7th Annual International Conference on

Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)

25th – 26th September 2017
Singapore

Organized & Published By

www.globalstf.org

i
Organized, Published and Distributed by
Global Science and Technology Forum (GSTF)
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Tel: +65 6327 0166
Fax: +65 6327 0162
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E-mail: secretariat@e-learningedu.org
Website: http://e-learningedu.org/

7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)

ISSN: 2251-1814, E-Periodical ISSN: 2251-1822

This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be
invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

Copyright © GSTF 2017

All rights reserved.

The accuracy of all materials appearing in the paper as part of the proceedings is the responsibility of the authors
alone. Statements are not necessarily endorsed by the organizers of EeL 2017, members of the Programme
Committee or associated supporting organizations.

ii
 Editorial

It is my pleasure to present to you the Proceedings of 7th Annual International Conference on Education
& e-Learning (EeL 2017) organized by Global Science and Technology Forum in Singapore on 25th –
26th September 2017.

This conference serves as a forum for scholars, policy makers, experienced professionals, and business
executives to present and exchange new ideas on research in education & e-learning. The conference
also is of interest to scholars in the related fields.

All the papers selected for presentation at this conference and for publication in the proceedings were
subjected to double blind peer review.

We thank all review committee members, partner universities, organizing committee members, and
especially all the conference participants for making this conference a grand success.

I am sure that the participants will benefit from the contributions to the Proceedings of
EeL 2017 and trust that this volume will be useful in their future research endeavors.

Prof. Hye-Jung Lee

Former Research Professor & Director
Seoul National University, South Korea

iii
 Foreword

This volume of conference proceedings contains a collection of research papers presented at the
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017) organized by Global
Science and Technology Forum in Singapore on 25th – 26th September 2017.

The EeL 2017 conference is an international event for the presentation, interaction and dissemination
of new advances relevant to education & e-learning. As chairman of the Board of Governors, GSTF, I
would like to express my sincere thanks to all those who have contributed to the success of EeL 2017.

A special thanks to all our speakers, authors and delegates for making EeL 2017 a successful platform
for the industry, fostering growth, learning, networking and inspiration. We sincerely hope you find the
conference proceedings enriching and thought-provoking.

Professor the Hon. Dr. Stephen Martin

Chairman, Board of Governors, GSTF

iv
 Preface

We are pleased to welcome you to the 7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning
(EeL 2017). EeL 2017 continuously aims to foster the growth of research in education & e-learning and
its concomitant benefits for the community at large. The research papers published in the proceedings
are comprehensive in that they contain a wealth of information that is extremely useful to academics and
professionals working in this and related fields.

It is my pleasure to announce the participation of leading academics and researchers in their respective
areas of focus from various countries at this event. The Conference Proceedings and the presentations
made at EeL 2017, are the end result of a tremendous amount of innovative work and a highly selective
review process.

We have received research papers from distinguished participating academics from various countries.
There will be “BEST PAPER AWARDS” for authors and students, to recognize outstanding
contributions and research publications.

We thank all authors for their participation and are happy that they have chosen EeL 2017 as the platform
to present their work. Credit also goes to all Program Committee members and Review Panel members
for their contributions in reviewing and evaluating the submissions and for making
EeL 2017, a success and for increasing the standing of this annual conference from year to year.

Dr. Anton Ravindran CEng (UK), FBCS

President, Global Science and Technology Forum

v
 Program Committee

Program Chair

Prof. Mike Joy

University of Warwick, UK

Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Hye – Jung Lee

Former Research Professor & Director
Seoul National University, South Korea

Program Committee Members

Prof. Fred Jacobs Assoc. Prof. Tan Seng Chee

American University, USA
Assoc. Prof. Gordon (Toby) Malcolm Emert Jr.
Agness Scott College, USA
Prof. James Albright
School of Education
Faculty of Arts and Education
The University of Newcastle, Australia
Deputy Director, Centre for Research & Development in
Learning, Nanyang Technological University
Associate Dean, Office of Graduate Studies and
Professional Learning
National Institute of Education, Singapore
Assoc. Prof Kalyani Chatterjea
Humanities & Social Studies Education
National Institute of Education (NIE), Singapore

Assoc. Prof. Beverly Webster Assoc. Prof. Ida A.C. Mok

University of Melbourne, Australia Associate Dean (Local Engagement)
Division of Mathematics and Science Education
Assoc. Prof Daniel Levin University of Hong Kong
American University, USA
Prof. Rosemary Papa
Prof. Chan Carol K K Educational Leadership
Division of Learning Northern Arizona University, USA
Development and Diversity
The University of Hong Kong
Assoc. Prof. Robert C Kleinsasser
Dr. Berenice Nyland Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College
Program Director Arizona State University, USA
Master of Education
RMIT University, Australia Prof. Sameh Ghwanmeh
Computer Science Department
Dr. Kathy Jordan The World Islamic Sciences & Education University,
Program Director Jordan
Grad Dip Secondary
RMIT University, Australia Dr. Erin Noseworthy
Director of eLearning
City of University of Seattle
Seattle, Washington, USA

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 Dr. Julia Lawrence Dr. Tee Hui Teo
Head of Teacher Education Subject Group Senior Lecturer
School of Education and Social Sciences Singapore University of Technology and Design
Faculty of Arts, Cultures and Education
University of Hull, UK Prof. Shaikah Al-Taneiji
Foundations to Education Department
Prof. Prashant Sharma College of Education, UAE
Professor (Mechanical Engineering) and
Joint Director (Research and Projects) Prof. D. Srinivas Kumar
Pacific College of Engineering Dean, School of Education & HRD & Director
Pacific University, India IQAC, Dravidian University
Srinivasavanam Kuppam, India
Prof. D. Srinivas Kumar
Chairman, Board of Studies in Education Prof. Shefali Pandya
(Formerly Dean & Head of School of Education) Department of Education
Dravidian University, India University of Mumbai, India

Prof. Sushama Sharma Prof. M.S Molia

Department of Education Department of Education
Kurukshetra University, India Saurashtra University, India

Asst. Prof B. Saminathan Prof. Ahrar Husain

Department of Education
Centre for Distance Education
Bharathidasan University, India
Prof. Namita Ranganathan
Department of Education
University of Delhi, India
Prof. D. Rajendra Prasad
Professor of Education & Director
School of Distance Learning and Continuing Education
Kakatiya University Warangal, India
Prof. Shyam Kumar
Professor of Physics and Dean Research
Kurukshetra University, India
Senior Lecturer & Coordinator of B Ed TESL program
Prof. Rachana Chakraborty
Department of History
University of Calcutta, India
Asst. Prof. Abhishek Shukla
R.D Engineering College Technical Campus
Dubai, India
Dr. Parvinder Singh
Chairman Computer Science & Engineering
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram
University of Science & Technology Murthal, India
Asst. Prof. Maria Eliza Cruz
Institute of Education- Graduate Studies
Far Eastern University and San Beda College, Philippines
Dean, Faculty of Education
Jamia Millia Islamia, India
Assoc. Prof Tang Keow Ngang
School of Educational Studies
University Science of Malaysia
Dr. G. Visvanathan
Vice- Chancellor
Tamilnadu Teachers Education University, India
Dr. Ng Kim -Soon
University – Industry Collaboration Department
University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)
Dr. Adelina Asmawi
Department of Language and Literacy Education
University of Malaya
Assoc. Prof. Paulina Gocheco
De La Salle University, Philippines
Asst. Prof. Liwayway Acero
San Beda College Manila, Philippines
Asst. Prof. Kavitha Rajamani
Department of MCA
Assistant Coordinator, Research Cell, PG
Department of IT, AIMIT
St, Aloysius College, India
Assoc. Prof. G L Gulhane
Amravathi University, India

vii
 Dr. Charoenchai Wongwatkit
Department of Computer and Information Technology
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand

Dr. Roberto T. Borromeo

De La Salle University, Philippines

viii
 Table of Contents

Editorial iii

Foreword iv

Preface v

Program Committee vi

Author Index 163

7th Annual International Conference on

Education & e-Learning
(EeL 2017)

Math Courses in Higher Education: Improving Learning by Screencast Technology 1

Yaron Ghilay

Seeing Myself as others See Me: Using video to Support Reflective Practice in Initial Teacher 7
Education with a Cross-Country Cohort
Isabel Brookes, Caroline Cohrssen, Patricia Eadie and Collette Tayler

Engaging Students Through Technology an Interdisciplinary Approach 13

Keya Mukherjee, Courtney Wiest Ed.D, Rhondda Waddell, Debra Mims
Felicia Wilson, Lin Car,ver and Holly Atkins

Detecting Talent: A Student Chacklist for Identification of Giftedness and Talent 22

Poul Nissen and Sebastian Lemire

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) For International Students: 26

An Australian Perspective
Megan Short, Zhao Huang and Greg Ashman

Presenting a Model for the Design of an Empirically Driven Implementation Evaluation of A 30

School-Based Health Education Program
Rachel Williams, Pat Bullen and Gavin TL Brown

Perceived Emotional Support in the Teacher-Student Relationship 38

K. Marissa Krupa

Faculty Versus Student Perceptions of Teaching Presence in Distance Education Courses: A 48

Mixed-Methods Study
Judith Slapak-Barski and Alex Edmonds

Co-operative Learning and Implicit Theory of Intelligence: Impact on Academic 53

Achievement
Shefali Pandya

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The Invistigation of Productive Classroom Discoursein: A Knowledge Building Environment 62
Yuyao Tong, Carol K.K. Chan and Jan van Aalst

Beyond Academic Grade Dashboard: Integrating Performance Visualization To Increase 72

Peer Support A Work In-Progress Paper
Nicole Wang, Martin K.-C. Yeh, Andrea Gregg, Chenyang Zhu, Amy Garbrick and Kyle Peck

From Chalkboard to Interactive Whiteboard and From F2f to CMC: A Journey Through 76
Education And E-Learning
Liz Lakin

The Impact of Noncognitive Factors in Addressing the Needs of the Whole Child 83
Williams, R.L.

On the Value, Characteristics and Development Models of Rural Education 88

Yang Haiyan Gao Shuguo

Students’ Experiences and Perceptions on Online Collaborative Learning 97

Bengi Sonyel and Mohammad Khaleel Sallam Maaitah

The Use of Technology in the Teaching of A Human Anatomy and Physiology 107
Huiyu Zhang and Linda Fang

The Retrospect and Prospect of Art Therapy in Taiwan 113

Diana Ruei-Jen Fan and Paul Juinn-Bing Tan

Reducing Racial Isolation Online Through the Classes Without Walls Program 118
Randall Glading , Charles Britton, Kristin Rainville, Karen Waters and Eric Freedman

An Onto-semiotic Analysis of A Modeling Task Involving Linear Function 123

Lucia Yeni Wulandari Suharman and Lucia Yeni Wulandari Suharman

Promoting Inquiry Based Learning in Support of WISE in China 129

Ouminhua

Understanding Relationship Building in Learning Chinese as an Additional Language on 140

WeChat: Resolving Methodological Challenges
Yanjun Xue

Within Parameters Technology Advancements to Support Student Performance 151

Neffisatu J. C. Dambo and Randolph Burnside

Lecturers’ Attitude towards e-Learning in Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia 159

Ryan Hara Permana, Gigin K. Basar, Ira Mirawati, Mira Trisyani and Jimi N Mahameruaji

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Math Courses in Higher Education:

Improving Learning by Screencast Technology
Yaron Ghilay
Department of Management and Economics
The Neri Bloomfield School of Design and Education
Haifa, Israel

Abstract—The aim of the study was to find out a method
designated to improve the learning of math courses by adding
screencast technology. The intention was to measure the
influence of high-quality clips produced by screencast
technology, on the learning process of math courses. It was
required to find out the characteristics (pedagogical and
technical) of such high-quality video clips as well as their
advantages for improving the learning process in such courses.
The research was based on a sample of students in two math
courses (n  41) in higher education. Both courses have been
fully covered by video clips (not exclusively) produced by
screencast technology. Students were asked to answer a
questionnaire focused on the characteristics of effective clips as
well as the advantages of such clips for their learning.
The research results point out that according to learners' views,
video clips' effectiveness depends mainly on lecturers'
instructional qualifications as well as their capability of
technically producing high-quality videos. Such clips covering the
whole course curriculum, are advantageous for learning a math
course: the learning process is perceived to be excellent, video
clips are better than texts, and its substantial flexibility is a
significant advantage as well. Therefore, there is a substantial
worthiness to add screencast technology to math courses
provided that the entire course is fully covered with relevant
video clips, and they are pedagogically and technically high-
quality.
Keywords-screencast; video screen capture; video clips;
learning; math courses
I. INTRODUCTION
A. General Background
Video is a powerful technology for online learning,
especially, for viewing lectures asynchronously. Video clips
can be produced in two principal ways: via a camera or by an
advanced technology called video capture/screencast [5]. In
this study, the focus was on the second alternative for math
learning in higher education.
A screencast is a digital video of a lecturer’s computer
screen combined with audio narration. While the screen
activity and images are recorded in real time, the
accompanying audio can either be recorded simultaneously or
created in post-production with the inclusion of sound effects
and music tracks. During video editing, changes can be made
in the raw material such as splitting and merging sections,
hiding and exposing part of the screen, adding new audio,
cover pages, etc. [5]. Screencasting, an excellent multimedia
alternative to video camera recording can give learners even
more dynamic and exciting contents [17]. Moreover, since the
clips can be paused or reviewed anytime, anywhere [18]
students can proceed at their own pace which serves to improve
the learning process both in the classroom and outside of it.
Nowadays, educators in many disciplines use screencasting
for instructional purposes in subjects such as computer
programming languages [24], instructional design and
technology [20], object-oriented programming [10],
mathematical modeling [3], nursing [16] and more. These
screencasts and video tutorials demonstrate specific actions
associated with a particular content area.
There are significant advantages in using screencasting for
instructional purposes [15]. The huge growth in the use of
smartphones and tablets allows students to watch these
enriched video clips anytime, anywhere [1].
Screencasts can be pedagogically equivalent to face-to-face
instruction [14; 21]. Reference [8] observes that online video-
based instruction “brings courses alive by allowing online
learners to use their visual and auditory senses to learn
complex concepts and difficult procedures” (p. 31).
Theory of multimedia learning suggests that animated
presentations that have a corresponding audio component
provide a more effective learning experience than traditional
alternatives of stills accompanied by text [11]. This
corresponds to the dual coding theory [13] wherein information
processed through discrete input channels, both linguistic and
non-linguistic improves the learning experience. By presenting
an expert performing and describing a task, screencasts provide
these multiple input channels [23]. Learners in an online
learning environment rely heavily on ‘learning objects,’
reusable digital resources that are integrated into a ‘lesson or
assemblage of lessons grouped in units, modules, courses and
even programs.’ These resources can take the form of
electronic text, a simulation, a website, a graphic image, a
movie, etc. The variety of resources in technology-assisted
learning [12] plays into Mayer's [11] ‘learning-preferences
hypothesis,’ which states that information presented in
different formats caters to students’ learning preferences and

7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)

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styles. A method which combines sound and visuals appeals to
a greater variety of learning styles than information presented
only through text and pictures [4]. Video screen capture
augments live lessons with multimedia lessons, itself becoming
a cognitive tool that supports, guides, and mediates the
cognitive processing of learners [9].
A multimedia curriculum can be made available to students
outside of school in the form of a flipped classroom; namely,
students’ studying principles at home via screencasts and then
receiving guided practice in class [19]. Reference [19] has also
found that students who learned Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) by watching screencast video clips obtained
significantly higher grades than those who studied the same
material using traditional textbook instruction. Reference [22]
obtained similar results with regard to the statistical functions
of Excel.
The use of video capture technology does not require
significant investment in technological infrastructure or in
software development teams. Every lecturer needs to learn the
educational and technical aspects of video capture and then
with minimal equipment, a personal computer and microphone,
suitable software and access to LMS and file-sharing sites such
as YouTube or Vimeo, experiment with the technology.
Many screencast programs exist, and they vary in features
and cost. Tools are divided into two main groups:
1) Free tools: Jing, Screenr, Screencast-o-Matic (PC only),
CamStudio and Community Clips (PC only).
2) Commercial tools: Camtasia Studio, iShowU, HD Pro
(Mac only), Adobe Captivate and ScreenFlow [5].
A former study [6] examined the characteristics and
advantages of effective training videos for computer courses.
Screencast technology was found to be adequate for this kind
of courses. Such a finding is not quite surprising because
recording computer procedures using video capture seems to be
useful as has been formally proven. On the other hand,
improving math learning by this kind of technology appears to
be less straightforward. Therefore, the present research
intended to examine the characteristics and adequacy of
screencast technology to math courses. It is tremendously
important to know if using such technology would have an
added value for math learning as well. Such knowledge might
be helpful for development and creation of video-based online
math lessons in higher education.
B. Examining math courses covered by screencast
technology
Math courses require an understanding of complex terms
and complicated procedures necessary for solving
mathematical problems. A recorded video lecture produced by
screencast technology can be an asynchronous replacement or a
supplement for live lectures. Such a recorded lesson can be
watched several times, entirely or partially without limitations.
The study examined characteristics of effective video clips
produced by screencast technology as well as the advantages of
such clips for math learning. Two groups of the course
"Mathematics for Business Administration" were examined.
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The course was fully covered (not exclusively) by video clips
produced by screencast technology. It was a one-year course
given to first-year students in the Department of Management
and Economics at the Neri Bloomfield School of Design and
Education, Haifa, Israel. The course included the following
main topics:
1. Functions: definition, set of points, operations between
functions, linear function, graphic description of a straight
line, a quadratic function, increasing and decreasing
functions, single-valued function, inverse function, image,
compound function, even and odd functions.
2. Linear inequalities: attributes, systems of inequalities,
union, and the intersection of inequalities, inequalities
including roots and absolute values.
3. Quadratic inequalities: attributes, the inequality that exists
for every x, quadratic inequalities including roots/absolute
values, inequalities with fractions, third and fourth-degree
inequalities.
4. Exponents and roots: definition, exponents rules and
properties, zero/negative exponents, laws of roots,
fractional (rational) exponents, exponential equations.
5. Logarithm: definition, logarithmic identities, change of
base, particular bases, logarithms from both sides of an
equation, logarithmic equations.
6. Arithmetic sequence: definition, the nth term, the sum of
the members.
7. Geometric sequence: definition, the nth term, the sum of
the members, infinite geometric series, cyclic fractures.
8. Derivative: limit, definition of a derivative, geometrical
meaning, derivatives of polynomial functions, derivative
of constant times a function, derivative of a constant,
derivative of sum/difference of two functions, product
rule, quotient rule, derivative of a composite function,
derivative of a logarithmic function, derivative of an
exponential function, the tangent equation that passes
through a point which is not on the graph of the function,
increasing and decreasing of functions, maxima and
minima.
9. Integral: indefinite integral – integration, immediate
integrals, calculation of constant of integration, definite
integral – the integration interval and area between curves.
All clips were produced by Camtasia Studio based on the
following procedure:
1. For each main topic, a text file is prepared and uploaded to
the Moodle course website (in pdf format). All texts are
produced via a combination of a word processor (MS
Word) and a tool designed for writing mathematical
expressions and formulas (MathType). MathType is
designated to function from within MS Office enabling to
write down mathematical expressions rapidly, accurately
and conveniently.
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2. The word texts are converted to pdf format and are the
basis for the face-to-face lectures as well as the video
clips. The process of producing the clips is as follows:
a. Each main topic is divided into small subtopics.
b. Each clip covers one subtopic.
c. Before the recording stage (video capture/
screencasting), pdf text pages are maximally zoomed
in full-screen mode. Every page is completely
captured and the lecturer's explanations are recorded
using the cursor for pointing out all relevant
expressions and formulas.
d. During the editing stage, each page can be zoomed,
partially hidden and later on, gradually exposed, in
accordance with the recorded lecture progress.
Exposure can be done horizontally, vertically or both.
It gives the viewer a similar feeling to what occurs
when an instructor writes on a blackboard. One of the
major advantages of this method is that in contrast to
handwriting, the expressions captured are very clear,
bold and easy to read. The capturing process is fairly
straightforward and changes are made later, during the
editing stage. Furthermore, each text file has a triple
value: it is the basis for the face-to-face lecture,
students can review it (using the course website), and
it is also the foundation of the video clips' production.
The first four topics (Semester A, 2016-17) were fully
covered (in addition to texts and lectures) by 19 high-definition
clips, prepared by video capture technology. The total length of
all these clips together was 180 minutes (3 hours).
II. METHOD
The study examined students' perceptions toward
combining of instructional screencast video clips in a math
course (two groups). Both groups have been guided by the
same lecturer.
1) The research questions
The research questions intended to measure the influence
of using high-quality clips produced by screencast
technology, on the learning process of math courses. The
following research questions were worded:
 What are the characteristics of high-quality
(pedagogical and technical) video clips produced by
screencast technology relating to learning of math
courses?
 What are the advantages of such clips for improving the
learning process in this kind of courses?
2) Population and Sample
Population: The population addressed through the study
included all learners studying math courses in Israeli teacher-
training colleges (25 colleges overall).
Sample: 41 students overall.
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3) Tools
Respondents were asked to answer an online five-point
Likert scale questionnaire (1-strongly disagree, 2-mostly
disagree, 3-moderately agree, 4-mostly agree, 5-strongly
agree) consisting of 21 items and an open ended question, at
the end of the first semester (2016-2017). The questionnaire
examined their perceptions toward the research questions
mentioned above, it was anonymous, and the rate of response
was 100% (41 out of 41).
4) Data Analysis
The following six factors were examined:
 The video quality of the examined course.
Characteristics of effective clips:
 Importance of pedagogical characteristics.
 Importance of technical characteristics.
Advantages of video clips:
 Video clips' flexibility.
 Video clips' effectiveness for learning.
 Video clips' advantages in comparison to texts.
Table 1 summarizes the six factors, the items composing
them and the reliability. For each factor, a mean score was
calculated (including standard deviation). Paired Samples T-
test was conducted as well for checking significant
differences between pairs of factors (  0.05) .
III. RESULTS
Table 2 presents the mean scores of both groups together. It
presents the following results:
 The quality of all video clips was extremely high, and the
score was very close to the maximum value possible
(4.81). The meaning of this finding is that respondents
rate the lecturer's explanations as truly clear and suitable
as well as claiming that the pace is appropriate.
Furthermore, they argue that the course video package is
comprehensive, namely, it fully covers the whole course
curriculum and well presents and illustrates all topics they
had to study. This finding is crucial for dealing with all
the other factors, relating to the research questions. It
means that all responses related to the research questions
are based on the high-quality experience of video clips.
 Relating to the first research question (dealing with
effective clips' characteristics), students rate the
pedagogical characteristics as imperative for video clips'
effectiveness of learning (4.74). It means that to produce
effective clips, a lecturer should explain clearly and at a
moderate pace and the clips should be short and cover the
whole curriculum.
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TABLE I. FACTORS AND RELIABILITY Concerning the technical characteristics, they are
perceived to be paramount as well (4.64), namely, clips
Factors Questionnaire's Questions
should have HD resolution, and they should be
Clips' quality Lecturer's explanations were clear.
(Alpha=0.881) Lecturer's voice was clear. independent of specific hardware or operating system.
Lecturer's explanations were made at a moderate Comparing these two factors reveals that
pace. there is a significant difference between them
The course curriculum was fully covered by video
(t(40) 2.324,
 p 0.025) . It means that although both factors
clips.
Videos presented and illustrated well all topics I had are highly rated, the pedagogical characteristics are
to learn. perceived to be more important (4.74) than the technical
Importance of Clips' effectiveness depends on a lecturer's ability to
pedagogical explain clearly. features (4.64).
characteristics for I prefer that each clip would be short and address not
effective clips too many topics.
 Concerning the second research question (dealing with
(Alpha=0.733) Clips' effectiveness depends on a lecturer's ability to video clips' advantages), respondents rate their flexibility
speak clearly. (4.90) and effectiveness for learning (4.82) as substantial
Clips' effectiveness depends on a lecturer's ability to advantages. There is no significant difference between
talk at a moderate pace.
Video clips should fully cover the whole curriculum. these two factors (t(40)  1.828, p  .075). The
Importance of Good training videos should be of high quality (HD). effectiveness of the learning process of a mathematical
Technical The option to download video clips is important for
characteristics of me.
course (4.82) is reflected by being very helpful for
effective clips The option to watch videos in a variety of tools (such studying and dealing with the curriculum thoroughly, as
(Alpha=0.571) as a tablet, smartphone, MP4 Player, etc.) is important well as optimally assimilating the topics. Furthermore,
for me. such video clips are perceived to be superior compared to
Video clips' It is very advantageous to watch video clips many
texts (4.70). Their major advantage is because they are
flexibility times as I wish without limitation.
(Alpha=0.730) It is very helpful to watch video clips on times I very helpful for improving student understanding of math
choose. problems, better than any combination of text and
Clips' The video clips were helpful for my learning. screenshots.
effectiveness for The clips had a significant contribution to my ability
learning to deal with the curriculum.
(Alpha=0.853) The video clips allow me to follow any course topic
thoroughly. The meaning of these findings is that based on a math
Videos allow me to assimilate the material optimally. course that has comprehensively been covered by video clips,
Videos are a good way to understand math problems.
Clips' advantage The advantage of video clips is that they explain and
effective clips that fully cover math courses, have the
in comparison to illustrate mathematical issues in a clear and efficient following attributes:
texts way, better than a combination of text and screen
shots.  To be effective, video clips should be very high-quality,
both pedagogically and technically.
 Effective clips have significant advantages such as
substantial flexibility as well as creating a perfect learning
TABLE II. MEAN FACTORS process which cannot be achieved by texts and
Factors' Factors N Mean Std. screenshots only.
groups Deviation
Courses' video 41 4.81 0.43 The open-ended questions strengthen the closed items as
Clips' quality
quality shown in the following examples (respondents' quotes):
Effective clips' Importance of pedagogical 41 4.74 0.36
Characteristics characteristics for
(first research effective clips
question) Importance of technical 41 4.64 0.40 "Video clips are very helpful for learning math."
characteristics for
effective clips "This method is excellent – it helps me to learn math better."
Video clips' Video clips' flexibility–– 41 4.90 0.30
advantages Video clips' effectiveness 41 4.82 0.40
"The clips helped me to understand certain difficult issues I
(second for learning could not understand in class."
research Video clips' advantages in 40 4.70 0.46
question) comparison to texts "I should mention that the video clips are made in a very
professional and understandable way."
"Video clips are a perfect supplement for a face-to-face math
course."

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The quotes mentioned above stress the high effectiveness of
videos for learning math. The clips are not necessarily a
replacement of a live lecture but rather an excellent
supplement assisting students to study topics they did not fully
understand or missed. To be effective, videos should be
focused on specific issues, short, clear and have a full
coverage of the course.
IV. CONCLUSION
Learning math courses in higher education is usually quite
difficult because it is required to understand complex
principles and to be able to solve complicated mathematical
problems. Creating a course that comprehensively supports the
acquisition of such knowledge, is not straightforward. The
study examined a special supplement to math courses, namely,
video clips produced by screencast technology. Based on the
international literature, there is clear evidence to general
advantages of using such means for student learning as a
replacement to other ways of studying [1; 2; 4; 11; 19; 22].
Nevertheless, it was not quite obvious what ought to be the
characteristics of effective clips based on that technology, and
if they can be used as complementary means for learning
math. The study reveals that effective video clips should be
high-quality, both technically and pedagogically.
Technical characteristics are HD resolution and clear sound
recording. To reach high-quality, it is necessary to use
professional tools such as Camtasia Studio or a combination of
free programs like Microsoft Community Clips and
Moviemaker.
Pedagogical characteristics are about to be the following:
 Comprehensive coverage: All course contents should be
fully covered (not exclusively) by video clips based on
screencast technology. It contains the whole curriculum,
including theory and all kinds of exercises. This coverage
is not exclusive, namely, all topics are about to be covered
by additional relevant ways of learning such as texts, live
lectures, tutoring, etc. The advantage of combining a few
learning methods is that students can use multi ways
which fit their learning styles.
 Lecturer self-production: All clips should be produced by
the course lecturers to exactly fit its curriculum and level
of difficulty. It is not recommended to produce clips via
outsourcing because they might not suit the course
demands.
 Short length: Each video clip is about to be relatively
short, including not too many topics for enabling students
to directly and rapidly find each subject and easily
transfer from one topic to another.
 Accuracy and correctness of all course contents: All
videos examined during the study have been tested for
ensuring a high level of precision. To do so, each clip
should be checked and rechecked by lecturers with a view
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to find errors. Based on a careful control process, it is
tremendously important to fix any inaccuracy, mistake or
fault, which might hurt students' learning. Fixing such
mishaps can be done by editing or re-recording the video
clip.
 Clear and understandable speaking: lecturers should
speak clearly and loudly while recording themselves, so
students would be able to understand well what is said.
Moreover, the study points out that screencast technology,
if used for producing high-quality clips (technically and
pedagogically), has the following significant advantages:
Effective Learning: Adding video clips to math courses has a
major contribution to the effectiveness of learning because
they are very helpful for students to understand all the topics,
covering the entire curriculum and accomplishing existing
gaps.
Superiority in comparison to texts: the research gives evidence
to the hypothesis that effective videos are better means for
math learning compared to texts and screenshots. The main
reason for this advantage is that clips are perfect means for
explaining and illustrating difficult terms and complicated
mathematical problems. Indeed, clips are better than written
text, but they are not necessarily a replacement but mainly, a
perfect supplement.
Flexibility: This characteristic is significant, especially in
comparison to live lectures. Although clips are not always a
replacement to face-to-face lessons, they are very helpful
because they overcome the limitations of time and place.
Students can learn when, where and how many times they
wish.
The study examined 41 students participated in a math course.
The findings show that for being effective, video clips should
have specific characteristics. If such clips are produced, they
are about to have a significant influence on math learning. The
qualitative data gathered strengthens the quantitative part and
gives it more validity.
V. RECOMMENDATION
Following the major contribution of adding screencast
technology to math courses, it is recommended to adopt such
technology in universities and colleges, provided that all
produced clips will be high-quality and comprehensively
cover the course curriculum. To practically do so, it is
required that institutes of higher education would create and
deliver training programs so faculty members would be
familiar with screencasting principles, practices, and
pedagogies. The study points out that video clips should not
necessarily be a replacement of other ways of learning – they
can often be complementary means. Therefore, to effectively
combine such clips with other relevant means, training should
include most important principles of TMOC (Training for
Management of Online Courses) as well [5; 7]. Consequently,
lecturers would be able to create, develop and deliver courses
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combining video, text, hypertext, and CAA (Computer The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning,
10(3). Retrieved February 8, 2015 from
Assisted Assessment) based on a Learning Management http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/629.
System. [15] Peterson, E. (2007). Incorporating screencasts in online teaching. The
International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 8(3).
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[1] Campbell, S., Grossman, S., Kris, A., Kazer, M. & Rozgonyi, J. (2010).
[16] Phillips, J. M., & Billings, D. M. (2007). Using webcasts for continuing
Screen Capture Classes for Student Learning and Success.
education in nursing. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing,
EDULEARN10 Proceedings, pp. 5579–5584.
38(4), 152–153.
[2] de Koning, B., Tabbers, H., Rikers, R., & Paas, F. (2007). Attention
[17] Ruffini, M.F. (2012). Screencasting to engage learning. Retrieved
cueing as a means to enhance learning from an animation. Applied February 6, 2015, from
Cognitive Psychology, 21(6), 731–746.
http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/screencasting-engage-learning.
[3] Ellington, A. J., & Hardin, J. R. (2008). The use of video tutorials in a
mathematical modeling course. Mathematics and Computer Education, [18] Screencast. (2014, August 9). Wikipedia. Retrieved September 2, 2014,
42(2), 109–117. from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screencast/
[4] Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple [19] Smith, J. G. & Smith, M. R. L. (2012). Screen-Capture Instructional
Intelligences, New York: Basic Books. Technology: a Cognitive Tool for Designing a Blended Multimedia
Curriculum. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 46(3), 207–
[5] Ghilay, Y. (2017). Online Learning in Higher Education. Nova Science 228.
Publishers-New-York.
[20] Sugar, W., Brown, A. & Luterbach, K. (2010). Examining the Anatomy
[6] Ghilay, Y. & Ghilay, R. (2015). Computer Courses in Higher-Education:
of a Screencast: Uncovering Common Elements and Instructional
Improving Learning by Screencast Technology. Journal of Educational
Strategies. International Review of Research in Open and Distance
Technology, 11(4), 15-26.
Learning, 11(3), 1-20.
[7] Ghilay Y. & Ghilay R. (2014). TMOC: a Model for Lecturers' Training
[21] Traphagan, T., Kucsera, J. V., & Kishi, K. (2010). Impact of class
to Management of Online Courses in Higher-Education. i-manager's
lecture webcasting on attendance and learning. Educational Technology
Journal of Educational Technology, 11(2), 6-16.
Research & Development, 58(1), 19–37.
[8] Hartsell, T. & Yuen, S. (2006). Video streaming in online learning.
[22] Walker, L. (2010). Quantifying the benefits of narrated screen capture
AACE Journal, 14(1), 31–43.
videos. In Steel. C.H., Keppell. M.J., Gerbic. P. & Housego. S. (Eds.)
[9] Kong, S. (2011). An Evaluation Study of the Use of a Cognitive Tool in Curriculum, technology & transformation for an unknown future
a one-to-one Classroom for Promoting Classroom-based Interaction. (pp.1031–1034). Sydney: Proceedings ascilite 2010.
Computers & Education, 57(3), 1851–1864.
[23] Wouters, P., Paas, F. & van Merrienboer, J.G. (2008). How to optimize
[10] Lee, M. J. W., Pradhan, S., & Dalgarno, B. (2008). The effectiveness of learning from animated models: A review of guidelines based on
screencasts and cognitive tools as scaffolding for novice object-oriented cognitive load. Review of Educational Research, 78(3), 645–675.
programmers. Journal of Information Technology Education, 7, 61–80.
[24] Yuen. S (2007). Integrating Screen-Capture Based Instructional Videos
[11] Mayer, R. E. (2001) Multimedia Learning, Cambridge University Press. into Instruction. Retrieved September 21, 2014, from
[12] McGreal, R. (2004). Online Education Using Learning Objects, London: http://scyuen.wordpress.com/2007/11/24/integrating-screen-capture-
Routledge Falmer. based-instructional-videos-into-instruction/.
[13] Paivio, A. (2007). Mind and its evolution: A dual coding approach,
Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[14] Pang, K. (2009). Video-driven multimedia, web-based training in the
corporate sector: Pedagogical equivalence and component effectiveness.

