Since ez is periodic with period 2 i.
Example 4: = Ln i – Ln(-i) = -( )=i
Here D is the complex plane without ) and the negative real axis (where Ln z is not analytic) obiously
a simply connected domain.
Second method : use of representation of the path
This method is not restricted to analytic function but applies to any continuous complex function.
Theorem 2: (Integration by the of the path)
Let C be a biecewise smooth path represented by z –z (i), where a t b. Let f(z) be a continuous
function on c. then
(5) = = C [u dx – v dy + i(u dy + v dx)]
= C (u dx – V dy) + i C (u dy + v dx).
Steps in applying Theorem 2
(A) Represent the path C in the form z(t) (a < t < h)

(B) Calculate the derivative z(t) = dz/dt.
(C) Substitute z(t) for every z in f(z) (hence x (t) for x and y(t) for y).
(D) Integrate f[z(t)] z(t) over t from a to b.
4.7 CACUCHY’S THEOREM
If f(z) is an analytic function and f’(z) is continuous at each point within and on a closed curve C. then
C f(z) dz = 0.
Writing f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and noting that dz = dx + idy
C f(z) dz = C (udx – vdy) +i C (vdx + udy)
Since f’(z) is continuous, therefore, , , , are also continuous in the region D enclosed by

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
C. Hence the Green’s theorem can be applied to (i), giving
C f(z) dz = - C * +dx dy +i D * + dx dy
Now t(z) being analytic u and v necessarily satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations and thus the
integrands of the two double integrals in (ii) vanish identically.
Hence, C f(z) dz = 0
Obs. 1 The Cauchy-Riemann equation are precisely the conditions for the two real integrals in (1) to be
independent of (the path. Hence the line integral of a function f(z) which a analytic In the region D. is
independent of the path joining any two points of D.
Obs. 2 Extension of Cauchy’s theorem. If t(z) is analytic in the region D between two simple closed
curves C and C1 then C f(z) dz = C1 f(z) dz.
To prove this, we need to introduce the cross-cut AB. Then f(z)dz = 0 where the path is as indicated by
arrows in figure below i.e. along AB – along C1 in clockwise sense & along BA – along C in and clockwise
sense
i.e. AB f(z)dz + C1 f(z)dz + BA f(z)dz + C f(z)dz = 0.
But, since the integral along AB and along BA cancel, it follows that
C f(z)dz + C f(z)dz =0.
Reversing the direction of the integral around C1 and transposing we get
Cf(z)dz = C1 f(z)dz
Each integration being taken in the anti-clockwise sense.
If C1, C2, C3 ……… be any number of closed curves within C (figure below) then
Cf(z)dz - C1 f(z)dz + C2 f(z)dz + C3 f(z)dz +…
4.8 CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL FORMULA
If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve and if a is any point within C, then

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
f(a) = C .
Consider the function f(z)/(z – a) which is analytic at all points within C except at z =a. With the point a as
centre and radius r, draw a small circle C1 lying entirely within C.
Now f(z)/(z-a) being analytic in the region enclosed by C and c1 we have by Cauchy’s theorem.
C dz = C1 dz {
( )
= C1 . =i C1 f(a + )d
In the limiting form as the circle C1 shrinks to the point a i.e. as r ) the integral (i) will approach to
i C1 f(a)d = if(a) = 2 if(a). Thus C dz = 2 if(a)
i.e. f(a) = C dz
Which is the desired Cauchy’s integral formula.
Cor. Differentiating both sides of (2) w.r.t a
f’(a) = C* * += C dz
Similarly, f’(a) = C dz
And in general, f’(a) = C dz
Thus if follows from the results (2) to (5) that if a function f(z) is known to be analytic on the simple
closed curve C then the values to the function and all its derivatives can be found at any point of C of all
orders and these are themselves all analytic.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES FORM GATE
Q.1 If z is a complex variable the value of is
(a) 2 i (b)
(c) tan-1 z (d) i tan-1 z
Solution: (b)
Q.2 If C is a circle of radius r with centre z0 in the complex z-plane and if n is a non-zero integer,
than equals

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
(a)2 nj (b)0
(c) (d) 2 n
Solution: (b)
By Cauchy integral formula
= 0=0
4.9 SERIES COMPLEX TERMS
1. Taylor’s series*. If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C.
F(z) = f(a)(z – a) + (z – a)2 + ……+ (z – a)n + …..
2.Laurent’s series*. If f(z) is analytic in thering-shaped region R bounded by two concentric circles C and
C1 of radii r and r1 (r > r1) and with centre at a then for all z in R.
f(z) = a0 + a1(z – a) + a2(z – a)2 + …. + a_1(z-a)-1 + a-2(z-a)-2 +….
an = r
I being any curve in R encircling C1 (as in Figure below).
Obs. 1. As f(z) is analytic inside, G then an = r
However, if f(z) is analytic inside G then a-n = 0; an = r =
And Laurent’s series reduces to taylor’s series.
Obs. 2. To obtain Taylor’s Laurents series. Simply expand f(z) by binomial theorem, instead of finding an
by complex integration which is quite complicated.
Obs. 3. Laurent series of a given analytic function f(z) in its annulus of convergence is unique. There may
be different Laurent series of f(z) in two annuli with the same centre.
4.10 ZEROS AND SINGULARITES OR POLES OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION
4.10.1 Zeros of an Analytic Function
Def. A zero of an analytic unction f(z) is that value of z for which f(z) = 0 if f(z) is analytic in the
neighbourhood of a point z = a then by Taylor’s theorem

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
f(z) = a0 + a1 (z-a) +a2(z-a)2 + …… + an(z-a)n + ……. Where an =
If a0 = a1 = a2 = ….. = am-1 = 0 but am 0 then f(z) is said to have a zero of order m at z = a.
When m = 1 the zero is said to be simple. In the neighborhood of zero (z = a) of order m.
f(z) = am(z-a)m + am+1 (z-a)m+1 + …..
= (z-a)m (z)
Where (z) = am + am-1 (z-a) + …..
Then (z) is analytic and non-zero in the neighborhood of z = a.
4.10.2 Singularities of a Analytic Function
We have already defined a singular point of a function as the point at which the function ceases to be
analytic.
1. Isolated singularity. If z = a is a singularity of f(z) such that f(z) is analytic at each point in its
neighborhood (i.e. there exists a circle with centre a which has no other singularirt) then
z = a is called isolated singularity.
In such a case f(z) can be expanded in a laurent’s series around z = a giving
F(z) = a0 + a1(z-1) + a2(z-1)2 + ….. + a-1(z-a)-1 + a-2(z-a)-2 + ……
Where, an =
For example f(z) = cot ( /z) is not analytic where tan ( = 0 i.e. at the points /z = n or
Neighborhood
But when n is largest z = 0 is such a singularity that there are infinite number of other
singularities in its neighborhood. Thus z =0 is the non-isolated singularity of f(z).
2. Removable singularity. If all the negative powers of f(z-a) in (i)) are zero then f(z) = ∑
Here the singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a in such a way that it becomes
analytic at z = a Such a singularity is called a removable singularity.
Thus if exist finitely then z = a is a removable singularity.
3. Poles. If all the negative powers of (z-a) in (i) after the nth are missing then the singularity at z =a
is called a pole of order n
4. Essential singularity. If the number of negative powers of (z-a) in (i) is infinite then z = a is called
an essential singularity. In the case does not exist.
Q. 1 The analytic function f(z) = has singularities at

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
(a) 1 and -1 (b) 1 and i
(c) 1 and –i (d) i and –i
Solution: (d)
f(z) = = =
The singularity arc at z = i and –i
Q. 2 The series ∑ converges to
(a) 2 h 2 (b) √
(c) 2 (d) e
Solution: (d)
Given
Let x(n) = ∑
= + + + + + …. = 1+ 1+ + + + ….
Also we know that expression of ex
ex = 1 + x + x2 = x3 + x4 + ….
Put x = 1 in avobe expression
ex = 1 + 1 + + + + ….
e =∑
4.11 RESIDUES
The coefficient of (z – a)-1 in the expansion of f(z) around an isolated singularity is called the residue of
f(z) at thet point. Thus is the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) around z = a i.e. f(z) = a0 + a1(z-a) + a2(z-a)2
+ …. + a-1 (z-a)-1 + a-2(z-a)-2 + …. The residue of f(z) at z = a is a-1.
Since, an =
a-1 = Res f(a) = C f(z)dz
C f(z)dz = 2 i Res f(a).

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
4.11.1 Residue Theorem

If f(z) is analytic in a closed curve C except at a finite numbers of singular ponts within C then
C f(z)dz = 2 i x (sum of the residues at the singular points within C)
Let us surround each of the singular points a1, a2 ….. an by a small circle such that it encloses no others
singular points. Then these circles C1, C2 ….. Cn together with C, form a multiply connected region in
which f(z) is analytic.
Applying Cauchy’s theorem we have

C f(z)dz = C1 f(z)dz + C2 f(z)dz + ……. Cn f(z)dz
= 2 i [Res f(a1) + Res f(a2) + ……. + Res f(an)]

Which is the desired result.
4.11.2 Calculation of residues
1. If f(z) has a simple pole at z = a then
Res f(a) = [(z-a)f(z)]
Laurent’s series in this case is
f(z) = c0 + c1(z-a) + c2(z-a)2 … +c-1(z –a)-1
Multiplying throughout by z a, we get
(z-a) f(z) = c0(z-a) + c1(z-a)2 + ….. + c-1
Taking limit as z a we get
[(z-a) f(z)] = c-1 = Res f(a).
2. Another formula for Res f(a):
Let f(z) = (z)/ (z), where (z) = (z-a)F(z). F(a) 0.
Then [(z-a) (z)/ (z)] =
= , since(a) = 0
Thus, Res f(a) =

3. If f(z) has a pole of order n at z = a, then
Res f(a) = , -
Obs. In many cases the residue of a pole (z=a) can be found by putting z=a +1 in f(z) and
expanding if in powers of t where |t| is quite small.
q. 1 Consider the following complex function
f(z) =

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
which of the following is one of the residues of the above function?
(a) -1 (b)
(c) 2 (d) 9
Solution: (a)
F(z) has poles at z = 1, -2
Residue of f(z) at (z = 1)
= (z-1)f(z) = 35 =1
Residue of f(z) at (z = -2)
= = ( )
= = -1
Q. 2 The integral f(z)dz evaluated around the unite circle on the complex plane for f(z) = is
(a) 2 i (b) 4 i
(c) -2 i (d) 0
Solution: (a)
f(z) =
has simple pole at z = 0 and z = 0 is inside unit circle on complex plane
Residue of f(z) at z = 0
f(z). z. = cos z = 1
C f(z)dz = 2 i (Residue at z = 0) = 2 i. 1 = 2 i

PREVIOUS YEAR SOLVED QUESTIONS OF GATE
Complex Analysis:
1
1. The residue of the function f(z) = at z = 2 is [EC: GATE-2008]
(z + 2) (z − 2)2 2
1 1 1 1
(a) − (b) − (c) (d)
32 16 16 32
1. (a)
d ⎡
( z − 2 ) f (z)⎤⎦
2
Residue at z = 2 is lim
z →2 dz ⎣
d ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
2
= lim ⎢ ⎥
z →2 dz ⎜ z + 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
−2
= lim
(z + 2)
z →2 3
−2 1
= lim =−
(z + 2)
3
z →2 32
1 + f(z)
2. If f(z) = c 2 + c1z −1 , than ∫
unit
z
dz is given by [EC: GATE-2009]
circle
(a) 2 π c1 (b) 2 π(1 + c 0 ) (c) 2 π jc1 (d) 2 π j (1 + c 0 )
2. (d)
1 + f (z) (1 + c0 ) z + c1
Let g(z) = =
z z2
∴ g(z) has a pole of order two at z = 0
d ⎡
( z − 0 ) g(z)⎤⎦
2
∴ Re s(g,o) = lim
z →0 dz ⎣
= lim (1 + c0 )
z →0
= 1 + c0
∴ ∫ g(z)dz = 2πi(1 + c
z =1
0 )
1 − 2z
3. The residues of a complex function X ( z ) = at its poles are [EC: GATE-2010]
z( z − 1)( z − 2)
1 1 1 1 1 3 1 3
(a) , − and 1 (b) , and − 1 (c) ,1 and − (d) , − 1 and
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3. (c)
x(z) has simple poles at z = 0,1,2.
1 − 2z 1
∴ Res ( x,0 ) = lim ⎡⎣( z − 0 ) x ( z )⎤⎦ = lim =
z →0 z →0 ( z − 1)( z − 2 ) 2
1 − 2z
Res ( x,1) = lim ⎡⎣( z − 1) x ( z )⎤⎦ = lim =1
z→1 z →1 z (z − 2)
1 − 2z −3
Res ( x,2 ) = lim ⎡⎣( z − 2 ) x ( z )⎤⎦ = lim =
z →2 z →2 z ( z − 1) 2
4. For the function of a complex variable W = ln Z (where, W = u + jv and Z = x + jy), the u =

constant lines get mapped in Z-plane as [EC: GATE-2006]
(a) set of radial straight lines
(b) set of concentric circles
(c) set of confocal hyperbolas
(d) set of confocal ellipses
4. Ans. (b)
Given, W = log ez
1 ⎛y⎞
⇒ u + iv = log e (x + iy) =
log(x2 + y2) + i tan–1 ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝x⎠
Since, u is constant, therefore
1
log(x2 + y2) = c
2
⇒ x2 + y2 = c
Which is represented set of concentric circles.
1
5. The value of the contour integral ∫
|z − j| = 2 z 2
+4
dz in positive sense is [EC: GATE-2006]
jπ π
(a) (b) −
2 2
jπ π
(c) − (d)
2 2
5. (d)
1 1
Let f (z) = =
z + 4 ( z + 2i )( z − 2i )
2
In z − i = 2, z = 2i is a pole of order 1.
1
∴ Re s ( f ,2i ) = lim ⎡⎣( z − 2i ) f ( z ) ⎤⎦ =
z → 2i 4i
1 π
∴ ∫
z − i =2
f (z)dz = 2πi × =
4i 2
(0,3)
(0,i)
(0,-1)
⎢z-i⎜=2
7. ii , where i= −1, is given by [ME: GATE-1996]

