Design Support Joining Aluminium

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HOME DESIGN SUPPORT JOINING ALUMINIUM
Joining aluminium
Using the opportunities provided by the extrusion process for creative designs gives strong, stable, rapid and
effective joints. Whether it is for joining one extrusion to another or for joining an extrusion to another material.
There are many advantages to be obtained by joining several smaller extrusions to a larger unit. Handling is easier.
Pressing, surface treatment and a large amount of the machining can be done on a more rational basis. Smaller
extrusions can be produced with less material thickness, better accuracy and in many cases lower die costs.
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Jump to:
1. Screw ports
2. Tracks for nuts or bolt heads
3. Snap-Fit Joints
4. Joining Pro le to Pro le
5. Telescoping
6. Latitudinal joining
7. Hinges
8. T-joints
9. Corner joints
10. Joining with other materials
11. Riveting
12. End caps
13. Adhesive bonding
14. Fusion Welding
15. Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Screw ports
The screw port can be threaded in Most commonly, screw ports are
the normal way for machine used directly for self-tapping
screws. screws. In these cases, the screw
ports will have projections to
centre the screws.
Port diameters for self-tapping screws
Screw no. Port diam. D Wall thickness t,min. Screw head clearance
ST 3.5 (B6) 3.1 ± 0.15 1.5 4.2
st 4.2 (B8) 3.8 ± 0.15 1.5 5.0
ST 4.8 (B10) 4.2 ± 0.2 1.5 5.8
ST 5.5 (B12) 4.9 ± 0.2 2.0 6.6
ST 6.3 (B14) 5.6 ± 0.2 2.0 7.4
Here, a component is being tted Placing screw ports at corners

by screwing through a port at right saves material. To ensure that
angles to the pro le. In such cases, screw head does not protrude Closed screw ports : Where the
the port should have a shoulder. beyond the contours of the pro le design requires a more robust
screw (e.g. M8), the screw port can
at outer corners, pay special be closed. The port is to be
attention to screw head diameter. dimensioned for thread cutting or
for self-tapping metric screws.
back to
top
Tracks
for
nuts A screw port along the length of
Screw port dimensions - as pro le facilitates "stepless
screws at 90° to the pro le
or fastening" , i.e. screw joints can
ST 3.5 (B6) 2.6 st 4.2 (B8) bolt be made at any point along the
3.1 ST 4.8 (B10) 3.6 ST 5.5 pro le. Suitable dimensions are
(B12) 4.2 ST 6.3 (B14) 4.7
heads given iun the table below.
Upper joint: A hollow pro le joined

to another pro le via a screw port.
To avoid unwanted exing in the
joint, the screw is driven directly
through the bottom of the hollow
Solutions with special screws
pro le. A single screw is suf cient -
that ll the screw head clearance
the hollow pro le's anges stabilise
hole are common in, for
the design. After step drilling, the
example, the furniture industry.
hole through which the screw is
introduced can be hidden using a
plastic plug. Lower joint : The same
solution, but without a hollow
pro le. The U-pro le has tracks for
the insertion of, for example, a
metal or foil laminate strip.
One way of avoiding step drilling

This placement of the screw
and visible holes is to replace the
ports increases bending
hollow pro le with two snap- t
strength.
pro les. This solution is often used
in handrails.
Continuous tracks enable stepless

fastening with no need to
machine the pro le. Dimensions
for various nuts and bolt heads If a standard bolt is too long, it is
are given below. not always necessary to nd a
shorter bolt. The track for the
nut can easily be
designed/extruded as shown
above.
Screw port dimensions – screws at 90° to the pro le
ST 3.5 (B6) 2.6
st 4.2 (B8) 3.1
ST 4.8 (B10) 3.6
ST 5.5 (B12) 4.2
ST 6.3 (B14) 4.7
Snap-
Fit
Joints
Alumini
um’s If a set c/c distance between
Using special nuts/bolts, fastning elasticity the bolt holes is required, a at
can take place without having to is highly bar with precut threads can be
slide the nut/bolt in from the end suited to
The pro le can be stamped to x put in the track.
of the track. There are no snap- t
accepted standards, but various fasteners longitudinally in
joints.
solutions are available from position.
These give far quicker assembly than, for
screw and fastener example, screw or welded joints.
manufacturers.
Snap- t joints are widely used in a range of industries.
Joinin
g
Pro l
e to
Pro l
If a design cannot accomodate
e
A permanent snap- t joint.
hooking arms of suf cient length,
Longitu Dimensions and tolerances
the sprung part of the pro le
dinal must be decided on a case-by-
should be replaced by plastic clips
joining case basis. The length of the
In openable snap- t joints, the or similar. The same applies if the
hook angle is α = 45° In hooking arm should not be
joint is to be repeatedly opened.
Joining under 15 mm. In some cases,
permanent snap- t joints, the Aluminium's fatigue properties do
with a long hooking arms may have to
hook angle is α = 0° (or not permit frequent changes in
standard be extruded pre-stressed. This
negative). The length of the loading.
snap- t joint has an effect on can eliminate the need for
design. Joining special tolerances.
with
a
ut
ed,
spru
ng
pro
le
If a snap- tting is dif cult to
in
Amongst other factors, the design assemble/disassemble, punching
pur
of the joint is determined by a section out of the hooking arm
pos
whether or not it is to be openable. may be the solution.
e-
This joint can be opened using, for
desi
example, a screwdriver in the outer g
track.
Plate A has a punched, rectangular Examples of snap- t joints.

