Fracture Mechanics

• It was shown that the theoretical cohesive stress is much

greater than the observed fracture stress for metals
• This lead to the idea of defects or cracks which locally raise the • Orowan;
stress to the level of the theoretical cohesive stress.
1/ 2 1/ 2
• The first successful theoretical approach for brittle fracture was  2 E (γ s + γ p   Eγ p 
introduced by Griffith. σ f =   ≈   2.2 − 1
 πa   a 
• Griffith’s equation shows a strong dependence of fracture
strength on crack length. where, E is Young’s modulus and γp is the plastic work required
• It is well established that even metals which fail in a completely to extend the crack wall for a crack of length 2a.
brittle manner have undergone some plastic deformation prior (note: The surface energy term can be neglected since
to fracture. estimates of the plastic work term are about 102 to 103 J/m2
• Therefore Griffith’s theory was modified by Orowan to allow for compared with values of γs of about 1 to 2 J/m2.
the degree of plasticity always present in the brittle fracture of
metals by the inclusion of a term γp which referred to plastic
work required to extend the crack wall.

MODE OF FRACTURE

• There are three modes of fracture: Mode I, II and III.

• Eq 2.2-1 was modified by Irwin to replace the hard to measure γp
• Mode I.
with a term that was directly measurable. Also known as the opening mode, which refers to the applied
σf = {(E )/ (πa) }1/2 tensile loading. The most common fracture mode and used
in the fracture toughness testing. And a critical value of
stress intensity determined for this mode would be
corresponds to a critical value of crack-extension force and designated as KIC.
represent 2γp.
• Mode II.
Also known as the shear mode, which refers to the applied
- The critical value of makes the crack propagate to fracture is shear stress in the in-plane direction. The shear stress
applied normal to the leading edge of the crack but in the
called the toughness of the material.
plane of the crack.

• Mode III.
Also known as the tearing mode, which refers to the
applied shear stress out of plane. Applied shear stress is
parallel to the leading edge of the crack.
2
LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS (LEFM) LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE
MECHANICS (LEFM)

Fracture mechanics is the discipline that allows one to assess the

the importance
of cracks in components, irrespective of the mechanism by which the cracks
Fracture The crack tip stresses can be
grow. expressed as:
σyy

LEFM analysis is based on an analytical procedure that relates the stress-
stress-field σ ij = KI
2πr
f ij (θ ) τxy
magnitude and distribution in the vicinity of a crack tip to the nominal stress σxx
applied of the structural component, to the size,
size, shape and orientation of the
crack and to material properties.
properties.
Where σij are the stresses acting on a τyx
material element dxdy at a distance r
from the crack tip and at an angle θ from

The fundamental principle of fracture mechanics is that the stress
stress field ahead the crack plane, and fij (θ) are known
of a sharp crack in a structural member can be characterized in terms of a functions of θ. KI is the stress intensity
simple parameter K, the stress intensity factor (was developed by Irwin in the factor.
1950’ s). This parameter, K, is related to both the nominal stress level (σ) and
1950’s).
the size of the crack present (a). Stresses at a point ahead of the crack tip

Then the crack tip stresses in X and Y directions are:

LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS (LEFM)

σx = KI
2 πx

From the stress field solution it appears that the stresses on a material
element as shown in Figure can be described by:
σy = KI
2 πx
σx = KI
2 πr
cos θ2 (1 − sin θ2 sin 32θ )

The crack tip stress must be proportional to the applied stress σ.
σy = KI
2 πr
cos θ2 (1 + sin θ2 sin 32θ ) σy ∝ σ
2 πx
σZ = 0

The crack tip stresses will also depend upon crack size. The stresses will be
τ xy = KI
2 πr
cos θ2 sin θ2 cos 32θ higher when "a" is longer. Hence the crack size “a” must appear in the
numerator in equation
For an orientation directly ahead of the crack, θ = 0, then τxy = 0 and x = r.
σ y ∝ σ2πax

The crack tip stress must be proportional to the applied stress σ.
K depends on the plate dimensions, for example width W

As W decreases, the stress at the crack tip increases
σ y = C σ2πax
For any configuration the crack tip stresses will be:

σy = σ a
2 πx
C ( a / L)

With C = (π)1/2, then

Dividing C/ (π)1/2 and substitute √a with √ πa
σ y = σ 2ππxa βσ πa
C(a/L)/(π)1/2 = β.
σy = 2 πx
= KI
2 πx

Comparing the above equation with
σx = KI
2 πx
The stress intensity factor is always:
KI = βσ πa

We get: σy = KI
2 πx
K = σ πa
(note: β is a dimensionless parameter or function that depends on both crack
and specimen sizes and geometries, as well as the manner or load application
and also can be written as Υ or α).

