Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
1
THIS EBOOK WAS PREPARED
AS A PART OF THE COMENIUS PROJECT
WHY MATHS?
by the students and the teachers from:
BERKENBOOM HUMANIORA BOVENBOUW, IN SINT-NIKLAAS ( BELGIUM)
This project has been funded with support from the European Commission.
This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the
Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
2
I. THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE IN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
II. GEOMETRY AND GOTHIC (WINDOWS)
III. TILING AND TESSELLATIONS
IV. GAUDI’S ARCHITECTURE AND MATHS
V. GEODESIC DOME
VI. PRESPECTIVE
VII. GEOMETRY AND ART FROM THE CORDOVAN
PROPORTION
VIII. MATHS IN NEWGRANGE
IX . CELTIC KNOTS AND THE BOOK OF KELLS
3
Mathematics and art have a long historical relationship. We know that line, shape, form,
pattern, symmetry, scale, and proportion are the building blocks of both art and Maths.
Geometry offers the most obvious connection between the two disciplines. Both art and
Mathematics involve drawing and the use of shapes and forms, as well as an understanding
of spatial concepts, two and three dimensions, measurement, estimation, and pattern.
The parallels between geometry and art can be seen in many works of art.
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765, 10946,
17711, 28657, 46368, 75025, 121393, 196418, 317811, 514229, 832040, ….
This famous sequence of numbers is present in a variety of fields: in art, in nature, botany,
zoology, but especially in relation to the golden ratio phi and the golden spiral. Made its
appearance in the "Liber Abaci", but centuries earlier had already been considered by the
Indian mathematician Virahanka and described in 1133 by the scholar Gopal, as a solution
to a problem of metrics related to poetry.
Fibonacci developed his sequence to solve the following problem concerning the breeding
of rabbits:
"A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many
pairs of rabbits can be produced from the initial torque in a year assuming that in a month
each pair produces a new pair can reproduce itself in the second month? "
c) never dies.
At this point analyzing the diagram below we can see how the numbers of pairs in each
month go to form the Fibonacci sequence:
Pattern inherent to the problem of rabbits in orange are represented mature couples,
young ones in blue.
Taking the cue from the previous issue of the rabbits, and extending, the Fibonacci
sequence can be defined as follows:
Calling F (n) the Fibonacci sequence, we have the following mathematical definition:
F(1) = 1
F(2) = 1
F(n) = F(n-2)+F(n-1) per n = 3, 4, 5, ...
Note that the function F (n) is recursive, that is defined in terms of the function itself.
5
3. The particularities of the sequence
3.1 The square of a Fibonacci number less than the square of the second number is always
a previous number of the sequence
3.2 The greatest common divisor of two Fibonacci numbers is still a Fibonacci number
3.4 Adding an odd number of products of successive numbers in the sequence, the three
products as 1x1, 1x2, 2x3, you get the last square Fibonacci number present in the products
in question. Indeed (1x1) + (1x2) + (2x3) = 2 + 1 + 6 = 9, is the square of the last number
that appears in the previous product (in this case 3). Similarly, we can analyze the series of
seven products: (1x1) + (1x2) + (2x3) + (3x5) + (5x8) + (8x13) + (13x21) = 1 + 2 + 6 + 15 +
40 + 273 +104 = 441 which is just the square of the last number that appears in the
product. This property can be represented geometrically as shown by the figure:
An odd number of rectangles with sides equal to a number of terms of the Fibonacci
sequence are exactly placed in a square the side of which coincides with a side of the larger
rectangle.
3.5 The sequence is also connected with the triangle Tartaglia which is a geometric
arrangement in the shape of a triangle of binomial coefficients, is the coefficients of the
expansion of the binomial (a + b) raised to any power n.
