Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
defined as the deliberate or intentional infliction of pain on another person. A more specific
one or more people on the basis of acting alone or orders from an authority figure. Torture is
used in order to force an individual to release information, make a confession, or for any other
reason. The United Nations definition of torture is more restrictive, lending added specifics:
torture inflicts severe physical or mental pain/suffering, is deliberate in nature, and is used for a
number of reasons, including but not limited to obtain information or a confession from the
person who is being tortured or from someone else not being tortured, to punish the person being
tortured or another person for wrongdoing (suspected or has done), to intimidate or put pressure
on the person or another person, and for any reason based on “discrimination” (BBC, 2014). The
common set of themes among these definitions presents torture as intentional, physically or (and)
Along with the definitions of torture being relevant, the methods used are also
noteworthy in order to gain a complete understanding on just how destructive torture is. Some of
the techniques that are known to have been used by the CIA after high-value target individuals
were captured include, box confinement, cold water dousing, threats of violence, and sleep
deprivation. During box confinement, individuals are restricted in their movement. The Busch
administration approved box confinement in the case of Abu Zubaydah, who explained that this
type of torture restricted his breathing and reopened wounds. Cold water torture is fairly
straightforward—the individuals are doused with cold water during interrogations and in the case
3
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE
of Walid bin Attash, are wrapped in plastic after being drenched, their bodies rid of clothing
while wrapped. The kinds of threats used are diverse, some including severe violence, while
others include sexual assault either against the detainee or his family. Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri
said that during interrogation he was told that he would have to watch his mother be sexually
assaulted in front of him. He also was threatened with a gun pointed at his head. Lastly, sleep
deprivation consists of keeping detainees awake for up to a week and when they start to fall
asleep they are sprayed with water. Sleep deprivation is used frequently, 11 out of 14 detainees
interviewed by the International Committee of the Red Cross reported being subjected to this
type of torture (Laughland, 2015). Despite the continued use of various methods of torture by
interrogators such as the CIA, this does not justify its use. Torture is both ineffective and
First and foremost, torture should never be used under any circumstance, because no
evidence exists that explains torture as an effective means for getting reliable information.
Coercive strategies are simply not effective interrogation tools for gaining intelligence as well as
cooperation (Costanzo, Gerrity, & Lykes, 2007; Bell, 2008; Lowth, 2017). Specifically,
interrogation is used if it is presumed that the suspect under investigation is lying or is holding
back vital information. Torture is utilized when interrogators are certain that the suspect is lying,
however there is a considerable amount of research explaining that trained interrogators are not
accurate in distinguishing if a suspect is lying or not (Costanzo, et al., 2007). Often, the civilian
authorities and military officers who make the decisions about torture and interrogation are
rarely knowledgeable about interrogation. The individuals with the most knowledge about
interrogation are ranked too low in the military hierarchal system to have a say in decision
4
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE
making which puts power in the wrong hands (Janoff-Bulman, 2007). Along with the lack of
knowledge about interrogation, prejudice may also affect the decision to use torture or not.
Prejudice may lead interrogators to target individuals based on physical appearance, ethnicity, or
deciding to use torture as well. These factors can overwhelm the “better” impulses of accusers,
causing them to resort to cruelty. The presence of an authority figure, in this case the accuser, as
well as the power dynamics that exist between the two groups (prisoners and guards—detainees
and military leaders) influence individuals into taking the harsh role of authority or the more
powerful.
Survivors of torture point to another important force in the ineffectiveness of torture: that
they would have said anything just to make the experience end (Costanzo et al., 2007).
pain that telling the authorities what they wanted to hear was the only ticket out of more
punishment. “I was in extreme pain from the frostbite and other injuries, and I was so weak I
could barely stand. I was freezing cold and shaking and shivering like a washing machine.
Finally, I’d agreed I’d been at Tora Bora” (Tora Bora being an area where Al Qaeda fought)
(Bell, 2008, p.348). Therefore, false confessions are easy to elicit. Interrogation by torture results
in fear, stress, and pain of the suspect, presumably breaking them into giving information, even if
the information is incorrect. The harsh and correctional behavior, on the part of the interrogator,
encourages lies instead of the truth. Not only does the pain of torture force suspects into agreeing
with the interrogators, but the fear, stress, and pain undermine the brains executive functions,
like recall and cognition, negatively affecting the memory (Lowth, 2017). Even if the suspects
were involved with a criminal act, they most likely would not be able to give the truth due to
5
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE
memory failures in the brain. The only time that torture is useful in gaining confessions is when
the facts do not matter to the interrogators, but the facts always matter when trying to point the
approaches of interviewing have been seen to be most effective and efficient in securing
information (Goodman, Martschuck, & Dhami, 2014). If people are actively listened to, they are
more likely to reveal genuine accounts of memory. Questioning strategies that increase
truthfulness include developing rapport, asking about events in reverse order, maintaining eye
contact with the suspect, and including questions that are irrelevant to the case at hand (Lowth,
2017). These social strategies, such as rapport building, prompt earlier disclosures of information
from suspects. Also, interviews conducted in a comfortable setting are associated with increased
regards to the practitioners or accusers resulted in confessions and admitting of fault (four times
as likely compared to when this did not happen) (Goodman, et al., 2014). Thus, using more
effective forms of information seeking procedures, which result in accurate accounts, should be
used instead of coercive, torturous methods, which result in invalid responses, laced with lies.