hole. Mounting pro le B is pushed
into the hole until a snap- t joint n
is formed. Lamella pro le C is then e
pushed into pro le B to form d
another snap- t joint. Exploiting c
the spaceunder the plate makes it h
possible to have suf cently long a
hooking arms. n
n
The hinge pro le A (cut from a
e
longer pro le_ forms a snap- t
ls.
joint with main pro le B. Punched
hole C also provides longitudinal

locking. Suf cient spring is
generated in the hooking arm by

springing the main pro le at d.
Telesc
oping


Latitu
dinal
joinin
g
A sprung inner section that Larger
compresses to allow assembly. cross-
For easy entry, the inner pro le section
(A) is believed and cut parallel to al areas
the main pro les. Tolerances are can be
not critical in this solution. The econo
result is a play-free joint. mically
created
Anchoring joined pro les by
by
welding - the illustration shows
joining
solutions with a solid pro le and
a
a hollow pro le respectively.
numbe
r of
pro le
s
togeth
Longitudinal joining via
er. This Longitudinal joining via
asymmetrically located screw
solutio longitudinal screw joints. A gap
ports and a pre-drilled spacer.
n is slightly longer than the length of
The pro les are turned so that
often the screw is milled in the screw
the screws do not foul each
chosen port.
other.
becaus
e it is
easier to
machin
e
smaller
pro les
individu
ally
Longitudinal jointing using the
rather
spring and friction in a snap- t
than a
design. Height adjustment where the
single
constru inner pro le has a xed thread
ction as (blind rivet nut) and the outer
a whole. pro le has a punched or
extruded channel.
To ensure smooth abd silent

operation, platic components are
often used in telescoping designs.
This design features stepless
height adjustment using a nut (a
threaded at bar could also be
used) that runs freely in its track.
Tightening the fasteners locks
Height adjustment where the
the height and removes any play
outer pro le has a xed thread
in the joint.
(blind rivet nut) and the bolt
clamps the inner pro le in
position.
Telescope solution with sping
locking.
Where a play-free joint is

essential (e.g. a single leg stand),
plastic gauge blocks are used. Telescope solution with stepless
clamping
Plastic is often an excellent

solution where components have
to be able to slide. A plastic
pro le can be a part of a
telescoping assembly.
Plastic wheels used part of the

fastening in the outer pro le serve
as spacers and give smooth, play-
free telescoping.
Mechanical joints, adhesive bonding, fusion welding and, as illustrated above, Friction Stir Welding. can all be used
for latitudinal joining.
Using a at bar, bracket or similar to join
pro les together gives good atness.
Latitudinal joining using screw

ports.
Locking using a splined dowel

pin.
Latitudinal joining with a

clamp.
Locking using a tubular spring
pin
Latitudinal joining with a snap- Latitudinal joining with a snap-
t. t.
Joining using an end plate that holds the sections together.
Joining by stamping (creates visible

deformations).
Latitudina
l joining
using
dovetail
tracks. Note the shape – to achieve acceptable
precision, sharp-tipped corners must be
avoided.
back to top
Hinges


A simple hinge - the ball's If the hinge has a screw port, it

diameter should never be less can be easily locked
than 5 mm. A hinge with approximately 110
longitudinally using plastic
degrees opening.
inserts and self-tapping screws.
Self-locking with approx. 180

degrees opening.
Two pro les with 180 degrees
opening.
Chamfering the ball enables
hinge disassembly as shown
above.
Complex hinging for securing

lorry tarpaulins. The hinge is
made from three pro les joined
together.
T-
joints
Three-part hinge made from a
single pro le.
Both parts of this hinge are Two-part hinge made from a
made from a single pro le. single pro le and with identical
machining. Exampl
es of
other
speci
al
faste
ners.
Cor
A longitudinally adjustable hinge. A pin in each end gives wide
ner opening and a cost-effecient
joi Hinges can be made from other solution.
materials than aluminium. The
nts illustrations shows a solution
where a plastic or rubber pro le
can be used.

A simple T-joint using screw
ports.

Screw ports used to join tubular T A strong jpont with anges to take
and rectangular pro les. he up torsional stress.
se
fram
e
pro
les
have
scre
w
port
s To avoid exing in the joint, the
and, Joining of a round tube and a screws are driven directly through
Fitting to a wall or another to transverse pro le : The the inner wall. The outer clearance
pro le: The end fastener is cut give transverse tube comprises two holes are plugged with standard
from a longer pro le and secured a pro les held together by snap- t plastic caps.
with screws. snug joint. This fastening avoids
t, troublesome mating of the
nee contours.
d
only be
cut at 90
degrees
when
used with
the
corner
pro le
shown in
A simple and stable soultion for T the
and corner jointing of square illustratio
tubes. A simple T-joint using nut n. The
tracks, right-angled brackets anges of
and bolts. the
corner
pro le In the furniture and interior
create decoration industry, special
channels fasteners are used where joints
for the must be easy to take apart. The
tting of fasteners often run in a nut
an outer track and there is this thus a
pro le stepless t with the mounting
(free Expansion locking using a pro le.
choice of wedge shape.
radius).
Pl
ast
Expansion locking using splined ic
pins. ca
ps
are
us
There are various types of ed
brackets that are exremely to
suitable for corner joints where co
the strength and rigidity ver
requirements are high. The th
brackets are usually cut from e
A special machine or an excentric
long aluminium pro les. en
press is used in the stamping
Brackets are usually designed to ds.
method of connecting pro les. The
allow several tting methods. method is particularly common in

The corner bracket above has long production runs.
both screw ports (for side screws)
and channels for stamping.
Fitting method can then be
chosen to suit equipment, series
size, etc.
In picture frames and other light

constructions, the corner joint
comprises two at right-angled
brackets, one of them with
threaded holes.
Cast metal and plastic ties are a

solution that is especially Tie using sprung steel clips. This corner joint for square tubes
common in long runs and where uses self-tapping screws in the
jointing has to be provided in transverse screw ports.
more than two directions.
Various ties are available in
standard formats.
Ties are often rectangular. The
A torsionally rigid joint using a
main pro le's contours are, of
single screw. As shown, one of
course, immaterial as long as
the pro les has anges. This
there is an inner, rectangular
type of corner joint is used in,
chamber.
amongst other things, TV
stands.
The anges of the corner pro le