6
From this triangle can be drawn Fibonacci numbers,
adding the numbers of the diagonals as shown in the
figure: so we get from the first line 1, from the second
still 1, then 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...,
With the golden section indicates, usually, in art and mathematics the relationship
between two unequal magnitudes of which the largest is the mean proportional between
the child and their sum:
This ratio is approximately 1.618. Apparently an irrational number like everyone else, but
its mathematics and geometry and the abundant presence in various natural settings have
made a canon of harmony and beauty that has always attracted artists and intellectuals of
all time.
a b
It is thought that the first to run into this relationship (1.618), also referred to by the Greek
letter φ (phi), was Hippasus from Metaponto, one of the members of the Pythagorean
school, that around the fifth century BC discovered the existence of this number that
belonged neither the integers nor to those that can be expressed as a ratio of integers
(fractions, rational numbers). This news was a real shock to the followers of Pythagoras, so
that the discovery that there are numbers that, as the golden ratio, extending indefinitely
without any repetition or pattern caused a real philosophical crisis. He welcomed this
discovery with great anguish, so much to consider, probably, as an imperfection cosmic
secret to keep as much as possible.
7
The golden section is closely related to the Fibonacci sequence in fact, the relationship
between a term and its previous closer and closer to 1.618.
AB:AP=AP:BP=1.618
PB:AP=AP:AB=0.618
There are various figures that can be built with the golden section (rectangles, triangles,
pentagons ...); among these the most important is surely one of the golden rectangle,
a rectangle constructed with the particular parameters of the Fibonacci sequence.
8
DEMONSTRATION: If ABCD is a golden rectangle, then by definition we have:
AD: DC = DC (AD-DC)
If we divide the rectangle in order to obtain a square then you have: ED = DC from which
we get:
AD: ED = ED: AE
(AD-ED):ED=(ED-AE):AE
AE: EF = (EF-AE): AE
where AE is the golden section EF AEFB then the new rectangle is a golden rectangle.
9
5.2 Fibonacci spiral and golden spiral
What , however , have in common is the fact both spirals of screwing asymptotically
towards the intersection between the diagonals that can be obtained within the golden
rectangles ; a meeting that was called by Clifford Pickover the eye of God, just for the fact
that everything seems to focus around this point , from the spirals to the diagonals and the
sequence of squares. Interestingly , then, as not only the diagonals real intertwine in this
particular point of the golden rectangle , but also other more straight line connecting major
points of this swirling centralization.
10
6. The Fibonacci sequence and the Golden Section around us
Both the geometric and mathematical properties of this relationship, the frequent
repetition of the proportion in various natural settings, seemingly unrelated to each other,
have impressed the centuries the mind of man, who arrived in time to overtake an ideal of
beauty and harmony , going to look for it and, in some cases, to re-create the environment
as a canon of beauty; testimony is perhaps the story of the name in more recent times has
assumed the titles of "gold" (the golden section) or "divine" (divine proportion), just to
demonstrate the fascination.
11
The Parthenon contains many golden
rectangles. The result is a harmonious
aspect, which inspires a deep sense of
balance. The projection shows how it has
been built on
a golden rectangle, so that the width and
height are in the ratio: F: 1 (the F is such
in honor of Phidias, architect of the
Parthenon).
The plan of the Parthenon in Athens is
a rectangle with sides of size such that the length is equal to the root of 5 times the
width, while the architrave in front the golden rectangle is repeated several times.
His plan shows that the Parthenon was built on a rectangle 'square
root of 5', is that the length of the root
is 5 times the width.
12
Link to this interactive poster: LINK prepared by Polish students.
13
II. GEOMETRY AND GOTHIC (WINDOWS)
Mathematics, in particular geometry, always played a major
role in architecture. In early civilizations the tombs of leaders
had shapes derived from a prism with a square base or
halfsphere.
c) Equilateral (1.0)
14
The recognizable feature of Gothic is the stonework tracery that decorates vaulting,
rose windows, arcaded cloisters, to simple windows and doorways. Many of the
shapes grow from an interesting variety of other shapes - including triangles,
pentagons, hexagons, circles, or circles within circles.
Window tracery is the very particular type of window decoration found in any
building of Gothic style. Gothic architecture, and especially window tracery, exhibits
quite complex geometric shape configurations. But this complexity is achieved by
combining only a few basic geometric patterns, namely circles and straight lines,
using a limited set of operations, such as intersection, offsetting, and
extrusions.