π
(a) 0 (b) e −π /2 (c) (d) 1
2
7. (b)
i i = ei log i .
⎛ π⎞
Now, log i = log i + ⎜ 2kπ + ⎟ i, k = 0,1,2,.........
⎝ 2⎠
πi
= , for k = 0.
2
π
πi −
∴ i i = ei. =e 2
2
8. The integral ∫ f ( z )dz evaluated around the unit circle on the complex plane for
cos z
f ( z) is [ME: GATE-2008]
z
(a) 2π i (b) 4π i (c) -2π i (d) 0
8. (a)
cos z
f (z) = ,
z
∴ f (z) has a simple pole at z = 0
∴ Re s(f ,0) = lim ⎡⎣( z − 0 ) f ( z ) ⎤⎦ = 1
z →0
∴ ∫ f (z)dz = 2πi × 1 = 2πi

π /3
9. Assuming i = −2 and t is a real number ∫ e dt is [ME: GATE-2006]
it
3 1 3 1 1 ⎛ 3⎞ 1 ⎛ 3⎞
(a) +i (b) −i (c) +i⎜ ⎟ (d) + i ⎜⎜ 1 + ⎟
2 2 2 2 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
9.(a)
π /3 π /3
⎡ eit ⎤ l ⎛ π π ⎞
∫0 e dtit
− ⎢ i ⎥ i
( ⎝
)
= eiπ /3 − 1 = −i ⎜ cos + i sin − 1 ⎟
3 3 ⎠
⎣ ⎦0
⎛1 3 ⎞ 3 1
= −i ⎜ + i −1⎟ = + i.
⎜2 2 ⎟ 2 2
⎝ ⎠
10. If φ (x,y) and ψ (x,y) are functions with continuous second derivatives, then
φ (x,y) + iψ (x,y) can be expressed as an analytic function of x+ iψ (i= -1),
when [ME: GATE-2007]
∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ
(a) =− , = (b) =− , =
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂φ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ψ
(c) + = + =1 (d) + = + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
10. (b)
Φ(x,y) + iΨ(x,y) is analylic, so it satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equation
∂Φ ∂Ψ ∂Φ ∂Ψ
= , =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
11. An analytic function of a complex variable z = x + iy is expressed as f(z) = u (x, y) + i v(x, y)

where i = −1 . If u = xy, the expression for v should be [ME: GATE-2009]
( x + y)2 x2 − y 2 y 2 − x2 ( x − y)2
(a) +k (b) +k (c) +k (d) +k
2 2 2 2
11. (c)
Here u and v are analytic as f(z) is analytic.
∴ u,v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equation.
ux = v y − (i) and u y = − v x − (ii)
Given u = xy
∴ ux = y
⇒ vy = y [by (i)]
Integrating
y2
v= + c(x) −(iii)
2
Again
v x = c′(x)
⇒ −u y = c′(x) [by (ii)]
⇒ − x = c′(x)
Integreting,
−x 2
c(x) = +k
2
From (iii) we get
y2 − x 2
v= +k
2
⎛ 3 + 4i ⎞
12. The modulus of the complex number ⎜ ⎟ is. [ME: GATE-2010]
⎝ 1 − 2i ⎠
(a )5 (b) 5 (c)1/ 5 (d )1/ 5
12. (b)
3 + 4i (3 + 4i)(1 + 2i) −5 + 10i
= = = −1 + 2i
1 − 2i (1 − 2i)(1 + 2i) 5
3 + 4i
∴ = −1 + 2i = 5
1 − 2i
Q26. For an analytic function, f ( x + iy ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) ,u is given by u = 3x 2 − 3y2 . The

expression for v, considering K to be constant is
(a) 3y2 − 3x 2 + K (b) 6 x − 6 y + K (c) 6 y − 6 x + K (d) 6 xy + K [CE-2011]
Ans. (d)
Exp. Cauchy Riemann equations for
f ( z ) = u + iv
ux = v y and uy = − v x … (ii)
2 2
Given u = 3x − 3 y
⇒ ux = 6x ⇒ uy = 6x [using (i)]
⇒ v = 6xy + φ ( x ) … (iii)
Differentiating w.r.t.x
v x = 6y + φ ' ( x )
⇒ − uy = 6y + φ ' ( x )
[using (ii)]
⇒ 6y = 6y + φ ' ( x )
⇒ φ ' ( x) = 0
⇒ φ ( x ) = K (Constant)
∴ from (iii) we get
v = 6xy + K
z −1
13. The analytic function f(z) = has singularities at [CE: GATE – 2009]
z2 + 1
(a) 1 and –1 (b) 1 and i
(c) 1 and –i (d) i and –i
13. (d)
z −1 z −1
f (z) =2
=
z + 1 (z + i)(z − i)
∴ f (z) has sin gularities at z = i, −i
14. Using Cauchy’s integral theorem, the value of the integral (integration being taken in counter
z3 − 6
clockwise direction) ∫ dz is [CE: GATE – 2006]
c
3z −1
2π π 4π
(a) − 4π i (b) − 6π i (c) − 6π i (d) 1
81 8 81
14. (a)
z3 − 6
Let f (z) = . Here f (z) has a singularities at z = i / 3
3z − i
1 ⎡ z3 − 6 ⎤ 1 ⎛ i 3 ⎞
∴ Res(f , ) = lim ⎢(z − i / 3) × ⎥ = .⎜ − 6⎟
3 z→i/3 ⎣ 3z − i ⎦ 3 ⎝ 27 ⎠
1 ⎛ i3 ⎞ 2π 4 2π
∴ ∫c f (z)dx = 2 πi × ⎜
3 ⎝ 27
− 6⎟ =
⎠ 81
i − 4 πi =
81
− 4 πi
15. Consider likely applicability of Cauchy’s Integral Theorem to evaluate the following integral
counter clockwise around the unit circle c. [CE: GATE – 2005]
I = ∫ sec zdz,
c
z being a complex variable. The value of I will be

(a) I = 0: singularities set = φ
(a) I = 0 : singularities set = ± { 2n + 1

2
π ; n = 0,1, 2........ }
π
(c) I = : singularities set = { ± nπ; n = 0, 1, 2 ………}
2
(d) None of above
15. Ans. (a)

1
∫ sec z dz = ∫ cos z dz
⎛ 1⎞
The poles are at z0 = ⎜ n + ⎟ π
⎝ 2⎠
−3π −π π +3π
= ....... , , , .......
2 2 2 2
None of these poles lie inside the unit circle |z| = 1
Hence, sum of residues at poles = 0
∴ Singularities set = φ and
I = 2πi [sum of residues of f(z) at the poles]
= 2πi × 0 = 0
cos (2π z)
16. The value of the integral ∫ (2 z − 1) (z − 3) dz
C
(where C is a closed curve given by |z| = 1) is
[CE: GATE – 2009]

πi 2π i
(a) – πi (b) (c) (d) πi
5 5
16. (c)
cos(2πz)
Let f (z) = . f (z) has sin gularity at z = 1 / 2
(2z − 1)(z − 3)
in C (1z1 = 1).
∴ Re s(f ,1 / 2) = lim ⎡⎣(z − 1 / 2)f (z)⎤⎦
z →1/2
⎡ 1 cos(2πz) ⎤
= lim ⎢ .
z →1/2 2
⎣ z − 3 ⎥⎦
1
=
5
2πi
∴ ∫ f (z)dz =
c 5
17. Which one of the following is NOT true for complex number Z1 and Z2 ?
Z1 ZZ
(a) = 1 22 (b) |Z1 + Z2 |≤|Z1 |+|Z2 | [CE: GATE – 2005]
Z2 |Z2 |
(c) |Z1 − Z2 |≤|Z1 |−|Z2 | (d) |Z1 + Z2 |2 +|Z1 − Z2 |2 = 2|Z1 |2 + 2|Z2 |2
17. Ans. (d)

(a) is true since
Z1 Z Z Z Z
= 1 2 = 1 22
Z2 Z2 Z2 |Z2 |
(b) is true by triangle inequality of complex number.

(c) is not true since |Z1 − Z2 |≥|Z1 |–|Z2 |
(d) is true since
|Z1 + Z2 |2 = (Z1 + Z2 ) (Z1 + Z2 )
= (Z1 + Z2 ) (Z1 + Z2 )
= Z1 Z1 + Z2 Z2 + Z2 Z1 + Z1 Z2 … (i)
2
And |Z1 − Z2 | = (Z1 + Z2 ) (Z1 − Z2 )
= (Z1 − Z2 ) (Z1 − Z2 )
= Z1 Z1 + Z2 Z2 − Z2 Z1 − Z1 Z2 … (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii) we get
|Z1 + Z2 |2 +|Z1 − Z2 |2 = 2 Z1 Z1 + 2 Z2 Z2
= 2|Z1 |2 + 2|Z2 |2
Q14. Roots of the algebraic equation x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0 are

(a) ( +1, + j, − j) (b) ( +1, −1, +1) (c) ( 0, 0, 0 ) (d) ( −1, + j, − j) [EE-2011]
Ans. (d)
Exp, x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0 … (1)
Now f ( −1) = 0
So, ( x + 1) is a factor of (1)
∴ x 3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0
⇒ x 2 ( x + 1 ) + 0 ( x + 1 ) + 1 ( x + 1) = 0
( )
⇒ ( x + 1) x2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1, − j, + j
Q1. A point z has been plotted in the complex plane, as shown in figure below.
1
The plot of the complex number y = [EE-2011]
z
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Ans. (d)
z
18. Given X(z)= with z > a, the residue of X(z) zn-1 at z=a for n ≥ 0 will be
(z − a)
2
[EE: GATE-2008]
n −1
(a) a (b) an (c) nan (d) nan-1
18. Ans. (d)

z
X (z) = with z > a
(z − a)
2
zn
Let f ( z ) = X ( z ) z n −1 =
(z − a)
2
∴ Re sidue of F ( z ) at z=a
1 d
[( z − a ) F ( z )]
2
= lim
1! dz → a dz
= lim
d n
dz →a dz
( )
z
F ( a ) = na n −1
19. For the equation, s3 - 4s2 + s + 6 =0

The number of roots in the left half of s-plane will be [EE: GATE-2004]
(a) zero (b) one (c) two (d) three
19. Ans. (c)

Constructing Routh-array
S3 1 1 0
S2 -4 6 0
S1 2 0
S 0 6
Number of sign changes in the first column is two, therefore the number of roots in the left half s-
plane is 2
20. The algebraic equation [EE: GATE-2006]

F (s ) = s 5 − 3s 4 + 5s 3 − 7s 2 + 4s + 20 is given F ( s ) = 0 has
(a) a single complex root with the remaining roots being real
(b) one positive real root and four complex roots, all with positive real parts
(c) one negative real root, two imaginary roots, and two roots with positive real parts
(d) once positive real root, two imaginary roots, and two roots with negative real parts
20. Ans. (c)

F ( s ) =s5 -3s2 -7s2 +4s=20
we can solve it by making Routh Hurwitz array.
s5 1 5 4
s 4
−3 −7 20
3
s 8 / 3 20 / 3 0
s2 5 20 0
1
s 0 0 0
0
s 20 0 0
We can replace 1st element of s1 by 10.
If we observe the 1st column, sign is changing two times.
So we have two poles on right half side of imaginary
Axis and 5s2+20=0
So, s = ±2 j and1 pole on left side of imaginary axis .
dz
36. The value of ∫ where C is the contour z − i / 2 = 1 is [EE: GATE-2007]
C (1 + z )
2
(a) 2π i
(b) π
(c) tan−1 z
(d) π i tan−1 z
36. Ans (b)
21. Consider the circle |z – 5 – 5i| = 2 in the complex plane (x, y) with z = x + iy. The
minimum distance from the origin to the circle is [IE: GATE-2005]
(a) 5 2 − 2 (b) 54
(c) 34 (d) 5 2
21. (a)
z − 5 − 5i = 2
⇒ z − (5 + 5i) = 2 represents a circle of radius 2. and center (5,5)
From figure,
OP = 52 + 52 = 2 5
Y
(5,5i)
P
X
0 (0,0)
OQ is minimum distance from the origin.