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Seeing Myself as others See Me: Using video to
Support Reflective Practice in Initial Teacher
Education with a Cross-Country Cohort
Isabel Brookes, Caroline Cohrssen, Patricia Eadie, Collette Tayler
The University of Melbourne
I. INTRODUCTION
Higher education in Australia has seen a large increase in
international enrolments in the last two decades, with the
number increasing from approximately 48,000 students in 1996
to just under 307,000 in 2016 [1]. International education is
considered one of Australia’s ‘super-growth’ areas by the
federal government [2] as increasing numbers of international
students contribute more university revenue than domestic
students – up from 41% in 2011 to 48% in 2015 [3]. In
Australia, the majority of so-called ‘international’ students
come from Asian countries. In 2015, Chinese students
comprised 33% of all international students enrolled at higher
education institutions in Australia, and nine of the top 10
countries represented by international students in Australia
were Asian countries [4]. While every individual has personal
experiences that contribute to our understanding of what it
means to be a ‘teacher’ and a ‘learner,’ as cultural diversity
broadens, so too does the range of personal educational
experiences in the student population. Consequently, a key goal
of initial teacher education courses is to assist teacher
candidates to reflect on their evolving teaching practice to align
their beliefs and practices with the philosophical approaches
that underpin the courses they are completing.
A. Reflective practice
Thirty years since the publication of Schön’s seminal works
on the nature of reflective practice [5], [6], definitions continue
to vary [7]. In the context of early childhood practice in
Australia, reflective practice is, ‘a form of ongoing learning
that involves engaging with questions of philosophy, ethics,
and practice. Its intention is to gather information and gain
insights that support, inform and enrich decision-making about
children’s learning’ (p 13) [8]. It has also been explained as ‘a
continuous process that involves professionals analyzing their
practice in order to identify what drives children’s learning and
development; as well as the impact of their values on
understanding children’s learning and development’ (p. 4) [9].
In general, definitions conceptualize reflection as a process of
examination of experience that is intended to transform
practice or knowledge [10]. Reflection is not simply thinking
about what went well or could have gone better, but thinking
about why, and therefore how best to replicate or improve a
similar situation in the future [11].
Curriculum authorities and practitioners consider reflection
to be an intrinsic and vital part of teaching and learning [12].
Teacher candidates’ discourse and actions provide evidence of
reflection [7] however, this raises questions regarding the
influence of cultural and other factors on reflective practice
[13]. Perhaps a consequence of differing definitions of
reflection and reflective practice, initial teacher education
programs have been criticized for failing to provide consistent
instruction on reflective practice [7], [14], [15]. Optimal
professional learning requires explicit instruction regarding
specific characteristics of effective teaching – empirically
tested indicators of optimal practice against which teacher
candidates can evaluate their practice – and actual evidence of
their practice. Both are of particular importance in initial
teacher education: explicit expectations provide teacher
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candidates with a means to reflect on similarities and
differences in personal understanding of effective teaching
practice.
B. Video and video-based feedback
Viewing video-recordings of their teaching enables teacher
candidates to experience their practice both from the inside and
from a bird’s eye perspective. Also, the provision of fine-
grained feedback by teacher educators further individualizes
the opportunities to learn from the authentic evidence of own
practice. Research demonstrates that manner of delivery of
feedback is a major factor in its effectiveness in producing the
desired change in knowledge or behavior [16], [17], [18], [19],
[20]. Further, the feedback provider should be valued by the
feedback receiver for the feedback to be effective [15], [17].
Video has been used to support initial teacher education
since the 1960s [21]. While it promotes self-reflection for
every practitioner, it has particular benefits with culturally
diverse student cohorts whose personal experiences of teaching
and learning may differ both from those embedded in their
teaching courses, as well as from those of their peers. The use
of video, paired with explicit tasks to direct reflective practice,
allows teacher candidates to hone in on specific elements of
their practice [21], [22]. Video provides irrefutable evidence of
practice and can be viewed multiple times, rather than relying
on memory [23]. Feedback can also remain private which
allows students to process any emotional responses to the
feedback in their own space and time.
C. The implementation context
The Master of Teaching (Early Childhood) and Master of
Teaching (Early Childhood & Primary) are graduate level,
initial teacher education courses offered by an Australian
higher education institution’s education faculty. Both courses
attract teacher candidates from around the world. In 2016,
28% of the teacher candidates enrolled in these courses
reported their country of permanent address as Australia.
Other countries listed as the permanent address included
China (54%), Hong Kong (3%), India (4%), Indonesia (1%),
Iran (1%), Malaysia (4%), Singapore (4%) and the Philippines
(1%). Teacher candidates learn to enact clinical,
interventionist practice: to observe and analyze children’s
demonstrated knowledge and then to differentiate the support
provided to individual learners to consolidate and extend
learning while linking theory to practice [24]. Reflective
practice is a core component of both programs and requires
teacher candidates to evaluate the effectiveness of their
teaching practice.
The development of an online application to facilitate
Master of Teaching (Early Childhood and Early Childhood &
Primary) teacher candidates’ reflective practice and self-
assessment, and by providing targeted, individualized
feedback on pedagogical practice, began in 2014 and
continues to be refined. This online application, known as the
‘eResource’, is a repository to which teacher candidates
upload short video exemplars of their practice using early
childhood
L 2017)
center/school-owned devices (iPad/tablet,
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phone or digital camera), to a secure site from a computer
located at the placement setting. They are then able to engage
in back-and-forth exchanges with teacher educators (known as
clinical specialists) who are early childhood education
academics.
In 2017, the Masters of Teaching courses have been
reconceptualised and new subjects included however,
increased emphasis is placed on the eResource as a key
support for initial teacher education. Throughout the two-year
programs, teacher candidates attend ‘clinical teaching
practice’ placements at early childhood education and care
(ECEC) centers or schools for two days each week throughout
each semester, at the end of each semester, undertaking a
‘block’ placement. Each semester, teacher candidates are
provided with a specific pedagogical strategy or learning task
to implement with one focus child, and required to film a two-
to three-minute video of their practice while interacting with
the child. Annotated feedback is provided to each teacher
candidate by clinical specialists, drawing on behavioral
indicators from (i) the Classroom Assessment Scoring System
(CLASS) [25], and (ii), the Abecedarian Approach Australia
(3a) [26] (see Figure 1 below).
Figure 1. Example of annotated feedback provided by the clinical
specialist, followed by the teacher candidate’s response
II. METHOD
A. Research project ethics
The Australian higher education institution and the
Victorian Department of Education and Training provided
ethics approval for this project. Approval was also received
from Local Government Councils within which teacher
candidates undertake clinical teaching practice placements.
Coordinators and principals of ECEC centers and school
services that host teacher candidates provide written consent
for teacher candidates to undertake eResource tasks in their
centers and schools. Parents/guardians of children interacting
with the teacher candidate are then invited to provide
staggered consent for their children to participate, before any
video data is collected. Ongoing child assent is also obtained
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by the teacher candidate prior to and during the filming
process.
B. Participants
Teacher candidates enrolled in the Master of Teaching
(Early Childhood) in Semester 1, 2016 were invited to
participate in a survey to provide feedback on the contribution
of the eResource task to their teaching and learning. The survey
was distributed via weblink through the university’s Learning
Management System in June. Participation was voluntary and
anonymous. Teacher candidates were given three weeks to
complete the survey. Twenty-eight teacher candidates enrolled
in their first or third semester of study responded to the survey,
a 20% response rate. However only 24 of the respondents were
included in the analysis due to missing data.
C. Survey
The survey examined five focus areas of teacher
candidates’ experience. Two focus areas addressed the
perceived contribution of the eResource task to the teacher
candidates’ reflective practice, namely (i) the suitability of the
respective eResource tasks to support learning, and (ii) the
value of the feedback received to promote teacher candidates’
learning. Three focus areas addressed task completion
processes, namely (i) consent and collection of video, (ii) using
the eResource application, and (iii) provision of support to use
the eResource. The survey took approximately 10 minutes to
complete. Participants rated each item on a Likert-type scale
(individual survey items are presented in the Means and
Standard Deviations table (see Appendix).
D. Reliability
Internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of the focused
scales were: Consent and collection of video, α= .761; Using
the eResource application, α= .840; Support to use the
eResource from university staff, α= .872; the suitability of the
eResource task to support learning α= .904; and effectiveness
of the feedback received to promote teacher candidate learning,
α= .903.
E. Data Analysis
All analyses were conducted using SPSS. Descriptive
statistics will be reported first to identify teacher candidates’
level of satisfaction with the eResource as a learning support,
and their ease of engagement with the tool. For the purpose of
analysis, ratings of five and above on the seven-point scale
were considered high. Scores for each item were averaged, and
then a mean score for each scale was calculated to investigate
participant experiences in each focus area (Task, Feedback,
Consent, Use and Support). The mean scores for each item and
scale were examined to identify the perceived impact of the
activity had on teacher candidates’ reflective practice as well as
process elements of the activity that may influence teacher
candidates’ participation in the eResource activities. Pearson’s
Product Movement Correlation was used to establish the
magnitude of the relationships between each of the focus areas
from the survey.
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III. RESULTS
A. Contribution to learning and Processes
Participants provided ratings on two scales focused on the
contribution of the activity to learning and three scales related
to the processes related to the eResource activity. As shown in
Table 1 over the page, participant perceptions of the
contribution of the eResource to their learning (Task
appropriateness, M=5.42, SD=1.30; and Feedback, M=5.86,
SD=0.96) were high, particularly for the items related to the
value of the feedback they received. These scores suggest that
the eResource activity was viewed as a value-add to their
teaching preparation, supporting understanding of the
application of evidence-based practices, promoting critical
reflection, and facilitating the transfer of the examined
practices to their pedagogical practice. Ratings of the ease of
engagement with the eResource were also high, particularly for
Support to engage with the eResource (M=5.80, SD=1.46).
Lower mean ratings for the Consent and Collection of Video
(M=4.94, SD=1.60) and Using the eResource (M=5.08,
SD=1.73) were influenced by the items pertaining to the
collection of the video while on professional placement,
uploading a video to the eResource and navigating the
eResource (See Appendix A for individual item mean scores).
To further understand the relationship between participants’
perceptions of the value of the eResource activity and teacher
candidate’s experiences of engagement, Pearson’s product-
movement correlations were conducted to determine whether
perceptions or experience in one focus area impacted on
another. As illustrated in Table 2, significant interrelations
between the focus areas are apparent. A strong positive
correlation between teacher candidate’s ratings of the
Contribution to Learning focus areas (Task and Feedback) was
found, r (22) =.735, p <.001. Participants’ ratings of Task and
Using (r (22) =.688, p <.001) and Feedback and Support (r
(22) =.600, p <.001) also showed strong positive correlations.
Task and Support (r (22) =.559, p <.01) were also observed to
be positively correlated.
Slightly less strong positive correlations between teacher
candidate ratings of Consent with Using the eResource, (r (22)
= .546, p <.001), and Task (r (22) = .506, p <.01); as well as
between Using and Support: r (22) = .427, p <.05 were
observed, indicating medium to large effect sizes. No
relationships were observed between Consent and Feedback,
Using and Feedback, and Support and Consent focus areas.
Table 1.Means and standard deviations for each of the five focus areas.
Focus Areas M SD N Max
Task appropriateness 5.42 1.30 24
Feedback 5.86 0.96 24
Consent and Collection of
4.94 1.60 24
video
Using the eResource 5.08 1.73 24
Support to engage with the
5.80 1.46 22a
eResource
a
Sample size differs due to a n/a response option.
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A Pearson correlation was also conducted on the
Contribution to Learning and Processes domains, revealing a
strong positive correlation. This finding indicates that the
greater the level of ease to engage with the eResource, the
more effective they perceived the eResource activity to be for
their learning: r (22) = 0.67, p = .00.
The strong positive correlation observed between the Task
and Feedback focus areas is particularly meaningful. It
suggests that those who perceived the task as appropriate to
supporting their learning also viewed the feedback they
received positively. This interrelation indicates that both task
design and the feedback it generated was relevant and effective
at facilitating learning, a finding supported by the high mean
ratings received for both these focus areas (see Table 1) and the
literature. Further, the strong association between Support and
Task, and Support and Feedback is unsurprising. Feedback is
found to be most effective when there is an explicit task focus
and structure around the reflective task [21], [22] and the
feedback provider (in this case clinical specialists) is held in
esteem by the feedback receiver [15], [17]. The nature of the
teacher-student relationship places university staff as experts in
the eyes of the student and this, paired with the inclusion of
clarifying task requirements in this support role may have
increased perceptions of the feedback’s worth, and created a
deeper understanding of the task focus. The provision of
support to engage with the eResource activity by university
staff was rated highly by participants, second only to ratings of
the value of the feedback.
A small number of participants commented on items of the
eResource activity when completing the survey. These
comments focused primarily on challenges experienced by the
teacher candidates when recording and uploading their videos,
“It was challenging to find time to pull away my mentor
teacher, a student and find the correct setting to film, and once
filmed needing to upload it from the teacher’s computer meant
I had to overtake her time and computer for almost a full day
(because of how long it took to upload).” In addition, they felt
additional information and preparation to use the eResource
was required, “… I don't think enough lecture and questioning
time was dedicated to it. Additionally, in future,e a seminar
focus for it would be helpful”.
Table 2. Pearson’s correlation coefficients for the five focus areas
Focus area 1 2 3 4 5
1. Task -
M 2. Feedback .735** -
in
2 7 3. Consent .506 *
.199 -
3 7 4. Using .688** .343 .546** -
5. Support .559** .600** .403 .427* -
1 7
Note: * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level; ** Correlation is significant
1 7 at the 0.01 level.
1 7
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These comments, while few, are reflected in the lower
mean ratings for these survey items, indicate the need for
ongoing improvement of the processes to reduce barriers to
engaging with the eResource and have been addressed in 2017.
IV. DISCUSSION
This paper describes the experiences of teacher candidates
engaging with the eResource as a tool to support reflective
practice. The overall response to the eResource as a learning
support was positive and endorses the ongoing use of video-
based tasks with specific foci to advance these skills across a
diverse cohort of pre-service teachers with diverse experiences
of teaching and learning. While approaches to promoting
reflective practice in initial teacher education courses vary; this
study suggests that the eResource provides opportunities for
teacher candidates to engage in ongoing critical reflection
drawing on their individual experiences of teaching and
learning, but also to receive differentiated feedback that
specifically targets the learning needs of the individual. Using
evidence-based practices as the basis of the eResource tasks
and providing targeted, differentiated feedback increased
teacher candidates’ understanding of expectations for practice
as they were afforded opportunities to compare evidence of
their actual behaviors with empirically tested behavioral
indicators of optimal practice.
In light of these findings, annotation and feedback features
of the eResource have been expanded to enable more back-
and-forth exchanges between clinical specialists and teacher
candidates. These changes will further strengthen teacher
candidates’ theoretical understanding and advance their
mastery of the pedagogical practices. Video evidence of their
practice combined with clear feedback provides a means to
focus on the key components of how they are promoting
children’s learning, in turn creating more effective teachers.
Although not the primary focus of this study, we found that
streamlining the processes associated with the task (e.g. filming
the interaction and uploading the video) was associated with
higher perceptions of the tasks’ contribution to learning. As
critical reflection is a core component of these initial teacher
education programs, efforts have been made to streamline such
processes.
A. Limitations
There are two project limitations the authors wish to
acknowledge. The response rate to the survey was low, and the
findings reported are thus not necessarily representative of the
whole student cohort. Further, to increase teacher candidate
anonymity and increase the survey response rate, minimal
personal information was requested. This decision prevented
investigation of the impact of variables such as year of study,
and international or domestic enrolment on teacher candidate
experience. The survey has been redesigned in 2017 to collect
additional information about participants, and in future, all
teacher candidates will complete the survey as part of the
eResource activity.
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V. CONCLUSIONS
Reflective practice is a building block of teaching practice,
both in initial teacher education and post qualification.
Consequently, there is an onus on higher education institutions
to include effective strategies to support this practice in their
initial teacher education programs. When catering to a highly
diverse cohort, this becomes even more essential as students
must integrate their personal experiences of education – both
as a teacher and as learners – with theoretical knowledge and
research-based course expectations. Teacher candidates
enrolled in two graduate level teacher preparation courses
reported that the eResource activity was highly valued. In a
higher education climate that is becoming increasingly
diverse, this is a promising finding.
Further investigation of the value of video-based reflection
to facilitate the development of effective teaching practices for
students from different cultural backgrounds, and exploration
of change in practice as evidenced by video data, is required.
This information will strengthen our understanding of how
best to support the development of critical reflection in initial
teacher education and to ensure all graduates enter the
profession as critically reflective practitioners.
REFERENCES
[1] Department of Education and Training. “International Student Data
2016,” Retrieved from
https://internationaleducation.gov.au/research/International-Student-
Data/Pages/InternationalStudentData2016.aspx
[2] R. Colbeck, “Record numbers of international students choose
Australia,” Retrieved from
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APPENDIX A
Domain Focus areas and items M SD N Min Max
Task appropriateness
Align to course content? 5.38 1.38 24 2 7
Build on your understanding of the task focus? 5.33 1.37 24 2 7
Support your transfer of the theory/approach to practice? 5.54 1.14 24 3 7
Contribution to
learning Feedback
Critical reflection on your practice? 5.88 1.04 24 3 7
Increasing your understanding of the application of practices at
5.92 0.88 24 4 7
your setting?
Support your transfer of the theory/approach to practice? 5.79 0.98 24 4 7
Consent and Collection of video
Obtain parent/caregiver for your focus children? 5.33 1.40 24 2 7
Obtain Mentor Teacher consent? 5.67 1.47 24 1 7
Find a time to record your eResource task while on placement? 4.33 1.66 24 1 7
Set up a space to record your eResource task while on
4.42 1.86 24 1 7
placement?
Using the eResource
Access the eResource through LMSa? 5.42 1.72 24 1 7
Processes Upload a video to the eResource? 4.38 2.10 24 1 7
Review the feedback provided by your CSb/TFc? 5.54 1.32 24 2 7
Respond to feedback from your CS/TF? 5.08 1.69 24 1 7
Navigate the eResource site? 4.96 1.81 24 1 7
Support to engage with the eResource
Your CS? 5.96 1.26 23e 4 7
Your TF? 6.00 1.38 24 2 7
Your MTd? 5.59 1.68 22 1 7
The eResource Management Team? 5.65 1.53 23 2 7
a
Learning Management System; b Clinical Specialist; c Teaching Fellow; d Mentor Teacher; e Sample size differs for items in the ‘Support to engage with the
eResource’ scale due to a n/a response option.