In the presentation and in the film you can see how these
objects can be created using pure Euclidean geometric
constructions with a straightedge and compass.
Proposition 11.
15
Proposition 12.
1. Set out an equilateral triangle. Measure half the length between A-C to find
point D. Now measure half the length of line B-C to find point F. Draw a line
from points B-D and A-F, to find center, O.
2. From center O, extend your compass to point A. Swing around and return to
point A to complete the outer circle. Extend lines B-D and A-F.
4. Now use centers A, B and C to form the three arcs. Extend your compass from
O-S to complete the outer circle.
16
The outer, triangular 'piercing' that surrounds the arcs is accomplished by using
center O and one center of each of the three 'eyes'; for example: A, C and F as shown
in the left piercing, above.
17
Trefoil - a three-lobed circle or arch formed by cusping. It was used in windows and
arches.
A stylized shamrock, symbol of perpetuity, with the three leaves representing the
past, present and future. It is also sometimes a symbol of fertility and abundance.
18
Quatrefoil - a four-lobed circle or arch formed by cusping.
Quatrefoils are not the same as shamrocks, though they do have four leaves; the
leaves of a quatrefoil are more circular and they appear without the stem of a trefoil,
except for very rarely.
19
A circle is drawn within the square, the square is divided crossover in four sections.
Half the radius of the inner circle is used as measure for each of the smaller four
circles with overlapping areas.
20
21
Cinquefoil - a five-lobed circle or arch formed by
cusping.
22
Sixfoil - a six-lobed circle or arch formed by cusping .
23
24
The Reuleaux triangle is a constant width curve based on an equilateral triangle.
All points on a side are equidistant from the opposite vertex.
25
26
27
Tracery is usually the stonework elements that support the glass in a Gothic window
but it may also appear simply as a design element on other surfaces, in which case it
is called blind.
We can find a lot of tracery painted decorations in many buidings in Toruń – the
capital of our province.
28
Here you can find the film with the constructions of the elements of gothic windows
in GeoGebra: LINK
29
III. TILING AND TESSELLATIONS
Over 2,200 years ago, ancient Greeks were decorating their homes with tessellations,
making elaborate mosaics from tiny, square tiles. Early Persian and Islamic artists
also created spectacular tessellating designs. More recently, the Dutch artist M. C.
Escher used tessellation to create enchanting patterns of interlocking creatures, such
as birds and fish.
A tessellation is a tiled pattern created by repeating a shape over and over again, with
no overlaps or gaps.
These patterns can be found in a variety of settings, and once we start looking
for tessellations, we start seeing them everywhere, including in nature.
30
When tiling it is important that the shape of the tile when repeated should cover the
whole surface or plane without any gaps or overlaps. A repeating pattern is then
formed and in mathematics we call a tiling like this a tessellation.
Equilateral triangles
Squares
Hexagons
Here is a table with the internal angles for regular polygons starting with an
equilateral triangle.
square 90°
pentagon 108°
hexagon 120°
heptagon 102.6°
octagon 135°
For shapes to fill the plane without gaps or overlaps, their angles, when arranged
around a point, must have measures that add up to exactly 360°. If the sum is less
than 360°, there will be a gap. If the sum is greater, the shapes will overlap.
31
A tessellation of equilateral triangles.
A tessellation of squares.
What about regular pentagons? Each angle in a regular pentagon measures 108°, and
360° is not divisible by 108°.
32
What about regular heptagons?
So the only regular polygons that create monohedral tessellations are equilateral
triangles, squares, and regular hexagons. A monohedral tessellation of congruent
regular polygons is called a regular tessellation.
Equilateral triangles
Squares
Hexagons
You may have seen the octagon-square combination. In this tessellation, two regular
octagons and a square meet at each vertex.
33
An Archimedean tessellation (also known as a semi-regular tessellation) is a
tessellation made from more that one type of regular polygon so that the same
polygons surround each vertex. There are only 8 semi-regular tessellations.