This stable corner joint, which
are bolted to the insides of the
has precise angles and good
frame pro les. The frame
design, involves relativelyeasy
pro les need only be cut at 90
machining only.
degreees to ensure a snug t.
Where corners are visible, a
large radius (as shown by the
broken line) gives an attractively
rounded design.
A U-section with a punched or
sawn cut. The saw cut should go
down into the base of the pro le.
This can then be folded to give a
fame with slightly rounded
corners. The frame is locked
using a joint on either a long or a
short side.
A corner joint that can be used

in, for example, a table. The
plate and joint combination
represents a very stable solution.
Corner joint using pre-mounted

bolts in two of the pro les. The
bolts are tightened from above
using a special tool.
Joining with other materials

Protrusions punched into the

Printed circuit boards, metal pro le/plate ensure radial
sheets and other plates can be Rattle-free locking through back to locking.
tted in channels in the pro le. having the pro le's arms actively top
A small deformation (catch) in grip the plate/sheet.
the plate or the channel ensures Riv
good locking.
etin
g

A snap- t joint can be used with

formed plates.
Glass and metal plates, etc. can
be locked in place using a
End caps sprung, special plastic pro le
(the yellow pro le)

Two
end
caps
A standard method of glazing
can be
windows and doors. Rubber
The "Christmas tree model" is a held
pro les, which form snap- ts
simple solution when jointing togeth
with the aluminium pro les, act
with wood. er
as spacers for the glass. This
using
method can also be used for other
long
plates.
scre
ws or
draw
bars.
Scre
w
ports
with A snap- t using track in the
adeq wooden board.
uate
clearance are a suitable way of giding the screws. The result is one end cap with no visible screws. This is a good
solution in, for example, fascias.
Adhesive bonding
Afte
r
stee
l,
alu
min
ium
is
the
A snap- t joint bewtween met
Special screws with "snap- t aluminium and plastic pro les. al Short snap- t brackets can be
heads" can be used when jointing that screwed/nailed into wood strips.
with woods or metal plates. is
mos
t
freq
uen
tly
bon
ded. To deal with high local surface
Tho loads and reduce wear (e.d. from
ugh, a rolling steel wheel), a steel
for strip can be inserted in pro les.
exa
Examples of blind rivet nuts and mpl
press nuts. e, far more cars are produced than aeroplanes, the adhesive bonding of
aluminium in the aero-industry has attracted the most detailed research.
Aeroplanes have used bonded joints since the mid 40’s. Nowadays, the bonding of aluminium is even used for load-
bearing components in aircraft. Of course, there are many more down-to-earth examples of the use of bonded
aluminium joints. Volvo’s roof rack rail is just one of these.
The bling rivet nut is tted from
the outside using a special rivet
gun. Press nuts: These are tted
In a long pro le, it is often
from the back using, for
uneconomic to build extra
example, an excentric press.
thickness simply to provide
longer threads. Using blind rivet
nuts or press nuts, all that is
required is a hole.
Sliding pop riveting in a

longitudinal pro le channel.
Pop riveting at the end of a

screw port.
Self-punching rivets countersink and

join in a single operation.
If the end cap and the pro le have
the same nominal outer
dimensions, any departures from
tolerance speci cations are clearly
visible. The places where metal has
Screws and screw ports are the been cut become particularly
most common method of prominent if the pro le is surface
securing metal or plastic end treated. One solution is to make the
caps to box pro les. end cap slightly bigger than the
main pro le.
Riveting without rivets : This
method, which is highly suitable
for long runs, can join different
materials of different wall
thicknesses. A crimping press is
used.
If the main pro le is long, it is more

cost-ef cient not to have screw
ports in this but in a purpose-
designed end cap. Slight
displacement of the holes in the This end cap wedges into the
main pro le (relative to the screw main pro le. There is a strong
ports) ensures that a force is set up press- t between the end cap's
pulling the end cap into the main arms and the channels in the
pro le. main pro le.
An end cap with sprung arms -

This plastic end cap is held in
the cap is removable .
place by stamped catches in the
Channels in the main pro le for pro le.
the tting of an end cap with a
sprung arm.
Cast metal or plastic end caps

are suitable for long runs
where the shape of the main
pro le is complex or where a
highly rounded end cap is
required.
Many different adhesives, pretreatments and bonding methods have been developed. Selecting the right one is not
always easy. Nor is it risk-free to simply start bonding without adequate information.
Essential knowledge
The intermolecular forces that determine whether bonding is possible exert their pull over a maximum range of 0.5
nm (one half of a millionth of a millimetre). If the surface is contaminated or is made up of low strength oxides
exceeding this critical “thickness”, there will be no attraction between the adhesive and the aluminium pro le.
For good and consistent bonds, the joint surface must be known, reproducible and clean.
The adhesive must wet the entire surface that is to be bonded. To do this, it has to have a lower surface tension than
the material being bonded. Otherwise, the adhesive will form droplets rather than spread evenly over the surface.
All adhesives wet aluminium. To bond aluminium pro les to another material, the adhesive must be able to wet this
material too. If the other material is a plastic, it can sometimes be dif cult to nd an adhesive with a lower surface
tension.
[bild 58.1] Traditional tongue and groove.

