Classification of Steels

C-Mn Steels:
Low-carbon steels contain up to 0.30% C.
Medium-carbon steels (up to 0.6%)
High-carbon steels (contain from 0.60 to 1.00% C )
Ultrahigh-carbon steels (1.25 to 2%)

High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels:

High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, or microalloyed steels, are designed to
provide better mechanical properties and/or greater resistance to atmospheric
corrosion than conventional carbon steels in the normal sense because they are
designed to meet specific mechanical properties rather than a chemical
composition.
The HSLA steels have low carbon contents (0.05-0.25% C) in order to produce
adequate formability and weldability, and they have manganese contents up to
2.0%.
Small quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen, vanadium,
niobium, titanium and zirconium are used in various combinations.

Classification
•Control-rolled steels, hot rolled according to a predetermined rolling schedule,
designed to develop a highly deformed austenite structure that will transform to a
very fine equiaxed ferrite structure on cooling.
• Microalloyed steels, with very small additions of such elements as niobium,
vanadium, and/or titanium for refinement of grain size and/or precipitation
hardening.
•Dual-phase steels, processed to a micro-structure of ferrite containing small
uniformly distributed regions of high-carbon martensite, resulting in a product
with low yield strength and a high rate of work hardening, thus providing a high-
strength steel of superior formability.
Low-alloy Steels
Low-alloy steels constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit
mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels as the result of additions of
alloying elements such as nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. Total alloy
content can range from 2 % up to levels just below that of stainless steels, which
contain a minimum of 10% Cr.
As with steels in general, low-alloy steels can be classified according to:
•Chemical composition, such as nickel steels, nickel-chromium steels,
molybdenum steels, chromium-molybdenum steels
Heat treatment, such as quenched and tempered, normalized and tempered,
annealed.
(1) low-carbon quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels
(2) medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels
(3) bearing steels
(4) heat-resistant chromium-molybdenum steels (contain 0.5 to 9% Cr and 0.5
to 1.0% Mo. The carbon content is usually below 0.2%)
 Stainless Steels

Corrosion of carbon steels and low alloy steels is poor in severe

environments.
Stainless steels contain sufficient amount of Cr which forms thin
protective adherent layer of Cr2O3 film.
Used in Food, Chemical, Oil production and Power generation
industries. (Utensils at home are made of stainless steel)
The stainless character occurs when the concentration of
chromium exceeds about 12 wt%. However, even this is not
adequate to resist corrosion in acids such as HCl or H2SO4; higher
chromium concentrations and the judicious use of other solutes
such as molybdenum, nickel and nitrogen is then needed to
ensure a robust material.
Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups:
• Ferritic stainless steels
• Austenitic stainless steels
• Martensitic stainless steels
• Duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
• Precipitation-hardening stainless steels.
Effect of C on gamma loop
 Role of alloying additions

Cr – Ferrite stabilizer
Forms (FeCr)2O3
Corrosion protection in oxidizing environment
~ 11% required to be stainless
Higher concentration required for more aggressive
environments
Strong carbide / nitride former (Cr23C6) / Cr2N
Solid solution strengthening
Tends to form intermetallic compound  at high Cr content
High Cr content promotes brittleness
C, N must be controlled to prevent brittleness
Ni – Austenite stabilizer
Improves corrosion resistance in reducing environment (H2SO4)
Lowers SCC resistance in Cl containing environment
Does not form carbides
Solid solution strengthening
Does not to form intermetallics
Improves toughness of ferrite / austenite
Reduces DBTT

Mn – About 1-2% is present

Usually added to prevent hot shortness (a solidification
cracking due to low melting eutectic)
Austenite stabilizer
Added to increase solubility of N in special steels
Solid solution strengthening
Si – About 0.3 – 0.6% is present in most steels
Added primarily as deoxidizer in steel
Improves corrosion resistance when present 4-5%
Improves fluidity (so added to weld filler metals)
Forms intermetallic silicides (FeSi, Fe2Si etc.)
Causes segregation during solidificaiton

Mo – Improves corrosion resistance particularly pitting / crevice

Added upto 6% or more
In Austenitic steels increases elevated temperature strength
In martenstitic steels added as carbide former
Promotes secondary hardening during tempering
Being ferrite stabilizer amount must be controlled
Carbide forming elements (Ti, Nb, V, W, Ta)

Ti, Nb are added for stabilization of carbon in

austenitic stainless steels
To prevent intergranular corrosion by preventing
formation of Cr carbides
Ta, W provide high temperature strength by
forming fine carbides
Promote ferrite formation by tying up carbon

Precipitation formers
Ti, Al, Mo, Cu can cause precipitation
Intermetallics like Ni3Al, Ni3Ti or pure Cu
C and N

Interstitial solutes and austenite stabilizers

But most of the time content should be < 0.1%
Except in some martensitic grades
Higher carbon leads to formation of Cr carbides
Deterioration of corrosion resistance