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Engaging Students Through Technology an
Interdisciplinary Approach
Keya Mukherjee Ph. D, Courtney Wiest Ed.D, Rhondda Waddell Ph.D Debra Mims Ph.D,
Felicia Wilson Ph.D, Lin Car,ver Ph.D, Holly Atkins Ph.D
Saint Leo University, Dade City, Florida
Abstract- As technology has emerged, we see institutions utilizing
technogly in teaching. There are multiple platforms and tools
available to instructors. This article examines serval platforms and
tools utilized across disciplines at Saint Leo University. The article
will illustrate how the tools enhance student engagement through the
technical teaching tools.
Since computers were introduced into the school setting in
the mid-1970's, educators have extensively discussed their
potential for helping to increase academic growth and student
engagement (Hew & Brush, 2007). Computers and digital
technology endless possibilities have not been realized because
of the limited availability of these devices in the classroom
setting. The ratio of students to computers in 1983 was estimated
at 168 to 1 (Anderson & Ronnkvist, 1999). As schools have
attempted to meet the needs of 21st-century learners, they have
significantly increased the number of digital devices available.
The school days of the chalkboard, pencil, and paper, students
raising their hands to answer questions and going to the library
to gather research, are pages in history compared to the
modernized classroom of students today. Classified by Deep
Patel of the Huffington Post (2016) as the generation of
individuals who have grown up with the constant bombardment
of connectivity, today's Generation Z students are more digital
and tech savvy than previous generations. Also, with an
estimated 60 million Generation Z-ers (individuals between 15 –
20 years of age) presently among the elementary to college age
students, they are expected to quickly surpass both the Millenials
(Generation Y) and the Baby Boomers (Monster, 2016).
Generation Z individuals have never known a world without a
rapidly moving environment of constant connectivity and
advancing technology. The Generation Z's have grown up multi-
tasking in a fast-paced world of the internet, networking on social
media, i-pads, laptops, smartphones, Google, and video
streaming. Often Generation Zers long for and appreciate
alternative forms of learning experiences rather than the
restrictive ancient technology of their parents' generation. Many
of today's Generations Zers are reevaluating traditional formal
education and are choosing instead to be homeschooled, attend
alternative-learning classrooms, or to participate in massive on-
line courses (MOOCS). Technology has changed the way we live
and offers us opportunities to enhance our teaching methods. The
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Copyright © GSTF 2017
ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.19
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never-ending question still remains "Are we using the best
approaches to engage the student and help the learning process"
(Paholsky, 2012 and Kirchner & Razmerita, 2015)? Through the
use of technology in the classroom students are becoming further
educated about different problems in society, via social media
posts, blogs, websites, television, presentation tools, gaming, and
more. Educational tools that help students implement their ideas
which create solutions to problems and inform others is
impactful. Technology can be considered good or bad depending
on your perspective and how it works any given day. However,
most professors agree that our main goal in creating instructional
environments is to focus on learning, and that technology is
another way to engage students and add to the learning objectives
of their chosen subject. Student engagement is a significant issue
for instructors in the K-12 setting as well as in higher education.
The issue of engagement is compounded when preparing future
teachers through the online setting to address the needs and
engagement of their future K-12 students. This paper will review
the current technology tools utilized at Saint Leo University by
instructors in multiple program and various platforms.
I. Overview of Technology in the Classroom
In 2010, it was reported that 97% of teachers in the United
States had access to at least one classroom computer every day
with 93% of those computers having Internet access (National
Center for Educational Statistics, IES, 2010). The Center found
that the ratio of students to computers was 5.3 to 1. The increased
availability of computers seems like it should have increased
daily use of technology in K-12 instruction; however, only 40%
of the teachers interviewed in their study reported using
computers often during their instruction. However, digital
resources have been expanded to include more than just
computers. The various types of information and communication
technologies available have increased. Most K-12 schools in the
United State currently have access to high-speed Internet as well
as other digital resources such as printers, video projectors,
digital whiteboards, iPads, iPods, and smartphones. The
educational digital landscape is being transformed through these
additional resources (Robinson, McKenna & Conradi, 2012 and
Al-Abri, Jamoussi, Kraiem, & Al-Khanjari, 2017).
The anticipated increase in academic performance resulting
from the expanded technology usage has not materialized. The
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National Assessment of Educational Progress (2013) reported
reading and mathematics test scores that are at about the same
level as they were 40 years ago. This seems to support Kozma's
(2003) observation that a positive impact of technology on
achievement does not occur automatically. Instead, the impact of
technology is determined by how teachers use the digital
resources in their classroom instruction, not just whether they
have access to the educational technology. Instead, rigorous
professional development needs to accompany the new monetary
investments in purchasing the technology to help build "skills
that have not historically been in the teacher toolbox" (Walker,
2015, para. 18). Teachers need support and encouragement to
keep up with the fast-paced world technology, especially as
innovation explodes throughout our world (Kopp, 2015).
Consequently, instructors in higher education need to exposure
future teachers to a variety of digital resources so that they have
opportunities to develop confidence using and infusing these
digital resources into their instruction. They need to see how
these digital resources can be used to enhance their instruction so
that it can meet the learning needs of their students. Technology
is an integral component in how students learn and process
information.
II. Literature Review
This literature review attempts to present a framework of
useful educational technologies arising from the literature in
order to inform the discussion among educators about their
applied use in creating complex interactions in learning
environments. This is not the first research review of creativity
and technology used in education; for example Banaji, Burn, and
Buckingham (2010) undertook a systematic research synthesis in
new technologies and learning, whilst Banaji and Burn (2006)
and
Banaji, Burn, and Buckingham (2010) have reviewed a range of
literature from which nine ‘rhetorics’ of creativity emerged:
creative genius; democratic and political creativity; ubiquitous
creativity; creativity for social good; creativity as economic
imperative; play and creativity; creativity and cognition; the
creative affordances of technology; and the creative classroom.
Bandura (1991) described social learning as cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental factors which foster a level of
learning for the participant. In Bandura's (1977) original work he
identified four learning components which are: attentiveness,
symbolic coding, motor retention processes, and motivation
(Wiest, 2015 and (Al-Abri, Jamoussi, Kraiem, & Al-Khanjari,
2017). Bandura (1977) studies dispelled past theories that
observational learning is simply passive; rather, learners make a
conscious choice known as human agency and cognitively
processed activities and make behavioral changes. According to
the social learning theory, learning is an active process between
all participants. Students need to be engaged with each other and
the instructor to gain the desired outcomes. Learning is not
viewed in a vacuum, rather, learning is seen as an exchange of
ideas and knowledge which results in greater knowledge for all
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participants (Vygotsky 1978 and Wiest, 2015). Instructors are
expected to foster and engage students as active participants.
This engagement is done through collaborative learning activities
and use of multiple technology avenues in the current online,
grounded, and blended classroom platforms. Through the
collaborative social learning process, students are able to develop
skills, critically think, and acquire new knowledge among peers
(Bell, Urhahne, Schanze, & Ploetzner,
2010 and Wiest , 2015)
Additionally, Engagement theory has emerged from the
examination of online learning. The theory focuses on the level
of student engagement in the learning process. Kearsley and
Shneiderman (1999) and Kearsley (2005) noted the fundamental
principle is that students must be meaningfully engaged in the
learning process through challenges, activities, and peer
interaction. The theory examines the role of technologies and the
ability to promote student engagement through a varied of tools
such as discussion boards; group projects; videos; web tours; web
live classrooms; problem-based learning. These various learning
tools through technology promote engagement for all learning
styles; however, traditional settings do not always allow the
slower thinkers to process and engage in the learning process
(1999, 2005 and Wiest, 2015). There are three basic principles
of the engagement theory
1. Group context (i.e., collaborative teams)
2. Project-based
3. Real-world focus (Kearsley & Shneiderman, 1999 and
Kirchner & Razmerita, 2015).
This emerging theory differs from past technology theories
where the emphasis has been on the individual learning process
or instruction method. Rather, this model focuses on the group
collaboration process (Kearsley & Shneiderman, 1999 and Wiest,
2015). This theory highlights the use of technology in the new
academic arena to engage students in the learning process (Al-
Abri, Jamoussi, Kraiem, & AlKhanjari, 2017)
A. Prezi
One of the most well-known presentation tools used for
presenting completed projects by students in the classroom is
PowerPoint which was designed as a computer-generated slide
presentation tool. It was later sold to Microsoft Windows-based
version and used in a wide variety of settings such as business,
entertainment, and education. Power Point like other presentation
tools such as Prezi has been designed to tell a story or to make a
report come alive illustrating a core message. Both are
considered to be graphics programs, not word processing using
slides as visual aids to help the speaker project that message and
connect with the audience.
Unfortunately, as with all things, the familiar can be at risk of
becoming boring which PowerPoint has been accused of when
not enhanced with stimulating conversation and storytelling.
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"Visual conversations are where things are headed" (Duarte,
2007). Nancy Duarte created the graphics for Al Gore's
presentations on climate change, featured in the
Oscar winning 2007 documentary An Inconvenient Truth, and
now works for TED conference organizers to train speakers
(Parks, 2012). She recommends using not only well-prepared
PowerPoints, but also other tools. One such tool we have explored
which is Whiteboard in this paper and the one focused on here is
Prezi. 1. description.
Prezi is an internet presentation software that stores your
presentation in the cloud allowing for more flexibility and
collaboration than is possible with PowerPoint (Settle, Abrams,
& Baker, 2011). Prezi is accessible as long as you have internet
access then you will be able to locate your Prezi. Prezi software
has a free educational use only application for students and
faculty with an .edu address which provides an adequate space to
create allowing for the easy insert of Youtube videos, images,
PDF files, and other objects to enhance the presentation. Prezi
Presentations can be edited at any place and any time among
multiple users when they are provided editing access through the
internet. A link is available that will allow others to view the
presentation, and any changes made to the presentation will be
reflected in what a viewer sees. As a result, students can use Prezi
much more easily to work collaboratively on projects (Strasser,
2014). Ultimately these features allow Prezi to offer increased
creativity in designing and using the presentation tool for both
the instructor and students. A fascinating feature of Prezi is the
ability for it to zoom in on items in the presentation (Settle,
Abrams, & Baker, 2011). This can be visually appealing when
not overused and emphasized to cause disequilibrium. This
feature tends to capture the student's attention and provides the
professor an opportunity to embed discussion questions and
hidden answers into the slide creating easy review for
forthcoming exams. However, if you want to highlight the
connections between topics and want a very visually oriented
presentation, then Prezi is the correct choice (Harris, 2011). It is
important to explore the different feature of Prezi to fully utilize
them to create a well-designed presentation. The topic needs to
be viewed in multiple perspectives from interconnected parts to
the whole visual picture. The better Prezi presentations use both
perspectives to create an excellent learning experience.
2.Application
A Prezi offers both the professor and students an
opportunity be creative, demonstrate relationships among
concepts and objects, allows for interesting visualization, and
active learning opportunities. Most classroom projects whether
they are research projects or experiential learning activities
requires students individually or in groups to create a
presentation to share their work, findings, and reflections.
Creativity can be encouraged and facilitated when students are
able to use Prezi to design their presentations. The Prezi can
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emphasize how different relationships among the assignment
topics are linked together. A timeline, a theory, and general
applications showing steps of progression can be highlighted
easily using Prezi and made interesting by inserting images,
graphics, articles, pictures, and YouTube videos and more. All
these visual aids help to draw a picture to capture the audience's
interest and engage them in the process unfolding before their
eyes. The
collaboration among students happens when each group member
is able to help design the Prezi and contribute to a dynamic
presentation.
2.classroom example of a collaborative game for exam
preparation using Prezi.
Title of Game: "Be Outstanding in the Field Virtual
Practice Game" This Prezi based game is played in the classroom
on the overhead screen with the professor manipulating the game
pieces and administering the questions. It has been used primarily
for mid-term exam, final exam, and exit exam preparation for
undergraduate social work students. It has the capability to be
used online using the Collaborate software application sharing
tool. Students enjoy choosing their game pieces, working as a
team, and competing for extra credit points when offered while
flashing back to childhood game board play. The game makes
reviewing material for testing fun and interactive. The game has
not progressed beyond this Prezi method of delivery which
requires being used in the Prezi edit mode, as it will need
additional computer designing to make it into a game that can be
played independently. Hopefully, this article will attract the
interest of a game developer to further the game's capabilities.
3. Prezi game instructions 1) Put students in teams of
3 to 5 students. I use colors such as Red, Blue, Yellow,
and Green.
2) Write down a number between 1 and 10 on a
separate piece of paper
3) Have each team try to pick your number to see who
gets to go first when playing the game. (the team that gets
closest to your number goes first, and the others follow in
descending order of closeness of choosing your number) 4)
Have student teams select a game player to represent their
team and place that player at the starting point on the game
path
5) Begin the questioning and follow the instructions that follow
each question that tells a player how many steps to take (move
the player that number of steps on the game board) 6) Also,
respond to the instruction located on each square that your
player lands on 7) If the question is answered correctly the
player moves forward one step 8) If the question is answered
incorrectly the player remains in place
9) Ask each team to identify which social work core
competency is linked to the question when it is read (This allows
everyone to become familiarized with the 10 core competencies
and their practice behaviors), a list is provided on the game board
of the 10 Core Competencies
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10)Also listed on the game board are explanations for each of
the instructions on the steps and they provide critical thinking
in an active learning exercise format such as: a. Individual
Response
b. Team Response
c. One Word Response
d. Round Robbin Response
e. Crisis Response (*Based on the teachings of Stephen
Brookfield's Critical Thinking Concepts)
11) Also, if a team lands on a PASS step, they may hear the
question then choose which other team they would like to pass
the question to or keep and answer the question
12) Career experiences are also included on the steps that
provide teams an opportunity to move forward or backward
based on career experiences such as: a. Earn your Master's
Degree (Move Forward)
b. Pass your licensure exam (Move Forward)
c. Earn your Ph.D. (Move Forward)
d. Lose Job: Grant Runs Out (Move Backward)
e. Ethical Violation (Move Backward)
f. Suffer Stroke (Move Backward)
g. And others……
13) Along the path is a subliminal message that provides the
Social Work Generalist Intervention Model (see steps listed
below) to reference that can be pointed out by the instructor to
students: a. Engage
b. Assessment
c. Planning
d. d. Evaluation
e. Termination
14) The game is won when a team reaches the goal at the end of
the path gaining social services for their client(s)
In conclusion, Prezi clearly offers exceptional possibilities in
gameplay and interactive presentation building in the higher
education classroom. Prezi requires an internet connection which
is not always available to everyone and everywhere resulting in
a limitation of the tool. However, once you begin using Prezi it
can become irresistible for the user and the viewer alike. Prezi is
just one more dynamic technological tool that can enhance a
classrooms dynamics and interactions.
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B. Gamification
As educators, we need to recognize that Generation Z-ers are
from a world that is rapidly evolving, and as such we cannot
expect them to be educated in the same manner as past
generations. It is our job to advance their learning capabilities by
acquiring new skills that will foster a productive environment for
motivated and critically thinking individuals that will be able to
succeed in their chosen career. The integration of technology
into the classroom curriculum to enhance learning is rapidly
advancing and it is imperative that instructors learn to implement
lessons and activities that will facilitate the scholastic
environment while engaging and motivating its learners. One
movement that is being used quite effectively in today's
classroom environment to increase motivation and learning
while sustaining student interest is the use of gamification.
Broadly defined, Gamification is an educational approach to
learning that implements the use of video designed games in
which to motivate and influence behavior that will stimulate and
inspire students to learn while in a classroom environment
(Deterding, Dixon, Khaled & Nacke, 2011). "In today's digital
generation gamification has become a popular tactic to encourage
specific behaviors, and increase motivation and engagement.
Though commonly found in marketing strategies, it is now being
implemented in many educational programs as well, helping
educators find the balance between achieving their objectives and
catering to evolving student needs." (Huang, & Dilip, 2013. p.5)
Scott and Ghenia (2013) advocated the use of gamification in the
classroom to encourage attendance, increase student
collaboration, and enhance focused attention. A gamified
classroom provides an active learning environment, in which
students are required to engage, critically think, and problem
solve. In addition, "Ben Leong, Assistant Professor at the School
of Computing, National University of Singapore advocates there
should be a clear understanding that gamification is independent
of knowledge or skills. Gamification directly affects engagement
and motivation and it indirectly leads to acquiring more
knowledge and skills. Gamification encourages students to
perform an action; for example, motivating students to practice
computer programming will increase their skill and motivating
students to memorize consistently can increase their knowledge
(Huang and Soman, 2013, p. 15). The implementation of
gamification within the classroom becomes the instrument for
content learning. Instructors who apply gamification as an
alternative to their traditional instructional content will discover
students' increased attention and engagement within the
classroom while heightening motivation for students to analyze
alternative solutions to problemsolving. While successfully
implementing gamification into the classroom environment is not
exactly an easy task, it can be very beneficial and when instigated
properly can be a powerful tool in which to enhance the education
process. When developing curriculum for a classroom and
deciding how to include gamification, it is important to
understand that the curriculum is not built around the game, but
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the games are developed around the curriculum. In order to
adequately implement gamification into the classroom, an
instructor must first consider the makeup of the students, their
technological skills, and their learning styles.
Use in the Classroom
1.Application
One such game that has been effectively used in the
classroom for engaging students with smartphones and tablets is
Kahoot. Through the use of Kahoot the professor can create a fun
game made from a series of multiple choice questions, and it
allows the addition of videos, images, and diagrams to be inserted
to enhance the learning potential for the audience. Kahoot is best
played in groups involving the entire classroom, with students
using their own technological devices such as the smartphone,
laptop, or tablets. Players respond to the questions shown on a
large screen to the entire class, which unites the class in play
encouraging players to see how others responded to the questions
without identifying students by name. This game promotes social
learning whether the players are in the onground classroom or
online classroom. It also offers students a chance to create their
own Kahoots to deepen their understanding of the course material
and share it in a round of game play. Designing a game that will
effectively enhance the learning environment and accomplish the
instructor's goals may require some investment in time in the
beginning to be able to adequately plan and organize the
curriculum assignment and assessments. However, once the
process is complete the instructor will discover that gamification,
when implemented properly, can be a very effective educational
tool in which to enhance the learning objectives of the classroom.
By providing an active learning environment, motivating
students to critically think and problem solve and increasing
student engagement, gamification is another way in which to
reach the new generation of Zers.
C. Graphics and Infographics Information graphics, or
infographics, are resources teachers can use to present
information, graphics, or other content quickly and clearly
through the visual modality. Free software, such as easel.ly
(2017), PiktoChart (2017), and Canva (2017), provide many
editable templates which make these visual posters easy to create.
The templates are fully customizable. The online tutorials make
it easy for even a first-time user to adjust the text, background,
images, and layout (De Alzpurua, 2016).
1.Application
Teachers enrolled in a graduate online course identified a
lesson with a significant amount of content presented through
connected text. They then attempted to revise this content to
better address the needs of visual learners. The teachers used the
infographic software of their choice to create an infographic to
help their students to better understand and engage with the
content. One future teacher shared the following comments about
his experience "I found the tool had an easy learning curve. I
could create an infographic fairly quickly. I am not artistically
inclined and I am sure this infographic is elementary at best. But
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the tool easel.ly was not difficult to use. The pros of the software
were the ease of instruction. I found a video on YouTube that was
quite helpful." Another teacher stated, "I could definitely use an
infographic such as the one I used for this lesson. Easel.ly is easy
to use with many tutorials for each step. I love all the templates
that you can choose from or you can start from scratch. There is
a toolbar where you can add color, font, pictures, and lots of other
extras with tutorials on how to do add them. The visual along
with text makes infographics a great learning tool." This supports
the observation by Kopp (2015) "As long as teachers have a topic
to teach, the Internet has an instructional resource to connect
students in the classroom to the world around them" (p. 108).
D. Blackboard Collaborate
Online learning has become a popular model of learning in
higher education. Allen and Seaman (2016) reported that 5.8
million students are enrolled nationally in online higher
education courses. This rising trend necessitates the use of good
pedagogical principles along with relevant, complete, and
accurate content. One aspect of good pedagogy is building online
learning community through opportunities for interaction and
engagement through synchronous communication. Rovai,
(2002) identified two dimensions for successful online learning
community: social dimension (connectivity) and learning
dimension (academic). Synchronous classrooms are virtual
classrooms that connect the social and the learning dimensions
through an econferencing system and helps build learning
community. Blackboard Collaborate is a platform that combined
the capabilities of industry leaders Wimba and Elluminate,
Blackboard Collaborate provides a comprehensive online
learning and collaboration platform designed specifically for
education. It is helping thousands of higher education, K-12,
professional, corporate, and government organizations
worldwide deliver a more effective learning experience through
blended and mobile learning online collaboration tools, and it
will help open up all-new aspects of real time, or anytime,
learning to engage more students and improve outcomes
(BlackboardCollaboratewebsite, n.d.).
1.The Social Dimension of Learning Synchronous sessions
remove social isolation, provide opportunities for collaboration
and real-time interaction. Designing e-learning is about bringing
together accurate and relevant content with effective instructional
design elements for self-paced learning without the need for
instructor presence; however, according to Moore (2014) student
success with learning in an online setting is frequently connected
to the instructor. Online instructors can thoughtfully and
intentionally create a learning environment to engage students
with course materials. Assumptions in an online environment is
often about students learning at their own pace, in their own
space, and in their own time; however, when the online
environment provides a structured, yet communicative
environment, when students feel a sense of belonging, when the
classroom allows for learners to collaborate meaningfully, when
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there are opportunities for free and open communication, and
when students can build community and participate openly and
freely in learning activities, then there is deeper learning, course
success and satisfaction (Ascough, 2007; Moore, 2014).
Synchronous classes provide direct access to instructor and peers
in real time and gratify the social side of learning for students
who are often separated geographically. Palloff & Pratt (1999)
observe that failure to build a learning community directly results
in unsuccessful learning
2. Build Engagement
In an online learning environment, synchronous sessions
provide a way for students to connect and engage with peers in
real-time on a variety of learning activities, such as direct
instruction, seminars, student-led discussions, group projects, in
class presentation, topic discussions, and resource sharing. As in
face to face classrooms, these discussions provide enriching and
empowering learning experiences and help students engage with
content. Cooperative learning strategies like jigsaw or desk
critiques used in the whole classroom or in breakout rooms allow
the learner to interact, collaborate, and engage actively in a low
affect environment with their learning. Ascough (2007) noted
that when students' feel that they belong to a community there is
student engagement, increased motivation, greater productivity,
and deeper learning. According to Park and Bonk (2007) the
major benefits of having synchronous classroom in online classes
includes providing and receiving immediate feedback, exchange
of varied perspectives, increased social presences which foster a
sense of emotional support in an otherwise isolated experience.
3. Application
Currently, at Saint Leo University Blackboard Collaborate is
embedded in our LMS platform. Instructors and students can
access the system with easy for face to face office hours,
collaborating on group projects, and live class sessions. In the
Graduate Social Work program, Collaborate is used weekly for
live classes. In these sessions, instructors use an active learning
model to conduct small group activities, role play demonstration
of clinical skills, and group discussion.
E. Video Conferencing
Over the years, technology has infiltrated academia and pushed
the institution to expand education and its parameters. Because
of fiscal responsibility efforts and expanding the institution's
reach, professors are being charged with integrating technology
to reach and teach students who are not seated in a traditional
classroom. One modality to address this shift is synchronous
video conferencing which has been around for 50 years
(Anastasiades, 2009). It is important to recognize VC is
synchronous learning which means all participants are gathered
together at the same time. The variation with VC is this gathering
can take place in numerous geographical locations.
"Videoconferencing offers people who are at different locations
worldwide the opportunity to communicate and collaborate,
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regardless of their geographical position" (Anastasiades, 2009, p.
3). VC is a solid tool that can be utilized to teach and engage
students while reducing stress and anxiety for the professor. In
many schools, the necessity of expanding education to rural areas
is a key focus. This focus is connected to their core values and
missions. In addition to reaching rural areas, many organizations
are opening to the idea of educating their employees their
business centers. Both options provide great opportunities for
education institutions to expand their reach and go beyond the
traditional classroom. As such, it is essential that educators begin
to assess this option as a delivery tool option. This section will
focus on the advantages of VC as well as potential issues for
professors and students. Also, a best practices framework will be
provided to guide implementation of VC.
1. Advantages
VC offers multiple advantages for the academic institution,
professors, and students. These advantages require flexibility,
preparation, and engagement. As with all tools, it takes time,
effort, and consistency to create a comfort level. When properly
implemented, VC can be an effective tool for academic
environments. Berger, Stein & Mullen (2009) highlights multiple
advantages for VC integration: enhanced accessibility for
learners in remote communities, financial savings by sharing
resources and decreasing travel expenses, exposure of a large
audience to exemplary teachers, facilitating interaction between
students and with instructors and extending opportunities for the
class to exist as a learning group beyond the traditional in-class
limited time, improving and enhancing teaching creativity,
cultivating technological skills. (p. 477). One of the primary
reasons academic institutions implement VC is to reach beyond
the traditional classroom walls. "The transformation of higher
education into a system that has to cope with much larger
numbers comes the need to develop a greater flexibility to suit
student needs" (Knipe & Lee, 2002, p. 302). This reach often
includes connecting with students who cannot travel to the
institution. The benefits for students is immeasurable as they can
engage in learning without worrying about barriers. In addition,
the cost savings for institutions can be drastically reduced with
the use of VC because only one instructor is needed and travel
expenses are greatly reduced. VC allows the professor to engage
students using activities and lectures. Organization is key to
successfully implementing VC. VC provides professors with an
opportunity to expand their teaching skills. In traditional
environments, students are in one space. This allows the
professor to more easily engage students, lecture, and provide
activities. With VC, it is essential to think through planning and
implementation processes to ensure learning outcomes are
achieved for all students. VC also offers well-seasoned
professors a great opportunity to present to a larger audience.
This could equally be utilized as a learning tool for new
professors who do not have access to seasoned professors. While
these advantages come because of intensive work, they
ultimately allow growth for the institution, professor, and
students.
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2. Disadvantages
The disadvantages with VC are connected to technological
components. Whenever new tools are introduced, there is a
learning curve for all participants. Berger et al., (2009) offer
numerous disadvantages (growth areas): Disadvantages have
been claimed to include negative effects on classroom student–
teacher interaction, which has been documented as a major
determinant of students' outcomes and learning experience,
limitation of spontaneity, isolating the instructor from students,
enhancing passive rather than interactive learning, technical
problems that interfere with the pace of the class, increased
stereotyping and misunderstandings because of loss of capturing
of nuances in non-verbal communication, increased demands on
teacher's and students' time, and, competition and tension
between sites. (p. 477). These disadvantages can be addressed
with strategic planning. When implementing VC, the
organization must ensure each site has sufficient technology to
facilitate classroom engagement. This is essential to ensure all
parties can be connected. Before launch, the technology
department needs to physically assess each area. This assessment
should happen on a routine basis. In addition, training for the
professors should take place prior to launch to ensure they know
how to properly use the system as well as troubleshoot student
concerns. "Not only does training need to include how to use the
technology, but also teachers may need more general help with
their lecturing skills. They will need particular guidance on how
to keep the audiences on the distant sites engaged and how to
encourage interaction" (Gill, Parker & Richardson, 2005, p. 574).
To address potential student disengagement, the professor must
constantly focus on inclusion (Shephard, 2016). This inclusion is
demonstrated by calling students by name or creating group
activities. With a focus on training and preparation, the research
indicates there's no reduction in student achievement and
learning outcomes (Berger et al., 2009).
3. Application
Participate in training and practice Teaching via VC is very
different from face to face class time. To properly prepare,
professors must take time to engage in training. It is equally
important to practice working in front of the camera (New York
University, 2014). During the first class session, provide training
for students. Remember, this is new for them as well. They need
to understand the basic process. It would be helpful to create an
information sheet. This is also a great time to let students know
how to access you outside of class. This is necessary because they
won't have access to the professor at the end of class sessions.
a. Create the session outline
This is key to ensure you have covered all the session
components. "Time should be taken to organize and think about
how to make the teaching interactive. Crucially, the lecturer will
need to look at ways to encourage the audience to interact with
him/her and each other" (Gill et al., 2005, p. 574). Unfortunately,
there is no room for spontaneity with VC (Shephard, 2016).
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Think through how to engage off-site students. The timetable
needs to be formatted in a manner that allows the professor to
engage all students.
b. Disseminate course materials before class.
Upload activities, PowerPoints, lecture notes, and URLs to the
learning management system. This will ensure students have
access to class content prior to and after class.
c. Go to class early, start equipment, and organize the
environment.
For VC classes, it is important that all students can see the faces
of their peers and professor. Move desks to face the camera so
each student can be seen. Also, place the microphone in a center
location so everyone can hear and be heard (New York
University, 2014).
d. Prepare for interaction issues. There is often a delay when an
individual is speaking (Shephard, 2016). The sound may take a
moment to reach external participants. To address this issue,
prepare students beforehand for the possibility. e.Utilize
interpersonal skills.
Learn student names, call them by name each time, and build
rapport. This promotes engagement and creates an inclusive
environment. In addition, remember to speak clearly and look at
the camera when talking (New York University, 2014).
f. Develop assessments for technology. This is especially
important during the first launch phase. Receiving feedback on
student experiences will help address concerns for future courses.
"Develop a simple evaluation tool for assessing student
satisfaction, with the course delivery method and suggestions for
the course. You will be able to modify your course structure and
delivery if needed from the students' responses" (New York
University, 2014, p. 2).
III Conclusion
Technology is here and it is not going away. Therefore, it is
necessary for professors to embrace tools that promote
engagement and learning. VC, gamification, collaborate, and
Prezi, are some of the tools that, with the implementation of the
best practices, can support growth for institutions, professors, and
students. Maintain openness and flexibility during the
implementation phase. Finally, remember students are the target
audience. The end goal is for them to leave with knowledge and
understanding. Maintaining a focus on their growth will assist
with planning course delivery through multiple technology tools.
This article gives you an overview of these tools in various
learning platforms.
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Detecting Talent: A Student Chacklist for
Identification of Giftedness and Talent
Poul Nissen , Sebastian Lemire
Aarhus University
Introduction
The terms gifted or gifted and talented are bestowed students
who display a variety of characteristics, including high
performance capabilities in an intellectual, creative or artistic
area (Clark, 2008). Although certain characteristics can be
generalized some gifted students may not possess the same
characteristics as other gifted individuals and they may not
appear to have the same observable differences. Depending on
how their giftedness previously has been dealt with, they even
may appear quite “ungifted”. Many gifted students resist
routine and exhibit nonconformist behavior. Others may
withdraw, and passively be doing a minimum of what is
required. These students may have developed an undesirable
behavior due to lack of challenges in school being more or less
arrested in their intellectual development (Clark, 2008; Nissen,
Baltzer, & Kyed, 2007). Therefore, it is important to identify
these students as early as possible in order to secure a positive
schooling experience.
There is no universal definition on giftedness, but
many professionals define gifted as an intelligence score above
130, two or more standard deviations above the norm, or the top
2.5 % (Wasserman, 2003; Wechsler, 1991). In spite of many
limitations, measures of intelligence remain the most common
and effective way by which students can be identified as
intellectual gifted (Wasserman, 2003). However, intelligence
tests are often long and demanding on respondents. As a result,
using intelligence tests can be a time consuming and expensive
task if they are performed on many students.
This paper describes the development and validation
of a brief and easy-to-use screening instrument for gifted
students. We intended to develop a tool that is psychometrically
sound, inexpensive and quick in practical use, one that would
be accepted by students, parents and teachers, and of sufficient
simplicity to be accessible to most students. The Giftedness
checklist is a self-report, single-page, paper-and-pencil
questionnaire with 25 items that can be quickly and easily
completed by a student. Each item is unipolar and asks the
respondent about the match between a
listed character trait and the student’s self-perception on a 3-
point scale: 0 (not true), 1 (somewhat or sometimes true) 2 (very
true or often true). The checklist is now available as an
application (https://talenttoolbox.net/dk). The purpose of the
validation study is twofold: First, we wish to determine the
internal reliability and validity of the checklist. Second, we
wish to determine the optimal cut-off threshold for the
successful determination of gifted students.
1
The choice of a unipolar scale also reflects the priority
awarded feasibility, as it is less mentally taxing for the
respondent to consider one attribute rather than balancing
two opposing attributes in relation to their self-perceived
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning
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doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.21
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Method
There is a vast body of literature on characteristics of gifted
students (Clark, 2008; Davis, 2003;
Silverman, 1984, 2009) and several internationally checklists
have been produced, e. g. Silverman’s checklist (1984), but
using American norms to identify gifted students in a Danish
context should not be done uncritically. Based on theoretical
work on giftedness (Clark, 2008; Neihart, 1988; Shavinina,
2009) and clinical experience with checklists (Clark, 2008;
Silverman, 1984) in research projects (Baltzer & Nissen, 2011;
Nissen & Baltzer, 2011) a 56-item unipolar was developed1.
This checklist was administered with two groups of students.
One group of 91 students were selected from the Danish
Association of Gifted Children with an IQ score (WISC-III)
(Wechsler, 1991) between 130 and 160 (M=142) – the Gifted
Children Group. The other group – referred to as ordinary
students in the article – consisted of 42 students with an IQ
between 84 – 116 (M=103) and who were enrolled in a program
for mostly school motivated underachievers from various
schools that need new and increased challenges in their
schoolwork.
School psychologists administrated the WISC-III to
the gifted students and the results were subsequently provided
the authors. The ordinary students were tested by means of the
Giftedness checklist and Reynolds Intellectual Screening Test
(RIST), a screening instrument that highly correlates with the
WISC-III (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004). The resultant data
from both groups were merged into one dataset and analyzed
with SPSS 19.0 for Windows.
Results
The aim of the validation study was both to determine the
reliability and validity of the Giftedness checklist and to
determine the optimal cut-off threshold (e.g. specific value or
interval) for the identification of gifted students using the
checklist. Accordingly, the validity analysis involved an
examination of the predictive value of the individual items on
the total score (to identify a set of 25 items for the checklist), a
Cronbach’s Alpha test of the selected 25 items for determining
internal reliability, as well as a correlational analysis of
Giftedness checklist scores and IQ scores as a test of criterion-
related validity. Finally, the optimal screening threshold for the
identification of gifted students was identified through on a
comparison of giftedness checklist scores between gifted and
ordinary students and an analysis of sensitivity and specificity
of the giftedness checklist.
characteristics. Moreover, bipolar scales usually require five
or seven answers categories to enhance validity, which
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Descriptive statistics
Of the 133 students - 91 gifted students and 42 ordinary
students – 61,7 % of the students were males and 38,3 % were
females. The mean age was 11,2 years (SD = 2.7, range = 6-
17). All students were Danish speaking. No statistically
significant differences in age or gender were identified between
the two groups (p. <.01).
The average giftedness checklist scores based on the 25 items
are presented in Table 1 for both the ordinary and the gifted
students. The table shows that gifted students with a mean score
of 36.5 tend to have higher giftedness checklist scores than
ordinary students with a mean score of 25.2; though, the
standard deviations for these means do indicate some overlap
in mean scores across the two groups. Correspondingly the
range of scores indicates overlapping score-ranges between 23
and 32.
Insert table 1
Item analysis
The purpose of the item analysis is to determine a set of items
that collectively form an internally consistent checklist,
implying that the items collectively measure the same
underlying construct (Spector, 1992). The 25 items for the
Giftedness checklist were selected from the 56 sample items
administered to the students by examining the predictive value
of each of the items with the total score of all 56 items. The 25
items were selected for further validation analyses are listed in
table 2.
Insert table 2
The internal consistency of the Giftedness checklist was
examined by the item-remainder coefficient of the individual
items in tandem with Cronbach’s Alpha for the 25 items
collectively.
The item-remainder coefficient is the correlation of an item
with the sum of the remaining items in the checklist (Spector).
The coefficients for the 25 items range from .087 to .599, with
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most items indicating acceptable and moderate correlations in
the range of .300 - .480, as showed in table 2.
Cronbach’s Alpha compares the variance of the total checklist
score (sum across all 25 items) with the variances of the
individual items. The Cronbach’s Alpha for a checklist is
usually positive and range from 0 to just under 1 and an Alpha
level of .70 or higher is generally accepted as an indicator of
high internal consistency (Spector, 1992). Cronbach’s Alpha
for the 25-itemchecklist is sufficiently high .862, indicating that
the 25 items collectively measure the same underlying
construct. Moreover, the internal consistency can only be
improved by the removal of the item ‘I often hide my abilities’,
but the estimated increase in Alpha-level is minimal. Informed
by clinical experience, we decided to keep the item in
thechecklist as the item still holds an explanatory value in
interpreting student scores.
Criteria-related validity
The criteria-related validation of the giftedness checklist was
performed as a correlational analysis between Giftedness
checklist scores and IQ scores. A Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient was computed to determine the strength
of relationship. Table 2 shows the results. The analysis
indicates a significant and moderately strong positive
correlation (r = .627, p = .000) between the Giftedness checklist
scores and the IQ scores, meaning that high scores on the
Giftedness checklist tend to be paired with relatively high
scores on the intelligence test. This suggests that the Giftedness
checklist score is a relatively strong predictor of IQ scores see
table 3.
Insert table 3
Cut-off scores.
In advancing the practical application of the Giftedsness
checklist, we then identified two different types of possible cut-
off scores for the identification of gifted children using the
checklist:
1. A set of cut-off intervals for the identification of gifted
children using the total score on the
Giftedness checklist
2. A cut-off threshold for the identification of gifted
children using the number of items with a value of ‘2’.
The cut-off intervals on total scores were determined by
examining a scatter diagram of the children’s Giftedchecklist
and IQ scores. The scatter diagram below presents gifted
students (green markers) and ordinary students (blue markers)
arranged by their respective giftedness checklist and IQ scores.
The scatter diagram (figure 2) indicates three possible intervals
for the Giftedness checklist score:
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Under 25: Very Low probability of giftedness (roughly 5 %
probability of being gifted)
25-30: Low probability of giftedness (roughly 33 % probability
of being gifted)
30-35: Medium probability of giftedness (roughly 40 %
probability of being gifted)
Over 35: High probability of giftedness (roughly 95 %
probability of being gifted)
Depicted in figure 1.
Insert figure 1
Insert figure 2
Discussion
Limitation of the study
All the children in the Gifted Children Group were tested with
WISC-III intelligence test but for practical reasons it was not
possible to expose the ‘Ordinary Group’ to the same test. On
that background a brief intellectual screening test RIST was
used. This test has been shown to correlated highly with the
WISC-III (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) and like the WISC-
III it has Danish norms.
Implications and future research needs
In summary, the validation study indicates that the Giftedness
checklist could function as valid and feasible screening
instrument for initial identification of gifted children. The
checklist is internally consistent and serves as a relatively good
predictor of IQ scores. Our study has several practical
implications. The Giftedness checklist is quick and easy to use
in a classroom, and demands little time and effort from the
respondents. Moreover, two different types of norms can be
applied in score interpretation by parents as well as teachers or
other practitioners. We suggest using the Giftedness checklist
as a pretest before advancing more resource-demanding IQ
tests assessment models (Nissen, 2011).
The analysis indicate that the Giftedness checklist needs of
further practical application and validation studies. This is only
natural, as the present validation study is the first of its kind for
the Danish Giftedness checklist.
One area of potential research includes retesting the Giftedness
checklist to establish the test-retest reliability of the. This type
of validity evidence would indicate the reliability or
robustness over time and is the logical next step in examining
the properties of the checklist.
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In conclusion, we find that the Giftedness checklist stands out
because of its brevity and its development grounded in theory
and clinical practice (where it is intended to be implemented).
It is our modest hope that the Giftedness checklist will be
further tested in practice.
References
Baltzer, K., & Nissen, P. (2011). Talentudvikling i
skolen - virker det? [Talent development in school –
does it work?]. København: Undervisningsministeriet.
Clark, B. (2008). Growing Up Gifted - Developing the Potential
of Children at Home and at
School. Columbus, Ohio: Pearson.
Davis, G. (2003). Identifying Creative Students,
teaching for Creative growth. In N. Colangelo & G.
Davis (Eds.), Handbook of Gifted Education (pp. 311-
324). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Neihart, M. (1988). Profiles of the gifted and talented. National
Association for Gifted Children 1-5.
Nissen, P. (2011). Thinking smart: A model of effective
partnership for talent development.
Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 20(1), 8.
Nissen, P., & Baltzer, K. (2011). Effektundersøgelse
af talentklasser [Outcome researh of talent classes].
København: Undervisningsministeriet.
Nissen, P., Baltzer, K., & Kyed, O. (2007). High ability
education in Denmark. In K. Tirri & M.
Ubani (Eds.), Policies and programs in gifted
education (pp. 13-26). Helsinki: Studia
Paedagogica University of Helsinki
Reynolds, C., & Kamphaus, R. (2004). Reynolds Intellectual
Assessment Scales. Archives of
Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 325-328.
Shavinina, L. (Ed.). (2009). International Handbook on
Giftedness (1 ed. Vol. 1). New York:
Springer.
Silverman, L. (1984). The Silverman/Waters Checklist for
Identifying Gifted Children Denver, Co:
The Gifted Child Testing Services.
Silverman, L. (2009). The measurement of Giftedness. In L.
Shavinina (Ed.), International
Handbook of Giftedness (Vol. 2, pp. 947-970).
Canada: Springer. GSTF © 2017.
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& e-Learning (EeL 2017)

Spector, P. E. (1992). Summated Rating Scale

Construction: An introduction (Vol. 82). London:
Sage Publications.
Wasserman, J. (2003). Assessment of intellectual functioning.
In J. Graham & J. Naglieri (Eds.),

Handbook of Psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 417-442).

Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children.

TX: The psychological Corporation.

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Computer assisted language learning (CALL)
for international students:
An Australian perspective
Megan Short
Faculty of Education
University of Tasmania
Tasmania, Australia
Zhao Huang
Faculty of Education
University of Tasmania
Tasmania, Australia
Abstract— Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a
widely used pedagogical tool for advancing language learning and
teaching. The most dominant use of CALL is to aid language
learning.
The purpose of this research was to gain insights into the advantages
and challenges of using CALL in English language teaching and
learning from the perspective of Asian learners, and to explore the
connection between students’ different languages, cultures and
learning backgrounds and the way they utilize CALL when learning
English.
An on line anonymous questionnaire was used to obtain qualitative
data from twenty participants who were recruited from level 7 and
six students in the English Language Centre (ELC) of a regional
Australian University. Open coding was the primary method of
analysis.
The findings indicated Asian students held a positive attitude toward
CALL as it was thought to offer convenience and flexibility for their
study. However, there were some challenges for Asian students who
utilized CALL, especially to improve
their writing and speaking skills. From the learners’ perspectives,
the opportunities for communication and in time feedback and
assistance were inadequate in their CALL experience. Learners
found it hard to motivate themselves to engage with CALL. The
Asian students’ cultural and educational backgrounds may have
triggered these difficulties. The students may also have had
insufficient computer skills, low independent learning skills and
potentially have lack intrinsic motivation. All of these learning skills
are critical in employing CALL.
These findings suggested that for the Asian students who were in the
process of transition from a traditional teacher centered approach to
a student centered approach, more assistance and guidelines were
needed for them to gradually develop their computer skills,
independent learning skills, and selfmotivational skills to benefit
from using CALL.
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Copyright © GSTF 2017
ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.23
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Greg Ashman
Faculty of Education
University of Tasmania
Tasmania, Australia
Keywords- computer assisted language learning; learning styles;
international students
I. INTRODUCTION
Many international students who arrive in Australia to
undertake tertiary study are often required to complete a short
course in English to determine their skill level and proficiency
in English. English language centers (or ELCs) are located on
university campuses and provide these courses for international
students. The classes that the students undertake may be face to
face or a combination of face to face and computer-assisted
language learning and testing. This article will explore the ways
in which international students from Asia responded to the use
of computer assisted language learning whilst undertaking an
English course at the ELC at a regional Australian university.
The online learning platform used by the students offered them
the opportunity to practice language skills, such as reading for
meaning and some grammatical tasks, independently.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Learning styles, the influence of cultural and educational
background
CALL as a language learning tool is widely used by
foreign language learners, especially English as second
language learners. The vast group of English as second
language learners have diverse backgrounds that shape their
perspective toward CALL. Akbulut (2008) explored the
variables of learners’ prior experience that shape their
perceptions of CALL. The result of his study indicated that
gender and age did not relate to the learners’ perspectives of
CALL. However, Öz (2015) concluded that gender and age
have potential effects on learners’ attitudes toward CALL. Both
of them agreed that the language learners with experience of
CALL and developed language skills are more confident in
applying CALL in their language learning. Moreover, Coleman
and Furnborough (2010) contributed to this debate by
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identifying that learner characteristics, and learning experiences
are the major two factors contributing to successful distance
language learning.
Also, some studies explored the relationship between students’
learning style and performance on E-learning. For example, the
study of Huang, Huang & Lin (2012) demonstrated that students
with a visual and auditory learning styles performed better in an
online study than students with an intuitive learning style.
Moreover, the research of Hubackova and Klimova (2013)
illustrated that the learner-centered approach fits better in E-
learning system than the traditional teacher-centered approach,
passive learners need to adjust themselves to independent learning
environments provided by E-learning. Also, Moenikia’s (2010)
study found that students with verbal learning style progress better
in writing skills, while students with aural learning style progress
better in speaking skills. All of these studies illustrated how the
differences of learning style affect E-learning performance
significantly. Learners from Asian countries have unique
backgrounds that shape their learning attitudes and styles, and how
they employ CALL in language learning. Few studies have looked
into this area.
B. Learner factors in using CALL
To embed computer technology in language learning, studies
have been conducted to consider the factors influencing CALL in
language learning and teaching. Two general elements of CALL
promotions were identified as social and human factors (Bax,
2006). Bax also subdivided these factors into four groups,
including logistics; stakeholders’ conceptions, knowledge and
abilities; syllabus and software integration; and training,
development, and support. The qualitative study of He, Puakpong
and Lian (2015) suggested that institutional support, teachers'
computer technology abilities, and relevant training were critical
for CALL implementation, with teaching methodology and
learner factors especially important. These conclusions were
consistent with Chappelle and Jamieson’s (1986) early study in
that learner factors were crucial issues in improving the
effectiveness of CALL. Xiao (2007) pointed out that learners’
computer competency and learning abilities are necessary for their
success in CALL, or they needed to have consistent external
assistance and support.
Studies of the links between these factors and success or failure
of CALL in the classroom are insufficient. From the findings of
this research, students’ computer competency, learning style and
ability, and attitudes toward CALL are the three elements
influencing learners’ employment of computers in language
learning. Most of the studies (Almekhlafi, 2006; Afshari,
Ghavifeki, Shiraj & Jing 2013) have agreed that sufficient
computer competency is necessary for the success of CALL
implementation. The benefits of CALL for those who have no
computer skills are non-existent; therefore, students need to have
basic computer skills before they can employ computers for their
language study.
Learners’ academic ability and style is another factor that has
drawn the interest of scholars in the field. Chapelle (2009) stated
that learners’ processing of a second language and their ability to
integrate it into their language system is essential in investigating
CALL. Other researchers (Hsiao, Chang, Lin, Chen, Wu & Lin,
2016; Huang & Chuang 2016;) agreed with Chapelle that language
proficiency, language applicability to different settings,
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comprehension ability, and learning strategy are significant in
investigating learners’ performance with CALL.
Many studies have indicated that independent learning is the
main feature of CALL because it provides the diversity and non-
linear approach that enables learning flexibility and encourages
autonomy (Benson, 2013; Mutlu & Eroz-Tuga, 2013). It is,
therefore, important to consider learners’ learning styles and
preferences in CALL. Studies have illustrated that those who can
take responsibility for their learning and direct their academic
work benefit from CALL (Collentine, 2011; Wang, Spencer &
Wang, 2012). Researchers also asserted that learners who have
low independent learning skills or who rely on outside instruction
and assistance might get limited benefits from CALL (Lai, Shum
& Tian, 2016). Thus, teachers should consider different learning
styles in their teaching practice and help students develop the
ability to self-direct their learning and to promote their learning
autonomy with CALL (Blin, 2001; Farivar, & Rahimi, 2015).
III. METHODOLOGY AND FINDINGS
Qualitative data were obtained from an online anonymous
questionnaire. Twenty participants were recruited. All of the
participants were studying at the English Language Centre (ELC)
at the University of Tasmania, a regional Australian University.
A. Methodology
The questionnaire consisted of twenty-two questions,
organized into two sections. The first section contained questions
about the status of the participants, learning backgrounds and
experience with CALL. The second section related to the research
questions that this research aimed to investigate. The investigator
used Qualtrics survey software to distribute the questionnaire. The
questionnaire was provided electronically and accessible for two
weeks
The focus of the questionnaire was on exploring the situation,
for example, whether the participants hold positive attitudes or
negative attitudes toward CALL; whether there was an issue
considered as important by participants, or whether there was a
link between learners’ Asian schooling backgrounds and their use
of CALL in English learning. Data were collected in electronic
form. During the data collecting process, the supervisors were able
to access the results as part of a collaborative group.
This research used categorical aggregation as the data analysis
strategy. The procedures of analysis included coding the data by
categorizing and labeling the categories with terms; generating a
description of the themes by aggregating similar codes together;
constructing a detailed narration of the findings; and making an
interpretation of the data.
In this study, an open code approach was employed to analyze
the responses. The transcribed responses were read from Qualtrics
The phrases and words were highlighted, cut and stacked into
different categories, such as advantages, disadvantages,
motivations, learning styles, independent learning skills, computer
skills. Secondly, further reflection through a systematic
exploration of the connection between different categories was
used to identify and map the main themes. In this process, the
investigator discovered the six main themes by aggregating similar
codes together. These codes were identity information, advantages
and challenges, utilizing patterns, belief of four language skills
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improved by CALL, cultural and educational background
influences. Thirdly, the main themes were gathered and linked
back to the literature review and research questions to construct
the narration findings.
B. Findings
The first main finding showed the Asian students under study
held a positive attitude toward CALL and were aware of the main
advantages of CALL. The major advantages of CALL as identified
by the students were its convenience and flexibility, which could
benefit learners in three ways. Firstly, as learners could access
learning resources and materials anytime and anyplace, their study
was not limited to the classroom. Secondly, CALL provided a non-
linear approach, which allowed learners different levels of
comprehension and learning speed. Lastly, independent learning
was greatly encouraged by CALL, because it provided learners
with greater autonomy to select appropriate learning material and
resources that suited their individual academic level and learning
ability.
On the other hand, the findings also identified the limitations
that challenged learners in employing CALL. Firstly, limited real-
time assistance and feedback in CALL caused learning difficulties
that could not be solved in ‘real time’. The findings and the
literature also suggested that assistance and feedback were crucial
for the learners to achieve their learning objectives. Secondly,
because the computer learning system in the ELC was not
specifically designed for the development of speaking skills,
CALL could not replicate face-to-face communication. Thirdly,
some learners lacked the motivation to use CALL for their English
study. Without realtime assistance and feedback when learners
encountered problems, there was a feeling of helplessness and
frustration and a decrease the motivation. Also, the educational
background of Asian students might have meant that they relied
on extrinsic motivation rather than intrinsic motivation. The
monitor free environment provided by the CALL system will be a
challenge for Asian students who lacked self - motivation skills.
The second finding indicated most of the learners used the
computer learning system on a regular basis (2-3 times a week and
2-5 hours or 5-10 hours per week). The finding also highlighted
the link between the time learners spent on the learning system and
the reasons they used it. The results indicated that the learners who
used the system because they believed it was a useful study
platform tended to spend more time on it. On the other hand, those
who used the computer system because they had been told to do
so tended to spend less time on it. As a result, learners’
perspectives and attitudes toward CALL could affect the
frequency and time they utilized the computer as a language
learning tool.
The third finding suggested that compared to writing and
speaking skills, listening and reading skills were more likely to be
improved by the computer learning system from, according to the
learners’ point of view. One of the factors contributing to this
perspective was the lack of learning resources and materials for
writing and speaking development within the CALL program.
Another factor was that the respondents with an Asian educational
background might have better receptive skills than productive
skills, which has led to their general belief that listening and
reading skills were more likely to be improved than writing and
speaking skills.
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The last finding indicated that the educational backgrounds of
Asian students had certain negative influences on how they
employed CALL in ELC. The literature is in alignment with the
findings that traditional classroom learning, collaborative learning
style, and teacher-centered approach were mainstream in most
Asian countries’ education systems. This educational background
could potentially cause three major negative consequences on the
development of Asian students’ learning habits and ability. First
of all, a traditional classroom learning environment provides
limited opportunities for the learner to access new educational
technology, so their computer skills cannot be cultivated. The
preference for a collaborative learning style decreases the chances
of developing independent learning skills. Last but not least, the
teacher-centered approach, which heavily relies on external
motivation and monitoring, prevents the learners from seeking
intrinsic motivation and self- discipline skills. However, because
computer skills, independent learning skills, and self -
motivational skills are important computer-based, the
underdevelopment of these learning skills would inhibit Asian
learners from benefiting from CALL.
IV. CONCLUSION
Twenty-two ELC Asian students from 6 different nationalities
responded to the online questionnaire, with Chinese students being
the largest group (70%). All of the Chinese students reported
having studied English for more than ten years, as it is a
compulsory subject in China. Other students reported having
studied English for one to two years. Although the students came
from different countries, they shared similar cultural and
educational backgrounds, and thus there was remarkably little
variance in their responses.
The participants realized CALL brings convenience and
flexibility for language learning, especially for independent
learning. However, they were not satisfied with the inadequacies
of communication opportunities, real-time feedback, and
assistance when they employ CALL. Writing and speaking skills
were felt to be difficult to improve through the use of CALL from
the view of the participants.
Most of the participants reported using computer-based
learning system on a regular basis, while fewer participants used
it just because they were required to do so because they
experienced a lack of self-motivation to employ CALL.
The challenges the Asian students met in utilizing CALL
could be caused by their cultural and educational backgrounds.
As in the Asian education system, traditional teacher - centered
teaching style is still prevalent in classroom practice, the
necessary learning skills, such as independent learning skill,
computer skill and self-motivated skill for effective use of CALL
is appears to be underdeveloped among Asian students.
However, from the perspective of the learners, teachers, and
educators could help them overcome the challenges by providing
additional learning assistance, guideline, appropriate learning
resources and more real-time feedback.
These findings suggest that for the Asian students who are in
the process of transition from a traditional teacher centered
approach to a student centered approach, more assistance and
guidelines are needed for them to gradually develop their
computer skills, independent learning skills, and self -
motivational skills to benefit from using CALL.
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on Education (WNC 2017)
& e-Learning (EeL 2017)