OQ = 2 5 − 2 as PQ = radius = 2.
22. Let z3 = z, where z is a complex number not equal to zero. Then z is a solution of
[IE: GATE-2005]
(a) z2 = 1 (b) z3 = 1
(c) z4 = 1 (d) z9 = 1
22. Ans. (c)

Given, z3 = z
⇒ z4 = |z|2 (on multiplying z both side)
Now by hit and trial method we see the solution being
Z4 = 1
23. The value of the integral of the complex function [IE: GATE-2006]
3s + 4
f(s) =
(s + 1) (s + 2)
Along the path |s| = 3 is
(a) 2πj (b) 4πj
(c) 6πj (d) 8πj
23. (c)
3s + 4
Given f (s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)
f (s) has singularities at s = −1, −2 which are inside the given circle
s =3
∴ Re s(f , −1) = lim ⎡⎣(s + 1)f (s)⎤⎦ = 1.
s →−1
Re s(f , −2) = lim ⎣⎡(s + 2)f (s)⎦⎤ = 2.

s →−2
∫
s =3
f (s)ds = 2πj × (1 + 2) = 6πj
24. Let j = –1 . Then one value of jj is [IE: GATE-2007]

π
π −
(a) j (b) –1 (c) (d) e 2
2
24. (d) same as Q.7
25. The polynomial p(x) = x5 + x + 2 has [IE: GATE-2007]

(a) all real roots (b) 3 real and 2 complex roots
(c) 1 real and 4 complex roots (d) all complex roots
25. (c)
Given f (x) = x 5 + x + 2.
P( + x) = + + + (Taking only sign of each term)
⇒ P(x) has no +ve real roots.
P(-x)= - - + (Taking only sign of each term)
⇒ P(x) has one − ve real root
As, P(x) of degree 5 .So other four roots are complex.
sin z
26. For the function of a complex variable z, the point z = 0 is [IE: GATE-2007]
z3
(a) a pole of order 3 (b) a pole of order 2
(c) a pole of order 1 (d) not a singularity
26. (b)
sin z
As.lim = 1.
z →0 z
Therefore the function has z = 0 is a pole of order 2.
27. It is known that two roots of the nonlinear equation x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 are 1 and 3.
The third root will be [IE: GATE-2008]
(a) j (b) –j (c) 2 (d) 4
27. (c)
Let third root be α. of x 3 − 6x 2 + 11x − 6 = 0
Then1 + 3 + α = 6 ⇒ α = 2
28. If z = x + jy, where x and y are real, the value of |ejz| is [IE: GATE-2009]
2 2
(a) 1 (b) e x + y (c) ey (d) e–y
28. (d)
e jz = e j( x + jy ) = e− y + jx = e− y e jx = e− y e jx
= e− y ⎡⎣∵ e− y > 0,for all y ∈ ℜ and eix = 1 ⎤⎦
29. One of the roots of the equation x3 = j, where j is the positive square root of –1, is
[IE: GATE-2009]
3 1 3 1 3 1
(a) j (b) +j (c) −j (d) − −j
2 2 2 2 2 2
29. (b)
x3 = j
jπ
⇒ x3 = e 2
jπ
π π
⇒ x = e 6 = cos + jsin
6 6
3 1
⇒ + j.
2 2
30. The root mean squared value of x(t) = 3 + 2 sin (t) cos (2t) is [IE: GATE-2008]
(a) 3 (b) 8 (c) 10 (d) 11
30. Ans. (d)

x(t) = 3 + 2 sin t cos 2t
x(t) = 3 + sin 3t – sin t
∴ Root mean square value = 32 + 12 + 12 = 11
31. Contour C in the adjoining figure is described by x2 + y2 = 16.

z2 + 8
The value of ∫ dz (Note : j = –1 ) [IE: GATE-2010]
C
0.5z – 1.5j
y
z plane
x
0
(a) – 2π j (b) 2π j (c) 4π j (d) –4π j
31. (d)
z2 + 8 2(z2 + 8)
Let f (z) = =
0.5z − 1.5j z − 3j
f(z) has a singularity at z=3j which is inside the given
circle x 2 + y2 = 16.
∴ Re s(f ,3j) = lim ⎣⎡(z − 3j)f (z)⎦⎤ = −2
z →3 j
∴ ∫ f (z)ds = 2πj × ( −2) = −4πj

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Differential Equations
3.2.1 Definitions
A differential equation is an equation which involves derivatives of differential coefficients or

differentials. Thus the following are all examples of differential equations.
(a)x2dx + y2 dy = 0 (b) + a2x = 0
(c)y = x + (d) * ( ) + =
(e) - wy = a cos pt, + wx = a sin pt (f)x2 +y = 3z
(g) = a2
An ordinary differential equation is that in which all the differential coefficients all with respect to a
single independent variable. Thus the equations (a) to (d) are all ordinary differential equations. (e) is a
system of ordinary differential equations.
A partial differential equations is that in which there are two or more independent variables and partial
differential coefficient with respect to any of them. The equations (f) and (g) are partial differential
equations.
The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivatives appearing in it. The degree of
a differential equation is the degree of the highest derivatives occurring in its, after the equation has
expressed in a form free from free from radicals and fractions as the derivatives are concerned.
Thus from the example above.
(a) Is of the first order and first degree.

(b) Is of the second order and first degree.
(c) Written as y = x( ) + x2 is of the first order but of second degree.
(d) After removing radicals is written as * ( ) + = a3( )

And is of the second order and third degree.
EXAMPLES FROM GATE
Q. 1 the following differential equation has 3 + 4( ) + y2 + 2 = x
(a) degree = 2, order = 1 (b) degree = 1, order = 2
(c) degree = 4, order = 3 (d) degree = 2, order = 3
Solution: (b)

Order is highest derivative term, so order = 2. Degree is power of highest derivative term.
So, degree = 1
Q. 2 The order of the differential equation + ( ) + y4 = e-t is
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
Solution: (b)
Highest derivative of differential equation is 2.
3.2.2 Solution of a differential Equation
A solution (or integral) of a differential equation is a relation between the variable which satisfies the
given differential equation
For example, y=
Is a solution of = x2 y
The general )or complete) solution of a differential equation is that in which the number of arbitrary
constants is equal to the order of the differential equation. Thus (i) is a general solution of (ii) as the
number of arbitrary constants (one constant c) is the same as the order of the equations (ii) (first order).
Similarly, in the general solution of a second order differential equation, there will be two arbitrary
constants.
A particular solution is that which can be obtained from the general solution by giving particular value to
the arbitrary constants.
For example
Is a particular solution of the equation (ii) as it can be derived from the general solution (i) by putting e =
-I
A differential equation may have an additional solution which cannot be obtained from the general
solution by assigning a particular value to the arbitrary. Such a solution is called a singular solution and
usually is not of much practical interest in engineering.
3.2.3 equations of the first Order and first Degree
It is not possible to analytically solve such equations in general. We shall however, discuss some special
methods of solution which are applied to the followings types of equations:
1. Equations variable are teparable.

2. Homogenous equations
3. Linear equations
4. Exact equations
In other cases, the particular solution may be determined numerically.
3.2.3.1 Variable separable
If in equation it is possib;e to collect all function of x and dx on one side and all the functions of y and dy
on the other side. Then the variable are said to be separable. Thus the general form of such an equation
is f(y)dy = (x)dx.
Integrating both sides, we get f(y)dy = (x)dx + c as its solution.
Q. 1 the solution of the differential equation + y2 = 0 is
(a) y = (b) y = +c
(c) (d) unsolvable as equation is non-linear
Solution: (a)
Given differential equation
+ y2 = 0
- = dx
On integrating, we get - = dx
=x+c
y=
Q. 2 The type of the partial differential equation = is
(a) Parabolic (b) Eiliptic
(c) Hyperbolic (d) Non-linear
Answer: (a)
3.2.3.2 Homogeneous Equations

Are of the form =
Wher f(x, y) and (x) (x, y) homogeneous functions of the same degree in x and y.
Homogeneous Function: An expression of the form a0xn + a1xn-1 y + a2xn-2 y2 + …………+ anxn in which every
term is of the nth degree is called a homogeneous function of degree n. This can be rewritten as
xn [a0 + a1 (y / x) + a2(y / x)2 + …………..+ an(y / x)n].
Thus any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in the form xnf(y/x) is called a homogeneous function of
degree n in x and y. For instance x3 cos (y/x) is a homogeneous function of degree 3 in x and y.
To solve a homogeneous equation
1. Put y = vx, then =V+x ,

2. Separate the variables v and x, and integrate.
ILLUSTARTIVE EXAMPLES
Example:
Solve (y2 – x2) dx – 2xydy = 0.
Solution:
Given equation is = which is homogeneous in x and y.
Put y = vx, then =v+x
Eq. (i) becomes v + x = * +
[ ]
Or x = * + -v =
Separating the variables.
dv = -
Integrating both sides.
=- +c
Or In(1 + v2) = -In x + c = In + In c1

Or In(1 + v2) = In ( )
1 + v2 =
Replacing v by , we get
1+( ) =( )
Or x2 + y2 = cx
Or ( ) + y2 = ( )
This general solution represent a family of circles with centers on the x-asis at ( ) and radius = , thus
passing through origin as shown below.
Fig. general solution (Family of circles)
3.2.3.3 linear equations of First Order
A differential equation is said be linear if the dependent variable and its differential coefficient occurs
only in the first degree and not multiplied together,
Thus the following differential equations are linear
1. + 4y = 2 2. x2 + 3x + 4y = 2
Equation (i) is linear first order differential equation while equation (ii) in linear second order
differential equation. The following equations are linear
( ) +y=5 2. + y½ = 2
3. =5
3.2.3.4 Leibnitze linear equation
The standard form of a linear equation of the first order, commonly known as Leibnitz’s linear equation,
is

+ Py = Q where P,Q are arbitrary functions of x.
Pdx
To solve the equation, multiply both sides by e so that we get
Pdx Pdx Pdx Pdx Pdx

.e + y(e P) = Q e i.e. (y e ) =Qe
Pdx Pdx
Integrating both sides, we get ye = Qe dx + c as the required solution.
Note. The factor e Pdx on multiplying by which the left-hand side of (1) becomes the differential
coefficient of a single function is called the Integrating factor (I.F.) of the linear equation (i).
So remember the following:

Pdx
I.F. = e
And the solution is y(I.F.) = Q (I.F.)dx + c.
Q. 1 The solution of the differential equation + = x, with the condition that y = 1 at x = 1 is
(a) y = + (b) y = +
(c) y = + (d) y = +
Solution: (d)
+ = x, y(1) = 1
This is a linear differential equation + Py = Q with P = and Q = x
IF – Integrations Factor
Pdx dx= nx
=e =e =e =x
Solution is
y.(IF) = Q(IF)dx + C
yx = (xx)dx + C
yx = x2dx + C
yx = +C
y= +

Now y(1) = 1
+ =1 C=
So the solution is y = +
Q. 2 The matrix form of the linear system = 3x – 5y and = 4x + 8y is
(a) , -=* +, - (b) , -=* +, -
(c) , -=* +, - (d) , -=* +, -
Solution: (a)
= 3x – 5y
= 4x + 8y
, -=* +, -
, -=[ ]
3.2.3.5 Bernoulli’s Equation
The equation + Py = Qyn
Where P, Q are function of x is reducible to the Leibnjtz’s Linear and is usually called the Bernoulli’s
equation.
To solve (i), divide both sides by yn so that y-n + Py1-n = Q
Put y1-n = Z so that (1 – n) y-n =
Eq. (ii) becomes + Pz = Q
Or + P(1 –n)z = Q(1 – n)
Which is Leibnitz’s linear in z and can be solved easily.
Example:

Solve + y = 4y3
Solution:
Dividing throughout by y3,
y-3 + y-2 = 4
Put y2 = z, so that -2y-3 =
Eq. (i) becomes – +z=4
Or - 2z = -8
Which is Leibnitz’s linear in z.