[bild 58.1] Tongue and groove with a channel into which the “locking hook” can be hammered or rolled.
[bild 58.1] A variant of the “adhesive trap” and “locking hook” method
Joint design
Adhesive bonding involves the formation of a plastic or rubber load-carrying element. The material in the cured
adhesive bond is not as strong as the aluminium.
This can be compensated for by designing pro le solutions that provide large contact surfaces.
Aluminium pro les can be easily worked into a wide range of shapes. Where tongue and groove type bonded joints
are a possibility, they may be the best solution. The illustrations above give some ideas and guidance on joint design.
Adhesives cope best with shearing forces. Joints subjected to tensional forces are often unsuitable for high loads.
Peeling and cleaving forces concentrate stress on a small part of the joint and should be avoided whenever possible
Choice of adhesive
Bonded joints distribute stress relatively well. However, very rarely is stress evenly distributed across the entire
surface area of a bonded joint. As a rule, stress is greatest at the edges of the joint.
The stiffer the chosen adhesive, the greater the concentration of any subsequent stress. This leads to (sometimes
unnecessarily) high stress on the adhesive and the surface that has been bonded to.
Thus, never choose an adhesive that is stiffer than necessary. Thicker bonded joints also reduce the concentration of
stress at the edges of the joint.
The choice of adhesive is determined by the way in which the adhesive works and what is required of the bonded
joint ( lling/sealing, heat resistance, toughness, etc.).
To be able to mould itself to the surface structure of the pro le, the adhesive must have good liquid properties. It
must also harden into a material that can transfer stress in the environment where it is used. Furthermore, it is
important that the adhesive has time to mould itself to the surface’s micro-pro le. Fast setting, high-viscosity
adhesives rarely permit this. In such cases, it may be advisable to rst apply a low-viscosity primer.
The change from liquid to solid is effected in three different ways.
Drying Cooling Curing by
-Mixing
– Heating
– Exposure to moisture
Solvent The adhesive is liquid when it is hot – Illumination (UV or blue light)
– In the abseence of oxygen
– Contact between adhesive and hardener (without

preliminary mixing).
Drying
Solvents and water vaporise. Thus, adhesives containing solvents or water are unsuitable where:
– gap lling is required
– both the materials are unable to let the solvent escape.
Double-sided PSA tape should be regarded as a drying adhesive that never dries.
The material forming the joint is the same as that in the roll. However, if the stress is low, double-sided structural
PSA tape may prove suitable for joining aluminium pro les together.
Double-sided PSA structural tapes formed entirely of the adhesive substance itself are available in thicknesses from
0.1 to 6 mm.
There are also double-sided PSA tapes that can be heat cured. The tape holds the components even during curing –
other forms of clamping are unnecessary.
Testing of a simple overlap joint has shown a strength after curing of around 10 N/mm2.
Cooling
Some thermoplastic adhesives have good plasticity when hot. Hot-melt adhesives are the most widely used.
However, the thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives usually set too quickly on aluminium. This results in poor contact
with the aluminium surface. Hot-melt adhesives also have very low creep and heat strengths. Many thermoplastic
hot-melt adhesives become brittle in cold environments.
Moisture-curing hot-melts are applied at lower temperatures and, compared to thermoplastic hot-melts, have
excellent properties after curing. They are used for, amongst other things, applying foil coatings to aluminium
pro les.
Heat-reactivated adhesive is also used when coating aluminium pro les with foil. An adhesive solution or a water-
based adhesive is applied to the material and left to dry completely. In the bonding process, so that it wets the
opposite surface, the adhesive is heated.
Moisture-curing hot melts and heat-reactivated adhesives can both give strong, durable bonds.
Curing
Curing adhesives make up the large group of structural adhesives. They cure (often with negligible contraction) in
one of the following ways:
Curing by mixing of the components
Typical of this group are the epoxy and polyurethane adhesives. They have very good gap lling properties. In
principle, they can be cast. Modi ed acrylic adhesives are now also becoming more common.
There are both stiff and elastic, 2-component, epoxy and polyurethane based adhesives. Epoxy adhesives with an
elongation at fracture of up to 120% are now available. Elastic epoxy adhesives normally give a bond that is
relatively heat-sensitive.
Using epoxy adhesives, higher strength bonds and improved durability are achieved by curing at elevated
temperatures. The curing times are also considerably reduced – the curing time halves for each 10°C rise in
temperature.
Two-component polyurethane elastomers give “rubber-like” joints that remain elastic even at low minus
temperatures (°C).
There are also 2-component silicon adhesives that cure relatively quickly at room temperature.
Curing by contact between hardener and adhesive