REFERENCES [15] Huang, Y., & Chuang, T. (2016). Technology-assisted

sheltered instruction: Instructional streaming video in an
[1] Akbulut, Y. (2008). Exploration of the attitudes of EFL multi-purpose computer course. Computer Assisted
freshman foreign language students toward using Language Learning, 29(3), 618637.
computers at a Turkish State University. Online [16] Benson, P. (2013). Teaching and researching: Autonomy in
Submission, 7(1). language learning. New York: Routledge.
[2] Oz, H., Demirezen, M., & Pourfeiz, J. (2015). Digital [17] Mutlu, A., & Eroz-Tuga, B. (2013). The role of Computer-
device ownership, computer literacy, and attitudes toward Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in promoting learner
foreign and Computer-Assisted Language Learning. autonomy. Eurasian Journal Of Educational Research, (51),
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 186, 359366. 107-122.
[3] Coleman, J.A. and Furnborough, C. (2010) Learner [18] Collentine, K. (2011). Learner autonomy in a task-based
characteristics and learning outcomes on a distance Spanish 3D world and production. Language Learning &
course for beginners. In System, 38: 14-29. Technology, 15(3), 50–67.
[4] Huang, E. Y., Lin, S. W., & Huang, T. K. (2012). What type [19] Wang, J., Spencer, K. A., & Wang, D. (2012). A double-
of learning style leads to online participation in the mixed- channel model for developing learner autonomy in an EFL
mode e-learning environment? A study of software usage context. International Journal of Computer-Assisted
instruction. Computers & Education, 58(1), 338-349. Language Learning and Teaching (IJCALLT), 2(3), 1-16.
[5] Hubackova, S., & Klimova, B. F. (2013). Pedagogical
aspects of eLearning. Language on-line course and issues [20] Lai, C., Shum, M., & Tian, Y. (2016). Enhancing learners’
of learning styles. Procedia-Social and Behavioral self-directed use of technology for language learning: the
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[6] Moenikia, M. (2010). The role of learning styles in second Assisted Language Learning, 29(1), 40.
language learning among distance education students.
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 1169-1173.
[21] Blin, F. (2004). CALL and the development of learner
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doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12237

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on Education (WNC 2017)
& e-Learning (EeL 2017)

Presenting a Model for the Design of an Empirically

Driven Implementation Evaluation of a School-
Based Health Education Program
Rachel Williams Gavin TL Brown
Faculty of Education & Social Work Faculty of Education & Social Work
The University of Auckland The University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand Auckland, New Zealand

Pat Bullen
Faculty of Education & Social Work
The University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand

Abstract-Comprehensive evaluations of health promotion
programs are infrequent in the public schooling context,
particularly in New Zealand (NZ). Most evaluations measure
program impact but few, if any, concurrently explore program
delivery or implementation. This study addresses this gap by
presenting the results of a cross-sectional implementation
evaluation of a social health promotion program, Kiwi Can,
operating in low-decile primary schools in NZ. Anonymous
questionnaire data was collected from 319 Year 3-6 students in
eight schools. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural
equation modeling indicated that the program was delivered to a
high standard, with fidelity, and adherence to participant needs
across all participating schools. The study provides a model for
the design of effective, empirically driven implementation
evaluations of school-based programs.
Keywords-implementation evaluation; evaluation methodology;
social health promotion programs; external provider; case study
I. INTRODUCTION
There are concerns about the social health and wellbeing of
children in New Zealand, particularly for those living in
poverty. According to [1] and [2], the rates of antisocial
behavior (bullying and violent behavior) amongst vulnerable
New Zealand children and adolescents are on the rise. The
White Paper for Vulnerable Children (New Zealand
Government, 2012) has outlined 12 strategies for improving
the health and wellbeing of vulnerable children, including
improved childcare provision and child health policy, funding
for support services, and child health program development
and evaluation. The strategies formed a comprehensive plan
that challenged organizations and individuals to provide
vulnerable children with the opportunities, resources, and skills
needed to develop into healthy, contributing members of
society. From a social health perspective, they also provided a
mandate for the provision of social health services and social
health promotion programs. Many of these programs were
delivered within the school context.
Within schools, particularly those in lower income
neighbourhoods, social health promotion programs are often
provided by external providers of health education. They
include the New Zealand police and fire services, community
public health workers, nurses, charitable trusts, health agencies,
commercial and not-for-profit organizations [3, 4]). Funding
for these program providers typically comes from private
donors, commercial organizations, not-for-profit trusts, and
branches of the New Zealand government [5, 6]. In both New
Zealand and overseas, funding is frequently offered on a fixed-
term basis, and contract renewal is contingent upon regular and
demonstrable evidence of program efficacy [7, 8] and the
economic value of the program [9, 10].

The research team would like to acknowledge the University of Auckland

for the financial support (Doctoral scholarship) provided to the lead author.

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doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.24 30
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All too often program evaluations focus on program impact
(outcomes) without considering the way in which the program
is implemented or delivered [7, 11, 12, 13]. This practice can
be a highly problematic, because, it ignores the natural
variability that exists within and between program providers,
schooling environments, and program participants (students).
Further, it may unknowingly bias or undermine the validity and
reliability of a subsequent outcome evaluation as differences in
measurable outcomes may be a product of the conditions of
delivery, of participation in the program or an interaction
between the two [14].
Unfortunately, implementation evaluation is relatively
infrequent. In fact, there are no published articles of any
implementation evaluations of social health programs operating
in the New Zealand school sector. Given the clear imperative
from the New Zealand government to offer these programs and
the proliferation of providers of social health education
programming in schools, it is crucial that comprehensive
evaluations of program implementation (and impact) are
conducted. The following study was, therefore, designed to
address this gap in the evaluation literature by presenting the
results of an implementation evaluation of a social health
promotion program operating in low-decile schools around
New Zealand. The program is called Kiwi Can.
Kiwi Can is a value and life skills-based program offered by
the Graeme Dingle Foundation (formerly the Foundation for
Youth Development), a charitable trust established in the mid-
1990s by mountaineer and adventurer Graeme Dingle and
lawyer Joanne Wilkinson [15]. The original goal of the trust
was to work with local communities to improve youth health
and wellbeing through the provision of positive developmental
programming. The Foundation oversees the delivery of four
school-based programs – Project K, Stars, Career Navigator,
and Kiwi Can. Kiwi Can is the only one of the five to operate
in both primary and intermediate schools. During the period
of this implementation evaluation study (2012-2013) it
operated in schools in eight geographically and culturally
diverse regions of New Zealand – Northland (n = 8 schools),
Auckland (n = 12 schools), Waikato (n = 6 schools),
Coromandel (n = 2 schools), Bay of Plenty (n = 14 schools),
Hawke’s Bay (n = 2 schools), South Canterbury (n = 8
schools), and Southland (n = 12 schools). In each of these
regions, a licensed community partner was responsible for
program provision, including the hiring and training of staff
(called leaders). Kiwi Can leaders were typically between 18
and 30 years of age and resided in the local community. Most
had between one and 11 years of experience as a Kiwi Can
leader, and none had trained as a teacher.
The Kiwi Can program consisted of both skill-based and
knowledge-based lessons. The lessons were delivered to all
children at participating low-decile schools on a class-by-class
basis, in a specially designated classroom, located on school
grounds. Kiwi Can classes varied in length from 30 minutes
for New Entrants to 60 minutes for Year 7 and Year 8
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students, and each class was facilitated by two Kiwi Can
leaders (usually a male and a female). All the children in the
school participated in one Kiwi Can lesson per week for the
duration of the academic year (i.e., 40 lessons per year).
As of 2012, Kiwi Can have a national curriculum document,
underpinned by four principles, and designed around four
specific values. The values – Positive Relationships, Integrity,
Resilience, and Respect, served as guiding themes and were
comprised of six modules, which were then delivered as units
of study. Curriculum content and delivery were standardized
throughout the country. The units were designed to be four
weeks in length, and schools were expected to cover two
themes and twelve modules in a single academic year.
Schools, therefore, had to participate in the program for two
full years before children had received instruction in every
area. Schools were therefore considered to be experienced
when they had participated in the Kiwi Can program for more
than two years. Before this, they were labeled new schools.
At the end of the two-year period, schools returned to the first
theme and repeated the four-theme cycle. Children who
attended an experienced Kiwi Can school from Year 1 to Year
8 were exposed to learning in each thematic area four times
over the course of their lives. All four themes embrace values
that promote prosocial attitudes and behaviors.
Through repeated exposure to the Kiwi Can program, it
was posited that children would develop: (i) a “can do” attitude
to the challenges of life, and a positive self-belief in their
capabilities; (ii) a sense of self-worth, and greater self-
confidence; (iii) respect for themselves, each other, their
school, family, local community, and New Zealand; (iv) a set
of core values, and the ability to take responsibility and be
accountable for their actions; and (v) the skills to make
positive, healthy decisions about their behavior [16]. As of
2012, the Foundation had not, however, formally evaluated the
implementation of their program or gathered any empirical
evidence of program efficacy. The decision was made to
partner with a research team at The University of Auckland to
undertake a comprehensive, two-stage evaluation. The first
stage was an implementation evaluation; the second stage was
an outcome evaluation. The design, methods, results and
analysis of the evaluation are in the following section.
Reference [17] argue that an implementation evaluation
involves five variables – fidelity, dosage, quality, participant
responsiveness, and program differentiation. Reference [18]
defined implementation evaluation as determining “what a
program consists of when it is delivered in a particular setting”
(p. 329). Fidelity, refers to how closely the program delivery
adhered to the program curriculum, dosage describes the
quantity and strength of the program, quality refers to how well
the components are delivered, and participant responsiveness
and program differentiation refer to how engaging and unique
the theory and practices are in the program.
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Reference [18] in a meta-analysis of 59 program evaluation TABLE I. SAMPLING FRAME FOR THE KIWI CAN EVALUATION

studies in the United States reported significant relationships
between the level of implementation across all five variables
and outcomes for participants in 76% of the studies reviewed.
This result led [19] to argue that the implementation and
outcome of programs are inextricably linked, but without clear
evidence that the program is being delivered as intended, it is
futile to measure outcomes and associate them with
involvement in the program. Reference [19] argue that this is
especially true for programs like Kiwi Can, which operate
under real world conditions.
For this study, it was assumed that content and delivery of
the Kiwi Can program would be the same in all participating
schools and that quality, fidelity, and participant
responsiveness would not differ according to the sex, year
level, or ethnicity of participants, or to school condition. In this
study school condition referred to a school’s status as new or
experienced – schools were deemed to be new if they had less
than two full years of experience with the Kiwi Can program,
and experienced, if they had more than two.
II. STUDY DESIGN
The implementation evaluation of Kiwi Can employed a
non-experimental, cross-sectional design. Data were collected
using an anonymous survey. Children in Year 4 to Year 6
from new and experienced Kiwi Can schools across New
Zealand were selected for participation according to a
purposive, cluster sampling technique. This technique was
chosen for logistical and financial reasons (there were a tight
timeline and a small operating budget for the project).
Children in Years 4 to 6 were targeted because they were
deemed sufficiently literate to be able to complete the survey
on their own, and because all Kiwi Can schools had children in
Years 4 to 6.
Framework. The sampling framework consisted of eight
schools (one each from the eight participating Kiwi Can
regions) distributed as three from Year 4, two from Year 5, and
Kiwi Can Status
Year
Level Number of
Experienced New
Groups
4 Northland; Southland Bay of Plenty 3
5 Hawke’s Bay Waikato 2
Auckland; South
6 Coromandel
Canterbury
3
Total 8
Participants. Numerous studies have reported issues with
response validity on self-report surveys with children and
adolescents [20], so all of the data were carefully screened and
cleaned before analysis. Three surveys that showed evidence
of blatantly mischievous or misleading reporting (e.g., surveys
which featured mono-numeric responses or where respondents
drew visible patterns on the pages) were removed. Surveys
with > 10% missing responses (n = 16) were removed. The
remaining surveys had missing data imputed using the
expectation maximization procedure, an iterative process in
which values are imputed successively until the underlying
imputed covariance matrix is almost identical to the covariance
matrix from the previous iteration [21]. The missing values
analysis indicated that the data were missing completely at
random (Little’s MCAR χ2 = 728.372, df = 507, p = .11) [22].
The final data set consisted of 319 complete student
questionnaires, representing approximately 1.0% of all children
currently enrolled in Kiwi Can from new entrant level to Year
8, and 14.5% of all children enrolled in Year 4 to Year 6.
Participation from new and experienced schools was roughly
equal (Table 2). There were slightly more female than male
participants, and more children from Year 4 (35.4%), than from
Year 3 (10.3%), Year 5 (25.7%), and Year 6 (28.5%). The
research team included Year 3 participants as they attended
Kiwi Can as part of integrated Year 3-4 classes. Just over half
of the participants identified as Māori, and a third as New
Zealand European.
TABLE II. FREQUENCY COUNT OF PRATICIPANTS BY DEMOGRAPHIC
VARIABLE

three from Year 6 (see Table 1). Initially, the eight regions Counts by Variable
were randomly divided into new and experienced categories. Variable
Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
Schools within each region were also categorized as new or School Condition
experienced depending on the number of years that they had Experienced 166 52.0
participated in the program. New 153 48.0
Sex
Male 154 48.3
Based on this framework, a list of potential schools (n = 52) Female 165 51.7
was drawn from the Kiwi Can database. Of those schools, 33 Year Level
were eligible for inclusion in the sampling frame (13 Year 3 33 10.3
experienced and 20 new schools). One school was then Year 4 114 35.4
Year 5 82 25.7
randomly selected from each region. All Year 4 to 6 children Year 6 91 28.5
from the selected schools were invited to participate in the Ethnicity
study by their Kiwi Can leaders. Permission to participate was Maori 173 54.2
sought from children and their parents. Data collection Pasifika 103 32.3
New Zealand European 24 7.5
commenced in October 2012 and concluded in November Asian 8 2.5
2012. Other 11 3.4

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Instrument. A 35-item questionnaire was used to gather data
for the implementation evaluation, and its design was informed
by the literature, informal observations of the Kiwi Can
program, and discussions with stakeholders (e.g., Kiwi Can
schools, and employees of the Graeme Dingle Foundation).
The questionnaire was piloted with five, Year 4 to Year 6,
children from a school in South Auckland, to ensure clarity of
instructions and content. No issues were reported. The pilot
data are not included in the main research project.
The final Kiwi Can implementation evaluation questionnaire
consisted of three parts. Part A contained five demographic
questions (sex, age, year level, the number of years of
schooling, and ethnicity). For ethnicity, students were
permitted to choose from a list of five options– Māori, Pasifika,
Pakeha/New Zealand European, Asian, and Other. For
analysis purposes, the standard Statistics New Zealand
prioritization method was used to assign students to a single
ethnic category [23]. This method is based on a formula:
Māori < 2.Pasifika < 3.Asian < 4.Pakeha < 5.Other. Children
who indicated that they were Māori (and any other ethnicity)
were assigned to the Māori category. Children who indicated
that they were Pasifika (and any other category except for
Māori) were assigned to the Pasifika category and so on.
In Part B of the survey, children were asked to recall
whether they had learned eight prosocial values and practiced
six prosocial skills in Kiwi Can lessons. The eight values
included were – respect, honesty, responsibility, motivation,
the capacity to cope with challenges, politeness, being a good
friend, and being a good team member. The six social skills
were – making goals, solving problems, talking nicely to other
people, being kind to others, co-operating with others, and
taking turns.
In Part C, participants were asked to rate the degree to
which they agreed with 16 statements regarding participation in
the Kiwi Can program, using a 5-point rating scale (see Table
3). The statements were grouped into five latent factors of
between two and four items – Liking Kiwi Can (n = 4 items),
Learning in Kiwi Can (n = 3 items), Lesson Structure (n = 4
items), Resources (n = 3 items), and Kiwi Can Leaders (n = 2
items). The item-response options were: 1= strongly disagree,
2 = disagree, 3 = slightly agree, 4 = mostly agree, and 5
=strongly agree.
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TABLE III. LATENT FACTORS AND ITEMS FROM THE KIWI CAN
EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Kiwi Can Questionnaire
Factor
Items
Overall, I really like the Kiwi Can lessons
Liking Kiwi Can
I am often bored during Kiwi Can lessons
I participate in all aspects of the Kiwi Can lessons
Kiwi Can lessons are the best part of the school week
I have learned new things from taking part in the Kiwi
Learning in Kiwi Can lessons
Can Kiwi Can lessons teach me important skills
Kiwi Can lessons teach me about values
The Kiwi Can lessons follow the same pattern (Recap,
Energizer, Catch Phrase and Activity)
Kiwi Can Lesson
Structure
We have a topic in each Kiwi Can lesson
My Kiwi Can lessons start on time
My Kiwi Can lessons are well organised
We use equipment in our Kiwi Can lessons
There is enough equipment for everyone in the class
Resources
I am taught how to use the Kiwi Can equipment safely
I look up to my Kiwi Can leaders.
Leadership
My Kiwi Can leaders are energetic.
III. ANALYSIS
The data was then analyzed using different techniques. Data
from Part B was initially analyzed using a k-means cluster
analysis [24]. This approach was used to test whether
responses about the frequency of recall regarding a) learning
and b) skill development in the Kiwi Can program were
indeed distinct categories. Half of the original data set (n =
160 cases) was randomly selected to undergo the k-means
cluster analysis, a five-stage iterative process. The process
produced a final iteration score or mean for Cluster 1 of 1.38,
and a final iteration score or mean for Cluster 2 of 1.15. Given
that the differences in mean scores for the two clusters, it was
assumed that they were distinct. This cluster solution was then
tested on the remaining cases, and the results were identical.
On this basis, the data from Part B was partitioned into two
distinct clusters (Cluster 1 - Learning Values, (n = 176 cases),
and Cluster 2 - Social Skill Development (n = 143 cases).
Pearson’s two-sided chi-square tests (χ2) were then computed
for each cluster to explore differences in the frequency of
children’s responses as a function of school condition, year
level, sex, and ethnicity. A significant chi-square test result (p
< .05) indicated that there was a statistically significant
difference in the frequency of response between the two
groups under investigation. If a significant χ2 result has
achieved, an odds ratio (OR) was computed. The OR assessed
the magnitude (size) of the difference (effect). An OR is a
measure of the likelihood or odds that one group will select a
response that differs from the other group. An odds ratio of 1.0
(or 1:1) indicates that there is no difference between groups.
An OR of 2.0, however, suggests that the odds of one group
selecting a response are twice as high as the other. According
to [25], an odds ratio of 1.68 represent a small association or
effect, 3.47, a moderation association and 6.71 a large
association.
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For Part C, a full latent variable model of the relationships TABLE IV. FREQUENCY OF STUDENTS RESPONSES FOR THE LEARNING
VALUES AND SOCIAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT DATA FROM THE KIWI CAN
among the observed answers to the items and unobserved latent QUESTIONNAIRE (PART B)
factors was developed using confirmatory factor analysis
Kiwi Can Questionnaire (Part B)
(CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) [26]. CFA Values and Practices
Frequency -Yes Frequency (%)
establishes the relationship of items into explanatory factors,
and SEM identifies the relationships between and among the Learning Values
factors. The fit of the models was assessed using the χ2/df, CFI, Honesty 297 93.1
Respect 309 96.9
RMSEA, SRMR, and gamma hat indices [27, 28, 29]. A Responsibility 261 81.8
model was deemed to have ‘good’ fit if the indices indicated Motivation 156 48.9
proximity of the model to the source data; good values were: < Coping with challenges 233 73.0
3.00 (χ2/df), >.95 (CFI), < .05 (RMSEA), < .06 (SRMR) and > Being polite 242 75.9
Being a good friend 276 86.5
.95 (gamma hat), while ‘acceptable’ fit was imputed if the Being a good team member 279 87.5
values were < 3.83 (χ2/df), > .90 (CFI, gamma hat), and < .08
(RMSEA, SRMR). Modeling was carried out in the AMOS Social Skill Development
(Version 21) software program [30]. Making goals
265 83.1
Solving problems
272 85.3
Talking nicely to others
Because the study included students in multiple groups Being kind to others
269 84.3
(i.e., type of Kiwi Can experience level, age, and region), it 286 89.7
Co-operating with others
278 87.1
was necessary to establish invariance before exploring group Taking turns
274 85.9
differences [26]. This requires that the configuration of paths
within a model be identical; accepted if RMSEA is < .05 [31].
Factor loadings (i.e., regression weights from factors to items) The results of the Pearson’s two-sided chi-square tests
need to be equivalent (i.e., differ by chance) and factor indicated that there were only three statistically significant
intercepts (i.e., response starting points) need to be equivalent differences in these values and practices. Only school
also. A model is considered equivalent if the fixing of the condition had a statistically significant effect for responsibility
parameter category to equal values for all groups creates a and motivation. Experienced school students reported learning
change (∆) in the CFI of < .01, or if the χ2 difference test for the about being responsible more frequently than new school
constrained model is not significant (p ≥. 05). Sequential students, χ2 (1) = 10.55, p < .001, OR = 2.71 and they also
testing of equivalence stops if the difference in CFI is > .01 or remembered practicing solving problems more than new
the χ2 value is significant (p ≤ .05). Once the invariance of the school students, χ2(1) = 6.14, p < .02, OR = 2.26. In contrast,
model was established, significant mean differences in factor new school students reported learning to be motivated more
endorsement were evaluated for year level, sex, ethnicity, frequently than experienced school students, χ2(1)= 11.00, p <
region, and school condition using a multiple analysis of .001, OR = 2.12. The magnitude of the association is small in
variance technique (MANOVA). The magnitude and direction each case and indicates that there is little significant difference
of effect were determined using the Pillai-Bartlett trace and in responding for new and experienced school students. There
Games-Howell post hoc test statistics [32]. were no statistically significant associations for any of the
other learning areas or social skills by school condition, sex,
IV. RESULTS year level, or ethnicity.

The iterative, k-means analysis of the dichotomous (yes/no)
categorical selection of items in Part B supported the initial
hypothesis that there were, indeed, two distinct clusters of data
in Part B – Cluster 1 (Learning Values) and Cluster 2 (Social
Skills Development).
The inter-correlated five-factor model of Kiwi Can
participation in Part C was tested with CFA (Figure 1) and
found to be not positive definite, and inadmissible. This result
suggested too many factors were present, and further
simplification of dimensionality was carried out.

Overall, the students recalled being taught or practicing

both the Learning Values and Social Skills Development
aspects, with positive response rates averaging 80% or better.
There was a moderate difference (d = .51) in favor of Social
Skills Development over the Learning Values. The most
anomalous result was the very low level of recall for the
learning value, motivation (see Table 4).

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TABLE V. INVARIANCE TESTING FOR THREE-FACTOR STRUCTURAL

EQUATION MODEL BY CONDITION

Structural Equation Modek

Level of
CFI (Sex) CFI (School)
Constraint
∆CFI (Sex) ∆CFI (School)
Unconstrained .832 .828
Model ---- ---
Measurement .826 .821
Model .006 .007
Measurement
.822 .818
Intercepts
.004 .003
Structural
.817 .809
covariances
.005 .009
Measurement .815 .799
residuals .002 .010
Figure 1. Measurement model of the original, five-factor structure in Part C of
the Kiwi Can implementation evaluation. This analysis established three latent factors concerning
participation in Kiwi Can that were used for subsequent
It was decided to merge the three program factors (i.e., analysis. Overall, self-reported mean scores were highest for
Kiwi Can Lesson Structure, Resources, and Kiwi Can Learning in Kiwi Can, followed by Kiwi Can Program, and
Leaders) into a single latent factor (Kiwi Can Program) finally, Liking Kiwi Can (Table 6). However, the difference
because they all referred to general characteristics of the between Learning in Kiwi Can and the Kiwi Can Program was
program. A new three-factor model (Figure 2) was tested and trivial (d = .16), and very large for both of these compared to
had acceptable to good fit characteristics (χ2/df = 2.47, CFI = Liking Kiwi Can (d = 1.56 and d = 1.60, respectively). When
.90; RMSEA = .068, 90% CI [.057, .079], SRMR = .049; mean differences were explored, the Pillai-Bartlett trace
gamma hat =. 94). The three factors were moderately to indicated that there were no statistically significant differences
reasonably correlated (r = .76 - .86), and standardised item in the degree to which Year 4-6 children Learned in Kiwi Can,
loadings ranged from moderate (β = .37) to high (β = .80). Liked Kiwi Can, or viewed the characteristics of the Kiwi Can
program as a function of age, year level, sex or ethnicity.
There was a small but significant difference, however, by
school condition. In this case, children in new schools
reported lower mean scores for Kiwi Can program
characteristics than children in experienced schools (d = .21).

TABLE VI. MEANT SCORES FOR LIKING KIWI CAN, LEARNING IN KIWI
CAN, AND KIWI CAN PROGRAMME CONDITION BY SEX, YEAR LEVEL AND
ETHNICITY

Counts by Variable
Variable a n KC a
Liking KC Learning in KC
Programme
M (SD) M(SD)
M (SD)
Total 319 3.71 (.50) 4.65 (.69) 4.55 (.55)
School
Condition 164 3.73 (.45) 4.68 (.66) 4.49 (.65)
Experienced 155 3/68 (.55) 4.62 (.72) 4.62 (.42)
New

Sex
Figure 2. Final three-factor structural model for Part C of the Kiwi Can 154 3.66 (.56) 4.57 (.76) 4.47 (.60)
Male
implementation evaluation student survey. Note: Standardized values shown 165 3.75 (.44) 4.65 (.69) 4.55 (.55)
Female
on regression paths and correlations; proportion variance explained shown on
error term paths.
Year Level
Year 3 33 3.61 (.71) 4.61 (.89) 4.68 (.39)
The new model had measurement, metric, and scalar Year 4 113 3.72 (.48) 4.66 (.69) 4.58 (.43)
invariance across sex (∆CFI < .01) and school condition Year 5 82 3.68 (.39) 4.69 (.53) 4.58 ).46)
(∆CFI < .01) (see Table 5). It was not possible to test Year 6 91 3.73 (.54) 4.61 (.77) 4.45 (.77)
invariance across ethnicities or year levels given the small Ethnicity
sample sizes in some conditions (n ≤ 50). Maori 173 3.70 (.55) 4.65 (.73) 4.52 (.63)
Pakeha/NZ 24 3.82 (.39) 4.69 (.67) 4.52 (.58)
European
Pasifika 103 3.71 (.43) 4.65 (.64) 4.59 (.44)
Asian 8 3.75 (.27) 4.79 (.35) 4.54 (.45)