-2dx
IF = e = e-2x
The solution of (ii) is z (I.F.) = (-8)(I.F.)dx + c
ze-2x = (-8)e-2xdx + c
y-2 e-2x = 4e-2x + c
y-2 = 4 +ce2x
y = (4 +ce2x)-1/2
3.2.3.6 Exact Differential Equations
1. Deff. A differential equation of the form M(x, y) dx + N(x, y)dy = 0 is said to be exact if its left hand
member is the exact differential of some function u(x, y) i.e. du = Mdx + Ndy = 0. Its solution, therefore
is u(x, y) = c
2. Theorem: the necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equations Mdx + Ndy = 0 to be
exact is.
3.Method of solution. It can be shown that the equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 becomes
d[u + f(y)dy] = 0
Integrating u+ f(y)dy = 0
But u= Mdx and f(y) = terms of N not containing x

The solution of Mdx + Ndy = 0 is
Mdx + terms of N not containing x ) dy = c
(Provides of course that the equation is exact i.e. = )
Note: While finding Mdx, y is treated as constant since we are Integrating with respect to x.
Solve (x3 + 3xy2) dx + (3x2y + y3) dy = 0
Solution:
Step 1: Test for exactness
Here M = x3 + 3xy2 and N = 3x2y + y3
= 6xy
Thus the equation is exact and its solution is
Mdx + (terms of n not containing x) dy = c
Which is (x3 + 3xy2) dx + y3dy = c
+ + =c
(x4+ 6x2y2 + y4) = c
3.2.3.7 Equations reducible to Exact Equations
Sometimes a differential equation which is not exact, can be made so on multiplication by a

suitable factor called an integrating factor. The rules for finding integrating factors of the equation Mdx
+ Ndy = 0 are as given in therem 1 and 2 below:
In the eqations Mdx + Ndy = 0
f(y) dy
Theorem 1: if be a function of x only = f(x) say, then e is an integrating factor.
f(y) dy
Theorem 2: if be a function y only = f(y) say, then e is an integrating factor.
Example: 1

Solve 2sin (y2) dx + xy cos y2 dy = 0, y(2) = √
Solution:
Step 1: here, M =sin (y2) and N = xy cos (y2)
Step 2: test for exactness = 4y cos (y2) and = y cos (y2)
So
And hence, equation is not exact. So we have to find integrating factor by using either theorem
1 of theorem 2.
Step 3: find and integrating factor: try theorem 1
Here, = =
Which is function of x only. So theorem 1 can be used
f(x) dx dx
I.F. = e =e = e3Inx = eInx3 = x3
Multiplying throughout by I.F., we get
2x3 sin (y2) dx + x4y cos y2 dy = 0
This equation will surely be an exact equation. No need to check that.
Step 4: general solution:
Mdx = (terms of n containing x) dy = c
Which is 2x3 sin(y2) dx + 0dy =0
x4 sin (y2) = c
Step 5: Now to find the particular solution of the
Since y(2) = √
24 sin = c
c=8
So particular solution is x4 sin (y2) = 8

Or x4 sin (y2) 16
3.2.4 clairaut’s Equation*
An equation of the form = y px + f(p0, where p = , is known as Clairaut’s equation
Differentiating with respect to x, we have p = p + x + f’(p)
Or *x + f’(p)+ =0
= 0, or x + f’(p) = 0
= 0, gives p = c
Thus eliminating p from (1) and (2), we get y = cx + f(c)
Hence the solution of the CLairaut’s equation is obtained on replacing p by c.
Example:
Solve = tan ( )
Solution:
Putting: = p we get,
p = tan (y – xp)
or y – xp = tan-1 (p)
y = px + tan-1 (p)
this is in form of y = px + f(p)
Which is the clairaut’s equation General solution is obtained by replacing p by c.
i.e. Y = cx + tan-1 (c)

3.3 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQAUTIONS(OF nTH ORDER)
3.3.1 Definitions
Linear differential equations are those in which the dependent variables occur only in the first degree
and not multiplied together. The general linear differential equation of the nth order is of the form

+ p1 +p2 +……..+pny = X
Where p1, p2, …….., pn and x are functions of x only.
Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients are of the form
+ k1 +k2 +……..+kny = X
Where k1, k2, ……………..kn are constants and X is a function of x only. Such equation are most important
in the study of electromechanical vibrations and other engineering problems.
1. Theorem: If y1, y2 are only two solution of the equations

+ + +……..+kny = 0
Then c1y1 + c21y2 (=u) is also its solution,
Since it can be easily shown by differentiating is that + k1 +……..+knu = 0
2. Since the general solution of a differential equation of the nth order contains n arbiteary
constants, if follows, from above that if y1, y2, y3, ………y4 are n independent solution of(1), then
3. If y = v be any particular solution of
+ k1 +……..+kny = X
Then + k1 +……..+knv = X
Adding (ii) and (iv we have + k1 +……..+kn(u + v) = X
This show that y = u + v is the complete solution fo (iii).
The part u is called the complementary function (C.F) and the part v is called the particular integral (P.I)
of (iii).
The complete solution (C.S.) of (iii) is y = C.F + P.I.
Thus in order to show the equation (iii) we have to first find the C.F. i.e. the complementary function of
(i) and then the PI i.e. a particular solution of (iii)
Operating D Denoting , , etc so that
= Dy, = D2y, = D3y etc. the equation (iii) above can be written in the symbolic form
(Dn + k1Dn-1 + …………… + kn)y = X
i.e. f(D)y = X

where f(D) = Dn + k1dn-1 + ……..+ kn i.e. a polynomial in D.
Thus the symbol D stand for the operation of differentiation and can be treated much the same as an
algebraic quantity i.e. f(D) can be factoriesed by ordinary rules of algebraic and the factors may be taken
in any order. For instance
+ k1 + k2 + …………..+ kny =0
Where k’s are constants.
The equation (i) in symbolic forms is
(Dn + k1Dn-1 + k2Dn-2 +………+ kn)y = 0
Its symbolic co-efficient equated to zero i.e.
Dn + k1Dn-1 + k2Dn-2 +………+ kn = 0
Is called the auxiliary equation (A.E.) Let m1, m2,…….mn be its roots, Now 4 cases arise.
Case I. If all the roots be real and different, then (ii) is equivalent to
(D – m1) (D – m2) …… (D – mn)y = 0
Now (iii) will be satisfied by the solution of (D – mn)y = 0 i.e. by – mny = 0.
This is a Leibnitz’s linear and I.F. = e-mnx
Its solution is ye-mnx = on, i.e. by y = cnemnx
Similarly, since the factors in (iii) can be taken in any order it will be satisfied by the solution of
(D – m1)y = 0, (D – m2) = 0 etc, i.e. by y = c1em1x . y = c2em2x etc.
Thus the complete solution of (i) is y = c1em1x + c2em2x + …… + cnemnx
Case II. If two roots are equal (i.e. m1 = m2) then (iv) becomes
y = (c1 + c2) em1x + c3em3x + ……. + cnemnx
y = Cem1x + c3em3x + ……….. + cnemnx
It has only n -1 arbitrary consatant and is therefore not the complete solution of (i). In this case, we
processed as follows:
The part of the complete solution corresponding to the repeated roots is the complete solution of
( D-m1) (D – m1) y = 0

Putting (D – m1) y=z, it becomes (D – m1) z = 0 or - m1z = 0
This is Leibnitz’s linear in z and IF = e-m1x
Its solution is ze-m1x = c1 or z = c1em1x
Thus (D – m1)y = z = c1em1x or - m1y = c1em1x
Its I.F. being e-m1x, the solution of (v) is
ye-m1x = C1em1xe-m1xdx+c2
y = (c1x + c2) em1x
Thus the complete solution of (i) is y = (c1x + c2)em1x +c3em3x+ ……+ cnemnx
If, however the A.E. has three equal roots (i.e. m1 = m2 = m3) then the complete solution is
Y = (c1x2 + c2x + c3) em1x + c4em4x + …….. +cnemnx
Case III, If one pair of roots be imaginary, i.e.
m1 = +i .
m2 = +i .
Then the complete solution is
Y= + + + …………... +
= ( + )+ + ………….+
= [c1( cos + I sin ) + c2 (cos - i sin )] + c3 em3x + …………+ cnemnx
[ by Euler’s Theorem, = cos + i sin ]
= [c1 cos + c2 sin + c3 em3x + …………+ cnemnx
Where C1 = c1 + c2
And C2 = i(c1 – c2).
Case IV. If two pair of imaginary roots be said equal i.e.
m1 = m2 = +i .
m3 = m4 = +i .
Then by case II, the complete solution is

Y= [(c1x + c2) cos + (c3x +c4) sin ] + …………+ cnemnx.
Q. 1 The general solution of + y = 0 is
(a) y = P cos x + Q sin x (b) y = P cos x
(c) y= P sin x (d) y = P sin2 x
Solution: (a)
+y=0
D2 + 1 = 0
D= i=0
General solution is
y= [c1cos (1 x x) + c2 sin (1 x x)]
=C1 cosx + C2 sinx = P cosx + Q sinx
Where P and Q are some constants.
Q. 2 The solution to the ordinary differential equation + - 6y = 0 is
(a) y = c1e3x + c2e-2x (b) y = c1e3x + c2e2x
(c) y = c1e-3x + c2e-2x (d) y = c1e-3x + c2e-2x
Solution: (c)
+ - 6y = 0
D2 + D – 6 = 0
(D + 3) (D – 2) = 0
D = -3 or D = 2
Solution is y = c1e-3x + c2e2x
3.3.3 Inverse Operator

1. Definition. X is that function of x. not containing arbitrary constants, which when
operated upon by f(D) gives X.

i.e f(D) , -=X
Thus satisfies the equation f(D)y = X and is, therefore, Its Particular integral.
Obviously. F(D) and 1/f(D) are inverse operators.
2. = Xdx
Let =y
Operating by D, = Dy
i.e. X=
integrating w.r.t. x, y = Xdx
thus = Xdx
3. = env Xe-a1dx
Let =y
Operating by D –a,
(D – a) = (D – a) y.
Or X= – ay, i.e. - ay = X
Which is a Leibnitz’s linear equations.
I.F. being e-ax, its solution is
Ye-nx = Xe-axdx
No constant being added as (ii) doesn’t contain any constant.
Thus, = y = eax Xe-axdx.
3.3.4 Rules for Finding The Particular Integral
Consider the equation + k1 + k1 +………+kny = X
n n-1 n-2
Which is symbolic from is (D + k1D + k2D + ………….+ kn)y = X
P.I. =
Case I, when X = eax
Since Deax = aeax
D2eax = a2eax
…………………..
…………………..
D2eax = aneax
(Dn + k1Dn-1 …+kn)eax = (an + k1an-1 …+kn)eax
i.e. f(D)eax = f(a)eax
Operating on both sides by
f(D)eax = f(a)eax
Or eax = f(a) eax

by + f(a)

eax = eax provided f(a) 0

If f(a) = 0, the above rule fails and we proceed further.
If can be proved that in that case.
eax = X eax
If f’(a) = 0 then applying (2) again, we get eax = x2 eax, provided f’’(a) 0
And so on.
Example 1. Solve
+6 + 9y = 5e3x
Solution:
(D2 + 6D + 9) = 5e3x
Auxilixry equation is D2 + 6D + 9 = 0 or D = -3, -3,
C.F. = (C1 + C2x)e-3x
P.I. = 5e3x = 5
The complete solution is y= (C1 + C2X)e-3x +
Example 3. Solve
(D2 + 4)y = cos 2x
Solution:
(D2 + 4)y = cos 2x
Auxiliary equation in D2 + 4 = 0
D= 2i, C.F. = A Cos 2x + B sin 2x
P.I. = cos 2x = x cos 2x = ( ) = sin 2x
Complete solution is y = A cos 2x + B sin 2x + sin 2x

Case III. When X = xm.
Here P.I. = =[f(D)]-1 xm.
Expand [f(D)]-1 in ascending powers of D as far as the term in Dm and operate on xm term by term.
Since the (m + 1)th and higher derivatives of xm are zero, we need not consider term beyond Dm.
3.3.5 Summary: Working Procedure to Solve The Equation
the symbolic form is

(Dn + k1Dn-1 + ……+ kn-1D + kn)y = X
Step 1. To Find the Complementary Function
1. Write the A.E.

i.e. Dn + k1Dn-1 + …..+ kn-1D +kn = 0 and
2. Write the C.F. as follows
Roots of A.E. C.F.

1. m1, m2, m3…..(real and different roots) c1em1x + c2em2x + c3em3x + …
2. m1, m2, m3….(two real and equal roots) (c1 + c2x)em1x + c3em3x + …
3. m1, m2, m3….(three real and equal roots) (c1 + c2x + c3x2)em1x + c4em4x + …
4. , , m...(a pair of imaginary roots) eax(c1cos x + c2 sin x) + c3em3x + c3em3x + …
5. , m5 ….(2 pairs of equal imaginary roots) eax[(c1 + c2x) cos x + (c3 + c4x) sin x] + c5em5x + …
Step II. To Find the Particular Integral
From symbolic form P.I. =
= or X
=eax
1. When
P.I. = eax , put D = a. [f(a) 0]
=x eax, put D = a, *f(a) = 0, f’(a) 0]
=x2 eax, put D = a, *f’(a) = 0, f’(a) 0]

And so on.
Where f’(D) = diff. coeff of f(D) w.r.t D
f”(D) = diff. coeff of f’(D) w.r.t D, etc.
2. When X = sin(ax + b) or cos(ax + b).
P.I. = sin (ax + b)

Put D2 = -a2
=x sin (ax + b)
Put D2 = -a2
And so on
Where ’(D2) = diff. coeff of f(D2) w.r.t D
”(D2) = diff. coeff of f’(D)2 w.r.t D, etc.
3. When X = xm, m being a positive integer.
P.I. = xm = [f(D)]-1 xm.
To evaluate it. Expand [f(D)]-1 in ascending powers of D by Binomial theorem as far as Dm and
operate on xm term by term.
4. When X = eaxV, where V is a function of x.
P.I. = eaxV = eax
And then evaluate as in (i), (ii) and (iii).

5. When X is any function of x.
P.I. = X
Resolve into partial fractions and operate each partial fraction on X remembering that
X = eax Xe-ax dx
Step III. To find the complete solution:
Then the C.S. is y = C.F. + P.I.
3.4 TWO OTHER METHODS OF FINIDING P.I.
3.4.1 Method of Variation of Parameters
This method is quite general and applies to equation of the form
Y” + py’ + qy = X
Where p, q and X are functions of x, It gives
P.I. = -y1 + y2
Where y1 and y2 are the solutios of y” + py’ + qy = 0
And W=| | is called the Wronskian of y1, y2.
Example: 1
Using the method of variation of parameters, solve

y” + y = sec x
Solution:
Given equation in symbolic form is (D2 + 1)y = sec x.
(a) To find C.F.