(adhesive on one surface – hardener on the other)
These types of adhesives are usually referred to as SGA adhesives. They have excellent peel and impact strengths,
but are not particularly suitable where a gap lling adhesive is required. These adhesives have been largely replaced
by modi ed acrylic adhesives, which are mixed direct from their packaging and can be used to form thick joints.
Acrylic adhesives of this type that adhere to untreated polyole nes (e.g. PE and PP) are now also available.
Curing by heating
Here, the most common adhesives are the 1-component epoxies. These require heat curing at a minimum of 100°C.
With induction heating of aluminium pro les, curing times of approx. 60 seconds are possible.
The aero-industry makes extensive use of heat-hardening adhesive lms. These require at least 30 minutes to
harden at a minimum of 125°C.
One-component polyurethane elastomers can be heat cured at 70°C – 90°C (in 10 – 30 minutes).
Curing by contact with moisture
Cyanoacrylate adhesives harden very quickly in contact with moisture. A bond between two aluminium surfaces
takes longer to harden than a bond between aluminium and plastic or rubber materials.
Cyanoacrylate adhesives are best suited for small joint surfaces and thin bonds. Normally, they have low peel and
impact strengths. However, there are “rubber- lled” (black) cyanoacrylate adhesives with good peel and impact
properties. Colourless, elastic cyanoacrylates are also available, but these are not particularly suitable as structural
adhesives for metal.
Cyanoacrylate adhesives may be suitable where, for example, a plastic is to be bonded to an aluminium pro le.
One-component polyurethane elastomers can also be cured by the humidity of the air. This type of adhesive is used
in, for example, the bonding of car windows and, on a large scale, for aluminium pro les in container and vehicle
body manufacturing. Curing is comparatively slow (hours) and dependant on relative air humidity and joint
geometry.
Heat-curing polyurethane elastomers have been mentioned above. There are also polyurethane elastomers that
harden both with moisture and heat. Two-component type polyurethane elastomer adhesives are also available.
As an alternative to polyurethane elastomers, there are the so-called MS polymers. These also harden with moisture.
Two-component MS polymers are primarily chosen for work environment considerations.
Curing in UV light
There have long been 1-component acrylate adhesives that cure in tenths of a second when exposed to UV light
(wavelength approx. 350 nm) or blue light (wavelength > 400 nm). Acrylate adhesives are often limpid and very
suitable for bonds between aluminium pro les and glass (most of them perform less well with transparent plastics).
Epoxy adhesives that harden in UV light have also been developed. There are many types of these – limpid, lled,
low-viscosity, hard, elastic, etc. Some of these adhesives can be irradiated prior to bonding and will then cure
relatively quickly.
Curing in the absence of oxygen
Such adhesives cure on contact with active metal ions. They are normally referred to as anaerobic adhesives (or
“locking uids”). They are not particularly suitable for aluminium. Aluminium surfaces should be regarded as
passive. An activator has to be used in such cases. This gives a lower strength bond.
Variants of these adhesives that do harden without an activator on aluminium surfaces are now available.
Temperarure limits
With many adhesives, the practical maximum temperature at which stressed bonded joints can be used is between
60 and 80°C. The highest heat-resistance (approx. 150 – 250°C) is achieved with heat-curing adhesives and heat-
curing adhesive lms. However, silicon adhesives can give heat-resistance of around 250°C without heat curing.
Long-term strength
Aluminium surface at
x 25,000 magni cation
(the red bar is 1 µm).
Bonds to aluminium are as strong and durable as the aluminium oxides with which the bond is
formed. Aluminium that has had no surface treatment has a large percentage of magnesium in
its surface. Aluminium surfaces should normally always be treated in some way.
Used in a dry environment, an untreated aluminium pro le can give an excellent bond. The same bond outdoors in
a coastal climate may have a far shorter life. Bond lifetime depends on the synergistic effects of stress, temperature
and environment.
Normally, the problem is not the degradation of the adhesive or the failure of adhesion, but the effects of changes in
the underlying aluminium. Any good microscope will show that there are no completely at or even surfaces. Highly
viscous (slow owing) and fast setting adhesives will, therefore, most probably only come into limited contact with
the surface. This results in a bond with in-built weak points (air pockets) where the adhesive’s properties are not
being exploited. In humid environments, this air will eventually be replaced by water. Where the water is salty, the
need for surface treatment is even greater.
Aluminium’s durability can be improved by, for example, anodising.
Basic principles for long-lasting bonds
The basic principles for long-lasting bonds are well lled joints and resistant oxides. A large number of
pretreatment processes have been developed for aluminium.
Some of the most common (and some of the more unusual) are presented here. Choice is determined by the
environment where the aluminium is to be used, likely stresses and costs.
Full details of the processes and any risks to the work environment should, of course, be obtained before starting any
form of treatment.
The main purpose of priming prior to the bonding of aluminium is to ll (seal) the surface when high-viscosity
and/or fast setting adhesives are to be used.
Priming becomes more important where the aluminium is to be used in a corrosive environment and no surface
treatment that improves corrosion resistance (e.g. anodising) is contemplated. Primer also “impregnates” and
strengthens porous oxides, e.g. after chromating.
Requirement speci cation
It is advisable to draw up a requirement speci cation for the properties of the nal bond and the use-related aspects
of the adhesive. This helps crystallise the demands really being placed on the adhesive. It also makes it easier to
specify exactly what is required to the adhesive manufacturer.
Pretreatment operations in bonding
Process Result Use (max.)
Minimum requiement for ensuring a

Cleaning/ degreasing For moderately stressd joints in dry surroundings.
clean and de ned bonding surface.
Removes weak surface layers e/g/ oxides. Highly stressed joints in dry environments. Unstressed
Fine grinding/blast cleaning
Safer than degreasing. joints in fresh water.
Boiling water for 5 – 10 min. after Gives resistant, but moderately Lightly stressed joints using
pickling
strong oxides. exible adhesives in humid,
corrosive environments.
Lightly stressed joints using elastic

Phosphating/ Corrosion resistant, but weak,
or very low-viscosity adhesives in
chromating porous oxides.
corrosive environments.
Hydrochloric acid Moderately stressed joints, even

Quick, can impart a dark-colouring
at 20°C for in corrosive surroundings. Relatively
to the aluminium surface.
30 seconds uncommon process.
Etching in Highly stressed joints outdoors.

Thin, strong oxides. Long used
chrome/ However, cannot withstand strongly
in the American aero-industry.
sulphuric acid corrosive environments.
Lightly stressed joints in corrosive

Anodising in
environments. Best with elastic
Thick very resistant oxide.
sulphuric acid
adhesives.
Anodising in chromic acid Medium-thick, strong Highly stressed joints, even in
chromic acid oxide.Used in the European aero-industry corrosive environments
since the 40’s.
Optimum pretreatment for highly

Porous, very resistant oxide. Is used
Anodising in
stressed joints in corrosive
together with low-viscosity
phosphoric acid
primer.
environments.
back to top
Fusion Welding
Aluminium is eminently suitable for welding. Although many welding methods are possible with aluminium, only a
few are used in practice. Re nements in welding machines, equipment and materials have resulted in welding
acquiring increasing importance as a jointing method.
Oxide formation
When welding aluminium, the metal’s reaction with oxygen, and the oxide rapidly generated therein, have to be
taken into account. The oxide is strong, has a high melting point (approx. 2,050°C) and can easily cause welding
defects. The oxide is heavier than the weld pool and may form inclusions. Thus, before all welding of aluminium, it
is important to remove oxides from the joint surfaces. This may suitably be done using a stainless steel wire brush.
Thoroughly cleaned, oxide-free joint surfaces are a basic requirement for faultless welded joints
Weld porosity formation
The risk of void formation must also be taken into account. The hydrogen contained in moisture and contaminants
on or in the welding materials, work piece or air is highly soluble in molten aluminium. It loses this solubility almost
completely when the metal solidi es. As the weld pool sets, the hydrogen forms bubbles that may become trapped
and form voids.
Most aluminium alloys can be welded
Drying Cooling Curing by
-Mixing
– Heating
– Exposure to moisture
Solvent The adhesive is liquid when it is hot – Illumination (UV or blue light)
– In the abseence of oxygen
– Contact between adhesive and hardener (without