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Counts by Variable
Variable a n KC a
Liking KC Learning in KC
M (SD)
Other 11 3.57 (.62)
a. Mean values based on a positively packed 5-point rating scale (1 = disagree, 2 = slightly disagree, 3 =
slightly agree, 4 = mostly agree, 5 = agree). KC = Kiwi Can.
V. DISCUSSION
Overall, the results of this survey suggest that the Kiwi Can
program was well liked and delivered to a high standard
across the eight sampled schools. In fact, high mean scores
(M > 4.00) were given for both Learning in Kiwi Can and for
Kiwi Can Program Characteristics. This suggested that the
children believed they were learning a great deal in Kiwi Can,
had adequate access to resources, and were supported by
strong program leaders. It also suggested that they felt that the
Kiwi Can lessons were well organized, topical, and structured
to meet their needs. There were small differences in mean
scores depending on whether the school was new or
experienced, but the size of the differences was small and only
related to the program characteristics factor, suggesting that
children were aware of school and the leader’s inexperience
with the program. However, the small size of difference (d =
.21) suggested that the differences would likely disappear with
time and practice.
From an evaluation perspective, the findings from this
implementation evaluation study are quite significant. They
provide empirical evidence that Kiwi Can is delivered with
fidelity, to a high standard and in a manner that met
participants’ needs across the sample. The findings will allow
the research team to eliminate the ‘conditions of delivery’ as
confounders in any subsequent outcome evaluations of the
program and to speak, with confidence, about the associated
benefits or drawbacks of participation in a health promotion
program on students’ social attitudes and behaviors in low-
decile school settings. This finding has implications for
program evaluators, educators and external providers of
educational programming in schools. Given the ever
increasing call for evidence of program efficacy, it may be
advantageous to consider a comprehensive program
evaluation, one that features both an implementation and an
outcome evaluation component. A comprehensive approach
will significantly strengthen the evaluation design and allow
professionals to confidently speak to program impact and
make an argument for continued funding – necessary practices
for educators and external providers of health promotion
programming operating in an increasingly competitive and
saturated market with the NZ schooling context.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research team would like to acknowledge the
leadership teams at the Graeme Dingle Foundation along with
the Kiwi Can schools, teachers, leaders, and students who
willingly participated in this implementation evaluation.
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Perceived Emotional Support In The Teacher-Student
Relationship
K. Marissa Krupa, M.A. (Author)
Education Department
Western State Colorado University
Gunnison, CO, USA
Abstract— The problem is, 36.4% of Montana’s Tenth
Grade students feel teachers care about them according to the
2014-2015 Student Voice Survey, while the staff voice survey
indicated 81% of teachers felt they care about their students [26].
The researcher’s hypothesis was low self-esteem for both students
and teachers contributed to the gap in perceptions of care. The
purpose of the study was to determine what role self-esteem
played in students’ low perceptions of teacher care, as well as the
teachers’ high perceptions of care for students. According to a
National Center for Self-Esteem study, as students age their self-
esteem diminishes [3]. Therefore, the researcher designed a
qualitative study where she chose and delivered several self-
esteem enhancement activities in the classroom, and collected
survey data from participants in the areas of self-esteem,
academic self-efficacy, and teacher support.
The results of the study indicated self-esteem
increased alongside academic self-efficacy. However, the
students’ perceptions of their teacher’s care decreased through
the study period. Several factors may account for the data,
including study design, study delivery, and prior relationships
with participants. Further studies warrant determining what
causes the perception gap in the caring behavior of the teacher-
student relationship.
Self-esteem, student-teacher relationship, student voice, perceptions
of care, academic self-efficacy.
I. INTRODUCTION
Teachers often reveal the relationships they
build with students as one of the highlights of the
profession. Even so, students often complain that
teachers don’t care about them. Data gathered through
studies as well as student and teacher surveys indicate a
gap in perceptions between demonstrations of care and
being cared for in classrooms. Many questions result
from this data gap: Do teachers have enough training to
address the social-emotional needs of students in the
classroom? Are students able to receive the caring
behavior of teachers? If not, what is blocking them?
Nearly two-thirds of American children
experience complex trauma, according to the Centers of
Disease Control and Prevention [10]. As a result of
trauma-effected children entering the school system, ill-
equipped staff may miss opportunities to effectively
Kimberly Silbaugh, M.A., Western State Colorado
University, Adjunct Faculty
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Copyright © GSTF 2017
ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.27 38
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demonstrate caring behaviors, as well as students may be
unable to “take in” the caring behavior demonstrated by
teachers. The study outlined in this paper intended to
uncover the role self-esteem plays in perceptions of care,
and determine possible solutions and/or further inquiries
of study to address the gap in data.
In the 2014-2015 school year, 10th grade
students in the state of Montana revealed a 54.6
percentile gap between how much teachers said they
cared for their students and how many students felt their
teachers cared for them [26]. A point to make note of is
the same survey questions did not get asked to students
as to teachers [26]. 36.4% of students responded
positively to: “Teachers care about my problems and
feelings.” [26]. Conversely, 81% of teachers responded
positively to: “I know my students’ hopes and dreams.”
[26]. In the case of the student surveys, the statement
posed directly inquires as to whether the students felt
cared for. However, the teachers were asked to respond
to a slightly different statement; knowing a student’s
hopes and dreams is something that can only happen
through building a relationship with the student. Does
knowing a student’s hopes and dreams translate into
caring for that student? For the purposes of this study,
the word “caring” refers to the Merriam Webster
definition number 4 under the term “care” which states
“regard coming from desire or esteem” [9]. A teacher
may have a high regard for all their students, even if they
do not know their hopes and dreams.
If students have low self-esteem, are they able to
receive and integrate caring behavior from teachers? If
teachers have low self-esteem because of a lack of
training, are they able to effectively convey caring
behavior to students? The proposed theory in this study
was that teachers can help students feel like they are
being cared for by incorporating self-esteem building
activities into the regular school curriculum. The
researcher conducted three activities in the classroom
during the research period for this study: journal writing,
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goal-setting, and self-awareness activities [8, 25].
Student participants received surveys every two weeks,
to monitor their thoughts on their own self-esteem, their
academic self-efficacy, and support demonstrated by the
classroom teacher (the researcher). Surveys began on
January 24th, 2017, and ended on March 17th, 2017. The
surveys contained an amalgamation of methods from a
variety of student voice and self-esteem surveys already
in the field.
After extensive literature review, research may
indicate a possibility both teachers and students play a
role in the misunderstanding of caring behavior in the
classroom. A student exposed to trauma, or adverse
childhood experiences (ACEs), struggles with cognitive
and emotional development, often labeled in schools as a
mental or emotional disorder [21]. Meanwhile, teacher
training programs only lightly touch on accommodating
students’ emotional needs [7]. In a study by Cynthia
Buettner, et al in 2016, researchers determined the
variety of early childhood education options in the
United States resulted in an inconsistency of childhood
educator and caregiver credentialing, most notably in the
area of “social-emotional learning” [7]. Because ACEs,
especially when sustained over time, prevent young
brains from properly developing social and emotional
skills, more children than ever before enter the public
school system without effective coping skills [21].
Teachers do not always have the skills to assist students
to fill in these emotional gaps before the secondary level
[7]. In 1991, Kristen Amundson wrote a booklet
published by the American Association of School
Administrators highlighting self-esteem’s fluidity within
a child, and even a lifetime [3]. She referenced statistics
gathered in 1987 by the National Center for Self-Esteem
indicating a 60% drop in self-esteem from when
kindergarteners enter school until their fifth-grade year
[3]. The center then indicated the percentage of positive
self-affect in high school seniors drops to 5% [3]. By the
time students become college seniors, only 2% exhibit
positive self-esteem, according to the center’s report [3].
Based on data collated by Amundson, and other research
studies, most environments in schools do not support
and supplement students’ self-esteem [3]. Although
Amundson acknowledges that outside factors, most
notably parent relationships, have a deeper impact on a
child’s self-esteem, the data demonstrating reduced self-
esteem the longer a young person attends school cannot
be ignored [3]. Therefore, even small actions of teachers
to foster self-esteem become critical to provide a
positive pathway of life success for a student.
One activity that seems to help students with
self-efficacy and academic achievement is surveys that
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ask students to directly offer their opinions about their
school experience. These surveys are often referred to as
“student voice” surveys. The key to success using this
method, however, is actually using the feedback to make
changes to the school environment [13]. If students do
not feel like administrators take their opinions seriously,
then they will not respond with accuracy [13].
While a variety of factors contribute to a
student’s self-esteem throughout their educational
career, teachers play a vital role in helping students
overcome systemic and social attitudes that foster
negative self-affect. The study highlighted in this paper
attempts to answer the questions surrounding the ideas
that both students’ ability to receive caring behavior and
teachers’ skills to deliver caring behavior result in
students with low self-esteem attitudes. The researcher
attempted to determine whether self-esteem building
activities introduced in a classroom could help reduce
the gap in student perceptions that they are cared for by
their teacher. Literature going back to the 1960’s
addresses the need for teachers to exercise mindfulness
about their speech and behavior towards their students
[14]. A student’s self-esteem is a major factor on
whether they can receive the caring words and behavior
of their teachers because self-esteem is created by two
attitudes: self-competence and self-liking [24].
Psychologists and psychiatrists learned through
extensive studies that the self-competence factor
contributed more heavily to youth depression, thus
perpetuating a sense of ineptitude that might stifle high
self-esteem in youth [24]. The intent of this study was
not to determine the number of undiagnosed depression
cases occurring in America’s youth today. The aim of
this study was to acknowledge that an inability to think
positively of oneself can be a block to perceiving that
others care, and that this phenomenon occurs with youth
as well as adults.
The primary question driving the need for this
research was: Why is there such a large gap in student
perceptions of their teacher’s caring behavior, compared
to the teachers’ perceptions about how much they care
for their students? An underlying question that may be
answered is: Can a teenager’s self-esteem still be
influenced? Many adults do admit they had one or two
favorite teachers in high school that they felt attached to,
and who helped mentor them through adolescence [12].
However, a student with three or more teacher mentors
may develop stronger self-efficacy for success after high
school. Another underlying question that this study
might answer: Although most teacher training programs
do not offer extensive training on social-emotional
techniques with students, can teachers still overcome this
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handicap with simple, easy-to-use activities in their
classroom to influence students’ self-esteem in a positive
way? If teachers already care greatly about their
students, their emotional intention plus some self-esteem
building activities may be all that’s needed to let
students know their teacher cares about them.
The methodological approach of this study is
qualitative with data from student surveys and current
literature. The researcher conducted an extensive
literature review on caring behavior, self-esteem by both
students and teachers, and convenient lessons
incorporating caring and self-esteem appropriate for the
secondary level. Findings from the literature review
indicated self-esteem is a considerable factor in the
teacher-student relationship, and the perceptions of both
teachers and students. In addition, self-esteem is a major
factor in student self-efficacy and academic success.
According to a doctoral dissertation study in 1989 by P.
E. Kitchener conducted with the assistance of Simon
Fraiser University, teachers bring in their personal
experiences, a “hidden curriculum”, which may
contribute to bias and a lack of self-esteem building
behaviors towards students [20]. Furthermore, the nature
of the school system, and the focus on achievement, may
also be a factor in reducing students’ self-esteem,
according to Amundson’s research efforts on the
reduction of self-esteem by the time students reach 5th
grade [3]. The State of Montana contracted the Quaglia
Institute for Student Aspirations to survey 10th-grade
students and all staff on three guiding principals: self-
worth, engagement, and purpose [2, 26]. For this study,
the researcher also used surveys to gather data to
determine whether students’ perceptions of the teacher’s
care for them changed after experiencing self-esteem
boosting activities in the classroom. The researcher
collated and categorized the survey data into these areas:
self-esteem, academic self-efficacy, and teacher support.
The researcher examined the survey data for an overall
change in the students’ concepts of self-esteem and
teacher care, as well as any change in the three
categories, to see if any one area increased or decreased
during the study period. The study design was emergent
occurring in an open-ended structure and the results
were analyzed to provide insight, meaning, and
information on potential further areas of study
surrounding the phenomena of student and teacher self-
esteem and perceptions of care.
On the whole, literature about student self-
esteem does not often delve into the classroom setting,
and address both the teachers’ and students’ roles in
providing a positive, self-esteem-boosting environment.
Much of the educational literature available is high-
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level, addressing what principals and/or parents can do
without providing what teachers and students can do [3].
Many journals and books about self-esteem and caring
focus solely on the teacher’s role, as is the case of
Kitchener’s doctoral thesis on the hidden bias of
teachers, Scott, C. G., Murray, G. C., Mertons, C., &
Dustin, E. R.’s study on school personnel’s beliefs on
self-esteem and their influence on students, and Barile
et. al.’s study on whether teacher reward programs
positively impact the teacher-student relationship [5, 20,
22]. This study considered the teacher-student
relationship as a two-way street regarding responsibility.
Most educators and educator preparation programs agree
every teacher should use language and behavior that
boosts student self-esteem in the classroom. However, if
a student is unable to receive that behavior due to poor
self-esteem, then no amount of effort on the teacher’s
part will change the student’s perception that they are
cared for.
The role of the researcher for this project was to
recruit students for the study, administer the surveys, as
well as administer the self-esteem boosting activities to
the class, collate the data, and report on the findings.
After the researcher/teacher conducted research to
establish the problem and build the research project
around an hypothesis, she conducted a Literature Review
of all timely studies and articles and established a survey
methodology for this research project. Next, the study’s
researcher/teacher recruited Sophomore students that
were enrolled in her high school classes by invitation.
Only the students who opted in to the research project
were given surveys, a total of 13 students. The
teacher/researcher delivered the surveys during class-
time. All surveys were identical, with no change in
questions or in the order of the questions on the survey.
No incentives were given to students who participated,
as well as no demerits were given to students who did
not participate. All data was kept secure per
Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI)
research guidelines, and was not altered in any way upon
reporting.
The primary bias in this study is that the
researcher had a prior relationship with the students who
were recruited. Only one student who was a late transfer
into the researcher’s class did not have a prior
relationship to the researcher. In addition, the researcher
also administered the self-esteem boosting activities in
the classroom. The activities were selected by the
researcher for ease-of-use in the classroom, with
minimal to no disruption in the expected curriculum. In
addition, no outside observers watched the classes to
document body-language, response time, classroom
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engagement, and similar behaviors to determine if the
activities presented were worthwhile to the students.
Even more significantly, no way existed to determine the
effect prior relationship building between the researcher
and the students had on the data. Because the students
were also part of the researcher’s regular classroom, if a
student liked the researcher, then the likelihood they put
positive results on the survey is quite possible.
Conversely, the same is true if the student didn’t like the
researcher; the likelihood that they put negative results
on the surveys is also quite possible. The research study
should have been conducted at the beginning of the
school year to eliminate this bias, but the timeline for the
capstone project at the researcher’s university did not
allow for this.
Studies indicate many factors come into play in
the development of a child’s self-esteem [3, 5]. Even so,
the same studies point to the child’s home life as the
defining place where the foundations of a child’s self-
esteem are built [3, 5]. When children enter school full-
time, a large part of self-esteem building and
maintenance shifts to the school [3]. Schools, districts,
and teacher preparation programs must prepare teachers
and school environments to accommodate an increasing
need in coping skills and self-esteem for students. This
research study attempted to address several concerns
about building and maintaining student self-esteem,
especially in the adolescent age group. Teachers must be
made aware of these issues, as well as taught some
practical skills and easy tools to bolster self-esteem in
the classroom. Students must be encouraged and
provided tools to boost their own self-esteem to be able
to receive the caring behavior of their teachers. In
addition, students must feel they are heard by teachers
and administrators, and have a sense that their opinions
will shape their school environment in order to build and
maintain their self-esteem [5, 13]. When administrators
and teachers partner with students to create positive,
self-esteem boosting school environments, students
become actively engaged in their academic success,
leading to on-going success in life [13].
II. METHODOLOGY
The study used a qualitative method based on
data from a review of current literature, and data from
student surveys. The researcher used an emergent study
design in an open-ended structure and analyzed the
results to provide insight, meaning, and potential areas to
study regarding the role self-esteem plays in a positive
student-teacher relationship.
The setting for the project took place in a
Montana High School, in an English II class. English II
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refers to the second year of required English classes,
targeting the Sophomore level with students aged 15-16
years old. The high school is in an urban setting in a
small-sized city of approximately 50,000 people,
including outlying rural areas. According to US News
and World Report 2014-2015 rankings, enrollment in
this school was 1,607 students [17, 18]. Out of those
students attending in the 2014-2015 school year, 52%
were male, and 48% were female [17, 18]. Additionally,
12% of students self-identified as non-white or minority
ethnicity and 28% of students were identified as
economically disadvantaged [17, 18].
Since the Student Voice and Teacher Voice
surveys uncovered the data gap with Sophomore-level
students, conducting this research project within a high
school setting at the Sophomore level provided relevant
data to answering the hypothesis [26]. The research
sample consisted of 13 Sophomore students ages 15-16
years old. The researcher did not record the ethnic and
racial demographics of the students participating in this
research project. The researcher did not want to
determine whether there was an ethnic or gender-based
reason for students’ perceptions of teacher care at this
time. The reason lies in the hypothesis that low self-
esteem in students may block them from perceiving
caring behavior regardless of gender or ethnicity. As the
research provided in this thesis paper already indicated,
self-esteem in youth is primarily built with the primary
care-givers (parents or guardians), but easily impacted
by a variety of other factors, such as social group, school
environment, neighborhood, religious affiliation, etc. [3,
22]. Therefore, for the purposes of this study, ethnic
background and gender were not tracked.
During the student data collection period, the
researcher, also acting as the classroom teacher,
conducted certain classroom activities that could
potentially boost the students’ self-esteem. The
teacher/researcher assigned these activities to all
students in the classroom, no matter their status as a
student participant in the research project. The first
activity was a journal project. Students were given a new
notebook, and asked to write in the journal. The
guidelines for what to write were mostly the students’
personal thoughts and feelings. Then, students could
choose whether the teacher/researcher read their entries
or not. The teacher/researcher graded the journals for
completion only, approximately every two weeks
through the study period and beyond. The second
activity was a goal-setting project. The
teacher/researcher taught students the concept of a
SMART goal and how to create this type of goal. The
teacher/researcher instructed the students to set a goal
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with two “check-in” dates to monitor their own progress.
At the end of the research period, the teacher/researcher
instructed students to reflect on their goal-setting process
and evaluate their level of success. The third activity
included personal surveys and a personal shield
worksheet from the mentor toolkit produced by Take
Stock In Children, a non-profit mentoring program in the
state of Florida [25]. Take Stock In Children designed
the personal shield and personal surveys to assist
mentors in helping their mentees learn about their
personality traits and skills [25]. The teacher/researcher
used the handouts in the classroom for the same
purposes. The teacher/researcher paired the surveys into
two similar characteristics, and photocopied the surveys
on two sides of a single paper: influencer and
investigator, doer and organizer, helper and creator. The
students chose the word pairing that they felt most
attracted to, and could choose to fill out one or both
sides of the survey. Then, students wrote in their
journals any insights from the survey(s) and what they
planned to do with this information for the future. For
the personal shield activity, students used drawings to
complete the shield at home, and shared about their
shield to other students in small groups. The follow-up
assignment was to journal about their experience.
The data from the student surveys in the
research period was cross-analyzed within the areas self-
esteem, academic self-efficacy, and teacher support. The
researcher developed the survey questions based on
several other student voice and self-esteem surveys
already published: the Asking Students Practitioner Brief
from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the New
York City Department of Education Student Perception
Survey, and the Modified Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem
Inventory from the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [6, 15, 16]. By coding the questions into the
three areas of self-esteem, academic self-efficacy, and
teacher support, data results will determine the
interaction of these various perceptions in the mind of a
student, and not only the perception of caring behavior
by the teacher.
III. FINDINGS
A. Introduction
The findings for this study fulfill some aspects
of the researcher’s hypothesis, and do not fulfill other
areas of the hypothesis. 13 students participated in four
surveys over the course of eight weeks, leading to 13
responses.
Within each question category, some question
responses revealed changes over the course of the four
surveys, while others remained the same. Although there
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is no control group for direct, quantitative comparison,
the self-esteem boosting activities were not used prior to
the research period, or after the research period.
Therefore, the likelihood that the self-esteem boosting
activities impacted the data is high.
The findings revealed older-aged students can
benefit from self-esteem boosting activities in the
classroom. As a result, further studies could be created
to determine which self-esteem boosting activities are
the most effective.
Students answered the questions in a seven-point
scale framework. The number “1” on the scale
represented an answer of “practically never”. The number
“7” on the scale represented the answer “very often”.
Question 16 asked respondents, “If you returned to this
class in three years, how much would the teacher be
interested in what you are doing?” As a result of the
wording of this question, the seven-point scale used in
question 16 had different labels with “1” representing
“would not care” and “7” representing “very interested”.
Out of the 24 questions on the survey, ten questions
showed a significant change in the responses over the
four weeks of the study. Out of those ten questions, eight
revealed a positive change, or increase, and two
demonstrated a negative change or decrease.
B. Academic Self-efficacy results
Academic Self-Efficacy Questions Combined
6
Number of Responses
5
4
Q18 -
Survey 1
3
Q18 -
2
1 Survey 4
Q23 -
0
Survey 1
(Practically
6
(Very Often)
5
Q23 -
Never) 1
Survey 4
Survey Answer Scale
7
Figure 1. Survey One and Four data combined
Figure 1 includes the response data for questions
18 and 23 only, revealing a significant change in
responses between survey one and survey four. Question
18 asks respondents to identify “How often do you feel
like giving up when schoolwork becomes hard?” Figure
1 shows that in the first survey nine students, or 69% of
total respondents do not feel like giving up when
schoolwork becomes hard, 50% of the time or higher.
Figure 1 reveals a shift further into the
“practically never” zone of the scale for question 18’s
data in the fourth survey. While the respondents for “3”
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on the scale reduced from three students to one student,
the respondents for answers “2” and “1” on the scale
increased resulting in 11 students or 85% of total
respondents would not give up on difficult schoolwork
50% of the time or more. The increase in respondents
answering in the 1-4 range is 16%.
These figures demonstrate a significant shift in
the amount of students who feel like giving up when
homework becomes tough. In the first survey, most
students felt like giving up when homework gets tough
only slightly less than 50% of the time. By the fourth
survey, the majority of students did not feel like quitting
at all, when homework became challenging.
Respondents are asked to answer “Do you ever
feel less capable than others in your grade level?” in
question 23. This question could be considered a self-
esteem question. Question 23 is included in academic
self-efficacy because of the words “in your grade level”.
In Figure 1, out of 12 responses, seven are within the
neutral to low range, meaning 58% of students
“practically never” feel less capable than their peers
academically 50% of the time or more.
The question 23 data from the fourth survey,
shown in Figure 1, reveals eleven responses, or 85%, in
the neutral to low range, numbers 1-4. This data is an
increase of 27% of students who “practically never” feel
less capable than others, 50% of the time or more.
C. Self-esteem results
Self-Esteem Question 24 Combined
5 project. Only two questions within the academic self-
Number of Responses
4 Q24 -
3 Survey 1
2 Q24 -
1
Survey 4
0 have been the right style or methods to assist students to
(Practically
6
(Very Often)
5
Never) 1
Survey Answer Scale
7
Figure 2. Survey One and Four data combined
Question 24 asked respondents “How often do you
feel you have a strong sense of self-respect?” In survey
one, Figure 2 reveals four responses fell within the lower
range of the answer scale, and eight responses fell within
the higher register of the scale. The four respondents
who answered in the 1-4 range of the scale signify 31%
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of total respondents who did not feel they held a sense of
self-respect 50% of the time or less, with one student
selecting “practically never”.
In the higher register of the scale, Figure 2 shows
four students, or 30% or respondents, chose “5” on the
scale, and feel self-respect more than 50% of the time.
Three students, or 23% of respondents, chose “6” on the
scale, and feel self-respect 75-80% of the time.
The fourth survey results for Question 24, shown in
Figure 2, reveal a 23% increase in the amount of “7”
responses by the end of the survey period. Choosing “7”
means these respondents feel they respect themselves
almost 100% of the time. Even more significantly,
Figure 2 reveals a drop in respondents who chose “1”
and “3” for question 24, by the fourth survey. Figure 2
also shows only two respondents chose “5”, or believed
in their self-respect over 50% of the time, in the fourth
survey for Question 24. Although initially this reduction
may be cause for concern, the decrease is offset by a
significant increase in respondents who chose “7”. These
findings indicate a significant increase in self-respect for
students throughout the study period. As a result, one
can infer that older students can still be positively
impacted in the area of self-esteem.
So far, the research results of this project demonstrate
that more studies with control groups could determine
whether secondary students could benefit from self-
esteem boosting activities in classrooms or in the larger
school environment. However, the impact of self-esteem
on academic self-efficacy was not as large as had been
predicted, at least within the scope of this research
efficacy section showed an upward trend. Yet, many
studies link academic success with self-esteem [3, 4, 22].
In this study, the self-esteem boosting activities may not
transfer their personal self-esteem into their academic
pursuits.
D. Teacher Support Question results
The teacher support category sustained the most
significant changes out of all the question categories
because two questions revealed a clear negative shift.
Three other questions seemed to reveal a positive shift,
but after further inspection became a wash because of
the increase in both ranges of the survey answer scale,
numbers 1-4 on the low end, and numbers 4-7 on the
high end.
Positive Results in Teacher Support
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Teacher Support Question 7 - Combined

6
Nmber of Responses

5
Q7 - question 16. For the first survey, Figure 4 shows four
4
3 Survey respondents in the neutral to low range, representing
2 1
1 Q7 -
0 Survey
4 Teacher Support Question 16 - Combined
(Practically

6
(Very Often)
5
Never) 1

5
Survey Answer Scale

Number of Responses
4 Q16 -
3 Surve
y1
2
Figure 3. Survey One and Four data combined 1 Q16 -
Surve
0
y4
Question 7 asks students: “How often does this

Interested) 7
5
(Would Not
teacher communicate their high expectations of you?”

Care) 1

(Very
Setting and communicating expectations to students is a Survey Answer Scale
critical factor for academic success. Figure 3 shows 76%
of the respondents answered question 7 within the higher
register of the scale, numbers 4-7, in the first survey. Figure 4. Survey One and Four data combined
For the fourth survey results, Figure 3 shows an
31% of overall respondents. For the upper register of the
increase of one respondent choosing areas “1” and “2”
scale, Figure 4 shows eight respondents, or 62%, felt the
on the scale for question 7, meaning a 15% increase of
teacher would be interested in their lives in three year’s
students felt the teacher did not communicate her
time.
expectations more than 50% of the time. However,
Again, in the fourth survey, Figure 4 reveals a
Figure 3 also shows a decrease of one respondent each in
negative shift towards the middle area of the scale,
the scale points “3” and “4”. Initially, the decrease might
compared to the first survey. The total amount of
seem positive. However, the higher register of the scale,
respondents in the lower scale registers, numbers 1-4,
numbers 4-7, only show an increase of one respondent
increased from four to five, with the biggest increase in
overall for that section of the scale. With only an 8%, or
scale selection “1”. Two respondents chose scale
one student, increase in the “7” area of the answer scale,
selection “1”, representing a 16% increase in total
the gains made in “7” do not outweigh the increase in
respondents, compared to the first survey where no
areas “1” and “2”.
students chose selection “1”. These students feel the
Some possible explanations and interpretations
teacher “would not care” about how they were doing
of this data could be that communicating high
three years from now, 100% of the time. Although one
expectations to students is often specific to the
less respondent chose “3” on the scale, the decrease in
assignments, and therefore not as individually relatable.
this area is overshadowed by the increase in selection
Additionally, if a teacher communicates class objectives
“1” on the scale.
every day, then students may become so accustomed to
For the higher register of the scale in the fourth
this beginning of class “ritual” that they don’t even
survey results, Figure 4 reveals a 23% increase in
realize the teacher is communicating high expectations.
respondents choosing “4” on the scale, to four students
Thus, knowing the ways how a teacher might
total who feel the teacher would care about their lives in
communicate high expectations may play a part in
three year’s time only 50% of the time. Additionally,
whether students observe or receive them. One
Figure 4 also shows a 23% decrease in choice “5” and an
consideration to make is whether students with high self-
8% decrease in choice “6” on the scale. Similarly to the
esteem even realize expectations are being
lower register of the scale, the single respondent
communicated because their strong self-esteem and
increase, or 8% of total respondents, for scale area “7”
quest for academic achievement may internally
was outweighed by the decreases in the scale choices of
supersede any expectations from an outside authority,
“5” and “6”.
like the teacher.
The visual data exhibited in Figure 4 easily
Negative Results in Teacher Support reveals the attitude shift of the students about how much
Figure 4 shows that respondents answered “If or little they believe the teacher would care about their
you returned to the class in three years, how much would lives, three years from the time they spent together in
the teacher be interested in how you are doing?” for class. Curiously, the attitudes of the participants trended

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negatively, even though their self-esteem scores trended
positively.
IV. DISCUSSION
The findings of this study prove part of the
hypothesis of this study, but also provide surprising
information. Additional studies could be and should be
created in the area of student and teacher perceptions of
caring behavior. Studies that use a variety of teachers in
a variety of grade levels with control groups would
provide better statistical analysis. Also, studies that
determine the most effective self-esteem boosting
activities with a high ease-of-use in the classroom,
would provide a more statistically sound foundation for
further studies. Even so, the core point the research
project aimed to achieve, the role of self-esteem in the
student and teacher perceptions of mutual care, was
accomplished.
Through the findings, the data increase in self-
esteem for question 24, along with increases in two other
questions in the self-esteem category, demonstrates that
older, secondary-level students do still benefit from self-
esteem building activities in the classroom. The shifts to
higher self-esteem were not statistically large. Many
students in the study already indicated they had a healthy
level of self-esteem. However, a shift in the higher
register zone of the scale, from 4-7, still means these
students’ self-esteem was affirmed and supported by the
activities, thus helping their self-esteem to remain strong
during a challenge.
Along with an increase in self-esteem, there was
some change in the academic self-efficacy of the
students. The changes were not as significant as the
researcher had hoped, but does point to the correlation
that many other researchers discovered, such as Cooke-
Sather, Amundson, Scott et al, and Arum, that a high
self-esteem does impact a student’s academic success [3,
4, 13, 22].
Survey question 18 reveals that most students
who already had a reasonable sense of academic self-
efficacy increased that efficacy during the research
period. Additionally, one less student chose a section on
the scale in the higher register, the 4-7 range. Therefore,
the small, integrated self-esteem activities in the
classroom may have influenced at least one student in
the study to realize they have more perseverance to
withstand difficult schoolwork than they may have
previously realized.
Additionally, as previously mentioned, question
23 could be seen as a self-esteem question or an
academic self-efficacy question. As previously
discussed, the researcher chose to include the question in
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academic self-efficacy because of the reference to “grade
level” in the wording of the question. Therefore, the
slight uptick in “practically never” responses does
support the researcher’s theory that self-esteem
positively impacts academic success.
The most thought-provoking aspects of the
findings were the mixed results within the teacher
support questions. The increase in student perceptions
for teacher caring in question 7 was very slight, and
almost flat. Question 7 is a relationship question with a
direct connection to academic support. Communicating
high expectations allows students to know the direction
and end-goal of a particular activity or unit, boosting
student self-esteem if the end-goal is attained. If students
are confused about the expectations, they do not know
what they are expected to learn. This confusion can
cause anxiety in students, possibly derailing their
academic efforts. Their response may be to simply quit,
and not try to learn the concepts or skills and complete
the work associated with those skills. Thus, explaining
expectations often and well is extremely important to
develop student engagement. The question that the data
for question 7 does not answer is whether the teacher’s
communication of expectations improved on her own, or
whether the students’ increased self-esteem allowed the
students to understand or conceive of the expectations
better. More studies are needed to determine if increased
self-esteem of the students allowed them to perceive the
high expectations set by the teacher. Additionally, since
the teacher of record is also the researcher, it may be
possible that conducting the study itself increased the
teacher’s own self-esteem, and/or influenced the way in
which she presented her expectations of the students.
Also within the teacher support category,
question 16 showed a decrease in student perception that
the teacher supported the students. Question 16’s
underlying component is emotional. Students determine
if their teacher is really interested in who they are, and
whether that interest would carry over several years later
after they graduated from high school. The responses for
this question also demonstrated a decreasing trend
throughout the study period. Again, the results of this
question did not fulfill the researcher’s hypothesis. An
increase in self-esteem did not seem to impact the
student’s sense of sincere care by the teacher. One
possibility is that the self-esteem boosting activities were
not the best one’s to allow the teacher to show her care
to the students. Gary Chapman’s “5 Love Languages”
asserts every person values love delivered in a certain
way for example, receiving gifts, physical touch, or
words [11]. If students perceive caring behavior as
physical touch, then they would not perceive the care of
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the teacher if the teacher only used caring words in the
classroom. Teachers may be limited to provide all the
“love languages” like physical touch, in class, due to
current laws [11]. Therefore, students may not be able to
perceive caring behavior for other reasons besides just
self-esteem.
Despite the results of question 16, all the other
questions in the teacher support category either showed a
slight increase or no change. Therefore, when students’
self-esteem is high and healthy, most of the time
students perceive the teacher as supporting them
academically and emotionally. A decrease for two
questions out of the eight presented in the teacher
support category, represents 25% of the total questions
in that category. Other factors such as the mood of the
student, the impact of a particular assignment in the
class, other students’ influence on the survey taker, and
more, could have impacted the students’ choices. A
study to determine what the primary factors are for
student and teacher caring perceptions, might be the first
step to generating useful data to assist educators in their
classroom choices.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The research project did not establish a
correlation between increased self-esteem in either
students or teachers, and a reduced gap in perceptions of
teacher caring behavior. Teacher caring behavior means
the teacher demonstrates interest in the students’ social,
emotional, and academic wellbeing. While students’
self-esteem did increase through the research period,
their perception of the teacher’s caring behavior showed
mixed results.
The goal-setting activities in this study were
intended to assist students, especially at the Sophomore
level, to envision a future after high school, hopefully
increasing their academic engagement so they will
graduate on time. Studies show active coping skills with
a broad range of coping strategies are likely to be the
best defense against stress and potential psychological
problems like depression [19]. However, to be
successful with life after high school, students need to
establish a future vision to begin with. Learning about
themselves, their learning habits, their personality traits,
etc., will help students to believe a future for their
unique abilities exists after high school. Some self-
esteem boosting activities, like the journal, lasted
through the research period. Others, like the personal
shield, were only a one-time experience. The activities
needed to be open-ended enough to apply to a variety of
segments of a unit, in case the daily lesson plans needed
more time, or needed to be adjusted for some reason.
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Self-esteem boosting activities did correlate with
a rise in academic self-efficacy. Although the rise in
academic self-efficacy was low from a data percentage
perspective, the data did reveal a rise.
The connection between a rise in self-esteem by
students and a shift in perception by students of teacher
caring behavior in the classroom is not definitive.
During the research period, teacher support questions
revealed mixed data. Several questions had slight
increases of perception that the teacher supported the
students. Several questions also had a decrease in
perception that students felt supported by the teacher.
Despite the perception that the teacher may or may not
support the students, the students’ self-esteem still rose.
A question to explore in the future is: Could students
self-learning about their own abilities, result in their not
needing so much support from the teacher?
Critics may argue self-awareness and self-
esteem building are roles the school counselors should
play, or are better utilized in outlier populations like
Special Education or Gifted and Talented programs.
Many teachers might feel overburdened with having to
add yet another aspect of coaching to their already full
plate. The premise of this study suggested every adult in
a school is responsible for building the self-esteem of
student because education literature and previous studies
already demonstrated a direct correlation between
positive student self-affect and academic achievement
[3, 5, 13, 20, 22, 23]. This study contributed to the
current literature that concludes consistent
encouragement over time, even in small amounts, can
make a big difference in a student’s view of themselves.
The idea that self-esteem building requires lengthy,
dedicated time by educational staff is not proven in this
study. Conversely, with flexible activities incorporated
into required curriculum, this study demonstrated
general education teachers, not only teachers working
with specialized populations, can have a positive self-
esteem impact on students.
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
This researcher recommends additional studies
that would provide cleaner, more precise data in several
areas that came to light while conducting the project.
The first study needed is one to determine which in-class
self-esteem boosting activities are the most effective for
high school 10th grade students. This study needs a
control group and test group for a variety of teachers to
remove participant bias from the data. Furthermore,
using a variety of teachers with different styles, who will
deliver the self-esteem boosting activities in a slightly
different way, will also solidify which activities will
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stand the test of time and variation and still prove
effective.
The final recommendation is to create a study
that includes teacher reinforcement of self-esteem with
the same activities and techniques specialized for content
area throughout the students’ school day. Using initial
studies to determine the best self-esteem boosting
activities for teachers’ limited time, age group
appropriateness, and effectiveness, as well as multiple
teacher delivery and control groups to reduce bias, could
then shape a comprehensive and potentially longitudinal
study of the effectiveness of a holistic positive self-
esteem environment on secondary students. Determining
if a holistic environment of self-esteem enhancement
helps increase students’ self-esteem, as well as provide
more teacher empathy, would be valuable for
administrators and districts. This kind of study might be
able to create a “program”, like the PAX Good Behavior
Game specifically for secondary students [1].
Additionally, a study designed in this way might
reinforce Cooke-Sather’s ideas about student
participation as a source of student-to-teacher empathy
and academic success [12]. The result might be a shift in
how students are taught altogether with practical
application of whole child learning.
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Rpt.pdf
[2] 8 Conditions that make a difference in students (Issue brief No. 4).
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[3] Amundson, K. (1991) Building self-esteem: A guide for parents, schools
and communities. Arlington, VA: American Association of School
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[4] Arum, R. (2011). Improve relationships to improve student performance.
Phi Delta Kappan, 93(2), 8-13.
[5] Barile, J., Donohue, D., Anthony, E., Baker, A., Weaver, S., & Henrich,
C. (2011, March 15). Teacher-student relationship climate and school
outcomes: Implications for educational policy initiatives. Journal of
Youth & Adolescence, 41(3), 256-267.
[6] Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. (2012). Asking students about
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[7] Buettner, C. K., Hur, E. H., Jeon, L., & Andrews, D. W. (2016,
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[8] Canfield, J. (1990, September). Improving students’ self-esteem.
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[9] Care. (2017) in Miriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.)
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[10] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Adverse childhood
experiences (ACEs). Retrieved from http://cdc/gov/ace
[11] Chapman, G. D. (2005). The five love languages: how to express
heartfelt commitment to your mate. Waterville, Me.: Thorndike Press.
[12] Cook-Sather, A. (2007a). Direct links: Using email to connect pre-
service teachers, classroom-based teachers, and high school students
within an undergraduate teacher preparation program. Journal of
Technology and Teacher Education, 15 (1),11-37.
[13] Cook-Sather, A. (2007b). What would happen if we treated students as
those with opinions that matter? The benefits to principals and teachers
of supporting youth engagement in school. NASSP Bulletin, 91, 343-
362.
[14] Coopersmith, S. (1967) The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco,
CA: W.H. Freeman.
[15] Dahlberg LL, Toal SB, Swahn M, Behrens CB. Measuring violence-
related attitudes, behaviors, and influences among youths: A
compendium of assessment tools, 2nd ed., Atlanta, GA: Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention
and Control, 2005.
[16] Gonzales, Y., Jackson, E., & Rivera, R. (n.d.). Featured program: The
student voice collaborative, New York City (1). Retrieved March 27,
2017, from The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning website: http://www.casel.org/student-voice-collaborative/
[17] A High School in Helena, Montana. (n.d.). Retrieved March 5, 2017,
from http://public-schools.startclass.com/ Sources: CoreLogic, CRDC,
BLS, NCES, American Community Survey, Khan Academy, and DOE.
[18] High School Rankings. (n.d.). Retrieved March 5, 2017, from
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highschools/montana/districts/helena-school-district/helena-high-
school12089
[19] Noble, C. L., Ashby, J. S., Gnilka, P. B. (2014, April). Multidimensional
perfectionism, coping, and depression: Differential prediction of
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Counseling. (Vol. 17). Pgs 81-91.
[20] Kitchener, P. E. (1992). Student perception of aspects of teacher student
interactions which enhance or inhibit learning opportunities in the
classroom (Doctoral dissertation, Simon Frasier University) Retrieved
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[21] Plumb, J., Bush, K., & Kersevich, S. (2016, Spring). Trauma-sensitive
schools: An evidence-based approach. School Social Work Journal,
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[22] Scott, C. G., Murray, G. C., Mertons, C., &Dustin, E. R. (1996,
May/June). Student self-esteem and the school system: Perceptions and
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[24] Tafarodi, R. W., and Vu, C. (1997, June). Two-dimensional self-esteem
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[25] Take Stock In Children. (2005). The mentor toolkit: Section 2: Personal
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[26] United States, State of Montana, Office of Public Instruction. (2015).
Statewide Student Voice Survey, 2014-2015. Helena, MT: Quaglia
Institute for School Voice and Aspirations.
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Faculty Versus Student Perceptions of Teaching
Presence in Distance Education Courses
A Mixed-Methods Study
Judith Slapak-Barski, EdD
Nova Southeastern University: Halmos College of Natural
Sciences and Oceanography, Dania Beach, FL, USA
Abstract—Online learning environments are considered more
convenient than face-to-face (or traditional) learning
environments, since they provide learning opportunities that
occur in diverse settings. However, online courses typically lack
the visual cues and interaction of face-to-face classrooms, so
online students may experience an isolation effect as a result of
learning at a distance, or in the perceived absence of their peers
and instructor. The concept of distance in online education does
not refer just to a separation in time and space, but also to the
pedagogical space between distant learners and instructors.
Feelings of isolation experienced by distant students are
grounded in Moore’s transactional distance theory, which posits
that, as the amount of dialogue increases, transactional distance
decreases. Accordingly, establishing teaching presence in distance
education courses can minimize the isolation effect and reduce
transactional distance in many ways. This award-winning study
described and compared student and faculty perceptions of
teaching presence in synchronous and asynchronous distance
education courses at the college or university level. A mixed-
method methodology was employed using a scale measuring
teaching presence for the quantitative strand and student and
faculty focus groups for the qualitative strand.
Teaching presence, student perceptions, faculty perceptions,
distance education, online learning.
I. INTRODUCTION
Online learning was introduced to the educational
landscape 20 years ago. The incidence and complexity of
online education programs has steadily grown in the United
States over the last decade, and it is expected to continue to
grow [2] [4] [8] [28] [38]. Schlosser & Simonson (2006) [30]
noted that distance education is defined as “institution-based,
formal education where the learning group is separated, and
where interactive telecommunications systems are used to
connect learners, resources, and instructors” [30]. Distance
education holds enormous potential for all students, especially
for non-traditional ones. Non-traditional students are those who
otherwise could not attend classes due to family, health, or
work-related issues [33].
However, simply posting online content into an online
classroom is not an effective approach to online instruction. In
distance education environments, effective learning should
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Copyright © GSTF 2017
ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.29 48
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Alex Edmonds, PhD
Nova Southeastern University: Abraham S. Fischler
College of Education, Davie, FL, USA
focus on the interaction between e-learning technologies and
pedagogy [10] [26] [37]. Instructors in online courses can
improve course quality and combat students’ feelings of
isolation by establishing Teaching Presence (TP). TP refers to
the instructor’s leadership and facilitation that leads to students
achieving meaningful understanding through interaction and
collaboration [3].
In order to effectively establish TP in distance education
courses, educators and administrators alike need practical and
coherent frameworks for understanding the technological,
pedagogical, and organizational implications of online
education in higher education environments. A systematic
approach has to underlie all aspects of the process, including
multiple theoretical foundations or learning perspectives, and a
thorough analysis of the interrelated elements necessary for a
successful online learning experience [9]. For instance, in
Gagne’s model, effective instructional content presentation is
best organized under specific conditions of learning and
cognitive information processing theory [12]. Also, in
accordance with current online-course quality-assurance
initiatives, it is necessary to clearly identify, measure, and
quantify specific elements of quality online courses and
programs, including quality and sequencing of instructional
materials; quality of instruction; quality and ease of use of the
Learning Management System (or delivery system);
institutional support for faculty and students (both technical
support and instructional design and media services for online
instructors, and technical support for online students);
assessment of learning, the learning environment, and the
performance environment; and distant students’ identity
verification procedures to support the process of learning
online.
II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study used a mixed-method methodology to compare
instructor and student perceptions of TP in distance education
courses. This is considered a sequential approach and places
emphasis on the quantitative data, with the qualitative
component viewed as secondary [7] [11].
Due to the mixed method nature of this study, two different
sampling strategies and inclusion criteria were used for the
quantitative and the qualitative strands. For the quantitative
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strand, a survey approach with a cross-sectional design was Similarly, 96% of instructors reported providing timely
utilized, which allowed the data to be collected at one point in feedback, whereas only 58% of students agreed.
time from the identified convenience sample. For the
qualitative portion, interviews were conducted with faculty
TABLE I. PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND FACULTY
focus groups and student focus groups. Participants were local AGREEING OR DISAGREEING WITH SURVEY ITEMS
or geographically dispersed, from different colleges and
universities in the United States.
SURVEY ITEM PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE
The survey used was the TPS (Teaching Presence Survey). AGREEING DISAGREEING
The Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework features three
essential elements of an educational experience: cognitive STUDENTS FACULTY STUDENTS FACULTY
presence, social presence, and TP. The TPS measures
perceptions of TP. The other two sections of the survey, Design and Organization
cognitive and social presence, were not used for this study. The 1. Instructor clearly
communicated 73.7 98.0 10.5 0.0
TPS attempts to operationalize the (CoI) framework, and important course
features 13 items in three sections: Design and Organization, topics
Facilitation, and Direct Instruction [4] [13]. The TPS uses a 5- 2. Instructor clearly 100.0 8.8 0.0
point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 communicated 75.4 100.0 8.8 0.0
(strongly agree). important course
goals
For the qualitative strand, the sampling strategy was a 3. Instructor provided
purposeful sample. Focus groups meetings with both faculty clear instructions on 75.4 100.0 15.8 0.0
how to participate in
and students were held to collect the qualitative data. During
course activities
focus group meetings, participants responded to a small 4. Instructor clearly
number of open-ended general questions, and candidly shared communicated 78.9 100.0 8.8 0.0
and discussed their experiences in fully online courses. Their important due
shared viewpoints helped to identify perspectives and beliefs dates/time frames
that may not have been available otherwise [23]. Focus group Facilitation
meetings were recorded in video and audio formats, and data 5. Instructor
identified areas of 50.9 78.4 17.5 3.9
were collected through note taking by a research assistant. The agreement and
findings from each strand were then merged to provide disagreement on
interpretive results. Data from the qualitative strand were course topics
quantified and then associated with the quantitative results of 6. Instructor guided
the TPS. the class towards 56.1 92.2 24.6 0.0
understanding course
RESULTS topics in a way that
clarified thinking
Faculty and students shared their views frankly after 7. Instructor kept
experiencing the special conditions of distance education course participants 54.4 88.2 31.6 2.0
courses. For both quantitative and qualitative strands, faculty engaged in productive
dialogue
assessed their TP more favorably than students did.
8. Instructor kept
Of the 108 participants who completed the TPS, 51 were students on task 59.6 94.1 28.1 0.0
instructors and 57 were students. For the quantitative portion, 9. Instructor
encouraged 54.4 86.3 14.0 2.0
participants’ responses to the TPS were compared by specific exploration of new
survey item, combining agree and strongly agree responses and concepts
combining disagree and strongly disagree responses. Analysis 10. Instructor actions
of their responses showed that faculty reported higher reinforced the 40.4 82.4 36.8 5.9
perceptions of TP than students in online courses in each of the development of a
sense of community
three categories of the TPS: Design and Organization, among course
Facilitation, and Direct Instruction. Also, a chi-square test of participants
independence was performed to examine the relation between Direct Instruction
faculty and student perceptions of TP. Results revealed that 11. Instructor focused
faculty and student perceptions were significantly different in discussion on relevant 66.7 96.1 17.5 2.0
all three categories. issues
12. Instructor
Table 1 below shows the results of the comparisons for all provided feedback on 47.4 92.2 36.8 0.0
survey items, by survey section. It is noteworthy that 82% of student strengths and
weaknesses
faculty agreed that instructors developed a sense of
13. Instructor
community, yet only 40% of students agreed. Also, whereas provided timely 57.9 96.1 24.6 0.0
92% of instructors reported providing feedback on student feedback
strengths and weaknesses, only 47% of students agreed. Student n = 57. Faculty n = 51