For an infinite plate, β = 1 DESIGN USING FRACTURE MECHANIC (TOUGHNESS)

(for planar specimens containing cracks that are
much shorter than the specimen width)

A property that is a measure of a material’
material’s resistance to brittle
fracture when a crack is present.
e.g. for a plate of infinite width having a through-
through-
thickness crack.
From an engineering point of view, the stress intensity factor KI can be used
as stress to predict the critical condition at fracture
K I = βσ πa = σ πa

semi-infinite plate, β = 1.12 and
For a semi-
Fracture occurs when:
(for a plate of semi-
semi-infinite containing an edge ( K IC )
crack of length a) K I = K IC = σ πa σ fr = Toughness
πa
K I = 112
. σ πa
Fracture stress
Fracture Toughness: Material property

For a circular (penny-
(penny-shaped) crack with
(α), β = 2/ π and
radius (α which can be measured experimentally

2
KI = σ πa
π
 WHEN DOES A CRACK
PROPAGATE? GEOMETRY, LOAD, & MATERIAL
σ • Condition for crack propagation:
• ρt at a crack
tip is very
small! K ≥ Kc

Stress Intensity Factor: Fracture Toughness:

--Depends on load & --Depends on the material,
geometry. temperature, environment, &
rate of loading.
• Values of K for some standard loads & geometries:
crack tip σ
• Result:
σ tip σ tip =
K σ
stress is very large. 2π x
units of K :
• Crack propagates when:
increasing K
the tip stress is large MPa m
2a
2a a
enough to make: or ksi in
Adapted from Fig. 8.8,
K ≥ Kc distance, x, Callister 6e.
from crack tip

K = σ πa K = 1.1σ πa
9 10

Relation between fracture toughness and allowable stress

and crack size
 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS DESIGN AGAINST CRACK
Kmetals
c GROWTH

increasing
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers comp • Crack growth condition:
Alloys fibers K ≥ Kc
Semicond Kc
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70
60
Steels cer poly
Kc ≈ K c Yσ πa
Ti alloys
50 • Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
--Result 1: Max flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
KIc(MPa · m0.5)

Callister 6e.
20
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
Composite reinforcement geometry
is: f = fibers; sf = short fibers; w =
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Y 2O 3/ZrO2(p)4
1
whiskers; p = particles. Addition
10 C/C( fibers)1 data as noted (vol. fraction of Kc Kc
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 reinforcement): σdesign < a max <  
π  Yσdesign 
Si nitr/SiC(w)5
Y πa max
7 Diamond 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM
Al oxid/ZrO2(p)4 Int., Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6
5 PET 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
Al oxide Waltham, MA. amax
4
3
Si nitride
PP 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum σ
PVC Press (1986). pp. 61-73.
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
2 PC 5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development
of Ceramic Matrix Composites for fracture fracture
Application in Technology for Advanced
Engines Program", ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, no no
amax σ
ORNL, 1992.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass6 6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. fracture fracture
<111> Sci. Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
0.7 Glass-soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete 11 12
0.5

DESIGN EX: AIRCRAFT WING

Loading Rate
• Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Increased loading rate...
• Two designs to consider... • Why? An increased rate
-- increases σy and TS gives less time for
Design A Design B -- decreases %EL
--use same material
dislocations to move past
--largest flaw is 9 mm
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm obstacles.
Kc --failure stress = ? σ
• Use... σc = TS ε
Y πa max σy larger

• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.

ε
--Result: TS
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm smaller

(σc a max )A = (σc a max )B σy

Answer: (σc )B = 168 MPa ε
• Reducing flaw size pays off!
13
 MEASUREMENT OF
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

MEASUREMENT OF FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

Fracture toughness is a material property which characterise the crack
KIC is usually measured
resistance and the value of KIC can be found by testing of the same under plane strain
material with different geometries and with combinations of crack
crack size conditions, and the
and fracture stress. minimum thickness, B of
the test specimen to
achieve plane strain is:

Knowledge of KIC under standard conditions can be used to predict
failure
B ≥ 2 ⋅ 5( Kσ ICys ) 2
Effect of specimen thickness on KIC
σys is the 0.2 % offset yield
strength

FRACTURE MECHANICS
SPECIMENS
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS:
Specimen Configurations

Several types of specimens

are permitted in ASTM
standards
Double Cantilevered Beam Charpy
Compact tension (CT)
specimens and single edge
notched bend (SENB) are CT specimen
the most common.