preliminary mixing).
Methods
Nowadays, gas arc welding methods, MIG and TIG in particular, dominate. Argon (Ar) and helium (He) are used as
the shielding gases in the MIG and TIG welding of aluminium. Argon and helium are inert gases and do not,
therefore, form chemical compounds with other substances. Where there is a high penetration requirement, e.g. in a
llet weld or when welding very thick work pieces, an argon-helium mixture can be used in MIG welding. The
economic threshold for using mixed gases is a material thickness of 10 – 12 mm.
As welds in aluminium are prone to the formation of oxide inclusions and voids, the shielding gas must also meet
certain purity requirements. The minimum requirement is 99.5% argon or helium. Besides playing a part in the
electrical processes in the arc, the gas also has the jobs of protecting the electrode and the weld pool from oxidation
and of cooling the electrode.
MIG welding
As a rule, MIG welding is used for material thicknesses from 1 mm upwards. In special cases, thicknesses under 1
mm can be welded using a pulsed MIG arc. Filler metal is added in the form of a wire fed through the welding torch.
MIG welding can be performed in any position and for all joint types. A higher current density than in TIG welding
gives higher welding speeds. The high welding speed has a positive effect on distortion and shrinkage (narrower
heat-affected zone).
TIG welding
TIG welding is suitable for material thicknesses down to under 1 mm. In practice, there is an upper limit of around
10 mm, but edge preparation is then necessary. Filler metal is normally used and is introduced from the side. TIG
welding can be performed in any position and, when performed correctly, gives the most fault-free welds. The
welding speed is relatively high, and even higher in mechanical TIG welding.
TIG welding can be recommended where the gap width varies.
Robot welding
Robotised MIG welding can be used with advantage in long production runs. This method noticeably increases
productivity and is also advantageous from a work environment point of view. The position of the work piece is easy
to control. This facilitates welding from the optimum position and gives good results. Certain problems may arise
with very thin materials and uneven gap widths.
Welding economy
Measured on cost per length, MIG welding is normally cheaper than TIG welding. Equipment costs are identical.
Filler metals
The table below gives recommendations for appropriate ller metals. AIMg5 generally gives the greatest strength.
AISi5 is more stable as regards cracking and easier to use when welding hardenable alloys.
If the welded assembly is to be anodised, Si alloyed ller metals cannot be used. When anodising, the silicon is
precipitated and imparts a dark grey, almost black, colour.
In order not to compromise weld quality, ller metals should be stored so that the risk of oxidation and the
formation of other coatings is avoided.
Parent metal A
Swedish
Chemical
standard
Sapa designation EN-
SS-EN-
AW
AW
1090
AI99.90
1080A
AI99.8(A)
A199.8
1070A
AI99.7(A)

105A 1050A AI99.5(A) A199.5 AI99.5
1200 AI99.0 AI99.5Ti AI99.5Ti
3103 AIMn1 AI995Ti AI99.5Ti AIMn1
AIMn1 AIMn1 AISi5
5005 AIMg1(B)
5251 AIMg2 AIMg3
AIMg52) AIMg52) AIMg52)

5052 AIMg2.5 AIMg5
5754 AIMg3
AIIMg5 AIIMg5
5083 AIIMg4.5Mn0.7 AIIMg52) AIIMg52) AIIMg52)

AIIMg4.5Mn AIIMg4.5Mn
6060
6060 AIIMgSi
6063
6063 AIIMg0.7Si
6063A AlSi51)
6063A AIIMg0.7Si(A) AlMg3 AlMg5
6005 AlMg3
AISi5 AISi5 AISi5
6005 AISiMg AlMg51) AlMg4.5Mn
6005A AlMg5
6005A AISiMg(A)
6082
6082 AISi1MgMn

7021 7021 AlZn5.5Mg1.5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn
AlMg5 AlMg5 AlSi5
AlMg5
Parent AlMgSi
metal B
AlMg0.7S
AlMg1(B)
Chemical Al99.90 AlMg0.7Si(A)
Al99.5(A) AlMg2
designation Al99.8(A) AlSiMg
AlMn1 AlMg4.5Mn0.7
Al99.0 AlMg2.5
EN-AW Al99.7(A) AlSiMg(A)
AlMg3
AlSi1Mg(A)
AlSi1MgMn
6060
5005 6063
1090
Swedish standard 1050A 5251 6063A
1080A
3103 5083
SS-EN-AW 1200 5052 6005
1070A
5754 6005A
6082
Sapa 1050A 6060
6063
6063A
6005
6005A
6082
1) Unsuitable where there is to be subsequent anodising.
2) Less suitable material combinations. However TIG welding with stated ller metal is possible.
Strength
In welding, the heat treatment to which the material is subjected affects the structure locally around the weld. The
illustration is a schematic representation of how strength and hardness vary with distance from a weld in a
hardenable alloy. With aluminium pro les, it is easy to compensate for decreased joint strength by increasing the
wall thickness locally. Furthermore, edge preparation can be directly incorporated into the pro le’s design
Pro le design with regard to fusion welding
Appropriately designed pro les can greatly simplify welding. Edge preparation, material compensation, in-built
fastening, integral root backing and the minimisation of the number of welds required are all examples of proactive
aluminium pro le design.
In many cases, aluminium pro les can be designed in a way that reduces the required number of welds. Sometimes,
welds can also be located in a low stress section of the cross-sectional area. This will mean fewer welds and
improved strength.
Edge preparation integrated into the pro le design – the illustration also features material compensation for
strength reduction in the weld zone.
Permanent root backing.