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For the qualitative portion, participants in the virtual focus
groups were seven instructors and eight students who taught or
studied online at the college or university level. Participants
clearly noted what worked, what did not work, and expressed
what could have made the educational experience better.
The qualitative data were thematically analyzed and
interpreted as a means of explaining the quantitative findings,
with the aim of providing greater insight into the particular
dynamics that develop in distance education courses. The
thematic analysis of the faculty and student focus group data
generated six combined key themes: (a) faculty actions to
implement TP, (b) student roles and responsibilities, (c)
students’ perceptions, (d) sense of community in distance
education courses, (e) institutional actions to support faculty,
and (f) students’ support systems.
Many of the viewpoints that arose pointed out issues
associated with TD, such as the temporal and geographical
separation between faculty and students, including the lack of
visual cues, and the general absence of real-life interaction,
among others. Even those who reported utilizing synchronous
real-time videoconferencing meetings reported that the visual
components afforded by those media were limited. Still, they
all agreed that they were a meaningful palliative to the lack of
visual cues.
The findings from the focus groups expanded the results
from the TPS. In general, students emphasized needing timely
feedback, whereas faculty emphasized the importance of
student participation.
III. SUMARY AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS
An analysis of the relation between faculty and student
perceptions of TP showed a statistical difference in faculty and
student perceptions in all three categories of the TPS. The
quantitative data showed that faculty reported higher
perceptions of TP than students in online courses in each of the
categories of the TPS, with the greatest differences between
faculty and students’ perceptions of TP found in the categories
of Direct Instruction and Facilitation.
Also, the qualitative data showed that the viewpoints of
faculty and students in terms of important factors in
establishing TP overlapped in three emerging themes: faculty
actions, students’ roles, and student perceptions. Of these, the
theme of faculty actions showed the greatest overlap. Yet,
interestingly, there was little to no overlap in subthemes
between faculty and students regarding student roles and
student perceptions. Other themes were also mentioned only in
either faculty or student focus groups, including institutional
actions to support faculty and students (mentioned in the
faculty focus group), and student support systems (mentioned
in the student focus group).
In terms of student perceptions, students appreciated TP
from faculty who communicated with them, and demonstrated
that they were available. Students also reported less timely
feedback than faculty did, and in general, assessed faculty
performance more poorly than faculty did. Actually, students
had several complaints about some faculty, particularly in
regards of their unsatisfactory involvement in the course. Also,
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students noted that faculty should be aware of the power they
have over students’ lives, which extends beyond academics.
In terms of faculty perceptions, faculty mentioned the
theme of developing a sense of community, but students did
not. Also, faculty assessed their performance more favorably
than students did, in both focus group and TPS results.
This study’s findings confirm previous research findings
[1] [21] indicating that critical considerations for instructors in
distance education courses are the recognition, identification,
and application of strategies to bridge the cognitive and
psychological distance between instructors and students. Also
critical considerations for students include time management,
support from peers and the instructor, and the need for clear
instructions on how to complete course assignments.
These results suggest that instructors may perceive
themselves as performing more effectively than students
perceive them. The results also point out the need to refine the
concept of timeliness of feedback and establish clear guidelines
for instructor feedback [35] [36]. The findings also confirm the
relevancy of current online-course quality-assurance initiatives
that clearly identify, measure, and quantify specific elements of
quality online courses and programs. The strategies presented
by these rubrics delineate effective research-grounded steps to
teaching online. Some examples of current quality-assurance
initiatives include the Quality Matters Rubric Standards [17],
the Online Learning Consortium’s Quality Scorecard [22], and
the Blackboard Exemplary Course Rubric [6], which identify
best practices in the areas of course design, interaction and
collaboration, assessment, and learner support.
Also, among the gaps between faculty and students
perceptions of TP in distance education courses, faculty
stressed the importance of establishing a sense of community,
whereas students did not. In fact, students pointed out that
success in an online class was related to engaging in self-study
and basically finding ways to succeed in spite of instructors’
shortcomings and lack of TP. This stark contrast between
faculty and student perceptions may shed some light over the
difference between faculty expectations of student participation
and actual student involvement. Also, these results point out
that in online education courses, it is key to recognize that
obstacles to students’ active engagement with learning and
satisfaction are constantly changing as a result of social,
economic, and technological changes [24].
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The issues underlying online education are multifaceted. As
the prevalence and intricacy of online education programs
continue to grow [2] [4] [8] [28], instructors and institutions
progressively will need systematic and practical frameworks
for understanding the technological, pedagogical, and
organizational implications of online education in higher
education learning.
Major principles for online learning, based on the literature,
should guide effective practice of distance teaching [33].
Distance education courses should feature a combination of
instructional strategies, which are marked by a unique
combination of educational, structural, and technological
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characteristics [29]. Distance learning is not simply about
consumption of course content online, and faculty should be
aware of what teaching online entails (and receive the
necessary training) before embarking in an online course.
The interactions among participants of online courses have
specific characteristics and therefore lead to distinctive
teaching and learning behaviors [18] [19] [20] [21]. Further,
there are key issues to address in the development of theory or
in the planning process of a distance education course, such as:
(1) Who are the instructors, in terms of age, technology-related
skills, and adequate preparation to teach online [15] [24] [39]?;
(2) Who are the learners [14] [15] [31]?; (3) What is essential
content to be covered [16] [25]?; (4) What teaching strategies
and media should be used [27] [34]?; and (5) What is the
learning environment [32]?
Online education is constantly evolving, and although it has
come a long way, there is still a lot of room for improvement.
Current guidelines, put forth by seasoned online educators,
help delineate specific practices to advance the field of online
learning by simplifying the steps needed to identify, measure,
and quantify elements of quality within an online education
program. The findings from this study give rise to the question
of why, given that such research-grounded rubrics and clear
steps are available -and eliminate guesswork in online course
development-, some faculty do not follow the delineated
guidelines. It begs to ponder whether the problem resides in a
lack of faculty development, or possibly a lack of appropriate
faculty training to teach online. Or whether faculty are actually
trained properly, but perhaps certain programs lack appropriate
systems of checks and balances to ensure that online faculty are
actually following established guidelines. Other questions have
to do with whether there are other factors hindering the
process. These are questions for further research.
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Co-operative Learning and Implicit Theory of

Intelligence: Impact on Academic Achievement
Shefali Pandya
Professor, Department of Education
University of Mumbai, Mumbai, India

Abstract— The study is aimed at studying the interaction effect
of co-operative learning approach and students’ implicit
theories of learning on their academic achievement of students.
A pre-test post-test non-equivalent groups experiment was
conducted on 78 and 81 students from experimental and control
groups respectively. The effect of students’ IQ was removed
from students’ academic achievement statistically for all further
analysis. It may be concluded that (1) In spite of controlling
for IQ of students, co-operative learning has yielded a higher
mean academic achievement score as compared to traditional
teaching. (2) There is a significant effect of co-operative
learning approach, students’ implicit theories of intelligences
and their interaction on students’ academic achievement. (3)
The effect size of the co-operative learning approach as well as
students’ implicit theories of intelligences on academic
achievement of students is high. (4) Students with incremental
theory of intelligence have shown a higher mean academic
achievement score as compared to students with entity theory
of intelligence. (5) In the experimental group, the mean
academic achievement of students with incremental
intelligence is significantly greater than that from students with
entity intelligence. (6) In the control group, the mean academic
achievement of students with incremental intelligence does not
differ significantly from students with entity intelligence. This
further implies that it is not IQ but rather a student’s belief about
whether intelligence is fixed or malleable will determine his/her
performance in mathematics when co-operative learning
approach is adopted.
Keywords- Co-operative Learning Approach, Implicit Theories
of Intelligence, Academic Achievement, IQ
formal learning via any combination of experience, education
and training, (b) ability to pose problems which includes
recognizing problem situations and transforming them into
more clearly defined problems and (c) ability to solve problems,
accomplish tasks, fashioning products and doing complex
projects. The traditional concept of intelligence has legitimized
the notion of meritocracy by categorising people on the basis of
the intelligence tests into “more intelligent” and “less
intelligent” categories. Merit is usually indicated by IQ and
other tests of cognitive skills. The present research posits that it
is the belief of a student about modifiability of one’s IQ and the
learning approach that determines a person’s “merit” rather
than his/her IQ as measured by a standardized intelligence test.
Research has shown that amongst students with equal
intellectual ability, their theories of intelligence shape their
responses to academic challenge (Blackwell, Trzesniewski and
Dweck, 2007). The researcher, therefore, has decided to
statistically control students’ IQ by removing its effect from
academic achievement in mathematics using Dyer’s Regression
Residual Method. The present research therefore seeks to study
the effects of co-operative learning model and implicit self-
theory of intelligence of students on their academic
achievement in mathematics after adjusting for their
intelligence score. This will ensure in ascertaining the effect of
co-operative learning approach and implicit theories of
intelligence amongst students with equal intellectual ability.
Hence, the present study has attempted to control the effect
of students’ intelligence statistically and then study the effect of
co-operative learning approach and implicit theories of
intelligence on students’ academic achievement in
mathematics.

I. Introduction II. Theoretical Underpinnings of the Study

Ample research has been done on the effect of co-operative
learning approach on student-outcomes. Very few researches
focus on the inclusion of moderator variables on this effect. The
present research therefore includes two major theoretical
concepts, namely, co-operative learning approach and implicit
theories of intelligence on students’ academic achievement in
mathematics. Moreover, students’ intelligence or intellectual
ability and their implicit theories of intelligence (beliefs about
malleability of intelligence) are not the same. On the basis of
literature, it may be said that intelligence is a combination of
the (a) ability to learn which includes all kinds of informal and
This study is based on two major theoretical orientations,
(a) Social Constructivism by Vygotsky which states that co-
operative learning refers to social constructivism and asserts
that the development of individuals-including their thoughts,
languages and reasoning processes- is an outcome of culture.
These abilities are developed through social interactions with
others and hence represent the shared knowledge of a given
culture. This theory emphasizes the effectiveness of working in
small groups when there is at least one student who is more
capable in communicating in the language. Vygotsky describes
the Zone of Proximal Development as “the distance between

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the actual development level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance with
peer collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978).
The leading developers of co-operative learning include Robert
Slavin, Roger and David Johnson and Spencer Kagan.
Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the role of social interaction in
learning. The following section describes co-operative learning
approach in detail.
II (a) Co-operative Learning : Co-operative learning is an
approach to group-work that capitalizes on learning and
satisfaction that result from team work. Co-operative learning
is an efficacious teaching strategy in which students with
different ability levels use a variety of learning activities to
enhance their understanding of a subject in a small group. Thus,
co-operative learning by nature is an active learning method.
Cognitive psychologists and effective teachers have
acknowledged the notion that students learn more by doing
something active than by simply watching and listening
(McKeachie, 2002; Bransford et al., 2000). Besides, co-
operation enhances learning in several ways. Weak students or
students with low self-efficacy or confidence working
individually on a problem are likely to give up when they get
stuck. On the other hand, they keep going when they work co-
operatively. When students who are good in mathematics face
the task of explaining and clarifying material to weaker
students, they frequently realize that there are gaps in their own
understanding and plug them in. This is expected to lead to deep
learning in such students. Students working alone may tend to
procrastinate in completing assignments or avoid them
completely, but when they know that others are observing them
or depend on them, they are motivated to do the work in a
judicious manner. There are three essential ways in which
students can interact with each other while learning, namely, (a)
competing with each other to see who is "best", (b) working
individually on their own to attain a goal without regard to other
students or (c) working co-operatively for one’s own learning
as well as each other’s learning. Of these three interaction
patterns, competition is presently the most overriding in the
Indian context. This sense of competition is already quite
pervasive when students enter school and grow stronger as they
progress through school. Various experts such as David
Johnson and Roger Johnson (Johnson et al., 1994), Slavin
(1994, 1995) and Shlomo Sharan and Yael Sharan (Sharan,
1995; Sharan & Sharan, 1994) have proposed diverse
approaches to co-operative learning over the past 25 years.
The other variable of interest to the researcher is
students’ implicit theory of intelligence. (b) Implicit Theories
of Intelligence proposed by Dweck refers to the degree that
individuals attribute intelligence to fixed traits, they hold a
“fixed” theory of intelligence (entity theory) and to the degree
that they attribute intelligence to learning, effort, training and
practice, they hold a “incremental” theory of intelligence. The
following section provides the conceptual framework of
implicit theories of intelligence.
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II (b) Implicit Theories of Intelligence : There are two
frameworks in this model. Students may hold different theories
about the nature of intelligence. Some believe that intelligence
is more of an unalterable, fixed entity (an entity theory). Others
think of intelligence as a flexible feature that can be developed
(an incremental theory). When a student holds an entity theory
of his/her intelligence, he/she tends to orient more toward
performance goals, the goal of gaining favourable judgments of
his/her attributes and avoiding negative ones, becomes
concerned with demonstrating that he/she has a sufficient
amount of it and with avoiding a demonstration of deficiencies.
He/she may explain negative performance more in terms of
their lack of ability than effort, which would render him/her
susceptible to helpless reactions in the face of failure. On the
other hand, when a student holds an incremental theory of
his/her intelligence, he/she tends to orient more toward learning
goals, the goal of increasing his/her ability. Such a student may
focus on effort that can be capitalized for enhancing his/her
ability. In situations of failures, he/she may be more mastery-
oriented, looking for ways to improve his/her ability and
performance, such as putting in more effort or undertaking
remedial activities. Compared to entity theorists, incremental
theorists have been found (a) to focus more on learning goals
(goals aimed at increasing their ability) versus performance
goals (goals aimed at documenting their ability (Dweck &
Leggett, 1988); (b) to believe in the utility of effort versus the
futility of effort given difficulty or low ability (Hong, Chiu,
Dweck, Lin, & Wan, 1999); (c) to make low-effort, mastery-
oriented versus low-ability, helpless attributions for failure
(Henderson & Dweck, 1990); and (d) to display mastery-
oriented strategies (effort escalation or strategy change) versus
helpless strategies (reducing or withdrawing efforts or
continuing with the same strategy) when faced with
impediments (Robins & Pals, 2002). Researchers have studied
the significance of these two diverse frameworks for student-
outcomes (Hong et al., 1999; Robins & Pals, 2002; Stipek &
Gralinski, 1996). In a study of students undergoing a junior high
school transition, Henderson and Dweck (1990) found that
students who endorsed more of an incremental view had a
distinct advantage over those who believed in an entity view,
obtained significantly higher grades in the first year of junior
high school when prior achievement was controlled. Blackwell,
Trzesniewski & Dweck (2007) found that when student
believed in an incremental theory of intelligence, it predicted an
upward trajectory in grades in mathematics over the two years
of junior high school, but those who believed in the entity
theory of intelligence showed a flat trajectory. In an
experimental study, an intervention programme was
implemented to enhance incremental theory to 7th graders
(N=48). The findings showed that it brought about a positive
change in classroom motivation.
The present study aims to find out whether there is an
interaction effect of co-operative learning versus traditional
teaching and students‟ beliefs about their own intelligence on
students’ academic achievement.
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III. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Prior research has shown that co-operative learning has
been effective in facilitating academic achievement of students.
Beginning in the late 1970s, Webb (1980) conducted a study on
group processes in classrooms and their effects introduced
confirmation of their worth. Webb (1991) discovered that
students were disposed to help each other while working
together on small group activities, intellectually able students
deepened their learning by explaining concepts to peers who
required support, redefining the meaning of self-regulated
learning. Lower achieving students profited from the
explanations given by able peers, as well as from students who
exhibited good study habits. The subsequent generation of
research on co-operative learning and many classroom
interventions was theory-driven which supported these early
findings. The prior findings focused on intellectual ability of
students. Today, co-operative learning is the structured,
systematic instructional technique in which small groups work
together to achieve a common goal (Slavin, 1991). Co-
operative learning strategies make use of many characteristics
and strategies in the classroom such as positive interdependence
with structured goals, face-to-face interaction, individual
accountability, heterogeneous ability grouping, social skills,
sharing of leadership roles and group processing. Several
studies of active/collaborative instruction report positive effects
on a wide range of cognitive and affective student-outcomes.
Affective outcomes were also improved by the use of co-
operative learning. Co-operative learning is found to have an
effect on a large number of cognitive as well as affective
student-outcomes such as academic achievement (Tunga, 2015;
Jebson, 2012; Dheeraj & Rimakumari, 2013; Russo, 2014;
Swab, 2012; Parveen & Batool, 2012; Gull & Shehzad, 2015),
understanding of the mathematical concepts, students’ attitudes
towards mathematics and their academic competencies
(Altamira, 2013), mathematics achievement and attitudes
towards mathematics (Zakaria, Chin & Daud, 2010; Hossain &
Tarmizi, 2013; Grech, 2013), students’ active involvement
(Cheng, 2011), achievement in science classrooms (Jayapraba,
2013; Altun, 2015), students’ approaches to learning with
learning styles as a mediating variable (Colak, 2015), student
engagement (Herrmann, 2013), academic success, lesson
attitude and practicing skills (Bayraktar, 2011), need for
cognition (Dee Castle, 2014), retention level of students
(Chianson, Kurumeh and Obida, 2010; Tran, 2014), self-
regulated learning (Güvenç, 2010) and interest in and the
application of music into core academic subjects (Egger, 2014).
Besides, research has also been conducted on co-operative
learning as perceived by teachers and students (Xuan, 2015),
effects of co-operative learning and embedded multimedia on
mathematics learning (Slavin, Sheard, Hanley, Elliott &
Cheung, 2013), learning style as a grouping technique
(Bachmann, 2010), the effect of metacognitive scaffolding
embedded within co-operative learning on mathematics
conceptual understanding and procedural fluency in learning
and solving problems (Jbeili, 2012; Vijayakumari & D’Souza,
2013; Cheong, 2010), Teachers' reflections on co-operative
learning (Gillies & Boyle, 2010), co-operative learning in
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distance education (Kupczynski, Mundy, Goswami & Meling,
2012) and classroom participation of students-at-risk for
societal failure (Drakeford, 2012). A large majority of these
studies deal with academic achievement of students. Relative to
students involved in individual or competitive learning
environments, co-operatively taught students exhibited better
social skills and higher self-esteem, as well as more positive
attitudes about their educational experience, the subject area,
and the college.
Some of the advantages that researchers have found when
studying co-operative learning are as follows (World Education
Inc., http://www.kapekh.org/files/report_file/38-en.pdf):
• Learning: This includes (i) Increased academic
learning, (ii) Increased critical thinking ability, (iii)
More time spent on learning tasks (less day dreaming),
(iv) Increased student retention, (v) Increased student
motivation to learn and (vi) Enhanced student
satisfaction with their learning experience.
• Social Development: This includes (i) Reduction in
disruptive behaviour, (ii) Development of peer
relationships, (iii) Promoting student self-esteem, (iv)
Students use of appropriate social skills and (v)
Improved attitude towards school.
• Communication: This includes (i) Students learning to
share information, (ii) Helping students to consider
other people's point of view and (iii) Helping students
develop skills in oral communication.
IV. Need of the Study
Very little prior work on co-operative learning has focused
on students’ academic achievement in mathematics especially
in the Indian context where the class size very large – as high
as 80 students and sometimes more. Students’ academic
achievement in mathematics is seen as vital due to its
association with job prospects and life chances. Besides, it is
imperative to understand whether a student’s implicit theory of
intelligence interacts with co-operative learning and influences
students‟ academic achievement in mathematics. Thus, it is
expected to enhance academic achievement in mathematics in
students with incremental theory of intelligence. Prior research
has found that co-operative learning enhances students’ attitude
towards learning. Besides, peer support in co-operative learning
is expected to create an environment which nurtures students
with an entity belief in intelligence. On the other hand, in the
Indian context, co-operative learning approach was found to be
more effective for students with mastery goals (which are a part
of incremental theory of intelligence) whereas the traditional
lecture method is found to be more effective for students with
performance goals (which are a part of entity theory of
intelligence) (Pandya, 2011). Thus, there is a gap in knowledge
concerning the interaction effect of students’ implicit theory of
intelligence and co-operative learning on students’ academic
achievement in mathematics. This forms the basis of the present
research. If the co-operative learning approach is effective, the
question arises as to what moderating variables are responsible
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for this effectiveness. The present study hypothesizes that the
co-operative learning approach will have differential
effectiveness for students with different implicit self-theories of
intelligence on their academic achievement in mathematics. In
comparison to direct instruction, there will also be a better
chance to feel autonomous because students have more
flexibility in structuring the learning process. However, for
autonomy in learning to be effective, it is essential that one’s
implicit self-theory of intelligence suits the techniques and
methods of teaching-learning. Besides, the co-operative
learning approach is hypothesized to have particular advantages
as to the need for competence: the student’s experience of
responsibility for a segment of the material and of acting as an
expert source for other students is conceived to give the student
an experience of feelings of competence that is uncommon in
conventional forms of instruction.
Aim of the Study
The broad aim of the research was to study the effects of
co-operative learning model and implicit self-theory of
intelligence of students on their academic achievement in
mathematics after adjusting for their intelligence score.
Research Questions
1. Do the experimental and control groups‟ post-test scores
on AAM(IQ) differ when their pre-test scores are
controlled?
2. What are the effects of co-operative learning model,
implicit theories of intelligence and their interaction on
students‟ Res-AAM(IQ)?
3. What are the effect sizes of co-operative learning model,
implicit theories of intelligence and their interaction on
students‟ Res-AAM(IQ)?
V. Method
The present study is aimed at enhancing students’
academic achievement in mathematics after adjusting for their
intelligence score through the use of Co-operative Learning
Approach. The researcher attempts to provide answer to the
question, “Is there an interaction effect of co-operative learning
approach and the implicit theory of intelligence on students‟
academic achievement in mathematics after adjusting for their
intelligence score?” The researcher has manipulated the method
of teaching to ascertain its effect on students‟ academic
achievement in mathematics after adjusting for their
intelligence score. Hence the methodology selected is the
experimental one.
The following abbreviations have been used in further
analysis.
Academic Achievement in Mathematics: AAM
Academic Achievement in Mathematics after Adjusting for
their Intelligence Score: AAM(IQ)
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In the present investigation, the researcher has used the 2×2
factorial design as shown in table 1.
Table 1: Factorial design
Group Experimental Control Group
Type Group
of Implicit
Theory of Intelligence
Entity Theory Mean Mean
Res-AAM(IQ) Res-AAM(IQ)
Incremental Theory Mean Mean
Res-AAM(IQ) Res-AAM(IQ)
Here, Mean Res-AAM(IQ) implies that it is the Mean
AAM from which the effect of IQ has been removed using
Dyer’s Regression Residuals Method and the effect pre-test
score has been removed from the post-test score using
ANCOVA.
Intervention Programme: In the present research, the
researcher developed two instructional programmes based on
(a) Co-operative Learning Approach and (b) Conventional
Lecture Method. In the present research, instructional
programme on chapters on linear equations in two variables,
graphs, ratio and statistics was developed. The techniques used
under Co-operative Learning Approach in the present
investigation included Jigsaw Technique and Think-Pair-Share.
The researcher obtained permission from two selected schools
for administering the tests and administering the treatment. The
researcher first administered the pre-test on Students’
Academic Achievement Test in Mathematics, Nafde’s NVTI
and the Implicit Theory of Intelligence Scale to both, the
experimental and control groups. After the pre-test, the
experimental group was taught using the Co-operative Learning
Approach and the control group was taught using traditional
lecture method. At the end of this, the post-test on students‟
academic achievement test in mathematics was administered on
the students and scores were analyzed by using statistical
techniques. The researcher has used this design as it was the
most feasible one and the interpretation of the results has been
cautiously done. The students of standard IX of both the schools
were taught selected topics in Mathematics subject. The content
matter covered in both the schools was the same. The treatment
was given on the basis of content from the text books prescribed
by Maharashtra state text book production and curriculum
research, Pune. In the experimental group, the researcher taught
the content matter using the Co-operative Learning Model.
Twenty-two periods from the school time table were taken up
to teach the content in each school. It was spread over twelve
working days. Five days per week were taken up for three
weeks, teaching one to two school periods a day of thirty-five
minutes’ duration each. In the control group, the researcher
taught using the traditional lecture method. The content was
taught in both the schools in the mornings.
Participants: In the present research, the sample selected
consisted of 159 students – both boys and girls from standard
IX of English medium schools situated in Greater Mumbai. The
experimental group had 78 students out of which 42 (53.85 %)
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were boys and 36 were girls (46.15 %). The control group had
81 students out of which 40 (49.38 %) were boys and 41 (50.62
%) were girls. The schools selected for the study were affiliated
to the SSC Board, Mumbai with English as the medium of
instruction. The schools were selected randomly using lottery
method. However, the experiment was conducted on intact
classes due to reasons beyond the researcher’s control.
Measures
1. Academic Achievement Test in Mathematics: This is a
researcher-made test consisting of total 40 marks and
covering topics included in the intervention (instructional)
programme. There are two parallel form tests, Form A for
the Pre-Test and Form B for the Post-Test. This was
developed on the basis of a blue-print developed by the
researcher.
2. Implicit Theories of Intelligence (Self-Theory): This
scale was developed by De Castella & Byrne (2015). It
consists of two subscales, namely, Entity Self Beliefs
Subscale and Incremental Self Beliefs Subscale with a
total eight items. Its reliability and validity were
established in the Indian context. Its reliability and
validity were established in the Indian context during a
pre-pilot study (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.87 and Test-Retest
Reliability = 0.82). All items were measured on a 5-point
Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 =
neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). The scoring is done
in such a way that a high score implies incremental theory
of intelligence whereas a low score implies entity theory
of intelligence.
3. Nafde’s Non-Verbal Test of Intelligence (NVTI): NVTI
test was developed by Nafde. The tool has four sections of
logical reasoning and analytical thinking questions which
the students are supposed to answer. Each section is to be
answered in five minutes. Each section has twenty
questions. Before giving time to answer each section the
researcher discusses five sample questions per sections.
The four sections relate to (a) Analogies, (b) Water
reflections, (c) Series and (d) Classification. The
intelligence score is computed using the following
formula: Score = R – (W/4) where, R = Number of right
answers and W = Number of wrong answers. The
reliability index of the NVTI was found to be 0.89 (Split-
Half) and 0.74 (Test-Retest).
Techniques of Data Analysis
The present research used statistical techniques of Dyer’s
Regression Residuals technique, two-way ANCOVA and
wolf’s formula. In order to partial out the effect of intelligence
from the academic achievement in mathematics statistically, the
Dyer’s Regression Residuals technique was used. For
comparing the post-test score on academic achievement in
mathematics after partialling out the effect of pre-test scores by
levels of implicit theory of intelligence, the technique of two-
way ANCOVA was used. Wolf’s formula was used to measure
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the extent of effectiveness of the Co-operative Learning
Approach and Implicit Theory of Intelligence on the dependent
variable, namely, students’ Res-AAM(IQ).
VI. Results
1. Comparison of Students’ Res-AAM(IQ) by
Intervention and Implicit Theory of Intelligence
Table 2 shows Students’ Res-AAM(IQ) by Intervention
and Implicit Theory of Intelligence.
Table 2: Students’ Res-AAM(IQ) by Intervention and Implicit
Theory of Intelligence
EG CG TOTAL
Entity Theory 3.5605 -1.9845 0.726
(N=44) (N=46) (N=90)
Incremental 7.7926 -2.0332 2.81
Theory (N=34) (N=35) (N =69)
Total 5.4053 -2.0055 1.6304
(N=78) (N=81) (N=159)
a) When the technique of two-way ANCOVA was applied to
compare the post-test scores on Students‟ Res-AAM(IQ),
the F-ratio for intervention effect was found to be Fy.x =
11.39 (p < 0.0001). This F-ratio is therefore significant.
The Mean post-test score on Students‟ ResAAM(IQ) from
the experimental group was found to be significantly
greater than that of the control group using two-way
ANCOVA.
b) The F-ratio for implicit theory of intelligence effect was
found to be Fy.x = 16.55 (p < 0.005). This F-ratio is
therefore significant. The Mean post-test score on Res-
AAM(IQ) of students with high score on implicit theory
of intelligence was found to be significantly greater than
that of students with a low score on implicit theory of
intelligence using two-way ANCOVA. i.e. students with
incremental theory of intelligence had a higher score on
Res-AAM(IQ) than the students with entity theory of
intelligence.
c) The F-ratio for interaction effect was found to be Fy.x =
7.32 (p = 0.009). This F-ratio is significant. Besides, in
both the groups, the mean Res-AAM(IQ) of students with
a high score on implicit theory of intelligence was
significantly greater than that of the students with a low
score on implicit theory of intelligence. The t-ratio
(14.11) for Res-AAM(IQ) of students with entity theory
in the EG is found to be significantly greater than those
from CG. On the other hand, the t-ratio (16.26) for Res-
AAM(IQ) of students with incremental theory in the EG
is found to be significantly greater than those from CG.
The interaction effect of the intervention programme
and the implicit theory of intelligence on students’ Res-
AAM(IQ) is shown in the figure 1.
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• There is a significant interaction effect of co-operative

INTERACTION EFFECT OF CO-OPERATIVE
LEARNING APPROACH AND STUDENTS' learning model and implicit theory of intelligence on
IMPLICIT THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Res-AAM(IQ) of students.
ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN • In the experimental group, the mean Res-AAM(IQ) of
MATHEMATICS students with incremental intelligence is significantly
greater than that from students with entity intelligence.
5 • In the control group, the mean Res-AAM(IQ) of
students with incremental intelligence does not differ
significantly from students with entity intelligence.
-5 EG CG
• This further implies that it not IQ but rather a student’s
Entity Theory Incremental Theory belief about whether intelligence is fixed or malleable
will determine his/her performance in mathematics
when co-operative learning approach is adopted.