It’s A.E. is D2 + 1 = 0.
D= i
Thus C.F. is y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x
(b) To find P.I.
Here y1 = cos x, y2 = sin x and X = sec x
W=| |=| | = cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
Thus, P.I. = -y1 + y2

= -cos x + sin x
= -cos x tan x dx + sin x 1.dx
= cos x In cos x + x sin x
Hence the C.S. is y = c1cos x + c2 sin x + cos x In cos x + x sin x
= (c1 + In cos x) cos x + (c2 + x) sin x

Previous Years Solved GATE Questions
1. The following differential equation has [EC: GATE-2005]

2 3
d y ⎛ dy ⎞
3 2
+ 4 ⎜ ⎟ + y2 + 2 = x
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
(a) degree = 2, order = 1 (b) degree = 3, order = 2
(c) degree = 4, order = 3 (d) degree = 2, order = 3
2. The order of the differential equation [EC: GATE-2009]

3
d 2 y ⎛ dy ⎞
2
+ ⎜ ⎟ + y 4 = e–t is
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
3. A solution of the following differential equation is given by [EC: GATE-2005]

d2y dy
−5 + 6y = 0
dx 2 dx
(a) y = e2x + e–3x (b) y = e2x + e3x
(c) y = e + e
–2x 3x (d) y = e–2x + e–3x
d2y
4. For the differential equation 2
+ k 2 y = 0, the boundary conditions are
dx
(i) y = 0 for x = 0, and
(ii) y = 0 for x = a [EC: GATE-2006]
The form of non-zero solutions of y (where m varies over all integers) are
m πx mπx
(a) y = ∑ A m sin
m
a
(b) y = ∑ A m cos
m
a
mπ mπx
−
(c) y = ∑A
m
m x a
(d) y = ∑A
m
m e a
2
d y
5. The solution of the differential equation k 2 = y − y2 under the boundary conditions
dx 2
[EC: GATE-2007]
(i) y = y1 At x = 0 and
(ii) y = y2 At x = ∞,
Where k, y1 and y2 are constants, is
⎛ −x ⎞
(a) y = (y1 − y2 ) exp ⎜ 2 ⎟ + y 2
⎝k ⎠
⎛ −x ⎞
(b) y = (y2 − y1 ) exp ⎜ ⎟ + y1
⎝ k ⎠
⎛x⎞
(c) y = (y1 − y 2 ) sin h ⎜ ⎟ + y1
⎝k⎠
Ans(d)
⎛ −x ⎞
(d) y = (y1 − y 2 ) exp ⎜ ⎟ + y2
⎝ k ⎠
dx(t)
6. Which of the following is a solution to the differential equation + 3 x(t) = 0?
dt
[EC: GATE-2008]
(a) x(t) = 3e–1 (b) x(t) = 2e–3t
3
(c) x(t) = − t 2 (d) x(t) = 3t2
2
d 2 n( x ) n( x )
7. A function n(x) satisfies the differential equation − 2 = 0 where L is a constant. The
dx 2 L
boundary conditions are: n(0)=K and n(∞ ) = 0. The solution to this equation is
[EC: GATE-2010]
(a) n(x) = K exp(x/L) (b) n(x) = K exp( x / L )
(c) n(x) = K2 exp(-x/L) (d) n(x) = K exp(-x/L)
dy
8. For the differential equation + 5y = 0 with y(0)=1, the general solution is
dt
(a) e5t (b) e-5t (c) 5e-5t (d) e −5t
[ME: GATE-1994]
dy
9. A differential equation of form = y(x,y) is homogeneous if the function f(x,y) depends only on
dx
y x
the ratio or . [ME: GATE-1995]
x y
dy
10. The solution of the differential equation + y 2 = 0 is [ME: GATE-2003]
dx
1 −x2
(a) y = (b) y= +c
x+c 3
(c) cex (d) Unsolvable as equation is non-linear
dy 2Anx
11. If x 2 + 2 xy = , and y(1)=0, then what is y(e)? [ME: GATE-2005]
dx x
(a) e (b) 1 (c) 1/e (d) 1/e2
dy
+ 2 xy = e − x with y(0) = 1 is
2
12. The solution of the differential equation
dx
(a) (1+x)e + x (b) (1+x)e− x (c) (1-x)e+ x (d) (1-x)e− x
2 2 2 2
[ME: GATE-2006]
13. The solution of dy/dx = y2 with initial value y (0) = 1 bounded in the interval
(a) − ∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ (b) − ∞ ≤ x ≤ 1
[ME: GATE-2007]
(c) x < 1, x>1 (d) − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
dy 6
14. The solution of x + y = x 4 with the condition y(1)= is [ME: GATE-2009]
dx 5
4 4
x 1 4x 4 x4 x5
(a) y= + (b) y= + (c) y= +1 (d) y= +1
5 x 5 5x 5 5
d2 y dy
15. Solve for y, if 2
+2 + y = 0; with y(0) = 1 and yω(0)= - 2 [ME:GATE-1994]
dt dt
16. The solution to the differential equation f’’(x)+4f’(x)+4f(x)=0 is [ME: GATE-1995]
(a) f1(x) = e-2x (b) f1(x) = e2x, f2(x) = e-2x

(c) f1(x) = e-2x, f2(x) = xe-2x
(d) f1(x) = e-2x, f2(x) = e-x
d2 y dy
17. The general solution of the differential equation x 2 = 2 − x + y = 0 is
dx dx
(a) Ax + Bx2 (A, B are constants) [ME: GATE-1998]
(b) Ax + B log x (A, B are constants)
(c) Ax + Bx2 log x (A, B are constants)
(d) Ax + Bx log x (A, B are constants)
d2 y dy
18. 2
+ (x 2 + 4x) + y = x8 − 8 [ME: GATE-1999]
dx dx
The above equation is a
(a) Partial differential equation (b) Nonlinear differential equation
(c) Non-homogeneous differential equation (d) Ordinary differential equation
19. The solution of the differential equation d2y/dx2+dy/dx+y=0 is [ME: GATE-2000]
Statement for Linked Answer Questions 20 & 21:

20. The complete solution of the ordinary differential equation
d2y dy
2
+ p + qy = 0 is y = c1e − x + c2 e − x [ME: GATE-2005]
dx dx
Then, p and q are
(a) p = 3, q = 3 (b) p = 3, q = 4 (c) p=4,q=3 (d) p = 4, q = 4
21. Which of the following is a solution of the differential equation

d2y dy
2
+ p + (q + 1) = 0? [ME: GATE-2005]
dx dx
(a) e-3x (b) x e-x (c) x e-2x (d) x2e-2x
d2 dy
22. For 2
+ 4 + 3 y = 3e 2 x , the particular integrals is [ME: GATE-2006]
dx dy
1 2x 1
(a) e (b) e 2 x (c) 3e 2 x (d) C1e − x + C2 e −3 x
15 5
.. .
23. Given that x + 3 x = 0, and x(0)=1, x (0) = 0 what is x(1)? [ME: GATE-2008]
(a) -0.99 (b) -0.16 (c) 0.16 (d) 0.99
24. It is given that y" + 2y' + y = 0, y(0) = 0, y(1)=0. What is y (0.5)? [ME: GATE-2008]
(a) 0 (b) 0.37 (c) 0.62 (d) 1.13
d3 f f d2 f
25. The Blasius equation, + = 0 , is a [ME: GATE-2010]
dη 3 2 dη 2
(a) Second order nonlinear ordinary differential equation

(b) Third order nonlinear ordinary differential equation
(c) Third order linear ordinary differential equation
(d) Mixed order nonlinear ordinary differential equation
26. The partial differential equation [ME: GATE-2007]

∂ φ ∂ φ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
2 2
+ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 0 has
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠
(a) Degree 1 order 2 (b) Degree 1 order 1
(c) Degree 2 order 1 (d) Degree 2 order 2
d2x
27. The degree of the differential equation 2
+ 2 x 3 = 0 is [CE: GATE –2007]
dt
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
29. The order and degree of the differential equation [CE: GATE – 2010]
3 3
d y ⎛ dy ⎞ 2
3
+4 ⎜ ⎟ + y = 0 are respectively
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
(a) 3 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 3 (d) 3 and 1
dy
30. The solution for the differential equation = x2y with the condition that y = 1 at x = 0 is
dx
1
x3
(a) y = e 2x (b) ln (y) = +4 [CE: GATE – 2007]
3
x3
x2
(c) ln (y) = (d) y = e 3
2
31. Biotransformation of an organic compound having concentration (x) can be modelled using an
dx
ordinary differential equation + kx 2 = 0, where k is the reaction rate constant. If x = a at
dt
t = 0, the solution of the equation is [CE: GATE – 2004]
1 1
(a) x = ae–kt (b) = + kt (c) x = a (1 – e–kt) (d) x = a + kt
x a
dy
32. The solution of the differential equation, x 2 + 2 xy − x + 1 = 0, given that at x = 1, y = 0 is
dx
[CE: GATE – 2006]
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) − + (b) − −
2 x 2 x2 2 x 2 x2
1 1 1 1 1 1
(c) + + 2
(d) − + +
2 x 2x 2 x 2 x2
dy
33. Transformation to linear form by substituting v = y1 – n of the equation + p(t) y = q (t)yn ; n >
dt
0 will be [CE: GATE – 2005]
dv dv
(a) + (1 − n) pv = (1 − n) q (b) + (1 − n) pv = (1 + n) q
dt dt
dv dv
(c) + (1 + n) pv = (1 − n) q (d) + (1 + n) pv = (1 + n) q
dt dt
34. A spherical naphthalene ball exposed to the atmosphere loses volume at a rate proportional to
its instantaneous surface area due to evaporation. If the initial diameter of the ball is 2 cm
and the diameter reduces to 1 cm after 3 months, the ball completely evaporates in
[CE: GATE – 2006]
(a) 6 months (b) 9 months
(c) 12 months (d) infinite time
35. A body originally at 60ºC cools down to 40ºC in 15 minutes when kept in air at a temperature
of 25ºC. What will be the temperature of the body at the end of 30 minutes?
[CE: GATE – 2007]
(a) 35.2º C (b) 31.5º C
(c) 28.7º C (d) 15º C
dy x
36. Solution of = − at x = 1 and y = 3 is [CE: GATE – 2008]
dx y
(a) x – y = –2
2 (b) x + y2 = 4
(c) x2 – y2 = –2 (d) x2 + y2 = 4
dy
37. Solution of the differential equation 3 y + 2 x = 0 represents a family of
dx
(a) Ellipses (b) circles [CE: GATE – 2009]
(c) Parabolas (d) hyperbolas
39. Match each differential equation in Group I to its family of solution curves from Group II.
[CE: GATE-2009]
Group I Group II
dy y
P. = 1. Circles
dx x
dy y
Q. =− 2. Straight lines
dx x
dy x
R. = 3. Hyperbolas
dx y
dy x
S. =−
dx y
Codes:
P Q R S P Q R S
(a) 2 3 3 1 (b) 1 3 2 1
(c) 2 1 3 3 (d) 3 2 1 2
d2y dy dy ⎛ x ⎞ π
40. The solution of 2
+2 + 17 y = 0; y (0) = 1, ⎜ ⎟ = 0 in the range 0 < x < is given by
dx dx dx ⎝ 4 ⎠ 4
[CE: GATE – 2005]
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
(a) e− x ⎜ cos 4 x + sin 4 x ⎟ (b) ex ⎜ cos 4 x − sin 4 x ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
(c) e−4x ⎜ cosx − sin x ⎟ (d) e−4x ⎜ cos 4 x − sin 4 x ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
d2 y
41. The general solution of + y = 0 is [CE: GATE – 2008]
dx 2
(a) y = P cos x + Q sin x (b) y = P cos x
(c) y = P sin x (d) y = P sin2 x
∂2 h ∂2 h ∂2 h ∂2 h
42. The equation k x + k z = 0 can be transformed to + = 0 by substituting
∂ x2 ∂ z2 ∂ x12 ∂ z2
[CE: GATE – 2008]
kz k
(a) x t = x (b) x t = x x
kx kz
kx kz
(c) x t = x (d) x t = x
kz kx
d2 y dy
43. The solution to the ordinary differential equation + − 6 y = 0 is
dx 2 dx
[CE: GATE – 2010]
3x −2x 3x 2x
(a) y = c1e + c2e (b) y = c1e + c2e
−3x −3x
(c) y = c1e + c2e 2x
(d) y = c1e + c 2 e−2x
45. The partial differential equation that can be formed from z = ax + by + ab has the form
⎛ ∂z ∂z ⎞
⎜ with p = ∂ x and q = ∂ y ⎟ [CE: GATE – 2010]
⎝ ⎠
(a) z = px + qy (b) z = px + pq
(c) z = px + qy + pq (d) z = qy + pq
dy y
Q30. The solution of the differential equation + = x, with the condition that y = 1 at x = 1, is
dx x
2 x 2 1 2 x 2 x2
(a) y = 2
+ (b) y = + (c) y = + (d) y = + [CE-
3x 3 2 2x 3 3 3x 3
2011]
Ans. (d)
dy y
Exp, + =x
dx x
It’s a linear differential equation
1
∴ I.E. = e∫ x
dx
= elog x = x
Solution is xy = ∫ x2dx + C
x3
⇒ xy = +C … (1)
3
Given y (1) = 1,
2
∴ from (1): c =
3
x3 2
∴ xy = +
3 3
2 x3
⇒y= +
3x 3
46. The solution of the first order differential equation x(t ) = −3 x ( t ) , x ( 0 ) = x0 is