In-built fastener – used in dry environments.
Left: Placing welds in lower stress sections of the cross sectional area. This results in fewer welds, and butt rather
than llet welds.
Right: Number of welds reduced from 12 to 4 – butt welds rather than the weaker llet welds (which are also harder
to x-ray). Fewer components, reduced welding (consequently fewer heat-affected zones) and straightening
minimsed.
back to top
Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) exploits aluminium’s ability to withstand extreme plastic deformation at temperatures
that are high, but not above the melting point. In FSW, the clean metal surfaces of the pro les that are to be joined
are heated by friction generated by a rotating tool and pressed together at very high pressures. This forms a new,
homogeneous structure.
Compared with fusion welding, FSW gives:
# Increased strength.
# Increased leakproofness – entirely void-free,

impermeable joints of a higher strength than fusion
welded joints.
# Joints that are, in principle, ush with the surface.
# Reduced thermal deformation – only low thermal

stress in the material, hence the at surfaces.
# Increased repeatability – production has few

variables and these are easily controlled; the result is tight tolerances.
An established technology
Left: A cross-section of a joint – x 13 magni cation.
Right: The homogeneous crystal structure in the centre section of an FSW joint – x 220 magni cation.
The FSW weld –

homogenous and void-free
with no oxide inclusions
To paint a clearer picture

of FSW, we have chosen to
compare it with the most
commonly used method of
welding – fusion welding.
At the same time, we must
stress that, in our
production of added-value
aluminium pro les, we
often use fusion welding
(MIG). The old does have
its place alongside the
new.
Using FSW rather
Fusion welding, MIG for than traditional
A rotating tool is pressed into the metal and moved along the example, uses ller fusion welding to join
line of the joint. No ller metals or shielding gases are used. metals and shielding panels together gives,
FSW takes place at a temperature below the metal's melting gases. amongst much else,
point. The results include very little thermal deformation, increased atness and
hence the at surface. The ller metal and the straightness. Strength
parent metal are melted is also increased (see
and produce a weld bead the Royal Institue of
that has a solidi cation structure different from that of the rest of the metal. Technology's tests,
In MIG and TIG welding, pages 72-73). The
attention has to be paid to Sapa panel above is 3
the metal’s reaction with x 14.3 metres.
oxygen. The oxide rapidly
formed in this reaction can cause weld failure.
The oxide is heavier than the weld pool and may

form inclusions. There is also a risk of void
formation.
FSW uses no ller metals or shielding gases. The

The joint is in principle, ush with the surface and the FSW
joint is formed under the in uences of friction
weld is, to all intents and purposes, completely void-free.
generated heat and extreme plastic deformation.
The strength properties are also very good.
The material being joined never reaches its melting

point, but the pro les weld together in a way entirely analogous to the extrusion of hollow pro les.
The result is a homogenous and void-free weld with no inclusions.
FSW stands out in having only a few variables. These can be easily controlled to ensure the same results from one
weld to the next.
Fusion welding is a more complicated process. Consequently, results often vary.
To give a fair comparison, the adjacent pictures are of very high quality fusion welds.
Left: Precipitation in a MIG-weld. Right: Precipitation in an FSW weld.
Left: The MIG weld rises above the surface. Furthermore, its chemical composition
differs from that of the welded material. Right: The FSW weld is, in principle, ush
with the welded material. No ller metals are used.
Left: A MIG weld viewed from above. Right: An FSW weld viewed from above.
Strength
Experience and extensive testing have shown that an FSW weld is usually stronger than a fusion weld. The table
below shows the standardised values for arc welded butt joints as per SS-EN 288-4 (see also the tests carried out by
the Royal Institute of Technology, pages 72 – 73).
The values given for FSW joints are based on a large number of measurements and should be regarded as guideline
values.
Since there are, as yet, no standards for FSW joints, the values for fusion welded joints are used in calculating the
strength of standardised designs.
Condition of parent Ageing after Rm (W)
T=
metal before welding welding
Rm (pm)
Arc
FSW 2)
welding 1)
T4 Natural ageing
0.9 0.9
T4 Arti cial ageing 0.7 0.9
T5-T6 Natural ageing 0.6 0.7
T5-T6 Arti cial ageing 0.7 0.8
1. For example MIG or TIG. 2. Guideline values only.
Ultimate tensile strength, R (w), of the welded test rod normally has to satisfy the following:
Rm (W) = Rm (pm) x Twhere Rm (pm) is the prescribedminimum ultimate tensilestrength of the parent metal and T
is the joint’s weld factor.
Leakproofness
The pictures on the right are of heat sink units based on solid pro les that are
then CNC machined by Sapa. The machined
interior is closed with a cover, welded in place by FSW.
Helium leak testing was used to assess leakproofness.
The result was no loss of impermeability owing to weld failures. FSW joints
have also been tested using the water pressure test.
The results are unambiguous – FSW gives a joint that can be used in
components with the severest demands for leakproofness.
Repeatability
The experience Sapa has gained in series production since 1996 shows:
– Very small variations from joint to joint throughout a production cycle.
– Very small variations from joint to joint in repeat customer orders.
This is true of all variables – the joint’s structure, its strength, leakproofness
and atness.
Corrosion resistance
The chemical composition of the material in the joint is identical to that of the
original material. Thus, in principle, corrosion resistance is unaltered.
Limitations
FSW requires the work piece to be held securely in place. This means, amongst
other things, that repair welding of nished constructions is rarely possible
with FSW. Repairs can, of course, be carried out using traditional methods.
All 25,000 units passed helium testing for leakproofness.
Strength of FSW joints