Figure 1 Discussion: The present study contributed to an

2. Computation of the Magnitude of the Effect Size Using understanding of how co-operative learning approach
Wolf’s Formula could be used effectively for teaching of mathematics to
Effect size of Co-operative Learning Approach and students with incremental and entity theory of intelligence
students‟ Implicit Theory of Intelligence Effect is shown in for enhancing their academic achievement. Moreover, it is
table 3. noteworthy to mention that co-operative learning has made
a significant contribution to academic achievement in
Table 3: Effect Size mathematics among students who feel that their
intelligence is fixed and also when the effect of their IQ is
Independent Intervention Effect Implicit Theories of statistically partialled out. It is found that the co-operative
Variable Intelligence Effect learning approach is relatively more effective for students
with incremental theory of intelligence as compared to
Dependent those with entity theory of intelligence. The present study’s
Variable
findings are partially supported by Gocłowska et al. (2015)
Effect Magnitude Effect Magnitude who found that entity theory was negatively and
Size Size incremental theory was positively related to co-operative
Res- 3.062 High 0.8335 High preferences. The finding of the present study about implicit
AAM(IQ) theory of intelligence is corroborated by prior research
findings by (Blackwell, Trzesniewski & Dweck, 2007; Luo
VII. Conclusions et. al. 2014; Gonida et al, 2006; Chen & Pajares, 2010).
It may be concluded that: The findings show that if a student (with incremental
as well as entity theories of intelligence) is exposed to co-
• In spite of controlling for IQ of students, co-operative
operative learning approach, it will help students through
learning has yielded a higher mean Res-AAM(IQ)
positive interdependence, active learning, motivation to
score as compared to traditional teaching. learn, peer interaction, tutoring and support, group goals
• As compared to the traditional method of teaching, co- based on learning of all group members, elaborated
operative learning is found to be more effective in explanations in the group, peer modelling, peer practice,
enhancing Res-AAM(IQ)for students with both entity peer assessment and correction, motivation to encourage
and incremental theory of intelligence. group-mates to learn, motivation to help group-mates
• The effect size of the co-operative learning model on learn, group rewards and group performance. This is likely
Res-AAM(IQ) of students is high. to develop in students a sense of satisfaction, fulfillment
• Similarly, students with incremental theory of and confidence and ultimately their academic self-efficacy
in mathematics and academic, affective and behavioural
intelligence has shown a higher mean ResAAM(IQ)
engagement. It is likely that students in the experimental
score as compared to students with entity theory of
group have developed a belief that mathematics enabled
intelligence. them to look for ways to improve their ability and
• The implicit theory of intelligence has a significant performance, to devote more effort or engage in problem-
effect on Res-AAM(IQ) of students. solving activities, gain an insight into the complexities of
• The effect size of the implicit theory of intelligence on one’s reality, understand the world and relationships in it,
Res-AAM(IQ) of students is high. allowed them to communicate and understand the universe,
use logical structures to understand, solve and elucidate
real life problems and enables them to apply methods of

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problem-solving and formulae to everyday life and
situations. In other words, co-operative learning is
expected to develop a deep approach and adopt mastery-
orientation to learning mathematics among students with
incremental as well as entity theories of intelligence.
One of the reasons for the intervention programme
being more effective for incremental learners as compared
to the entity learners is that failure can motivate
incremental learners to try more through peer support, but
can demoralize entity learners, destroying their fragile self-
belief perhaps due to fear of receiving blame from peers
regarding poor group performance. This is corroborated by
findings of Shih (2011) which state that the incremental
theory of intelligence predicted positive affect and
constructive coping. By contrast, the entity theory was
positively correlated with negative emotions and self-
handicapping. However, in the present study, adoption of
co-operative learning approach has helped students to get
academic and social support of peers, higher academic and
social interaction and support in the classroom. This is
likely to have enabled students to face academic challenge
and persevere in the face of setbacks more effectively.
Thus, this approach has effectively facilitated academic
achievement in mathematics amongst students with entity
theory of intelligence.
VIII. Contribution of the Study
The present study implies that teachers need to be
trained in handling students with entity theory of
intelligence and encourage such students to overcome the
fear of failure. Teachers also need to ensure that all students
contribute to the process and outcome of learning,
appreciate differential abilities amongst students and that
no student is blamed for poor group performance. This is
expected to make co-operative learning more effective for
students with entity theory of intelligence. The study has
also shown that a student’s beliefs about intelligence – and
not his actual intellectual ability- influences his/her
academic achievement. As teacher education institutions in
India advocate constructivist approach to teaching-learning
process, of which, co-operative learning is an important
part, it is imperative that nurturing incremental theory of
intelligence amongst students emerges as a significant
theme to highlight. However, it is necessary to understand
the role of teacher efficacy in the use of co-operative
learning and enhancing incremental theory of intelligence
amongst students so as to enhance academic achievement
in mathematics in students and develop a deep approach to
learning mathematics.
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The Invistigation of Productive Classroom Discourse

in a Knowledge Building Environment

Yuyao Tong, Prof. Carol K.K. Chan, Jan van Aalst

The University of Hong Kong Country

Abstract—This paper reported an ongoing study that examined
classroom dialogue using the Scheme for Educational Dialogue
Analysis (SEDA) in a computer-supported knowledge building
environment in characterizing the classroom discourse and
scaffolding further online and offline productive dialogue.
Participants were eleven secondary school students studying in a
visual arts class in Hong Kong with a very experienced knowledge
building teacher. A designed computer-supported knowledge
building environment supported by Knowledge Forum was
applied to the class and Knowledge Building Talk (KB Talk) was
integrated in the classroom. Analysis of classroom dialogue using
SEDA was a first attempt to systematically investigate what and
how the KB Talk interacted among students and teachers in a
knowledge building environment, as well, this study was also an
attempt to try to use the analysis results of classroom dialogue to
guide knowledge building teachers in their KB classes.
Keywords-knowledge building; classroom dialogue; SEDA;
I. INTRODUCTION
Classroom dialogue has received much research attention in
the recent four decades. A growing number of evidences has
shown that the forms of classroom dialogue is an essential factor
for students’ learning, understanding, reasoning, and problem-
solving (Alexander, 2004; Gillies, 2015; Pastoor, 2005; Topping
& Trickey, 2014), particularly the constructive dialogue, which
was an essential elements in knowledge creation and knowledge
building which focusing on students’ epistemic agency and
collective responsibility taken in improving ideas for
community knowledge advancement (Beretier & Scardamalia,
2014; Resendes, Scardamalia, Beretier, Chen & Halewood,
2015). However, teachers of ten find it difficult to promote
productive discourse and explaoratory talk in the classroom
(Howe & Abedin, 2013).
Recognizing this challenge or difficulty, this study used a
systematic coding scheme to characterize the classroom
discourse in a designed computer-supported knowledge building
environment to investigate the dynamics of the classroom
discourse, further, to design a prompt based on the discourse
analysis for guiding KB teachers in the classroom discussion. In
this designed learning environment, students engaged in a
technology-based environment with doing collaborative inquiry
in an online platform, as well, together with classroom talk
interwined in reflecting on their online inquiry and discourse.
The goal of the current study was to investigate the dynamics of
teacher and students’ classroom discussion to see how the
teacher scaffolds students to engage in a productive classroom
discourse and how it can be synthesized to prompt for further
KB teachers.
II. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
A. Classroom Dialogue
Classroom dialogue, a distinctive type of discourse that
embedded in the classroom, aimed to improve students’ thinking
and understanding (Alexander, 2004). There were different lines
of research investigating classroom dialogue, for instance, one
focus was the teacher-student dialogue, and the other was the
students-students dialogue. Both of the lines’ research were
increased in the last decades (Howe & Abedin, 2013). In the
teacher-student dialogue, a three-step pattern included initiation-
response-feedback (IRF) was one of the basic discourse
structures in the classroom, with teachers asking questions first,
followed by students’ answers, and then the feedback directly
from teachers (Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975). Even though
students provided answers to teacher’s initiated questions
directly with teacher’s feedback immediately, students lacked
the opportunity to work collaboratively with each other and
engaged in the interaction passively (Behnam & Pouriran, 2009).
To encourage students engaged in a productive classroom
dialogic and collective thinking, the teacher needs to work
collaboratively with the students to encourage and invite
students to share their knowledge firstly, followed by knowledge
construction and knowledge creation. In addition to the different
patterns of classroom dialogue, the analytic approach was also
different in various studies, including the quantitative approach,
qualitative approach, and mixed-method approach (Howe &
Abedin, 2013). In the current study, a mixed-method approach
was adopted including both the qualitative analysis with in-
depth analysis of video clips of classroom discourse and
quantitative analysis with counting the frequencies of dialogue
categories.
In the last four decades, many studies have investigated
classroom dialogue especially in primary and secondary
classrooms to support and scaffold students’ learning and
thinking in different subjects (e.g. Christie, Tolmie, Thurston,
Howe, & Topping, 2009; Franke, Webb, & Chan, 2009; Wells
& Arauz, 2006). However, what the classroom discourse looks
like and how the classroom dialogue is organized in a computer-

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supported knowledge building environment is not well
examined. We argue that it is essential to examine and
understand the dynamics of classroom discourse and how it
occurred in this collaborative learning environment and what is
the role the teacher and student played in the dialogue, which
may help to understand both the teacher-student and students-
students interactions, as well, it could also help the researcher
and teacher to improve the pedagogical design, in turn, support
students’ collaborative work and collective thinking in the
knowledge building environment.
B.   Computer-Supported Knowledge Building
Knowledge building, a principle-based innovation,
emphasizing on the collective responsibility and community
knowledge advancement (Scardamalia, 2002). Twelve
knowledge building principles were proposed, for instance,
epistemic agency, idea improvement, community knowledge,
real life and authentic problems, constructive use of authoritative
information and so on. In the knowledge building community,
knowledge is viewed as a social product and ideas can be
improved through sustained and progressive inquiry with
epistemic agency taken by the students in the community
discussion (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2014). In order to support
the sustained and progressive inquiry, Knowledge Forum, an
online discussion platform was designed that students can
generate questions, build-on ideas, references others’ notes, and
inquiry further. In the Knowledge Forum, notes and views are
two main constituents (Figure 1-1 and 1-2). Notes are the ideas
that students generated, and Views are the place that organize
these notes. Furthermore, Knowledge Forum also provided
scaffolds, a metacognitive prompt, to help students construct
their notes in a more knowledge building way. For instance,
students can use scaffold “I need to understand” to generate a
question, use scaffold “My theory” to answer a question, use
scaffold “New Information” to investigate extra sources to
explain and support their theory and ideas, and use scaffold
“Putting our knowledge together” to reflect and summarize the
community discussion.
Figure 1-1. Example of a View
Figure 1-2. Example of a Note
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Knowledge building theory and pedagogy had already been
applied into different cultures and countries (Chan, 2011; Zhang,
Scardamalia, Reeve, & Messina, 2009) in different disciplines
including but not limited to physics, chemistry, biology,
mathematics, geography, literacy, visual arts, and history (Chan,
Lam, & Leung, 2012; Hakkarainen, 2003; Resendes & Chuy,
2010; van Aalst & Truong, 2011) with different grade levels
from kindergarten to pre-service teacher education (Caswell &
Lamon, 1998; Chan & van Aalst, 2006; Haneda & Wells, 2000).
Moreover, additional technology design was also developed
integrating with KB to improve students’ knowledge building
discourse. For instance, the student-directed electronic portfolio
note (van Aalst & Chan, 2017), the Knowledge Connection
Analyzer (KCA) (Yang, van Aalst, Chan, & Tian, 2016), the
Idea Thread Mapper (Zhang, Chen, Chen, & Mico, 2013), the
Knowledge Building Discourse Explorer (KBDeX) (Oshima,
Oshima, & Matsuzawa, 2012) and the Promising Ideas Tool
(Chen, Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2015).
In addition, empirical research has shown the effects of
knowledge building environment on students’ conceptual
change (Chan, Burtis & Beretier, 1997), epistemic beliefs (Lam
& Chan, 2008), regulated strategies and metacognition (Zhao &
Chan, 2014) with detailed content analysis of students’ written
KF notes, questionnaire surveys, and interview. Furthermore,
the role of the teacher in KB which was guided by KB principles
was also drawn much attention when the KB pedagogy was
applied to the classroom (Chen & Hong, 2016). However, few
studies had a systematic characterizing and analysis for the
dynamics of classroom discourse in a knowledge building
environment, and how the classroom discussion looks like in a
knowledge building environment with students and their teacher,
as well, whether and how the role of the teacher was transferred
in the KB classroom discussion. In this study, we are interested
in analyzing a knowledge building classroom discussion using a
designed analytic tool called The Scheme for Educational
Dialogue Analysis (SEDA), furthermore, to investigate how the
teacher transferred his role in the classroom discussion.
C.   The Scheme for Educational Dialogue Analysis (SEDA)
Despite the growing attention on investigating classroom
dialogic, an analytic framework for characterizing and
capturing classroom discourse including both the teacher-
student interaction and the students-students interaction was
still lack a systematic investigation (Hennessy et al., 2016).
Under this circumstance, a tool for analyzing the classroom
discourse, The Scheme for Educational Analysis (SEDA), was
developed by two large research teams in the United Kingdom
and Mexico in a 3-year project in focusing on developing a
scheme to characterize classroom discourse across different
subjects, different academic levels and under different learning
environments (Hennessy et al., 2016).
In developing SEDA, researchers took an ethnographic
perspective with three levels including “Communicative Arts”
(CA) at a micro level which is defined by the interactional
utterances, “Communicative Events” (CE) at a mesco level
which refers to the constant of a discussion topic or task and
“Communicative Situations” (CS) at a macro level which
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represents a general context in the dialogue as a methodological building classroom discourse using the SEDA coding scheme,
framework (Hennessy et al., 2016). Taken together, 33 CA were in turn, to guide further KB teachers scaffolding on the
included in the coding scheme within 8 clusters (Table 1). classroom dialogue. Specifically, the goals included: (1) to
In summary, the systematic analysis of knowledge building analyze knowledge building classroom discourse using the
classroom discourse and how to use the results of classroom SEDA scheme and see how the knowledge building classroom
discourse analysis as a prompt for KB teachers in the classroom discussion looks like; and (2) to integrate and summarize a
discussion was few investigated in the literature. In this paper, prompt based on the discourse analysis for KB teachers.
the unit of analysis is the sentence by sentence classroom
dialogue in the knowledge building environment. Accordingly, Table 1. Scheme for Educational Dialogue Analysis (SEDA)
the goal of the current study was to characterize the knowledge
Code Definition
I – Invite elaboration or reasoning
I1 Ask for explanation or justification of another’s contribution
I2 Invite building on/elaboration/(dis)agreement/evaluation of another’s contribution or view
I3 Invite possibility thinking based on another’s contribution
I4 Ask for explanation or justification
I5 Invite possibility thinking or prediction
I6 Ask for elaboration or clarification

P – Positioning and Coordination

P1 Synthesis ideas
P2 Evaluate alternative views
P3 Propose resolution
P4 Acknowledge shift of position
P5 Challenge viewpoint
P6 State (dis)agreement/position

RD – Reflect on dialogue or activity

RD1 Talk about talk
RD2 Reflect on learning process/purpose/value/outcome
RD3 Invite reflection about process/purpose/value/outcome of learning

E – Express or invite ideas

E1 Invite opinions/beliefs/ideas
E2 Make other relevant contribution

R – Make reasoning explicit

R1 Explain or justify another’s contribution
R2 Explain or justify own contribution
R3 Speculate or predict on basis of another’s contribution
R4 Speculate or predict

B – Build on ideas
B1 Build on/clarify others’ contributions
B2 Clarify/elaborate own contribution

C – Connect
C1 Refer back
C2 Make learning trajectory explicit
C3 Link learning to wider contexts
C4 Invite inquiry beyond the lesson

G – Guide direction of dialogue or activity

G1 Encourage student-student dialogue
G2 Propose action or inquiry activity
G3 Introduce authoritative perspective
G4 Provide informative feedback
G5 Focusing
G6 Allow thinking time

II – Making Idea Improvement

*II1 Inquiry further – asking related questions based on previous discussion to make idea improve and rise-above;

CR – Taking collective responsibility

*CR1 Integrating ideas – integrating other’s or community’s ideas to generate a theory or idea;
Note: *New codes (related to knowledge building) added based on the data

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III.   METHODOLOGY
A.   Participants and Context
The data analyzed in this study included a teacher and his
one Grade 11 class in a visual arts class who participated in a
study with investigating the design of a computer-supported
knowledge building environment. These students studied in a
Hong Kong public secondary school which is the Band-3 school
in a 3 Band System (Band-1 is the best depending on students’
academic achievement), furthermore, these students are the
bottom 10 percentage of the Band-3 schools depending on their
territory based examination scores. The teacher had more than
30 years of teaching visual arts and many years of teaching
experience on knowledge building pedagogy (Chan, 2011) with
the belief that low achievement students could also be improved
through appropriate pedagogy.
B.   Pedagogical Design
The pedagogical design was adapted from previous studies
that applying knowledge building pedagogy in Hong Kong
schools (Chan, 2011). We aimed to provide a knowledge
building environment to help students engage in a collaborative
learning environment that treats ideas as improvable,
encourages advancement of community knowledge and helps
students to reflect on their learning and understanding. The
specific designs are described below:
•   Developing a collaborative classroom culture. In
cultivating a collaborative classroom culture, students
did group mind map and constructed Knowledge
Building Wall (KB Wall) to make their ideas become
public (Figure 2). Students used cards with KF
scaffolds and lines to post and build-on ideas on the
wall. The KB Wall is also a visualization of Knowledge
Forum and play a role to help students be familiar with
the view in Knowledge Forum.
Figure 2. Example of KB Wall
•   Starting inquiry in Knowledge Forum. After the KB
Wall making, students started to discuss in KF by
asking questions, generating ideas, and build-on notes
with using the KF scaffolds.
•   Reflecting on the knowledge building discourse
through classroom KB talk. In scaffolding students’
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knowledge building discourse in KF, KF notes written
and classroom talk were interwined. After a period of
•   time writing and discussion in KF, the teacher
organized a classroom talk in discussing the “Good
Inquiry and Discourse”. Various worksheets were
provided to students for them to discuss, for example,
the different types of clusters of notes, the different
thread moves, and the knowledge building principles.
In this paper, we focused on the classroom talk on the
four different types of KF clusters and knowledge
building principles.
•   Deepen knowledge building discourse and writing
student-directed electronic portfolio notes. Students
were asked to continue to have a further and deeper
discussion in KF after the classroom talk on “Good
Inquiry and Discourse”, as well, generating a portfolio
note to reflect on their knowledge building process and
content knowledge learning.
C.   Data Sources
To understand the dynamics of knowledge building in the
classroom context, we conducted qualitative analysis with the
classroom discourse using the SEDA. Two parts classroom
discussion was analyzed in one lesson.
1)   Excerpt 1: a classroom discussion on the different types
of KF notes structures: The excerpt in Table 2 (x min x s) is the
first part of a lesson with the coding results. The discussion
selected from the Grade 11 students who discussed and
reflected on four clusters of knowledge building discourse.
After students discussed in the KF for several lessons, we
provided students various notes clusters to scaffold students
identify and understand what a good knowledge building
clusters of notes look like.
2)   Excerpt 2: a classroom discussion on the knowledge
building principle: The excerpt in Table 3 (x min x s) is the
second part of the lesson with the coding results (Excerpt 1 and
Excerpt 2 are two classroom discussion parts in the same lesson)
The main topic for this part discussion was knowledge building
principles, as well, using knowledge building principles to
identify and reflect on their KF notes written.
IV.   RESULTS
A.   Interpretation of Excerpt 1
1)   Percentage of conversation turns. Figure 3 presented the
percentage of turns produced by the participants including the
teachers and students in the classroom dialogue in excerpt 1.
The pie charts illustrated that the conversation turns were
evenly split between the teacher and students (51% by the
teacher and 49% by the students), which is different with the
traditional teaching that teacher always plays a dominate role
in the classroom teaching by giving lectures or asking questions
with direct response, especially in the Asia classroom. In the
data, it also showed that most of the students’ participants took
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Table 2. Excerpt 1 from a classroom discussion about the types of KF notes structures

Agent Line Discussing utterance CA

Teacher 1 In the knowledge building, we often ask students to have a better clusters of notes and have a better discussion, so what is a good discussion? E1

T 2 Anyone has any ideas? In the worksheet, which cluster of notes is developed better? I5

S1 3 Can we support ourselves more than others? E2

T 4 I like your idea, but now in our discussion, please read these different clusters of notes in the page, to identify which one is a better cluster of G5
notes? Any students know how to identify? You said you want to support yourself, which group is yours?

S2 5 I think group 2 developed better in the worksheet. R4

T 6 You think the group 2 is better, why do you think so? I4

S2 7 Because every idea has build-on notes with further questions asking, and it also has comments on every notes. R2

T 8 It means that the discussion was developed through continued questions asking. Do you agree? This point is good, any different ideas or I2
disagreement for this group point?

S3 9 I think group 1 is better. P6

T 10 Why? I4

S3 11 Because their ideas and points are good. R2

T 12 How do you know their ideas are good? I4

S3 13 Because I read their notes. R2

T 14 You see their note content and idea were developed? G4

S3 15 They asked good question, as well, provided good answers. R2

T 16 Can you give us any examples? Forget? So you read their notes and know their notes are good. Any other comments? I2

S4 17 I think group 4 is better, because this cluster was extended through a question, a question was developed further in the beginning, later, more E2
questions were developed

T 18 One question lead to several questions, and then? I4

S4 19 And then they continued to have more and further questions. R2

T 20 This one is special, extend further. Ok, this type of cluster, some students said that a cluster with a directly line is a good development, but this G5
one is different, it is opposite, it is the one that various points extended based on one point. What do you see for this type of cluster?

S5 21 Many different ideas E2

T 22 Many different ideas? And? I4

S5 23 there are many different ideas and even contrast ideas discussion in the cluster. R2

T 24 ok, it also has layers. And with different ideas, different students put their ideas into the discussion I2

S6 25 It has a further question asking E2

T 26 But this group also has further question asking I4

S6 27 Why we only asking further question, what is the precondition for asking rhetorical question? I4

T 28 Good point, she mentioned rhetorical question. In the knowledge building discussion, what is rhetorical question? What does it mean when G5
students asked rhetorical question?

S4 29 Organizing and clarifying materials B1

T 30 More? I3

S6 31 Because of lack of understanding E2

T 32 Due to the lack of understanding, you ask rhetorical question. They want to revise and ask question again, clarifying themselves ideas, or P1
helping group members to clarifying ideas, agree?

T 33 For the group 2, a directly line development, also good. Both of them are in the progress of discussion. What is the advantage or disadvantage G5
for this cluster and the cluster which discussed from different aspects?

S7 34 For the group 2, only one point developed without any new ideas generating E2

T 35 From our discussion, we get a conclusion that we need to think more about the discussion which does not have new ideas, or have many P1
contrasting ideas, or something that you all still not understand. If you all log in KF and see these clusters, based on your discussion, you can
identify which cluster is better and how it is developed.

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Table 3. Excerpt 2 from a classroom discussion about the knowledge building principles
Agent Line Discussion utterance CA

Teacher 36 The following discussion is about knowledge building principles, I give you 1 minute to read these principles and please tell us what are the G6
four principles refers to, and how to explain these principles?

T 37 What we need to do after reading it? I want you to think about whether and how these principles applied into our KB Wall and KF discussion? E1
The epistemic agency, the idea improvement, the community knowledge, and the constructive use of authoritative sources?

S2 38 Constructive use of authoritative sources, this is the one that we did not get it. E2

T 39 Why? I4

S2 40 Because we did not aware that to search extra sources from the Internet to support our ideas and solve our questions. R2

T 41 Good, but how to make your ideas develop when you use others’ examples? I4

S2 42 It can help us to know deeper about the original question that we discussed E2

T 43 More extra information and sources can help you to clarify ideas, any other ideas? C1

S8 44 I have some ideas but not sure whether it is correct. Firstly, in pursuing knowledge, I think we need to express our ideas first. For example, in E2
the beginning, when we start to do KB, we gave some ideas about KB; secondly, we need to continue to make the discussion further. I think
we need to continue to ask others question to make idea improve meaningful. For instance, one note about “group 2 idea”, I feel it difficult in
the beginning, but in this discussion, we can learn new knowledge to build on others’ idea.

T 45 You mean you can think deeply about your idea when others ask you questions, and then you will try to revise and improve your idea? C1

S8 46 Because in the beginning of the KB discussion, I find it difficult to find right direction to answer others’ questions. E2

T 47 This point is what we discussed before and I also emphasized it before, we need to use questions to elaboration and clarify questions. B1

S8 48 Thirdly, we need to take collective responsibility. For example, “good art”, KB provided a platform to make people ask questions, and there E2
will be a students who support my ideas and also help me to clarify the questions I asked, and then the student will express his or her ideas,
and we work it collaboratively in the discussion. Lastly, the constructive use of sources, we need to find examples and evidence to support our
idea, for instance, we find traditional Chinese paper cutting because this example is more reliable.

T 49 So you use the example of traditional Chinese paper cutting to support your idea and it is a reliable source. C1

S9 50 Firstly, all of us pursue knowledge because we ask questions and make it deeper. The question we asked is to solve their question, and the E2
further question is also needed. It means that when a question was asked, followed by an answer, and sustained question need to be asked to
follow this questions and answer. So asking questions in the community will have communication, and then collective knowledge learning
become a community responsibility.

T 51 What is your understanding of collective responsibility and community knowledge? I4

S9 52 It means that when a question was asked, there are someone to answer this question; moreover, when a person answer the question, there will R2
be others to continue to ask him or her question, and then to have more idea, and select the best idea in the end.

T 53 Student 9 talked about the community learning that we discussed before. In addition to learn together, how the community learning be shown? I3
Any ideas?

S9 54 In the community learning, we discussed a same topic and everyone can read and know others’ ideas. When someone start to use the R2
authoritative sources, it will also help other students to do the same thing, and the discussion become deeper and further in this process.

T 55 Any comments or questions? I2

S10 56 I don’t think all the authoritative sources are correct P6

T 57 Good build on, why? I4

S2 58 I want to ask, whether the authoritative sources from Internet can change our prior knowledge or idea? II1

S11 59 I think it might not change our prior idea, because it can support your idea and integrate with your idea B1

T 60 So it can support your idea and integrate idea, I want to ask whether your current idea is changed and revised based on the authoritative I4
sources?

S11 61 The current idea summarized and integrated my prior idea and authoritative sources. E2

T 62 Integration refers to a lot of things, is it a kind of change? If it is changed, what kind of change? To make it deeper or simpler? I4

S4 63 Deeper R2

T 64 Why? I4

S4 65 Because the integration between our prior ideas and authoritative sources enrich our understanding and knowledge R2

T 66 So it makes your understanding deeper, right? Ok, any other comments? I2

S2 67 If the extra sources is contrast with your prior knowledge, will it make you confused? E2

T 68 A good question. Now we discuss into another problem. We discussed authoritative sources, and you mentioned another important problem G5
that we haven’t discussed before.

S9 69 So we need to continue our discussion to improve our ideas. We use authoritative sources which have its argument. E2

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S5 70 Whether the authoritative sources will affect your previous ideas? I4

S9 71 Firstly, authoritative sources can help you to have a deeper idea R2

S5 72 Yes, it will help us to have a deeper idea, but it will also affect your previous idea B1

T 73 I want to ask whether the influence is positive or not? B1

S5 74 Both positive and negative E2

T 75 Your explanation will make misunderstanding to others I4

S8 76 Your idea comes from the real life examples, and when you look for sources from Internet, you will not only read the information from one CR1
website, right? So if you think that website information is not appropriate, and your idea is more appropriate to support the topic, you can find
information in another website. So I don’t think it will have any negative influence.

T 77 You mean that if the sources we found that make our ideas and thinking become confused, we can find other information. So is it appropriate C1
to find the sources which is similar to your idea to support your idea? What do you think about it?