Secondly, torture should never be used, because it is unethical across many fronts.
According to a statement made by the American Psychological Association (APA), any form of
torture, at any place, time, and for any reason is unethical for psychologists and goes against
being a member of the APA. The APA went on to argue that there is no defense to torture. No
exceptional circumstances whatsoever defend or justify the use of torture, whether it be war,
threat of war, political instability, public emergency, organizational demand, etc. (APA, 2009).
Specifically, torture goes against the ethical principles and code of conduct that psychologists
6
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE
must abide by. If psychologists ignore their responsibility to the code of ethics, their job/title
could be at stake. For example, Principle A explains that psychologists must take care to do no
harm to others in their work, Principle B states that psychologists need to establish relationships
built on trust with those they work with, and Principle E says that psychologists must respect the
dignity and worth of all people no matter what. The ethical standards included in the code of
Many different health professionals including psychologists are directed not only under
the code of ethics but under international and inter-professional codes and organizational
international/national treaties, conventions, and laws that prohibit the use of torture, including
US law and resolutions such as the bill of rights and the constitution. Overall, when looking at
the US specifically, the acceptance and (or) use of torture undermines the credibility of the US
when trying to advocate for human rights and the humane treatment of people abroad (this
includes the military and law enforcement) (Costanzo, et al., 2007). In regards to physicians,
specific prohibitions are in place that deter them from being involved in torture situations. In
1975, the World Medical Association (WMA) adopted the Declaration of Tokyo, which forbids
physicians from participating in torture: “The doctor shall not countenance, condone or
participate in the practice of torture or other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading procedures,
whatever the offence of which the victim of such procedure is suspected, accused or guilty, and
whatever the victim's belief or motives, and in all situations, including armed conflict and civil
strife…” (Murphy & Johnson, 2004, p.421). Along with other statements and positions that have
been made by the WMA, the association recommends that national medical associations make
sure that physicians entering their country answer allegations of torture before they are able to
7
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE
practice medicine. This also encourages associations to report any evidence of involvement in
torture to the authorities (Murphy & Johnson, 2004). What all of these procedures are doing,
whether directed toward psychologists or physicians, is claiming that since torture is unethical,
things need to be put into place in order for health care workers to follow/understand.
the notion that torture is unethical. Psychological impacts include Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD) (it is somewhat hard to apply the Western based diagnostic material to people of other
cultures/countries, but PTSD is mostly an adequate description of the effects of torture, still all
survivors will not fit the exact diagnosis and it only captures a limited number of aspects
concerning mental problems of survivors—“complex trauma” has been proposed as a term to use
instead), elevated rates of depression, anxiety, adjustment problems (outbreaks of anger and
violence directed toward family members), uncertainty about the future—whether or not they
will be sent back to the country in which they were tortured, sleep disorders, nightmares, trouble
with memory and concentration, as well as personality changes (De C Williams & Van Der
Merwe, 2013; Hardi & Kroo, 2011). Survivors also report social and physical negative impacts,
such as a deep distrust in others and being less physically healthy compared to other individuals
in their community who have not been tortured (De C Williams & Van Der Merwe, 2013; Kira et
al., 2006). Along with these negative outcomes, risk factors are present that predict higher levels
of distress for individuals who have been tortured. Risk factors include social isolation, poverty,
unemployment, institutional accommodation, pain, and the lack of a close social support (De C
Williams & Van Der Merwe, 2013). When looking at the effects of torture on the torturer, one
impact is common with survivors, being PTSD. The torturers also experience symptoms of
burnout with continued exposure to administering torture (Dee, 2017). In looking at all of the
8
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE
negative outcomes of torture for the survivor, one can see why this practice is so unethical. These
very effects could also factor into why torture is ineffective in gaining accurate information. If
symptoms start setting in while the suspect is still in “custody”, this could only make the
information they release that much less accurate, which is why other forms of noncoercive
Those who oppose the view that torture is ineffective and unethical would claim that
torture is justified due to their group sometimes using the practice. People are psychologically
motivated to believe that their group is good and just, so by having knowledge that their own
group uses torture, they will be more inclined to see it as okay. Torture, in the opposing sides
view, is justified through group use. Results of a study including participants from Britain and
the US confirm this—participants who learned that their own country used torture compared
with when a member of the other country used torture, viewed torture as being morally justified.