Comparison with MIG and TIG – Reference:
The Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
FSW welds have higher fatigue strength than MIG and TIG welds. This is the nding documented by Mats Ericsson,
graduate engineer, and Rolf Sandström, professor, (both of the Institution for Materials Science at Sweden’s Royal
Institute of Technology) in the December 2001 research report, In uence of Welding Speed on the Fatigue of
Friction Stir Welds and Comparison with MIG and TIG. Test material and test methods
Test mateial and test methods
This extract from the report gives values for extruded pro les in alloy SS-EN AW 6082 (AlSi1MgMn) Ð temper T6,
material thickness 4 mm. The dimensions of the test pieces were as per SS-EN 284-4. FSW was carried out by Sapa in
a plant used for series production. Test materials welded at two different speeds were included in testing. To the
same high quality standards as those applying in the aero-industry, fusion welding was carried out by CSM Material
Technology. TIG and pulse MIG welding were used. Vickers hardness was measured with a load of 10 kg. Fatigue
testing was carried out with a stress ratio ( min/ max) of 0.5, the main direction of stress being across the weld.
Pro le design with regard to fusion welding
Appropriately designed pro les can greatly simplify welding.
Edge preparation, material compensation, in-built fastening, integral root backing and the minimisation of the
number of welds required are all examples of proactive aluminium pro le design.
In many cases, aluminium pro les can be designed in a way that reduces the required number of welds. Sometimes,
welds can also be located in a low stress section of the cross-sectional area. This will mean fewer welds and
improved strength.
The graph shows the variations in Vickers hardness across a cross section of an FSW joint (green) welded at a speed
of 1, 400 mm/ min. and across a MIG weld (grey).
Comments: In both welds, hardness in the heat-affected zone decreases. This is clearly more marked in the MIG
weld. Hardness is lowest (just under
60 HV) around the centre of the MIG weld. This is because fusion welding involves higher working temperatures,
“foreign” ller metals and a less favourable structure in the weld. More heat is supplied in TIG welding than MIG
welding. Consequently, the HAZ is a little wider. No signi cant difference was observed between the HAZs of the two
FSW welds carried out at different speeds.
Yield Tensile
SS-EN-AW longation
strenght strenght Reference
6082 A50 mm (%)
Rp0,2 (MPa) Rm (MPa
Min. values
for pro les 250 295 6 SS-EN 755-2
t < 5 mm
Pulsed MIG 147 221 5.2 ME,RS1)
TIG 145 219 5.4 ME,RS1)
FSW,
150 245 5.7 ME,RS 1)
speed A 2)
FSW,
150 245 5.1 ME,RS 1)
speed B 2)
1) Mats Ericsson and Rolf Sandström, averages of the results in the report in question.
2) Speed A, 700 mm/min. Speed B, 1,400 mm/min.
Fatigue strength
back to top
MIG-weld: This SEM micrograph (x MIG-weld: as above (2.500

25 magni cation) shows the fracture magni cation) Fatigue striation in
surface. Fatigue fracture developed at the area close to the root edge.
several points in the root (to the
right).
SW: Fracture surface through the
The graph above shows the results of
ne-grained section of an FSW weld
fatigue tests on MIG welds (grey), TIG
(root to the right). Fracture probably
welds (blue) and FSW welds (green).
developed close the root.
Comments: The FSW weld shows the best
values throughout. In the study, TIG
welds gave considerably better results
than MIG welds. For failure at 500,000
cycles, the stress ranges were: MIG
approx. 60 MPa, TIG approx. 70 MPa,
FSW approx. 90 MPa at 700 and 1, 400
mm/ min (a shade higher at 1, 400 mm/
min).
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Port diameters for self-tapping screws

ST 3.5 (B6) 3.1 ± 0.15 1.5 4.2

st 4.2 (B8) 3.8 ± 0.15 1.5 5.0

ST 4.8 (B10) 4.2 ± 0.2 1.5 5.8

ST 5.5 (B12) 4.9 ± 0.2 2.0 6.6

ST 6.3 (B14) 5.6 ± 0.2 2.0 7.4

Here, a component is being tted Placing screw ports at corners

Upper joint: A hollow pro le joined

One way of avoiding step drilling

Continuous tracks enable stepless

Screw port dimensions – screws at 90° to the pro le

ST 3.5 (B6) 2.6

ST 4.8 (B10) 3.6

ST 5.5 (B12) 4.2

ST 6.3 (B14) 4.7

Plate A has a punched, rectangular Examples of snap- t joints.

To ensure smooth abd silent

Where a play-free joint is

Plastic is often an excellent

Plastic wheels used part of the

Latitudinal joining using screw

Locking using a splined dowel

Latitudinal joining with a

Joining using an end plate that holds the sections together.

Joining by stamping (creates visible

A simple hinge - the ball's If the hinge has a screw port, it

Self-locking with approx. 180

Complex hinging for securing

In picture frames and other light

Cast metal and plastic ties are a

The anges of the corner pro le

A corner joint that can be used

Corner joint using pre-mounted

Joining with other materials

Protrusions punched into the

A snap- t joint can be used with

Sliding pop riveting in a

Pop riveting at the end of a

Self-punching rivets countersink and

If the main pro le is long, it is more

An end cap with sprung arms -

Cast metal or plastic end caps

[bild 58.1] Traditional tongue and groove.

The change from liquid to solid is effected in three different ways.

– In the abseence of oxygen

– Contact between adhesive and hardener (without

Curing by mixing of the components

Curing by contact between hardener and adhesive

Curing by contact with moisture

Curing in the absence of oxygen

Requirement speci cation

Pretreatment operations in bonding

Process Result Use (max.)

Minimum requiement for ensuring a

Lightly stressed joints using elastic

Hydrochloric acid Moderately stressed joints, even

Etching in Highly stressed joints outdoors.

Lightly stressed joints in corrosive

Anodising in chromic acid Medium-thick, strong Highly stressed joints, even in

since the 40’s.

Optimum pretreatment for highly

Weld porosity formation