N is potent solid solution strengthener

In recent higher N is being added upto 0.3% or so in
austenitic steels

Other elements

S, Se and Pb are added to improve machining

These elements reduce corrosion resistance and also
unweldable
Ferritic stainless steels: typically contain more chromium and/or
less carbon than the martensitic grades.
Ferritic stainless steels cannot be hardened by heat-treatment.
They exhibit lower strength but higher ductility/toughness.
Typical applications may include appliances, automotive and
architectural trim (i.e., decorative purposes), as the cheapest
stainless steels are found in this family (type 409).
Iron-chromium body-centred cubic solutions are such that there is
a tendency under appropriate conditions for like atoms to cluster;
at temperatures below a critical value, the solution tends to
undergo spinodal decomposition into Cr rich and Fe-rich regions.
Austenite that forms at elevated temperature will transform to
martensite during cooling to room temperature. Very slow cooling
or isothermal holding required to avoid martensite
Presence of martensite could cause hydrogen embrittlement

If C content is low, presence of martensite could increase

toughness / ductility

Presence of martensite resulted in loss of corrosion resistance

Interface of martensite / ferrite susceptible to IGC

Embrittlement Phenomena:

1) 475C embrittlement
2) Sigma / Chi phase precipitation
3) High temperature embrittlement
Austenitic stainless steels
Most widely used among all stainless steels.
Low yield strength.
Good corrosion resistance in different environments.
Good low temperature impact properties.
These steels are often in a metastable austenitic state at room
temperature or below. Most grades have a Ms temperature well
below 0°C. However, plastic deformation can induce martensite at
temperatures higher than MS.
The presence of Ni improves considerably the corrosion resistance
when compared to the martensitic and ferritic grades.
Strength can be increased significantly by cold working
Good formability and weldability, Good high temperature corrosion
resistance
Type 304 is the basic 18Cr 8Ni (18/8) austenitic stainless steel, so
widely used that it accounts for about 50% of all stainless steel
production.
Other standard grades have different preferred applications; for
example, type 316 which contains up to 3 wt.% Mo, offers an
improved general and pitting corrosion resistance, making it the
material of choice marine applications and coastal environments.
Stabilized grades like 321 and 347 contain small additions of Ti
and Nb to combine with C and reduce the tendency for
intergranualar corrosion due to Cr carbide formation.
Higher SI and Al (and C) may be added to oxidation and
carburisation resistance and strength
Solidification mode
can be austenitic or
ferritic depending on
composition
 Sensitisation
Sensitisation is one of the corrosion mechanisms which causes
widespread problems in austenitic stainless steels.
In normal conditions, austenitic stainless steels are given a high-
temperature heat-treatment, often called a solution-treatment,
which gives a fully austenitic solid solution.
However, at temperatures below about 800°C, there is a tendency
to precipitate chromium-rich carbides as the alloy enters the
carbide plus austenite phase field.
Preferential corrosion at grain boundaries
 Solution to problem of sensitisation

Reduction of carbon content.

Use of solutes (such as Nb, Ti, V or Ta) which have a greater

affinity for carbon than chromium.
These are called stabilised stainless steels, for example, types 321
(Ti stabilised) and 347 (Nb stabilised) austenitic stainless steels.
A variety of other factors impact on the problem, such as the
austenite grain size and the crystallographic character of the grain
boundaries.
Sensitisation can be avoided by grain boundary engineering by
creating a crystallographic textures which favours low-energy
boundaries which are less effective as heterogeneous nucleation
sites for chromium carbides.
Grain boundary engineering is achieved through controlled
thermomechanical processing
Martensitic Stainless Steels
The composition is such that the austenite in these steels is able
to transform into martensite. This allows a degree of control on
the mechanical properties by exploiting the phase change.
Typical heat-treatments consist of austenitisation at a
temperature high enough to dissolve carbides followed by
quenching to obtain martensite.
Given the high hardenability inherent in such alloys, the quench
rate required to achieve martensite is not high;
Oil and water quenching are used only when dealing with thick
sections.
Typical compositions cover 12 to 18 Cr and 0.1 to 1.2 C wt%.
As with other martensitic steels, a balance must be sought
between hardness and toughness.
Wide range of strengths possible 300 to 1900 Mpa

Applications where high strength and corrosion resistance

required

Low carbon high Cr supermartensitic steels are used in oil and

gas industries.

Maximum temperature is about 650C

Duplex stainless steels
Duplex stainless steels typically contain 50% austenite and 50%
ferrite

They have higher strength and superior corrosion resistance

especially to stress corrosion cracking and pitting

Higher thermal conductivity and lower thermal expansion

Not suitable for cryogenic applications due to higher DBTT

Embrittlement occurs at temperatures > 280C

Alloys are based on Fe-Cr-Ni-N

N increases strength and pitting corrosion resistance

W, Mo and Cu are added to improve corrosion resistance

During cooling, many embrittling phases could form

The two-phase mixture also leads to a marked refinement in the
grain size of both the austenite and ferrite.

This, together with the presence of ferrite, makes the material

about twice as strong as common austenitic steels.
Superior SCC resistance of duplex steels compared to
austenitic steels
 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels

Precipitation strengthening is the major strengthening mechanism

Matrix could be martensitic, semi-austenitic, austenitic

Ti and Al are added to form intermetallics Ni3Al, Ni3Ti

High strength (about 1500 MPa) with good ductility and toughness
and good corrosion resistance

Service temperatures in the range of 300 to 600C

Difficult to fabricate due to high strengths

Depending on the Ni content, the solidification route

or