3.3.3.3.6
3.3.3.4.4
3.3.4.3.4
3.4.6.4
3.6.3.6
3.12.12
4.6.12
4.8.8
34
Tiling 3.3.4.3.4 Tiling 3.4.6.4
A 2-uniform tessellation:
3.4.3.12 / 3.12.12
35
All triangles tessellate.
All interior angles of all triangles, whether equilateral, isosceles or scalene, will add
up to 180°. Therefore we can fill the space around a vertex, if we use two of each of
the angles of the triangle.
Let’s begin with an arbitrary quadrilateral ABCD. Rotate by 180° about the midpoint
of one of its sides, and then repeat using the midpoints of other sides to build up a
tessellation.
The angles around each vertex are exactly the four angles of the original
quadrilateral. Since the angle sum of the quadrilateral is 360°, the angles close up,
the pattern has no gaps or overlaps, and the quadrilateral tessellates.
Irregular Tessellations
36
Rotation: a circular movement about a centre of rotation;
37
The most familiar type of symmetry is reflective
symmetry. Reflections occur across a line called
an axis. The distance of a point from this axis
must be the same in the reflection.
The last type of symmetry is glide reflection. A glide reflection is a reflection and a
translation combined together. It does not matter which of the transformations
happens first.
38
PRACTICAL USES
Historically, tessellation was used in Ancient Rome and in Islamic art: the decorative
tiling of the Alhambra palace (Granada) are beautiful examples of this.
39
Escher
40
In Escher's works, we can often find the parent polygon, which has been altered, and
a piece or two of the original polygon flipped, glided or rotated to produce an
irregular tessellation.
He was fascinated by the rich possibilities latent in the rhythmic division of a plane
surface found in Moorish tessellations. He and his wife studied these artworks deeply
and Escher finally came up with a complete practical system that he applied in his
later artworks of metamorphosis and cycle prints.
Impossible constructions
41
“Drawing Hands” is very famous too: he
uses contrast and shading to create the
illusion of texture and dimension in a two-
dimensional work.
Hyperbolic Geometry
Here you have a nice video describing how you can build an Escher's Pegasus:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NYGIhZ_HWfg
Here you can find an interactive poster about Escher prepared by Polish students:
LINK
42
During the Art lesson Polish students have created the Escher-style tessellation using
an equilateral triangle with rotations and squares/quadrilaterals with translations.
They have created our own tessellation by first making a shape tracer that can be
repeated over and over and over again. Here we can see some examples.
43
The Italians students have made some tilings during our Maths lessons, applying
symmetry, translations and rotations.
We used some tutorials to make tessellations with Geogebra. You can find them here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eb36i-FU3NM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NAKzOwQIIfk
44
Spanish students prepared the presentation about the mosaics in Alhambra.- here is
the LINK.
Polish students prepared the interactive poster about Alhambra - here is the LINK.
In the Islamic world, geometric shapes are symbols for the infinite and God (Allah):
this takes to a form spirituality without using the figurative iconography that other
religions often use: to Muslims, this infinite pattern of forms, taken together, extends
beyond the visible material world and takes to the infinite.
The individual has a direct line to God and the worship of idolatrous images is
therefore both delusive and useless: so representations that do not seek to create an
illusion of reality, are acceptable if kept away from any place of prayer.
45
ORIGAMI TESSELLATIONS
Origami tessellations are geometric designs folded from a single sheet of paper,
creating a repeating pattern of shapes from folded pleats and twists.
Three very basic tessellation patterns, called "regular tessellations„ are used heavily
in origami tessellation designs.
The three tiling patterns are formed with single, repeating shapes: equilateral
triangles, squares, and hexagons.
Here you can see some examples of the origami tessellations prepared by Polish
students.
46
47
IV. GAUDI’S ARCHITECTURE AND MATHS
Casa Vicens
Casa Batllo
From the outside the façade of Casa Batlló looks like it has been made from skulls and
bones. The "Skulls" are in fact balconies and the "bones" are supporting pillars.
