Chapter 14

Temperature measurement
Measurement and instrumentation by Alan S. Moriss, 3rd edition.
 14.1 Principles of temperature measurement
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate classes
according
to the physical principle on which they operate. The main principles used are:
 The thermoelectric effect
 Resistance change
 Sensitivity of semiconductor device
 Radiative heat emission
 Thermography
 Thermal expansion
 Resonant frequency change
 Sensitivity of fiber optic devices
 Acoustic thermometry
 Colour change
 Change of state of material.
14.2 Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)

 Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that, when any
two different
metals are connected together, an e.m.f., which is a function of the
temperature, is
generated at the junction between the metals. The general form of this
relationship is:
14.2.1 Thermocouple tables

 Although the preceding discussion has suggested that the unknown

temperature T
can be evaluated from the calculated value of the e.m.f. E1 at the hot
junction using
equation (14.1), this is very difficult to do in practice because equation
(14.1) it is a high order polynomial expression. An approximate translation
between the value of
 E1 and temperature can be achieved by expressing equation (14.1) in
graphical form
as in Figure 14.1. However, this is not usually of sufficient accuracy, and it is
normal
practice to use tables of e.m.f. and temperature values known as
thermocouple tables.
14.2.2 Non-zero reference junction
temperature

 If the reference junction is immersed in an ice bath to maintain it at a

temperature of
0°C so that thermocouple tables can be applied directly
 the ice in the bath must be in a state of just melting.
 otherwise it will be either colder or hotter than this temperature
 using a second thermoelectric law known as the law of intermediate
temperature

 Example
14.2.3 Thermocouple types

 standard base-metal thermocouples are chromel–constantan (type E),

iron–constantan (type J), chromel–alumel (type K), nicrosil–nisil (type N) and
copper–constantan (type T).
 affected through contamination by the working environment

 protective sheath
 slow to respond
 14.2.4 Thermocouple protection

 Specified operating characteristics

 error is induced due to strain in the hot junction
 reduces the e.m.f. output
14.2.5 Thermocouple manufacture
 Thermocouples are manufactured by connecting together two wires of
different materials.
 The diameter of wire used to construct thermocouples is usually in the
range between
0.4 mm and 2 mm.
 The larger diameters are used where ruggedness and long life
are required
14.2.6 The thermopile

 temperature-measuring device
 several thermocouples connected together in series
 all the reference junctions are at the same cold
 n thermocouples together in series is to increase the measurement
sensitivity by a factor of
n.
14.2.7 Digital thermometer

 combination of a thermocouple, a battery-powered, dual slope digital

voltmeter to measure the thermocouple output, and an electronic display
 temperature differences as small as 0.1°C

 reduction of measurement inaccuracy to š0.5% is achievable.

14.2.8 The continuous thermocouple

 One of devices that detect and respond

to heat.

 include the line-type heat detector and heat sensitive cable.

 consists of two or more strands of wire separated by insulation within a long
thin cable
14.3 Varying resistance devices
 Varying resistance devices rely on the physical principle of the variation of
resistance
with temperature.

14.3.1 Resistance thermometers

 known as resistance temperature
devices (or RTDs)
 principle that the resistance of a metal varies with
temperature
14.3.2 Thermistors

 semiconductor material

 oxides of the iron group of metals

 chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and

nickel

 negative temperature coefficient


14.4 Semiconductor devices

 Semiconductor devices, consisting of either diodes or integrated circuit

transistors, have only been commonly used in industrial applications for a
few years.

 invented several decades ago. They have the advantage of being

relatively inexpensive
 difficulty that affects their use is the need to provide an external power
supply to the sensor.
 Integrated circuit transistors produce an output proportional to the
absolute temperature
14.5 Radiation thermometers

 All objects emit electromagnetic radiation as a function of their

temperature above absolute zero, and radiation thermometers (also
known as radiation pyrometers) measure
this radiation in order to calculate the temperature of the object. The total
rate of radiation emission per second is given by:

 E = KT4
 Different versions of radiation thermometers are capable of measuring
temperatures
between 100°C and C10 000°C
14.5.1 Optical pyrometers

 is designed to measure temperatures where the peak radiation emission is

in the red part of the visible spectrum
 temperatures above 600°C.
 heated tungsten filament within its optical system.
 current in the filament is
increased until its colour is the same as the hot body
14.5.2 Radiation pyrometers

 similar to that in the optical pyrometer

 omitting the filament and eyepiece

 an energy detector

 on detectors respond selectively to a particular band within the full spectrum,

and
are usually of the photoconductive or photovoltaic type.
 The size of objects measured by a radiation pyrometer is limited by the optical
resolution, which is defined as the ratio of target size to distance.
 Broad-band (unchopped) radiation pyrometers

 Chopped broad-band radiation pyrometers

 Narrow-band radiation pyrometers

 Two-colour pyrometer (ratio pyrometer)

 Selected waveband pyrometer

Thank you !
14.6 Thermography (thermal imaging)
 Thermography, or thermal imaging, involves scanning an infrared radiation
detector
across an object. The information gathered is then processed and an output in
the form
of the temperature distribution across the object is produced. Temperature
measurement
over the range from 20°C up to C1500°C is possible.
 These are sensitive to the portion of the infrared
spectrum between wavelengths of 2 µm and 14 µm.
 Simpler versions of thermal imaging instruments consist of hand-held viewers
that
are pointed at the object of interest
 More complex thermal imaging systems comprise a tripod-mounted detector
connected to a desktop computer and display system.
14.7 Thermal expansion methods

 Thermal expansion methods make use of the fact that the dimensions of
all thermometer, the bimetallic thermometer
and thsubstances,
whether solids, liquids or gases, change with temperature.
 liquid-in-glass e pressure thermometer.
14.7.1 Liquid-in-glass thermometers

 known temperature-measuring instrument

that is used in a wide range of applications. The fluid used is usually either
mercury or
coloured alcohol.
 an inaccuracy of only š0.15% can be obtained in the best industrial
instruments. Industrial versions of the liquid-in-glass thermometer are
normally used to
measure temperature in the range between 200°C and C1000°C
14.7.2 Bimetallic thermometer

 strips of different metals are bonded together

 temperature change will cause the strip to bend
Digital Volt Meter ( DVM )