[EE: GATE-2005]
(a) X ( t ) = x0 e −3t (b) X ( t ) = x0 e −3 (c) X ( t ) = x0 e −1/3

(d) X ( t ) = x0 e −1
d 2x dx
48. For the differential equation 2
+ 6 + 8x = 0 with initial conditions x (0) = 1
dt dt
dx
and = 0 , the solution is [EE: GATE-2010]
dt t =0
(a) x (t) = 2e-6t –e-2t (b) x (t) = 2e-2t –e-4t
(c) x (t) = -e-6t +2e-4t (d) x (t) = e--2t –e-4t
dy
Q13. With K as constant, the possible solution for the first order differential equation = e−3x
dx
is
1 1
(a) − e−3x + K (b) − e3x + K (c) −3e−3x + K (d) −3e− x + K [EE-2011]
3 3
Ans. (a)
dy
Exp. = e−3x
dx
⇒ dy = e−3x dx
e−3x
y= +K
−3
dy
51. Consider the differential equation = 1 + y2. Which one of the following can be a
dx
particular solution of this differential equation? [IE: GATE-2008]
(a) y = tan (x + 3) (b) y = tan x + 3

(c) x = tan (y + 3) (d) x = tan y + 3
22. The boundary-value problem yn + λy = 0, y(0) = y(λ) = 0 will have non-zero solutions if and only
if the values of λ are [IE: GATE-2007]
(a) 0, ±1, ±2, ……….. (b) 1, 2, 3, ……..
(c) 1, 4, 9, ……… (d) 1, 9, 25, ………
22 Ans. (c)
3
d2y ⎛ dy ⎞
1. Ans. (b) 3 2 + 4 ⎜ ⎟ + y 2 + 2 = x
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
Order of highest derivative = 2
Hence, most appropriate answer is (b)
2. Ans. (b) The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative involving in
equation, so answer is 2.
3. (b)
Let y = mx be the trial sol n of the given differental equation
∴ The corrosponding auxiliary equation is
m2 − 5m + 6 = 0
⇒ m = 2,3
∴ y = c1e2x + c 2e3x
4. (a)
Here y = c1 cos kx + c 2 sin kx ........... (1) be the solution of the given differential equation.
Now use boundary conditions
For x = 0,y = 0 gives c1 = 0. Equation − (1) becomes
y = c 2 sin kx ........(2)
For x = a,y = 0 given, c2 sin ka = 0. If c 2 = 0 then
(2) becomes y = 0, so it gives trival solution.
So take sin ka = 0
⇒ sin ka = sin nπ, η = 0,1,2,.......
⇒ ka = nπ
nπ
⇒k=
a
nπ x
∴ y = c 2 sin be the solution, n = 0,1,2,3.......
a
6. (b)
Hints : m + 3 = 0 ⇒ m = −3
∴ x(t) = c1e−3t
7.(d)
Hints :
1 1
m2 − 2 = 0 ⇒m=±
L L
x x
−
∴ n(x) = c1 e L + c 2 e L − (1)
Use boundary condition
i) n(o) = k. This implies
K = c1 + c2 − (ii)
(ii) n( ∞ ) = 0 gives 0 = c1 e∞ + c 2 .0. For finite solution c1 = 0
∴ From(ii) K = c2
x
−
∴ y = Ke L
8. (b)
Hints :
m = −5. ⇒ y = c1e−5t
Given y(0) = 1
∴C1 = 1
Hence y = e−5t
9. Ans. True
10. (a)
Given differential equation is
dy dy
+ y 2 = 0 ⇒ 2 = −dx
dx y
Integra ling we get
1
− = −x + c
y
1 1
⇒y= =
x − c x + c1
11. (d)
dy 2 ln x
x2 + 2xy = −(i)
dx x
dy 2 2 ln x
⇒ + y= .
dx x x3
It is linear differential equation.
2
∫ x dx
∴ I.F. = e = x2
Multiplying I.F both side of (i) then we get
2 ln x
d(yx 2 ) =
x
Integrating we get
( ln x ) + c
2
ln x
yx 2 = 2 ∫ dx + c = 2
x 2
Using boundary condition y(1) = 0 we get
C=0
( ln x )
2
∴ y=
x2
1
∴ y(e) = 2
e
[∴ ln e = 1]
12 (b)
It is a linear diff. equation
∫ 2xdx 2
I.F = e = ex
yex = ∫ e− x ex dx + c = x + c
2 2 2
∴ Solution is
At x = 0, y = 1, gives c = 1
∴ y = (1 + x ) e− x
2
13 (c)
dy
Given = y2
dx
Integrating,
dy
⇒ ∫ 2 = ∫ dx
y
1
⇒− =x+c
y
1
⇒y=− ………(1)
x+c
At y(0) = 1
1
Equation(1) gives, 1 = − ⇒ c = −1
e
1
∴ y=− ,x − 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ x ≠ 1
x −1
⇒ x < 1and x > 1
14.(d)
dy
Given x + y = x4
dx
dy ⎛ y ⎞
⇒ + = x3
dx ⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠
Which is 1st order linear differential equation.
1
∫ x dx
I.F = e =x
x5
∴ solution xy = ∫ x 4 dx + c = +c
5
6
Given condition y(1) =
5
6 1
∴ = +c
5 5
⇒ c =1
x5
∴ xy = +1
5
x4 1
⇒ y= +
5 x
15.
Let y = emx (m ≠ 0) be the trial sol n of the given equation.
∴ Auxiliary equation is m2 + 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ ( m + 1) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −1.
2
dy
∴ y = ( A + Bt ) e− t = − ( A + Bt ) e− t + Be− t
and
dt
dy
Boundary condition y(0) = 1 and (0) = −2
dt
∴ 1 = A and − 2 = − A + B
⇒ A = 1 and − 1 + B = −2
⇒ B = −1
∴ y = (1 − t)e− t
16.(c)
Let y (x) = emx (m ≠ 0) be the trial sol n .
⇒ (m + 2) = 0
2
Auxiliary equation. m2 + 4m + 4 = 0
⇒ m = −2, −2
f ( x ) = ( A + Bx ) e−2x
In particular, when A = 1,B = 1,then f (x) = (1 + x)e−2x
= e−2x + xe−2x
17. (d)
The given homogeneous differential equation reduces to
d
D(D − 1) − D + 1 = 0, Where D =
dz
⇒ D = 1,1
∴ y = ( c1 + c2z ) ez = ( c1 + c2logx ) x. = c1x + c2 (x log x)
18.(c)
19.
x ⎛ 3 ⎞
−1
3
y = e 2 ⎜ c1 cos x + c 2 sin x⎟
⎜ 2 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
20. (c)
d2y dy
Given y = c1e− x + c2 e−3x is the solution of 2
+p + qy = 0 − (i)
dx dx
Let y = emx ( m ≠ 0 ) be the trial solution of (i) . Therefore m = −1, −3.
Then m2 + pm + q = ( m + 1)( m + 3 )
⇒ m2 + pm + q = m 2 + 4m + 3
⇒ p = 4 and q = 3
21. (c)
Here p = 4 and q = 3.The given equation becomes
d2y dy
2
+4 + 4y = 0 − (i)
dx dx
Now solution of (i) is y = ( c1 + c2 x ) e−2x
∴ solutions are e−2x and xe−2x
22. (b)
1 d
P.I. = 2
.3e2x , D =
D + 4D + 3 dx
1
= 3e2x 2
2 + 4.2 + 3
3e2x e2x
= =
15 5
23. (d)
Auxiliary equn of x11 + 3x = 0 is m2 + 3 = 0
⇒ m = ± i 3.
solution is x(t) = A cos 3t + Bsin 3t
At t = 0, 1 = A and 0 = B.
∴ x(t) = cos 3t
x(1) = cos 3 = 0.99(degree)
24. (a)
Auxiliary equation is m2 + 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −1
∴ solution y = ( c1 + c2 x ) e− x
U sin g boundary condition y(0) = 0 and y(1) = 0
we get y = 0
25. (b) f is non linear.

26. (a)
27. (b)
29. (a)
30. (d)
dy dy
= x2y ⇒ = x 2dx
dx y
Integrating we get
x3
log y = +c
3
Given y(0) = 1 then c = 0
x3
∴ solution is y = e 3
31.(b)
dx
+ Kx 2 = 0
dt
dx
⇒ 2 = −Kdt
x
Integrating, we get
1
− = −Kt + c
x
1
At t = 0,x = a, c=−
a
1 1
∴ solution is = + Kt
x a
32. (a)
dy
Given x 2+ 2xy − x + 1 = 0
dx
dy 2 x −1
⇒ + y= 2
dx x x
2
∫ x dx
I.F. = e = x2
(x − 1) 2 x2
∴ yx 2 = ∫
x2
x dx + c = ∫( )
x − 1 dx + c =
2
−x+c
1
At x = 1, y = 0 gives c =
2
2
x 1
∴ yx 2 = −x+
2 2
1 1 1
⇒ y= − + 2
2 x 2x
33.(a)
dy
Given, + p(t) y = q (t) yn; n > 0
dt
Putting v = y1 – n
dv dy
= (1 − n) y − n
dt dt
dy 1 dv
= −n
dt (1 − n) y dt
Substituting in the given differential equation, we get,
1 dv
−n
+ p(t) y = q (t)yn
(1 − n) y dt
Multiplying by (1 – n) y–n, we get
dv
+ p(t) (1 − n) y1 − n = q (t) (1 – n)
dt
Now since y1 – n = v, we get
dv
+ (1 − n) pv = (1 – n) q
dt
Where p is p (t) and q is q (t)
34. (a)
By the given condition,
dV
= KA,K = cons tan t. − (i).
dt
4 3
where V = πr and A = 4 πr 2
3
dV dr
∴ = 4 πr 2
dt dt
∴ (i) becomes
dr
= −K
dt
⇒ ∫ dr = − ∫ Kdt
⇒ r = −Kt + c
At t = 0,r = 1 cm
∴ c =1
∴ r = −Kt + 1 −(ii)
Now, at t = 3 months,then r = 0.5cm
0.5
(ii) gives K =
3
−0.5
∴ r= t + 1 −(iii)
3
Now, put r = 0 in (iii)
weget t = 6 months
35(b).
dθ
= − k( θ − θ0 ) (Newton’s law of cooling)
dt
dθ
⇒ = –kdt
θ − θ0
dθ
⇒ ∫ θ − θ0 = ∫ − kdt
⇒ ln ( θ − θ0 ) = –kt + C1
⇒ θ − θ0 = C.e–kt
θ = θ0 + C.e− kt
Given, θ0 = 25ºC
Now at t = 0, θ = 60º
60 = 25 + C.e0
⇒ C = 35
∴ θ = 25 + 35 e–kt
at t = 15 minutes θ = 40ºC
∴ 40 = 25 + 35 e (–k × 15)
3
⇒ e–15k =
7
Now at t = 30 minutes
θ = 25 + 35 e–30k
= 25 + 35 (e–15k) 2
2
⎛3⎞ ⎛ −15k 3⎞
= 25 + 35 × ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ since e = ⎟
⎝7⎠ ⎝ 7⎠
= 31.428ºC
≈ 31.5ºC
36. (d)
dy x
=−
dx y
⇒ ydy = −xdx
Integrating
y2 x2
=− + c −(i)
2 2
At x = 1, y = 3 gives
c=2
∴ (i) becomes x 2 + y 2 = 4
37.(a)
dy
3y + 2x = 0
dx
⇒ 3ydy + 2xdx = 0
Integrating
3y 2
+ x2 = c
2
x 2 y2
⇒ + =1
c 2c
3
- an ellipse.
39. (a)
dy y
1. =
dx x
dy dx
⇒ =
y x
log y = log x + log c
⇒ y = xc
- straight line
dy y
2. =−
dx x
dy dx
⇒ + =0
y x
Integrating we get
log y + log x = log c
⇒ xy = c
−hyperbola
dy y
3. =
dx x
⇒ ydy = xdx
Integrating
y2 − x 2 = c
−hyperbola
dy x
4. =−
dx y
⇒ ydy = −xdx
Integrating
y 2 = −x 2 + c
⇒ x 2 + y 2 = c −circle
40. (a)
Let y = emx (m ≠ 0) be the trial solution.
Auxiliary equation is m2 + 2m + 17 = 0
−2 ± 4 − 4.17.1
⇒ m=
2.1
−2 ± 8i
=
2
= −1 ± 4i
∴ y = e− x ( A cos 4x + B sin 4x )
dy
now, = −e− x ( A cos 4x + sin 4x ) + e− x ( −4A sin 4x + 4B cos 4x )
dx
At x = 0,y = 1 gives
A=1.
At x= π , y=0 gives,
4
π π
− −
0=e 4
( −1) + e 4 .4 ( −B )
⇒ 4B = 1
1
⇒ B=
4
⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ y = e− x ⎜ cos 4x + sin 4x ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
41. (a)
Let y = emx ( m ≠ 0 ) be the trial solution.
Auxiliary equation is m2 + 1 = 0
⇒ m = ±i
∴ y = P cos x + Q sin x
42(d).
kz
Put xt = x
kx
∂ xt kz
=
∂x kx
∂x kz
⇒ = … (i)
∂ xt kx
Now given equation is
∂2 h ∂2 h
kx + k z =0 … (ii)
∂ x2 ∂ z2
∂2 h ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞ ∂ ⎛∂h ∂x ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = ×
2
∂ xt ∂ xt ⎝ ∂ xt ⎠ ∂ x t ⎜⎝ ∂ x ∂ x t ⎟⎠
∂ ⎛∂h kx ⎞
= ⎜⎜ × ⎟ [from eqn. (i)]
∂ xt ⎝ ∂ x k z ⎟⎠
kx ∂ ⎛∂h⎞
= × ⎜ ⎟
kz ∂ x t ⎝ ∂ x ⎠
kx ⎛ ∂ ⎛ ∂ h ⎞ ∂ h ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎜ ⎟× ⎟
kz ⎝ ∂ x ⎝ ∂ x ⎠ ∂ x ⎠
kx ⎛ ∂2 h kx ⎞
= ×⎜ 2 × ⎟
k z ⎜⎝ ∂ x k z ⎟⎠
k ∂2 h
= x ×
kz ∂ x2
∂2 h kz ∂2 h
∴ = ×
∂ x2 k x ∂ x 2t
Now substitute in equation (ii) we get
k ∂2 h ∂2 h
kx × z × + k z =0
k x ∂ x 2t ∂ z2
∂2 h ∂2 h
⇒ kz × + k z =0
∂ x 2t ∂ z2
∂2 h ∂2 h
⇒ + =0
∂ x 2t ∂ z2
This is the desired form
kz
∴ xt = x is the correct transformation
kx
43. (c)
Lety = emx ( m ≠ 0 ) be the trial solution.
Auxiliary equation is m2 + m − 6 = 0
⇒ m = −3,2.
∴ y = c1e−3x + c 2e2x
dy
44. Ans. (c) = 0.25 y2 (y = 1 at x = 0) h=1
dx
Iterative equation for backward (implicit) Euler methods for above equation would be
yk + 1 − yk
= 0.25 y2k + 1
h
⇒ y k + 1 − y k = 0.25 h y 2k + 1
⇒ 0.25 h y2k + 1 − y k + 1 + y k = 0
Putting k = 0 in above equation
0.25 h y12 − y1 + y 0 = 0
Since y 0 = 1 and h = 1
0.25 y12 − y1 + 1 = 0
y1 = 2
45. (c)
46. (a)
Letx = emt (m ≠ 0) be trial solution
Auxiliary equation is m + 3 = 0
⇒ m = −3
∴ x(t) = c1e−3t
x(0) = x 0 gives. c1 = x 0
−3t
∴ x(t) = x 0 e
48. (b)
Let = emt ( m ≠ 0 ) be trial solution.
Auxiliary equation is m2 + 6m + 8 = 0
⇒ m = −2, −4
∴ x(t) = c1e−2t + c 2e−4t −(i)
dx
and = −2c1e−2t − 4c 2 e−4t
dt
At t=0, x=1 gives, c1 + c2 = 1 ………..(ii)
dx
At t = 0, = 0 gives
dt
−2c1 − 4c 2 = 0
⇒ c1 + 2c 2 = 0 −(iii)
Solving (ii)& (iii) we get,c1 = 2,c 2 = −1
x(t) = 2e−2t − e−4t
51. (a)
dy
= 1 + y2
dx
dy
⇒ = dx
1 + y2
Integrating
tan −1 y = x + c
⇒ y = tan (x + c)
Numerical Methods
1. The equation x3 – x2 + 4x – 4 = 0 is to be solved using the Newton-Raphson method. If x = 2 is
taken as the initial approximation of the solution, then the next approximation using this
method will be [EC: GATE-2007]
2 4 3
(a) (b) (c) 1 (d)
3 3 2
1.(a)
Newton-Raphson iteration scheme is
f (x n )
x n +1 = x n − ,n = 0,1,2......
f ' ( xn )
Here x 0 = 2,
f (2) 8 2
∴ x1 = 2 − = = .
f '(2) 12 3
2. The recursion relation to solve x = e–x using Newton-Raphson method is [EC: GATE-2008]
(a) X n + 1 = e− xn (b) X n + 1 = X n − e− xn
e− xn X 2n − e− xn (1 + x n ) − 1
(c) X n + 1 = (1 + X n ) (d) X n + 1 =
1 + e − xn x n − e− xn
2. (c)
f (x n )
x n +1 = x n − ,f (x) = x − e− x .
f ' ( xn )
x n − ex n
= xn −
1 + e− xn
=
( ) (
1 + e− xn x n − x n − e− xn )
− xn
1+e
=
(1 + x n ) e− xn
1 + e− xn
4. We wish to solve x2 – 2 = 0 by Netwon Raphson technique. Let the initial guess b x0 = 1.0
Subsequent estimate of x(i.e.x1) will be: [ME: GATE-1999]
(a) 1.414 (b) 1.5 (c) 2.0 (d) None of the above
4.(b).
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 − , here f ( x) = x 2 − 2
f ′( x0 )
−1
= 1−
2
3
=
2
= 1.5
5. The values of a function f(x) are tabulated below [ME: GATE-2004]