48
Casa Milà
49
Park Güell
50
Crypt of the Colonia Guell church
Casa Batllo
51
The outside looks skeletal and the inside was designed to look like a forest. Pillars are
meant to be tree trunks and the ceiling like leaves that allows light to shine through
from the stained glass windows.
http://metalocus.es
The nave in the Sagrada Familia with a hyperboloid vault. Inspiration from nature is
taken from a tree, as the pillar and branches symbolise trees rising up to the roof.
52
HYPERBOLOID
x2 y2 z2 x2 y2 z2
1 1
a 2 b2 c 2 a 2 b2 c 2
53
Paraboloid
z x2 y2 z y2 x2
c a 2 b2 c b2 a 2
Gaudi said that tree trunks, were the best example of natural structure thus he
explored tree trunks’ properties really much. His interest on natural geometrical form
was original, as he said, because he was a Mediterranean - born who lived close to sun
and nature. He had a clear image of nature’s hidden treasure of geometrical structure
and concrete tectonic skills. Example of this concrete natural image, was in his
masterpiece.
54
V. GEODESIC DOME
Geodesic structures can now be found everywhere. They are present in the structure
of viruses and the eyeballs of some vertebrae. The soccer ball is the same geodesic
form as the 60-atom carbon molecule C60, named buckminsterfullerene in 1985 by
scientists who had seen Bucky’s 250-foot diameter geodesic dome at the 1967
Montreal Expo. This dome was the largest of its time and still stands today.
55
Buckminster’s dome designs have been proved to be the strongest structures ever
made. They are the only man made structures that get proportionally lighter and
stronger as its size increases, so basically the bigger they are the stronger.
They are commonly used to cover weather stations and research locations in areas
where harsh weather conditions exist. They have been proven to withstand hurricane
force winds and pounding snow. They are also used to build sport domes because
they do not need any interior bearing points or walls, and leave a completely open
structure.
56
They can also be seen in amusement parks and playgrounds.
57
VI. PERSPECTIVE
www.mathworld.wolfram.com/Perspective.html
Here you can find the presentations prepared by Belgian students about perspective:
LINK
58
VII. GEOMETRY AND ART FROM THE CORDOVAN PROPORTION
The “cordovan proportion” was discovered by Rafael de la Hoz (he was born on
October 9, 1926, Cordoba, and he died on 13th of June, 2000, Madrid). He studied in
the technical college of architecture in Madrid. He carried through study of the
“cordovan proportion” and he used it in his buildings. This proportion is present in
buildings and monuments of Cordoba putting rectangles in such a way that they look
like they were put randomly. In 1951 the students were asked to draw an ideal
rectangle. They thought the students would draw a golden rectangle and they did the
same test with people living in Cordoba and they had got the same result: the most
drew a rectangle with the “cordovan proportion”.
59
The mentioned architect Rafael de la Hoz Arderius found this rectangle in the plan
and the elevation of the Mosque of Cordova.
The cordovan proportion is represented by the cordovan the polygon related to his
type of architecture is the octagon. Octagon that the cordovan rectangle comes from
appears in Mezquita in the Mihrab.
60
The cordovan proportion appears in the plan of the n “Mezquita of Cordoba” in the
Alhaken II’s door. It is present in other such as: Convent of the “Capuchinos”. The
Mosque’s architecture, is based on the composition with cordovan rectangles.
Here you can find the LINK to the presentation prepared by Spanish students.
61
VIII. MATHS IN NEWGRANGE
Newgrange is the best known Irish passage tomb and dates to c.3, 200BC. The large
mound is approximately 80m in diameter and is surrounded at its base by a kerb of
97 stones. The most impressive of these stones is the highly decorated Entrance
Stone.
Here you can see a prezi showing how the New Grange monument in Co Meath,
Ireland was designed LINK
62
IX. CELTIC KNOTS AND THE BOOK OF KELLS
Here you can see the presentation prepared about the Book of Kells by Irish students:
LINK
63
64