People on the opposing side, claiming that torture is okay because one’s own nation/group uses
it, would also present a lack of empathy and pronounced blame for the victim tortured by their
However, the claim that torture is justified through one’s group using it is based on bias
towards that individual’s in-group. Individuals tend to favor their group (in-group) over the other
group (out-group). Cognitive dissonance theory can also be used in order to explain why people
come to think this way about torture. When an individual becomes aware that there are
discomfort. The automatic response is to get rid of the discomfort, which explains why people
change their beliefs about torture and the suspect as they get closer in proximity to the torture
taking place. A study found that “people’s perceptions of guilt are connected with their degree of
9
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE
closeness to the suspect being tortured. In particular, when participants were placed in the role of
the prison staffer (close to the torture), they were more likely to assume the suspect being
tortured was guilty compared with when they were assigned to the role of radio listener (more
distant from the torture)” (Houck & Repke, 2017, p.279). In other words, people were justifying
the use of torture/accepting the suspect as guilty, in order to relieve unpleasant feelings about
what was going on, which arise from cognitive inconsistencies. If someone knows that their own
nation uses torture on suspects, this may cause discomfort to arise due to inconsistencies, causing
them to change their beliefs so that they are in line with what their group is doing and so that
Another claim that those who oppose the view that torture should never be used because
it is ineffective and unethical might say that extreme coercion= ultimate compliancy. Using harsh
techniques, in their view, are a must because “soft” techniques are inappropriate and take too
much time. They claim that extreme coercion makes suspects confess, and that the long history
of torture has shown that it terrorizes populations, producing desired information/behavior. Since
“evil others” are being dealt with, relationship building techniques as opposed to torture are not
okay—the suspect should be tortured. The ticking time bomb scenario is used as well to explain
the pressures of time, in that the scenario involves an imminent catastrophe and the need for
obtaining information now in order to prevent the catastrophe. This is why torture works in the
opposing eyes—since time is limited, and establishing rapport with detainees is time consuming
However, none of these points made by the opposing side are accurate. Torture only
produces desired behavioral effects—the detainee will do what the torturer says in order to avoid
point or aim of interrogation is to produce reliable, accurate accounts, but it does the complete
and lies, whereas techniques of rapport are successful in gaining information. In regards to the
ticking time bomb scenario that is often used to justify torture, this framework is nonexistent
outside of TV and movie realms. If the ticking time bomb scenario was representative of reality,
the use of torture and its inaccurateness would prevent success, causing the catastrophe to occur.
Lastly, human bias in judging cause and effect is behind the notion of harsh punishments for
harsh enemies. The more destructive the enemy is, the more likely the goal of interrogation is
revenge and punishment. Therefore, control seems to be the main focus of torture techniques,
Despite the opposing side’s effort in trying to explain the usefulness of torture, research
overrules the counterarguments. Torture is ineffective: research shows that torture is not a good
technique for gaining accurate/reliable information from detainees or suspects, the pain of torture
effects memory in a negative way, and providing misinformation in order to stop the torture is
common place as well as easy to do. Torture is also unethical based on ethical codes of conduct,
statements, declarations, conventions, etc. The psychological and physical pain on both the
detainee (especially) and the torturer attests to its unethicalness. The arguments used in favor of
torture are based on biased beliefs in regards to the effectiveness of the torture method. Research
suggests that rapport and relationship building techniques are effective (the counter resulting
from a human bias in judgement) and that the ticking time bomb scenario is faulty. Because of
the facts supporting the ineffectiveness and unethical qualities of torture, it should not be used
APA (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. APA, 57(12), 1060-1073.
https://www.apa.org/ethics/programs/statement/torture-code.aspx.
Bell, J. (2008). Behind this mortal bone": The (in)effectiveness of torture," Indiana Law Journal,
83(1). http://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ilj/vol83/iss1/8.
Costanzo, M., Gerrity, E., & Lykes, M. B. (2007). Psychologists and the use of torture in
De C Williams, A. C., & Van Der Merwe, J. (2013). The psychological impact of torture. British
https://www.law.utah.edu/effect-of-torture-on-the-torturer/.
Goodman, D. J., Martschuk, N., & Dhami, M. K. (2014). Interviewing High Value Detainees:
https://doi-org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1002/acp.3087.
Hárdi, L., & Kroó, A. (2011). The trauma of torture and the rehabilitation of torture
http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1027/2151-2604/a000060.
14
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE
Houck, S. C., & Repke, M. A. (2017). When and why we torture: A review of psychology
http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/tps0000120.
interrogation. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 13(4), 429-435. doi:
http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1080/10781910701665766.
Kira, I. A., Templin, T., Lewandowski, L., Clifford, D., Wiencek, P., Hammad, A., & Al-haidar,
A. (2006). The effects of torture: Two community studies. Peace and Conflict: Journal of
doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1207/s15327949pac1203_1.
news/2014/dec/09/cia-torture-methods-waterboarding-sleep-deprivation.
Lowth, M. (2017). Does torture work? Donald Trump and the CIA. The British Journal of
Murphy, T. F. & Johnson, P. J. (2004). Torture and human rights: Participation in acts of torture,
0409.
15
AGAINST USE OF TORTURE