x f(x)
0 1
1 2
2 1
3 10
Using Newton's forward difference formula, the cubic polynomial that can be fitted to the
above data, is
(a) 2x 3 +7x 2 -6x+2 (b) 2x 3 -7x 2 +6x-2
(c) x 3 -7x 2 -6x 2 +1 (d) 2x 3 -7x 2 +6x+1
5. Ans. (d)
x f(x) ∇f (x) ∇2f (x) ∇2f (x)

0 1
1 2 1 2
2 1 -1 10 1
3 10 9 2
Using Newton’s forward interpolation formula we get

x x(x − 1) 2 x(x − 1)(x − 2) 3
f (x) = f (0) + ∇f (0) + ∇ f (0) + ∇ f (0)
1 1.2 1.2.3
x(x − 1) x(x − 1)(x − 2)
= 1 + x(1) + ( −2) + (12), =1+x+(x-x 2 )+2x(x 2 -3x+2)
2 6
=1+x+x-x 2 + 2x 3 − 6x 2 + 4x, =2x 3 − 7x 2 + 6x + 1
6. Starting from X0 = 1, one step of Newton-Raphson method in solving the equation x3 + 3x-7 =
0 gives the next value (x1) as [ME: GATE-2005]
(a) x1= 0.5 (b) x1= 1.406 (c) x1= 1.5 (d) x1 = 2
6. (c)
f (x n )
x n +1 = x n − ,n = 0,1,2......
f ' ( xn )
Given x 0 = 1
f (1 ) −3 3
∴ x1 = 1 − =1 − = = 1.5
f ' (1 ) 6 2
7. The order of error is the Simpson’s rule for numerical integration with a step size h is
[ME: GATE-1997]
(a) h (b) h2 (c) h3 (d) h4
7. Ans. (b)
8. The accuracy of Simpson's rule quadrature for a step size h is [ME: GATE-2003]
(a) O(h2) (b) O(h3) (c) O(h4) (d) O(h2)
8. Ans. (d)
9. With a 1 unit change in b, what is the change in x in the solution of the system of equations x
+ y = 2, 1.01 x + 0.99 y = b? [ME: GATE-2005]
(a) Zero (b) 2 units (c) 50 units (d) 100 units
9.. Ans. (c)

Given x + y = 2 …………….. (i)
1.01 x + 0.99 y = b …………….. (ii)
Multiply 0.99 is equation (i), and subtract from equation (ii), we get
1
(1.01-0.99) x = b -2×0.99 0.02x = b-1.98 ∴ 0.02 Δx=Δb ∴ Δx= = 50 unit
0.02
10. Match the items in columns I and II. [ME: GATE-2006]

Column I Column II
P. Gauss-Seidel method 1. Interpolation
Q. Forward Newton-Gauss method 2. Non-linear differential equations
R. Runge-Kutta method 3. Numerical integration
S. Trapezoidal Rule 4. Linear algebraic equations
(a) P-1, Q-4, R-3, S-2 (b) P-1, Q-4, R-2, S-3
(c) P-1, Q-3, R-2, S-4 (d) P-4, Q-1, R-2, S-3
10. (d)
(P) Gauss – Seidal method Æ Linear algebraic equation

(Q) Forward Newton – Gauss method Æ Interpolation
(R) Runge – Kutta method Æ Non-linear differential equations
(S) Trapezoidal Rule Æ Numerical integration
2π
11. A calculator has accuracy up to 8 digits after decimal place. The value of ∫ sin x dx
0
when
evaluated using this calculator by trapezoidal method with 8 equal intervals, to 5

significant digits is [ME: GATE-2007]
(a) 0.00000 (b) 1.0000 (c) 0.00500 (d) 0.00025
11. Ans. (a)

2π − 0 π
h= =
8 4
y 0 = sin(0) = 0
⎛π⎞
y1 = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 0.70710
⎝4⎠
⎛π⎞
y 2 = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 1
⎝2⎠
⎛ 3π ⎞
y 3 = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 0.7010
⎝ 4 ⎠
y 4 = sin ( π ) = 0
⎛ 5π ⎞
y 5 = sin ⎜ ⎟ = −0.70710
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 6π ⎞
y 6 = sin ⎜ ⎟ = −1
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 7π ⎞
y 7 = sin ⎜ ⎟ = −0.70710
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 8π ⎞
y 8 = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝ 4 ⎠
Trapezoidal rule
x0 + nh
h
∫ f(x).dx =
2
[(y 0 + yn ) + 2(y1 + y 2 + ... + yn−1 )]
x0
2π
h
∫ sin x.dx = 8
0
[(0 + 0) + 2(0.70710 + 1 + 0.70710 + 0 − 0.70710 − 0.70710)] = 0.00000
13. In the solution of the following set of linear equations by Gauss elimination using partial
pivoting 5x + y + 2z = 34; 4y – 3z = 12; and 10x – 2y + z = –4; the pivots for elimination
of x and y are [CE: GATE – 2009]
(a) 10 and 4 (b) 10 and 2
(c) 5 and 4 (d) 5 and –4
13. Ans.(a)
The equations are
5x + y + 2z = 34
0x + 4y – 3z = 12
and 10x – 2y + z = –4
The augmented matrix for gauss-elimination is
⎡ 5 1 2 34 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 4 −3 12 ⎥
⎢⎣10 −2 1 −4 ⎥⎦
Since in the first column maximum element in absolute value is 10, we need to
exchange row 1 with row 3.
⎡ 5 1 2 34 ⎤ ⎡10 −2 1 −4 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ R(1, 3) ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 4 −3 12 ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎢ 0 4 −3 12 ⎥
⎢⎣10 −2 1 −4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 5 1 2 34 ⎥⎦
So the pivot for eliminating x is a11 = 10
Now to eliminate y, we need to compass the eliminate in second column at and below
the diagonal.
Since a22 = 4 is already larger in absolute value compares to a32 = 1
∴ The pivot element for eliminating y is a22 = 4 itself.
∴ The pivots for eliminating x and y are respectively 10 and 4.
Q2. The square root of a number N is to be obtained by applying the Newton Raphson
iterations to the equation x2 − N = 0 . If i denotes the iteration index, the correct
iterative scheme will be
1⎛ N⎞ 1⎛ N ⎞
(a) xi +1 = ⎜ xi + ⎟ (b) xi +1 = ⎜ x2i + 2 ⎟
2⎝ xi ⎠ 2⎝ xi⎠
1⎛ N2 ⎞ 1⎛ N⎞
(b) (c) xi +1 = ⎜ xi + ⎟ (d) xi +1 = ⎜ xi − ⎟ [CE-2011]
2⎝ xi ⎠ 2⎝ xi ⎠
Ans. (a)
f ( xi )
Exp. xi +1 = xi − , i = 0,1,2...
f ' ( xi )
x2i − N
= xi − ⎡f ( x ) = x∨ − N ⎤⎦
2xi ⎣
1 ⎡ 2x2i − x2i + N ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
2⎣ xi ⎦
1 ⎡ x2 i + N ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣ xi ⎦
1⎡ N⎤
= ⎢ xi + ⎥
2⎣ xi ⎦
Statement for Linked Answer Questions 12 and 13:
1
Give a > 0, we wish to calculate its reciprocal value by using Newton Raphson Method for
a
f(x) = 0.
12. The Newton Raphson algorithm for the function will be [CE: GATE – 2005]
1⎛ a ⎞ ⎛ a ⎞
(a) x k + 1 = ⎜ x k + (b) x k + 1 = ⎜ x k + x 2k ⎟
2⎝ x k ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
a 2
(c) x k + 1 = 2 x k − ax 2k (d) x k + 1 = x k − xk
2
12. (c)
1 1
x= ⇒ −a =0
a x
1
Let f (x) = − a
x
Newton Rapshon iteration scheme
f (x n )
x n +1 = x n −
f ' ( xn )
1
−a
x
= xn − n
1
− 2
xn
⎛ 1 ⎞
= xn + xn2 ⎜ − a⎟
⎝ xn ⎠
= 2x n − ax n 2
13. For a = 7 and starting with X0 = 0.2, the first two iterations will be
(a) 0.11, 0.1299 (b) 0.12, 0.1392
(c) 0.12, 0.1416 (d) 0.13, 0.1428
13.(b)
x1 = 2x 0 − ax 0 2
= 2 × 0.2 − 7 × 0.04
= 0.12
x2 = 2x1 − ax12
= 2 × .12 − 7 × 0.0144
= 0.24 − 0.1008
= 0.1392
14. The following equation needs to be numerically solved using the Newton-Raphson method.
x3 + 4x – 9 = 0
The iterative equation for this purpose is (k indicates the iteration level)
[CE: GATE – 2007]
3 2
2 xk + 9 3 xk + 4
(a) x k + 1 = (b) x k + 1 =
3 x 2k + 4 2 x 2k + 9
4 x 2k + 3
(c) x k + 1 = x k − 3 x 2k + 4 (d) x k + 1 =
9 x 2k + 2
14.(a)
Newton –Rapshon iteration scheme is
f ( xn )
x n +1 = x n −
f ' ( xn )
3
x + 4x n − 9
= xn − n
3x 2n + 4
2x 3n + 9
=
3x 2n + 4
15. A 2nd degree polynomial, f(x) has values of 1, 4 and 15 at x = 0, 1 and 2, respectively. The
2
integral ∫ f(x) dx
0
is to be estimated by applying the trapezoidal rule to this data. What is
the error (defined as “true value – approximate value”) in the estimate?