CT after fracture

Wedge Open Load Compact Tension

All images adapted from

www.alspi.com
KIC Testing

First, cyclic loading (Fatigue) is
applied to introduce a crack. • Type I
When this crack is at the desired
Load-displacement curve represents the
length the cycling is stopped and
behavior for a wide variety of ductile
the load is raised until fracture
metals. The crack propagates by tearing
occurs.
mode with increasing load.

The stress intensity at fracture
can then be calculated; (i. e: KIC). Type II
Load displacement curve has a point where there is a sharp drop in load
KQ = P5
BW 1 / 2
f (Wa ) (Candidate value)
followed by a recovery load. The load drop arises from sudden unstable, rapid
crack propagation before the crack slows-down to a tearing mode of
propagation.

Check for B>2.5 (KQ/σys)2. If OK,
then KIC = KQ. If not a new test
Type III
must be done on a thicker
Instability. Initial crack movements propagates rapidly to complete failure.
specimen.
Characteristic of a very brittle “elastic material’.
Load and displacement

Impact Testing
Impact testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
• Standard laboratory tensile test could not extrapolated to -- makes material more brittle
predict fracture behavior e.g. under some circumstances -- decreases toughness
ductile metal can fracture abruptly and with very little plastic
deformation.
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
• Type of materials to be tested: which have Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
1. Deformation at a relatively low temperature Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
2. A high strain rate (e.g. rate of deformation) Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

3. A triaxial stress state (which may be introduced by the presence of

a notch.

final height initial height

 Temperature
• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
Charpy-Izod Impact test
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...
one of the primary function : to determine whether or not a material
experiences a ductile-to-brittle transition.

Impact Energy
ductile-to-brittle transition
Is related to the temperature dependence of the measured impact
energy absorption. Brittle More Ductile
• At higher temperatures the charpy v-notch (CVN) is relatively large
(refer to ductile mode of fracture)
Adapted from Fig. 8.15,
• Low temperature: the impact energy drops suddenly over a relatively Callister 7e.
Temperature
narrow temperature range (small energy , brittle fracture)
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

DESIGN STRATEGY:

• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships

• For material that exhibit ductile-brittle behavior should be used only
above this transition temperature , to avoid brittle and catastrophic
failure.
 Example: Titanic and Liberty ship
Vessel material : steel alloy which has adequate ductility at room
temperature tensile test.
accident occurred at ~ 4oC
Each fracture crack originated at some point of stress concentration e.g.
at sharp corner or fabrication defect, then propagated around the entire
girth of the ship Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p.
262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig.
source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of source: Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering
the Titanic.) Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci., Nat. Res. Council,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)

• Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.

16
 Materials which experienced a ductile-to-brittle
transition

• Low strength steel , BCC crystal structure

The transition temperature is sensitive to both alloy composition
and microstructure.
e.g.
 decreasing the average grain size results in a lowering of the
transition temperature (strengthen and toughen the steels)

 Increasing the carbon content: strength increase, raises the CVN

transition temperature

Materials which do not experienced a Temperature

ductile-to-brittle transition • Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Low strength FCC metals (some Al and Cu alloys) and most HCP
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...
metals, and always retain high impact energies or remain ductile
with decreasing temperature.
FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

• High strength materials e.g. high strength steel and titanium alloys.
Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

Impact energy is relatively insensitive to temperature but these polymers
materials are very brittle, reflected by their low impact energy
values. Brittle More Ductile
σ y > E/150)
High strength materials (σ

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister 7e.
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
 TYPES OF FRACTURE Highly ductile Brittle Stages in Cup & Cone fracture

In general, materials can be broadly classified into two groups depending on
their mechanical behaviour.
1. Materials that behave in a ductile manner
2. materials that behave in a brittle (cleavage)
cleavage) manner.

Ductile fracture is high energy fracture and Brittle fracture is low energy fracture and
occurs with large plastic deformation. occurs with no or little plastic deformation.
Characterised by stable crack growth Characterised by unstable crack growth

Rough surface Moderately ductile

Smooth surface

Cup & Cone in Al Brittle in mild steel

MECHANISM OF DUCTILE FRACTURE

The observed stages in ductile fracture are as follows:

1. Formation of voids around an inclusion or second phase particles
2. Growth of the void around the particles
Mixed mode fracture
3. Coalescence of the growing void with adjacent voids.

Brittle

Dimples Brittle (cleavage) fracture

Inclusions
Ductile
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.

• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause premature failure.

• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations and premature failure.

24