4 2
(a) − (b) − [CE: GATE – 2006]
3 3
2
(c) 0 (d)
3
15. (a)
Given
(x) 0 1 2
f(x) 1 4 15
( x − 1)( x − 2 ) f 0 + ( x − 0 )( x − 2 ) f 1 + ( x − 0 )( x − 1) .f 2
∴ f (x) = ( ) () ( )
( 0 − 1)( 0 − 2) (1 − 0 )(1 − 2 ) ( 2 − 0 )( 2 − 1)
x 2 − 3x + 2 x 2 − 2x x2 − x
= .1 + 4+ :15
2 −1 2
= 4x 2 − x + 1
2 b
Error = ∫ f ( x ) dx − ⎣⎡y 0 + y 2 + 2y1 ⎦⎤
0 2
2
1
( )
= ∫ 4x 2 − x + 1 dx − ⎣⎡1 + 15 + 2.4 ⎦⎤
2
0
32
= − 12
3
4
=−
3
16. The table below gives values of a function F(x) obtained for values of x at intervals of 0.25.
x 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0
[CE: GATE – 2010]
F(x) 1 0.9412 0.8 0.64 0.50
The value of the integral of the function between the limits 0 to 1 using Simpson’s rule is
(a) 0.7854 (b) 2.3562
(c) 3.1416 (d) 7.5000
16. (a)
1
h
∫ f ( x ) dx = 3 ⎡⎣( y
0
0 + y 4 ) + 4 ( y1 + y3 ) + 2y 2 ⎤⎦
0.25
= ⎡1 + 0.5 + 4 ( 0.9412 + 0.64 ) + 2 × 0.8 ⎤⎦
3 ⎣
= 0.7854
17. Equation ex-1=0 is required to be solved using Newton’s method with an initial guess x0=-1
Then after one step of Newton’s method, estimate x1 of the solution will be given by
(a) 0.71828 (b) 0.36784 (c) 0.20587 (d) 0.00000
[EE: GATE-2008]
17. (a)
f(x) = ex − 1
Newton iteration scheme
f ( xn )
x n +1 = x n −
f ' ( xn )
xn
e −1
= xn − xn
e
1
−1
ex 0 − 1 e
∴ x1 = x 0 − = − 1. − . = −1 − (1 − e )
ex0 1
e
=e−2
= .71828
18. (a)
Let f (x) = x 2 − 117
Newton iteration scheme is
f ( xn )
x n +1 = x n −
f ' ( xn )
x 2n − 117
= xn −
2x n
x 2n + 117
=
2x n
1⎛ 117 ⎞
= ⎜ xn + ⎟
2⎝ xn ⎠
dx
19. A differential equation = e −2t u ( t ) has to be solved using trapezoidal rule of integration
dt
with a step size h=0.01s. Function u(t) indicates a unit step function. If x(0-)=0, then value
of x at t=0.01s will be given by
[EE: GATE-2008]
(a) 0.00099 (b) 0.00495 (c) 0.0099 (d) 0.0198
19. Ans. (c)

dx 1 − x
49. The differential equation = is discretised using Euler’s numerical integration
dt τ
method with a time step ΔT > 0 .What is the maximum permissible value of ΔT to ensure
stability of the solution of the corresponding discrete time equation?
[EE: GATE-2007]
(a) 1 (b) τ / 2 (c) τ (d) 2 τ
49. Ans. (d)
20. For k = 0, 1, 2, …… the steps of Newton-Raphson method for solving a non-linear equation
is given as [IE: GATE-2006]
2 5 -2
xk + 1 = xk + xk
3 3
Starting from a suitable initial choice as k tends to ∞, the iterate xk tends to
(a) 1.7099 (b) 2.2361
(c) 3.1251 (d) 5.0000
20. (a)
2 5
x k +1 = x k + x k−2
3 3
1 5
= x k − x k + x k−2
3 3
1
⇒ x k +1 − x k = − x k + 5 x k−2
3 3
f ( xk ) 1 x3 − 5
⇒ = x k − 5 x k−2 = k 2
f ' ( xk ) 3 3 3x k
∴ f (x) = x 3 − 5 (by newton-Rapshon medhod)
f (x) = 0
⇒ x3 = 5
⇒ x = 1.7099
21. Identify the Newton-Raphson iteration scheme for finding the square root of 2.
1⎛ 2 ⎞ 1⎛ 2 ⎞
(a) x n + 1 = ⎜ x n + ⎟ (b) x n + 1 = ⎜ x n −
2⎝ xn ⎠ 2⎝ x n ⎟⎠
2
(c) x n + 1 = (d) x n + 1 = 2 + x n [IE: GATE-2007]
xn
21.(a)
x= 2
∴ f (x) = x 2 − 2
N − R scheme is
f ( xn )
x n +1 = x n −
f ' ( xn )
2
x −2
= xn = n
2x n
x 2n + 2
=
2x n
1⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ xn + ⎟
2⎝ xn ⎠
xn 9
23. Consider the series x n + 1 = + , x 0 = 0.5 obtained from the Newton-Raphson method.
2 8x n
The series converges to [CS: GATE-2007]
(a) 1.5 (b) 2 (c) 1.6 (d) 1.4
23. (a)
xn 9
x n +1 = + ; x 0 = 0.5
2 8x n
The series converges when x n +1 = x n = α
α 9 4α 2 + 9
∴α = + =
2 8α 8α
⇒ 4α 2 = 9
3
⇒ α = = 1.5
2
1⎛ R⎞
24. The Newton-Raphson iteration x n + 1 = ⎜ x n + − ⎟ can be used to compute the
2⎝ xn ⎠
[CS: GATE-2008]
(a) square of R (b) reciprocal of R
(c) square root of R (d) logarithm of R
24.(c)
25. Newton-Raphson method is used to compute a root of the equation x2 – 13 = 0 with 3.5 as
the initial value. The approximation after one iteration is [CS: GATE-2010]
(a) 3.575 (b) 3.677 (c) 3.667 (d) 3.607
25. (d) N-R iteration scheme is

f ( xn )
x n +1 = x n −
f ' ( xn )
f ( x0 ) (3.5 )
2
− 13
∴ x1 = x 0 − = 3.5 −
f ' ( x0 ) 2 × 3.5
= 3.607.
26. A piecewise linear function f(x) is plotted using thick solid lines in the figure below (the plot
is drawn to scale). [CS: GATE-2003]
f (x)
1.0 (2.05, 1.0)
a d
(1.55, 0.5)
(0.5, 0.5)
x1 1.3
x0 0.6 1.55 x2 2.05
b c
(0.8, –1.0)
If we use the Newton-Raphson method to find the roots of f(x) = 0 using x0, x1 and x2
respectively as initial guesses, the roots obtained would be
(a) 1.3, 0.6 and 0.6 respectively (b) 0.6, 0.6 and 1.3 respectively
(c) 1.3, 1.3 and 0.6 respectively (d) 1.3, 0.6 and 1.3 respectively
26. Ans. (d)

Starting from x 0 ,
1 − 0.5
slope of line a = = –1
0 − 0.5
y-intercept = 1
Eqn, of a is y = mx + c = –1x + 1
This line will cut x axis (i.e., y = 0), at x = 1
Since x = 1 is > than x = 0.8, a perpendicular at x = 1 will cut the line c and not line b.
∴ root will be 1.3
Starting from x1 ,
the perpendicular at x1 is cutting line b and root will be 0.6.
Starting from x 2 ,
1 − 0.5
Slope of line d = =1
2.05 − 1.55
Equation of d is y – 0.5 = 1(x – 1.55)
i.e. y = x – 1.05
This line will cut x axis at x = 1.05
Since x = 1.05 is > than x = 0.8, the perpendicular at x = 1.05 will cut the line c and not
line b. the root will be therefore equal to 1.3. So starting from x 0 , x1 and x 2 the roots
will be respectively 1.3, 0.6 and 1.3.
∫ xe
x
27. The minimum Number of equal lenth subintervals needed to approximater dx to an
1
1
accuracy of at least × 10 −6 using the trapezoidal rule is [CS: GATE-2008]
3
(a) 1000e (b) 1000 (c) 100e (d) 100
27 Ans. (a)
Here, the function being integrated is
f(x) = xex
f(x) = xex + ex = ex (x + 1)
f ′ (x) = xex + ex + ex = ex(x + 2)
Truncation Error for trapezoidal rule
= TE (bound)
h3
= max|f ′′( ξ)|.N i
12
Where Ni is number of subintervals
b−a
Ni =
h
h3 b−a
⇒ TE = max|f ′′( ξ)|.
12 h
h2
= (b − a) max|f ′′( ξ)|1 ≤ ξ ≤ 2
12
h2
= (2 − 1) [e2 (2 + 2)]
12
h2 2 1
= e = × 10 −6
3 3
−6
10
⇒ h2 = 2
e
10−3
⇒ h=
e
b−a
Ni =
h
2 −1
= = 1000 e
⎛ 10−3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ e ⎠

Engineering Mathematics Ebook Updated

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Engineering Mathematics Ebook Updated

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

About This eBook (Updated)

The Previous version of this eBook contains only 153

For any type of Clarifications Regarding this eBook you

SL. CHAPTERS PAGES

1.2 ALGEBRA OF MATRICES

1.2.1 Definition of Matrix

If A = [aij]m x n be any matrix of order m x n then it is written in the form:

1.2.2 Special Types of Matrices

Example: A= [ ] is a diagonal matrix

The above matrix can also be written as A = diag [3, 5, 9]

Properties of Diagonal matrix:

diag [x, y , z] diag [p, q, r] = diag [x p, y q, z r]

diag [x, y , z] diag [p, q, r] = diag [xp, yq, zr]

(diag [x, y , z]-1 = diag [1/x, 1/y,1/ z]

(diag [x, y , z]t = diag [x, y,z]

TECHNICAL CAMPUS Page 1

(diag [x, y , z]n = diag [xn, yn, zn]

Eigen value of diag [x, y, z] = x, y and z.

Determinant of diag [x, y, z] = | diag [x, y, z] | = xyz

Example: A= [ ] is a scaler matrix.

Example: I3 = [ ] is unit matrix, I2 = * +.

Properties of Identity Matrix:

(a) I is Identity elements for multiplication, so it is called multiplication identity.

Properties of Null Matrix:

TECHNICAL CAMPUS Page 2

8. Idempotent Matrix: A Matrix A is called Idempotent iff A2 = A.

Example: * +, * +, [ ] are example of Idempotent matrices.

9. involutory Matrix: A matrix A is called Involutory iff A2 = I.

Exmple: * + is Involutory, Also [ ] is Involutory since A2 = I.

Example: The matrix A = [ ] is nilpotent class 3, since A 0 and A2 0, but A3 = 0.

1.2.3 Equality of two matrices

Two matrices A = [aij] and B=[bij] are said to be equal if,

1. They are same size.

Example: Let * +=* +

1.2.4 Addition of Matrices

TECHNICAL CAMPUS Page 3

Properties of matrix addition:

1. Matrix addition is commutative A + B = B + A.

1.2.5 Substraction of Two matrices

If A and V are two m x n matrices, then we define, A – b = A + (-B).

Note: Subtruction of matrices is neither commutative nor associative.

1.2.6 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

If A = [aij]m x n then Ak = kA = [kA]m x n.

Properties of Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar:

1.2.7 Multiplication of Two Matrices

Properties of Matrix Multiplication:

TECHNICAL CAMPUS Page 4

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES FROM GATE

The minimum number of multiplication required to multiply

TECHNICAL CAMPUS Page 5

Therefore, the minimum of multiplication required to computed the matrix PQR is = 16

1.2.8 Trace of a Matrix

Thus if A = [aij]n x n then, Tr(A) = ∑ = a11 + a22 ……… am

Then, trace (A) = tr(A) = 1+(-3)+5 =3

Properties of Trace of a Matrix:

Let A and B be two square matrices of order n and be a scalar. Then,

1.2.9 Transpose of a Matrix

Properties of Transpose of a Matrix:

If A’ and B’ be transposes of A and B respectively then,

TECHNICAL CAMPUS Page 6

1.2.10 Conjugate of a Matrix

Properties of Conjugation of Matrix:

If ̅ & ̅ be the conjugation of A & B respectively, then,