S8 78 If it doesn’t work, we can continue our discussion and find deeper understanding. B2

T 79 Ok, what the process refers to? To improve your idea? To deeper your idea? Or to revise your idea? I6

S8 80 To revise my idea R2

T 81 To revise your idea. We learned in the knowledge building environment for a period of time, and I never say which idea is correct or not, I P1
encourage you all to find sources on the Internet and inquiry further. One of the advantages of KB is that it allows our students to revise our
ideas or theories in the learning community, and improve our ideas through the inquiry.

their epistemic agency in joining the discussion and their
conversation turns were equally distributed (student 2 – 6%,
student 3 – 11%, student 4 – 8%, student 5 – 5%, student 6 –
8%, and student 7 – 8%), except for student 1 (3%). Taken
together, these data indicated that these students can participate
actively in the classroom discussion, and the teacher scaffold
and invited more elaboration, explanation, and build-on based
on students’ ideas and discussion, rather than providing the
feedback directly.
Teacher
8% Student
 1 focus in our discussion this lesson with guiding the direction of
8%
5% Student
 2 attention to these specific notes clusters (G5: Line 4). In Line
8% 51%
Student
 3 better cluster without any explanation, then the teacher invited
11%
6%
3% Student
 4 so?” (I4: Line 6), followed by student 2’s explanation.
Student
 5 further asked other students’ ideas on student 2’s idea (I2: Line
Figure 3. Percentage of turns per participant in excerpt 1
2)   Frequency of “Community Arts” (CA). In addition to the
percentage of participants’ turns, table 4 reported the frequency
of occurrence of the different clusters with sub-codes in excerpt
1 with 35 turns. In this excerpt in discussing KF notes strucures,
12 out of 33 available codes were applied (36%), representing
6 out of 8 cluster in the SEDA. According to the coding, 18
coded utterances with I2, I3, I4, R2, and R4 related to invite
elaboration or justification in a reasoning way, 8 coded
utterances with B1, E1 and E2 related to expressing and
building on others’ contribuion to make idea improve in the
community, 2 coded utterance with P realted to synthesis ideas
based on the previous discussion and state disagreement for
another contribution, and 5 coded utterance with G realted to
direction guidance of the dialogue which was mostly did by the
teacher in the excerpt 1. The resutls suggested that students
engaged in a knowledge building discussion with identifying
gaps and making sustained discussion in filling in the gaps, as
well, advance their collective understanding (van Aalst, 2009).
In the excerpt 1, the teacher started to raise a question on
“what is a good discussion?” and asking students to identify
which clusters of notes is better on the worksheet, student 1
quickly generated an idea that relevant to the topic on “can we
support ourselves more than others?” (E2: Line 3). The teacher
referred to student 1’s idea and pointed out what we need to
the topic and explain more in detail to ask students to pay
5, student 2 made a prediction in speculating which one is a
explanation “You think the group 2 is better, why do you think
Moreover, the teacher took up student 2’s contribution and
8). This contribution inviting based on another student’s idea is
an essential element in the knowledge building community
with building-on others’ idea to make deeper discussion.
Furthermore, student 3 made a disagreement on student 2’s
idea in stating that “I think group 1 is better” without any
explanation and elaboration (P6: Line 9). So the teacher asked
for explanation (I4: Line 10), followed by student 3’s
explanation (R2: Line 11, 13, and 15), and the teacher
continued to invite building on from the rest of students based
on student 3’s contribution (I2: Line 16). Later, student 4 made
a related contribution through the discussion in pointing out
that group 4 clusters is better because the structure was
extended through various questions asking, “a question was
developed further in the beginning, later, more questions were
developed” (E2: Line 17), followed by the teacher’s

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scaffolding strategies in asking students to focus on the types Table 4. Frequency of CA coded per cluster in excerpt 1
of these notes clusters based on student 4’s contribution (G5: Cluster CA Frequency Subtotal
Line 20). Under the helping of teacher’s point focusing, student I I1 0 11
5 draw an idea and provided explanation that “there are many I2 2
different ideas and even contrast ideas discussion in the cluster”
I3 1
(E2: Line 21; R2: Line 23).
At the beginning of above discussion, the teacher played a I4 7

leader role in inviting elaboration, build-on or asking I5 1

explanation, however, through the progress of the discussion, I6 0
student 6 started to ask for explanation rather than only
R R1 0 8
expressing ideas (I4: Line 27), followed by student 4 and
R2 6
student 7’s building on and contribution (B1: Line 29; E2: Line
34). Even though the teacher also invited more elaboration and R3 0
explanation in these utterances, but not the only person that R4 2
took this role. Students started to be aware to take their agency B B1 1 1
and collective responsibility in asking for explanation and
B2 0
building on in the classroom discussion in the end of this
discussion part to get their collective knowledge, which is a E E1 1 7

significant factor in the KB environment (Scardamalia, 2002). E2 6

In conclusion, for the excerpt 1, the teacher and students’ P P1 2 3
participation were almost equally in the classroom discussion,
P2 0
the children displayed well in the discussion by expressing
P3 0
ideas, making relevant contribution, building on others’
contribution. However, based on our coding, it suggested that P4 0
the teacher played a more leader role in asking for explanation, P5 0
inviting build-on, and synthesis ideas. It is sometimes common P6 1
in the beginning of a classroom discussion even in the
RD RD1 0 0
knowledge building class, especially in a low achievement
students’ class (band 3 school) who need more scaffolding RD2 0

from the teacher, but later, the role of the teacher and student RD3 0
will be changed through the progress of the discussion which C C1 0 0
will be illustrated in the excerpt 2 (a second part of discussion
C2 0
followed by the first part of discussion in this lesson).
C3 0

C4 0
B.   Interpreation of Excerpt 2
G G1 0 5
1)   Percentage of converation turns. Figure 4 presented the
G2 0
percentage of turns produced by the participants including the
G3 0
teacher and students in the classroom dialogue in excerpt 2. The
pie chart illustrated that the conversation turns were also almost G4 1

equally split between the teacher and students (48% by the G5 4

teacher and 52% by the students). Compared with excerpt 1, G6 0
students had a higher percentage of converation turns than the Total CA 35
teacher in the excerpt 2. It suggested that through the progress
of classroom discussion from excerpt 1 to excerpt 2 in the
lesson, the role of teacher transfer from a leader to a facilitator,
and the students took more epistemic agency to make their
ideas improve even without teacher’s facilitation in part of the
Teacher
4%
2%
11%
dialogue. Moreover, it also showed that most of the students’ Student  2
converstaion turns were equally distributed which was similar 13% 48%
with excerpt 1 (student 4 – 4%, student 5 – 7%, student 8 – 13%, 7% Student  4
student 9 – 8%, and student 11 – 4%), excerpt for student 10 4%
11%
(2%). In sum, these data in excerpt 2 also indicated that these Student  5
students can take an active role in the discussion even they are
low achievers, and the teacher became a facilitator rather than
a domiantor or leader in the classroom discussion. Figure 4. Percentage of turns per participant in excerpt 2

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2)   Frequency of “Community Arts” (CA). Table 5 reported Table 5. Frequency of CA coded per cluster in excerpt 2
the frequency of occurance with different CA in the excpert 2 Cluster CA Frequency Subtotal
with 46 turns. In this excerpt 2 in discussing the knoweldge I I1 0 13
building principles, 15 out of 33 available codes were applied
I2 2
(45%), representing 7 out of 8 clusters in the scheme.
According to the coding, 21 coded utterances with I2, I3, I4, I5, I3 1

R2, and R4 related to invite elaboration or justification in a I4 9

reasoning way, 17 coded utterances with I6, B1, E1 and E2 I5 0
related to expressing and building on others’ contribution to I6 1
make idea improve in the community, 2 coded utterance with
R R1 0 7
P realted to positioning disagreement by the student and
R2 7
synthesis ideas by the teacher, 4 coded utterance with C related
to refer back to the previous discussion, and 2 coded utterance R3 0

with G related to direction guidance of the dialogue which was R4 0

less in the excerpt 2 compared with excerpt 1 (5 coded utteranc B B1 4 5
in G in excerpt 1). Taken together, in addition to identifying B2 1
and filling gaps to get collective knoweldge in the excerpt 1,
E E1 1 11
students took more collective responsibility in the discussion to
E2 10
ask and invite ideas besides expressing points, and the role of
teacher changed from a leader to a facilitator. P P1 1 2

For instance, student 2 asked a question on “If the extra P2 0

source you find is different or contrast with your prior P3 0
knowledge, will it make you confused?” (E2: Line 67) based
P4 0
on previous students’ discussion on extra sources searching to
P5 0
support ideas, followed by student 5 (I4: Line 70; B1: Line 72)
and student 9 (E2: Line 69; R2: Line 71) build-on and P6 1
contribution. RD RD1 0 0

RD2 0
C.   Prompt for KB Teachers RD3 0
Depending on the data analysis, an exploratory prompt was C C1 4 4
summarized for KB teachers in the classroom discussion for C2 0
inviting students’ productive discourse. Three categories were
C3 0
developed in the current prompt including inviting explanation,
inviting building-on or idea improvement, and inviting C4 0
reflection or collective responsibility. The detailed prompt G G1 0 2
questions were shown in the Table 6.
G2 0
Table 6. Prompt Questions for KB Teachers G3 0
Category Prompt Questions G4 0
Inviting What is your understanding of XX?
Explanation G5 1
Can you give us any examples to support your
ideas? G6 1
How do you know this XX (e.g. idea/experiment)
is good? Why do you think that? II II1 1 1
Inviting Building- Any supplement ideas or disagreement on this CR CR1 1 1
on OR Idea point?
Improvement Any other ideas or questions? Total CA 45
Can anyone build on/add to what XX said on XX?
What would happen if…?
Inviting Reflection Can you explain your initial idea, and whether or
OR Collective not your initial idea is changed during the VI.   CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
Responsibility discussion, and how?
Tell me about what your group had discussed, can This paper reported a detailed analysis of knowledge
you summarize what your group discussed? building classroom dialogue using SEDA and investigated the
Reflect on what you have discussed, can you dynamics of KB classroom discussion. Qualitative analysis of
explain what problems we solved or identify
gaps/further questions to inquiry teacher and students’ utterances in two parts classroom
Can you putting our ideas together? discussion provided a picture on how the epistemic agency and
collective responsibility were transferred from teacher to
students during the process of discussion, as well, how the role

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of the teacher changed from a leader to a facilitator in the
discussion. In the normal learning classroom, teacher usually
played as the center role in giving lectures and knowledge to
Students directly with immediately feedback about students’
answers, especially in the culture that emphasize on
examination and academic scorse. In the knowledge buliding
community, based on our coding of classroom discussion, the
results indicted that the teacher and students’ conversation
turns were evenly split, as well, most of the students took the
agency to join the disucssion rather than one ot two students
domiante the whole discussion.
The study also showed the possible facilitation role of teacher
in the knowledge building community to scaffold students’
discussion, play a more leader role in the excerpt 1 and a more
facilitator role in the excerpt 2. It provided a guidance or
prompt for the knowledge building teachers who organize
discussion in the classroom. On the one hand, to scaffold
students’ knowledge building discussion in inviting more
build-on or explanation; on the other hand, transfer the role
from teacher to the students during the process of discussion.
In conclusion, this paper presented the preliminary analysis
and findings of students’ KB classroom discourse using SEDA
which was not tried before, as well, generate a prompt for KB
teachers in the classroom discussion. However, in both the
excerpt 1 and excerpt 2, we did not find the RD (reflect or invite
reflection on dialogue or learning process or learning outcome).
It suggested that these students did not engage in a
metacognitive reflection on their learning process and did not
really carry on productive metadiscourse which pay attention
to the discourse moves (Bereiter, 2010), even though the
discussion itself is a type of reflection of students’ knowledge
building discourse. Further research need to emphasize on the
reflection in the classroom discussion besides the reflection on
students’ KF discourse, as well, to invesitage the relations
between students’ KF discussion and classroom discussion
performance. Moreover, further analysis can also try the SEDA
scheme to analyze students’ discourse in the Knowledge Forum
in order to provide a holistic picture for the SEDA scheme and
both students’ online and offline discourse.
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on Education (WNC 2017)
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Beyond Academic Grade Dashboard: Integrating

Performance Visualization to Increase Peer Support
a work in-progress paper

Nicole Wang1, Dr. Martin K.-C. Yeh2, Dr. Andrea Gregg3, Chenyang Zhu4, Amy Garbrick5, Dr. Kyle Peck1
1
College of Education, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States
2
College of Information Science and Technology, Pennsylvania State University, Brandywine Campus, United States
3
World Campus, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States
4
Department of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
5
College of Information Sciences and Technology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States

Abstract— This paper briefly describes an online interface
designed to visualize learner’s academic performance in an
innovative approach intended to encourage and facilitate peer to
peer social and academic support. The interface is a virtual
environment where an animated pet’s emotion represents a
student’s academic performance. Three design strategies are
utilized for the interface. First, the pet companion strategy that
motivates the learner to learn so as to keep the pet dog happy;
second, the anonymous learner strategy that all learners’ real
name will only be reflected by the names of the pet dog, and by
doing so learner will not feel embarrassed to seek help; lastly,
peer-to-peer interaction strategy that allows learners either to
post a question at discussion forum, or to chat privately when
they need help. A pilot quasi-experimental study will be
conducted to measure the effectiveness of the interface in terms
of motivation and peer-to-peer engagement.
Keywords: Data visualization, computer-assisted learning,
learning experience, peer support, social presence
I. INTRODUCTION
For decades, researchers have known that social
comparison promotes students interacting with each other, and
encourages students to be competitive (Festinger, 1954). More
recently, Grevet et al (2010) utilized social visualization to
encourage the sustainable environmental behavior. They built
a platform that represented a college dorm as a small image, in
which as the dorm saved more energy the image became
clearer. Forty-one students participated in the study, in two
groups. They found that participants tended to interact more
through social visualization and were more aware of energy
problems.
Two recent studies of social performance visualization
have demonstrated improved learner progress and increased
peer-to-peer interaction. Results have shown that “presenting
students with basic representation of their knowledge resulted
in facilitating their metacognitive activities” (Falakmasir et al.,
2012, p.565). Hsiao et al. (2012) also demonstrated that social
performance visualization “encouraged students to work more
and supported them in achieving a higher success rate.”
Regarding Open Student Models, Falakmasir et. al. (2012)
discovered that students who utilized platforms designed
based on Open Student Models were more successful in self-
assessment quizzes and were more likely to “use the social
visualization tool during the whole semester to monitor their
progress in comparison with their peers,” “promoting self-
reflection and awareness” (p 565.)
Recent progress in the areas of course management
systems (CMSs) and data analytics have opened opportunities
to inform learners of their progress (or lack thereof) and to
scaffold the development of learners’ ability to “self-regulate.”
Today’s “data dashboards” do a commendable job of
informing learners of their progress and often of their progress
relative to the progress of classmates, but they stop short of
providing incentives for students to know and support each
other, and they don’t provide tools to make supporting peers
more efficient.
II. PROPOSED SOLUTION
Currently three types of data-based support are offered: 1)
Open Student Models where students can see their learning
status visually; 2) Social Visualizations where students can
collaborate with classmates and compare learning outcomes
with each other; 3) and Hybrid Models between Open Student
Models and Social Visualizations where students can not only
monitor self-progress and classmates’ progress, but can also
interact with each other. Our study is in this third domain, but
it proposes to offer more interesting and socially compelling
images through which learners can quickly monitor progress,
and tools that make it more efficient to offer support where
and when needed.

This study is funded by Pennsylvania State University Center for Online

Innovation in Learning
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Copyright © GSTF 2017
ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.36 GSTF © 2017.

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Conference
The interface we have created reacts to student
performance data, so as to inform and support students, and
also to inform and support the instructors and
researchers. The interface consists of four elements: (a)
homepage, where a learner can see the visualized academic
performance and a leader board where the learner can seek
help or provide help; (b) dashboard, which provides all
classmates’ overall information; (c) discussion forum, where a
learner can ask questions or solve problems openly; and (d)
inbox, where a learner can chat with peers in private (see
Figure 1).
Figure 1 system overview
The interface was realized as a web app interface with
HTML, CSS, and Angular 2. The data is stored in SQLite
database, including user account, peer-to-peer interaction, and
learner academic performance. PHP language was used for
communication between the interface and SQLite database.
The original design of the animated pet is from GitHub open
source design.
A. Strategy one: The pet companion strategy
This strategy was to intentionally represent the learner’s
progress in the image of a pet dog. The homepage depicted by
Figure 2 below, maps individual student progress into an
animated pet. In the image, each animated dog represents a
student, and each student’s representative object is depicted as
very happy or in one of the several stages of decline (happy,
neutral, or sad). Table 1 shows how each emotion corresponds
with a student’s academic performance.
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Figure 2. Homepage design
Pet’s emotion Corresponding academic performance
Very happy The student is doing an outstanding job on the
assignment
Happy The student is doing a good job on the assignment
Neutral The student is doing an okay job with the
assignment, might have minor problems with
assignments
Sad The student is having problems with the
assignment, and might need help
Deceased The student is not taking care of each assignment
at all, and there is no way that the student would
be able to pass the course for the semester
Table 1. Pet Emotion description
Some researchers have found that human beings have
special relationships with pets, and by caring for them we
would feel love and support. (Levinson 1969; Beck & Katcher
1996; Melson 2001) In a pilot study done by Liao et al. (2011)
where they developed a pet-nurturing interface to help
children learn by doing interaction games with the companion
pet they found out that children are more engaged with
learning and more likely to communicate with their peers.
Similar research was also done in the medical field. Lena
et al. (2006) developed an interface to ask people with obesity
to achieve certain daily steps so that the companion fish would
grow up; if their teammate does not maintain certain daily
steps the shared aquarium will become dirty, and that is when
other teammates can step up to help out. Their research results
have proved the effectiveness of adopting similar pet
visualization strategy to motivate people.
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B. Strategy two: The anonymous learner strategy
Students’ real names will not to be display on the interface;
instead, each learner will see every animated pet’s name on
the dashboard, including their own. By doing that, students
will not be embarrassed to seek help when needed or speak up
in discussion forum. Each learner can turn on or turn off the
seeking help status button whenever possible. If a student sees
the help button and wants to get involved, the student can click
the chat button to start a private conversation.
Anonymous communication can help protect privacy,
which is very popular nowadays (Williams, 2008). Learner’s
academic performance can also be regarded as private
information, and only matters to the learner itself. From this
aspect, learner will be more likely to get engaged with the
community when their identities are not revealed.
Lu & Bol (2007) did a study on anonymous peer-to-peer
review to an undergraduate level English writing class. By
comparing with another group that disclosed each learner’s
identity, they found out that the anonymous group performed
better on writing assignments, and provided more critical
reviews.
C. Strategy three: The peer-to-peer interaction strategy
that allows learners to support each other
Discussion forum and inbox are communication channels
that help students to interact with each other. Visualization of
discussion forums will be based on social network node chart,
however, the color of the node represents the number of
classmates whom have answered the question; and size of the
node represents when the question was posted. The less people
commented on the question, the brighter color of the node is;
and earlier the question is, the bigger the node is going to be.
By doing so, every learner will be able to tutor each other.
Goodlad and Hirst (1989) define peer tutoring as “the
system of instruction in which learners help each other and
learn by teaching.” This conveys benefits received by both the
peer tutor and tutee. The literature on peer tutoring proposes
that a peer can establish a rapport with the learner in a way
that an instructor can’t, and that advice may be solicited and
accepted more readily from peers.
Vygotsky (1978) proposed the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), the difference between what someone can
learn without help and what might be learned with help. The
diversity of online learners implies that a one-size-fits-all set
of learning resources will not be sufficient for all individuals,
but peer support may extend the range of topics and activities
a learner might master. The discussion forum and inbox will
increase the efficiency of offering, requesting, and accepting
peer support, to produce a mild incentive to stay on schedule;
help students understand when they need help; reduce the
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stigma associated with asking for help; increase awareness of
classmates in need of assistance; increase the frequency and
timeliness of peer-to-peer assistance; and increase what is
learned by students in need, while also benefitting the
assistance providers.
III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In order to measure effectiveness of the interface, we are
investigating the following research questions:
• Can the interface increase the number, value and the
quality of peer-to-peer communications?
• Can the interface improve learners’ motivation
within the course, and increase their desire to take
other similar courses?
IV. FUTURE WORK AND NEXT STEPS
Our study will employ a quasi-experimental design, with
the learners randomly assigned to experimental and control
groups. The experimental groups will use the images and
tools created by the project, and the control groups will
not. Where possible instructors will be assigned to treatment
and control groups, to eliminate teacher effects, and the
instructors will be “blind” to which sections are receiving the
treatments and which are not. We will monitor students’
activity and progress through the semester. The pilot study
will be implemented in a required course for freshman
undergraduate students from the Information Sciences and
Technology major at Pennsylvania State University for two
academic semesters. A future study might also implement the
interface to other online courses in different majors.
Analyses will be done using data extracted from the
interface and performed in SAS and SPSS. We will be
performing analysis as follows to answer our research
questions: descriptive analysis, t-test, ANOVA tests,
correlation test, and multiple linear regression. Variables that
will be takeen into considerations for the analyses are data
related to demographic information, interaction information,
and academic performance information.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This project is funded by Pennsylvania State University
Center for Online Innovation in Learning.
REFERENCES
[1] Falakmasir, M. H., Hsiao, I. H., Mazzola, L., Grant, N., & Brusilovsky,
P. (2012, July). The impact of social performance visualization on
students. In 2012 IEEE 12th International Conference on Advanced
Learning Technologies (pp. 565-569). IEEE. Available online at:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6268178/?arnumber=6268178&tag=
1
[2] Festinger, L., A theory of social comparison processes. Human
Relations, 1954. 7: p. 117-140.
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[3] Goodlad, S., & Hirst, B. (1989). Peer Tutoring. A Guide to Learning by
Teaching. Nichols Publishing, PO Box 96, New York, NY 10024.
[4] Grevet, C., Mankoff, J., & Anderson, S. D. (2010, January). Design and
evaluation of a social visualization aimed at encouraging sustainable
behavior. In System Sciences (HICSS), 2010 43rd Hawaii International
Conference on (pp. 1-8). IEEE.
[5] Hsiao, I-Han, et al. "Comparative social visualization for personalized e-
learning." Proceedings of the International Working Conference on
Advanced Visual Interfaces. ACM, 2012. Available online at:
http://www.pitt.edu/~peterb/papers/avi12_5pages_final.pdf
[6] Liao, C. C. Y., Chen, Z. H., Cheng, H. N. H., Chen, F. C., & Chan, T.
W. (2011). My-Mini-Pet: A handheld pet-nurturing game to engage
students in arithmetic practices. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning,
27(1), 76–89. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00367.x
[7] Mamykina, L., Lindtner, S., Lin, J. J., Mamykina, L., Lindtner, S.,
Delajoux, G., & Strub, H. B. (2006). Fish’n’Steps: Encouraging Physical
Activity with an Interactive Computer Game, 4206(August 2015).
http://doi.org/10.1007/11853565
[8] Vygotsky, J.S., (1978). Mind in Society: the development of higher
psychological processes. Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press.
[9] Williams. C. Bt admits misleading customers over Phorm experiments.
The Register, March 17 2008.

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From Chalkboard to Interactive Whiteboard and
From F2f to CMC:
A Journey Through Education And E-Learning.
Liz Lakin
University of Dundee
Extended Abstract
Key words: Learning Theories, Pedagogic Social
Constructivism, Independent learning, eLearning, Blended
learning Introduction Graduating as a newly qualified teacher in
the later 1970s the anticipated means of communication in the
classroom and indeed the higher education program left behind,
was face to face [teacher to students] and the ‘chalkboard’.
Theories of learning were beginning to take off away from the
rudiments of rote learning and discovery learning, but the
fundamentals remained persistent: didactic teaching, despite the
seeds of challenge being there, was the norm. Although
recognized by psychologist of the day that children were not
‘blank slates’ on which new knowledge could be written
(Ausubel, 1968) this was often the perceived view, with the
learner whether a child or a university student on the receiving
end of the ‘teacher-as-transmitter-of-knowledge model of
teaching (Bennett, 2003. P.24). This transmission mode of
teaching was set to change and nearly four decades on not only
have pedagogic theories been further advanced, in no small part
due to advanced in neuroscience (Smith, 2002), but the way
teachers and learners communicate has changed beyond
recognition. This paper explores the journey from pre-1960s to
the current day mapping progression in educational practice in
parallel with advances in technology, critically analyzing the
influence one has had on the other. The paper goes on to site
significant milestones in learning theory and, drawing on three
case studies undertaken within Initial Teacher Education since
the 1970s, illustrates how the application of pedagogic social
constructivism and the use of technology have influenced
classroom practice in science education. Independently but
intrinsically interwoven are the significant innovations in
communication technology and with them the birth of on-line or
‘eLearning’. Literature Review For reasons of continuity the
literature review beings in the 1920s mapping pedagogy and
educational theory development through the benign 1940s and
50s, the heady 60s, turbulent 70s, 80s and 90s into the noughties
and through to the current day. This literacy journey runs in
parallel with a changing curricular landscape and progression in
available technological resources. Set against this backdrop of
evolving theories and technologies this review traces the rise of
pedagogic constructivism whereby learners construct meaning
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
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ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.38
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and develop understanding through active involvement in the
learning process as opposed to being a passive recipient (Lakin,
2010 and Ross et al., 2015). This approach to teaching and
learning underpinned much research led practice in ITE in
science education in the late 1990s early noughties.
According to Bennett (2003) the journey of pedagogic
development in science education was influenced by five main
theorists:
• Jean Piaget
• David Ausubel
• Lev Vygotsky
• Jerome Bruner
• George Kelly
It is Piaget’s work from the 1920s that underpins pedagogic
development in science education. Bennett claims that the
outcomes of Piaget’s work formed ‘the most influential child
development theory of the twentieth century and one which has
had the most impact on education’ (Bennett, 2003, p.256).
Piaget proposed a Four-Stage theory of intellectual
development. According to Bennett two key processes of
learning were central to Piaget’s theory: assimilation, defined as
the process of interpreting a new learning experience within
existing knowledge frameworks and accommodation, which
applies to the modification of existing thinking to take into
account new experiences (ibid). Both processes are significant
drivers in science education. They form the basis of an initiative
that was widely used in UK schools and remains current as a
pioneering researchbased study into the teaching of science
entitled Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education or
CASE (Sheyer and Gamble, 2001). With advances in
neurosciences and the work of Gardner (in Smith, 2002), this
approach was developed further in the ‘Accelerated Learning’
movement in the early noughties pioneered by Smith (2002).
Before these developments, the work of Ausubel (1986) and
others suggested that the knowledge and experiences pupils
brought with them to the classroom influenced the way in which
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they assimilated and accommodated the new ideas they
encountered. Ausubel asserts that ‘… if I had to reduce all of
educational psychology to just one principle, I would say this:
the most important single factor influencing learning is what the
learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him (sic)
accordingly’ (Ausubel, 1986, p.vi). This often quoted assertion
was, according to Bennett (2003), a major contributing factor in
the development and later adoption of constructivism within
science education.
Bennett (2003) goes on to describe Constructivism as a way of
viewing learning whereby people construct meaning from what
they experience rather than acquiring it from other sources. As a
definition, it encapsulates the essence of the term but arguably
‘understanding’ needs to be included (Lakin, 2010). Thereby
amending the definition thus: Constructivism is a way of
viewing learning whereby people construct meaning and
develop understanding from what they experience rather than
acquiring it from other sources (Ross et al., 2015). A key
element of this is the concept of ‘misconceptions’ held by the
learner; that being any understanding that does not accord with
‘accepted’ science (ibid). Bennett (2003) hints at the
significance of this concept by stating that ‘misconceptions’ had
been the focus for much emergent, associated research and
curriculum development (Driver, 1994; Meyer and Land, 2003;
Black et al., 2004, and Keogh and Naylor, 2009) and the
Secondary National Strategy materials for science, DCSF,
2009).
When reviewing the earlier research into ‘misconceptions’
mentioned above, Bennett (2003) affirms a consensus on the
methods of data collection, ranging from snapshot case studies
to longitudinal studies lasting several years, all attracting
considerable external funding, for example, the Assessment of
Performance Unit (APU, 1989) project. Findings from this
project informed the revised national curriculum and later the
Children’s Learning In Science (CLIS) project, which according
to Ross et al. (2015) suggested how strongly held pupils’
alternative ideas were. The main variations in the research into
misconceptions exist only in the terminology used i.e.
misconceptions, misinterpretations, alternative ideas, naïve
ideas, school science and so on. A summary (abridged from
Bennett, 2003, p. 34) of the findings from the various research
programs include the following:
• Children construct their explanations for
scientific phenomena
• These explanations tend to persist even after instruction
because they make sense in relation of everyday
experiences
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• Accepted scientific explanations are often counter
intuitive
• Learning involves reconstruction and not
just accumulation
• There is a need to elicit existing ideas from the learner,
challenge them in the light of accepted scientific
understanding, with a view to replacing these existing
‘naive’ ideas. There remains however, only limited
agreement on the effectiveness of these strategies
(Ibid).
She goes on to conclude that it is unlikely that any one theory
can provide definitive explanations for the learning process but
the fact that pedagogic constructivism has remained largely
unchallenged for the past two, and now three decades indicates
its current supremacy. Challenges, however, do exist; these are
mainly on philosophical grounds, questioning the influence and
association
Constructivism has with particular models of teaching. Millar
(1989) was one of the main protagonists, arguing on this very
point. To gain an insight into Millar’s disputation however, a
greater understanding of the nature of pedagogic constructivism,
and with it social constructivism, is called for.
Osborne (1996) suggests that for two decades pedagogic
constructivism has assumed the heady status of a ‘super theory’;
recognizing its significance in the way science education was
and currently is taught in schools. This approach to teaching and
learning encourages the use of ‘active learning’ techniques and
relies on expert ‘scaffolding’ by the teacher (Driver et al., 1994,
Ross et al., 2015). The principles behind active learning
approaches are that encourage the learner to ‘… assess evidence,
negotiate, make decisions, solve problems, work independently
and in groups, and learn from each other’, the latter being the
essence of pedagogic social constructivism [authors
comments](Ross et al., 2015, p.25). The use of the metaphor
‘scaffolding’ to describe the teacher’s role in developing new
concepts has been defined as providing opportunities through
activities, problems, and models which ‘… stimulate the
[learner] to interact with the apparatus/model and have the
appropriate experiences. The teacher uses language and assists
the [learner] to construct solutions to the problems posed until
the [learner] can complete solutions unaided’ (Coles and Price,
1998).
The degree of support varies according to the needs of the
learner. A constructivist approach, although modified by various
educationalists, adheres to an agreed format and remains much
in practice today (Lakin, 2013).
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Curriculum reform since the 1970s
In parallel with the “off screen” debates around educational
theory and occurring almost simultaneously, a different type of
pedagogic debate and associated adjustments were taking place.
This time, the reformation was more overt and demanded action.
According to Johnson (2007), state maintained schools in the
UK saw an increasing move away from teacher influenced
schooling to a more directive led education system directly
under government influence.
• Well into the 1950s state schools were still run
exclusively by teachers and educationists within a
framework shaped by the 1944 Education Act. The
emphasis was on secondary education for all and an
education system that catered for all abilities. There
was however minimal directive regarding the
curriculum and its content.
• 1957 saw the launch of Sputnik by the USSR; this
forced the UK to consider its own somewhat pedestrian
advances in technology. It was this internal scrutiny
that paved the way later in the 1970s for the
comprehensive education system
• 1964 heralded the formation of the Schools’ Council
for Curriculum and Examination, marking the
beginning of government influence within the system.
• By the mid-1960s learning theory was being taken
seriously echoed in the Plowden Report: children and
their primary schools (1967, HMSO, London) which
drew heavily on Piaget’s work and became
synonymous with child centred learning (Johnson,
2007)
• For several years the educational debate waxed and
waned around the effectiveness of the more progressive
methods employed by teachers following this report. It
was not until the mid-1970s however that the then
government made a stand. October 1976 PM James
Callaghan made his now famous Ruskin’s speech
calling the schools to account and advocating a more
centralized control on education.
• The subsequent 1986 Education Act required schools to
publish their curriculum. Instigated by the Callaghan’s
Ruskin speech a decade earlier the Act reiterated the
case for the first core curriculum, calling for a broad
and balanced ‘education for all’. A series of turbulent
years followed dominated by formalized testing,
inspections and corrective national strategies.
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• Reform came once again through the Curriculum 2000
with continued but independent changes both in
English and Scottish education taking place since.
The school-based curriculum remains in a state of flux,
mirroring the continuing dialogue associated with the
underpinning educational theories as the system battles to be fit
for purpose in a changing world with continually advancing
technologies. It was not until 1959 with the advent of
silicon-based integrated electrical circuits that brought the
modern computers into being. Basic video games followed, and
by 1968 it were possible to link four computers together, the
birth of network communications! The 1970s saw the
refinement of fiber optics for telecommunications purposes,
with the first ‘cellphone’ in 1973, and the design of the Internet
the following year. However the Internet was not available
commercially until the 1980s. 1977 heralded the invention of the
‘Apple II Commodore Pet and Radio Shacks TRS’ which was
synonymous with the [PC’ or personalized computer (ibid). It
was not until the mid-late 1980s that technology began to impact
on and influence education. The decade began with the
development of the IBM PC and ended with Sir Tim
Berners-Lee creating the ‘Hype Text-Marking Language and
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)’ to locate where information
was stored, leading to the formation of the World Wide Web.
1984 saw the development of the CD-ROM, which
revolutionized personal data storage but arguably the milestone
in education was the development of ‘PowerPoint.’ (c Microsoft
Corp) in 1987. Until this point technology was behind the
scenes, but it wasn’t long before the use of PowerPoint was
influencing both teaching and learning. PowerPoint introduced a
visual, auditory and creative element that would appeal to a
variety of learning styles. So popular was this that universities
and in some cases schools invested heavily in mobile or static
data projectors. All purchased around the same time and all set
to require expensive new bulbs and filters simultaneously nearly
a decade later. As Jones (2003) later claims the use of
PowerPoint tends to be limited to information transmission
mode thereby restricting the potential pedagogic use of this
powerful learning and teaching tool. Developments in the 1990s
resulted in a communications revolution with the development
of email and further enhanced the repertoire of technological
resources, with the introduction of the browser, broadband,
Google, and WiFi. Access to information at the press of button
brought its pedagogic advantages thereby opening up a myriad
of opportunities and with them challenges of authenticity,
plagiarism, quality of data to name but a few. The noughties
took communication a stage further with asynchronous Java
script and Facebook, both used within the education arena to a
variety of effects. The availability of the intranet application and
with it the concept of a virtual learning environment (VLE)
within educational establishments was a case in point: it
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presented the opportunity to take the learning experience beyond
the classroom and the teaching day, thereby giving the learner
more control over when and how they learned.
Methodology and methods employed
Three case studies where undertaken between 2000 and 2003 at
a higher education institution in South West England into the
impact of this new technology on learning and teaching. They
all involved ITE students and explored the pedagogical use of
the VLE to enhance teaching and learning through the context of
science education.
Set within the parameters of pedagogic social constructivism,
two research questions united the case studies:
RQ1: Using the information available with the ITE course, to
what extent are students able to identify gaps and
misconceptions within their subject knowledge and
understanding?
RQ2: To what extent are these ITE students able to use the
information available to self-correct these gaps and
misconceptions?
The case studies took place over a period of three years and
explored the educational learning support materials available to
students on the Primary Science Education programs. The focus
for the various studies concerned the vehicle for making the
materials available to the students and how they used this it.
In the first case study, a series of lecture-recorded videos
supported by the use of a structured discussion area within a
VLE (WebCT) was made available to the students. Later the
video was divided into ‘bite-size’ sections and made available
on-line (streamed) within WebCT. The students were
encouraged to use the discussion area to further their
understanding of the topics concerned. The use of this unique
resource (streamed video, supporting material and directed
discussions) constituted my second study, referred to as Case
Study B. Running in parallel, with a different cohort of students,
was a third study, Case Study C exploring the use of on-line
assessment as a means of supporting teaching and learning.
Summary of Findings.
Case Study A(n=90): The use of WebCT (a virtual learning
environment) as a vehicle for supporting teaching and learning.
Students chose to use the video as support material for a variety
of reasons. 10% of the sample viewed it before the lead lecture,
like a preview or scene-setter [the idea is synonymous with the
‘Flipper Classroom’ approach to teaching and learning as
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described by Ross et al., (2015). 45% used it as an additional
teaching aid to reinforce and supplement what they had learned.
33% were unable to attend either the lead lecture or the
workshops and used the video in place of the sessions missed. A
quarter of the sample felt that the video was easy to view and
despite not being a professional product, was effective as a
learning resource. The same proportion stated that it was
user-friendly and the familiarity of the presenter made it all the
more appealing. All students agreed that the video was an
effective study medium and that it reinforced their learning.
Students identified three advantages:
• Technology – availability of access via video player
• Taking ownership for their learning
• Video Makeup – ease of information retrieval
Case Study B (n=5): Streamed video and the use of directed
discussion within the VLE. The findings covered the two main
areas of investigation as listed below, although this account only
reports on findings relating to resource usage:
• Use of the medium as a teaching and learning tool
• Resource production
The students supported the findings from Study A, by stating
that they recognized the streamed video as a means of
reinforcing learning by being able to target their needs:
revisiting sections they did not understand, identifying specific
misconceptions and being in control of their learning achieved
this. They felt the approach would be accessible to most
students, catering for all learning styles, especially those with
short concentration spans or who where visual learners. The
student respondents perceived the pictorial aspect of the
resource to more stimulating than ‘text alone’ and reduced
reading time.
Students felt, however, that the content of the video needed to
extend the ideas developed in the lecture and to approach the
concepts discussed in a different way. These comments arose
because the original video used was a direct recording of the
module lecture as presented. Eventually a suite of six lectures
was recorded and further to the student feedback, these lectures
were interspersed with additional information: i.e. the talking
head was supported with outsourced video clips, PowerPoint
slides, and relevant questions and animations from the two
supporting in-house produced CD-ROMs (Ross and Lakin,
(1998) and Ross et al., 2002).
Case Study C (n=65): An Online assessment. Findings focused
on two main areas: the perceived value of the resource as a
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formative assessment tool, and significant technical issues. This
account reports on the findings relating to pedagogic value only.
Feedback from the students about formative assessment
indicated that 84% of the respondents reported that the approach
was either ‘good’ or ‘excellent’. Students felt that it was good to
be able to test and monitor their knowledge and understanding
as the course developed. They felt the VLE was a useful tool,
especially when evidence from the on-line questions could be
printed off and used in their Professional Development
Portfolio. They reported that they valued the instant feedback on
their performance, especially when their response was
inaccurate. The feedback explained the inaccuracy, with the
intention of enabling students to rectify their answer at the
subsequent attempt.
The series of questions used in this study were a set of
multiple-choice questions developed in association with the
above-mentioned CD-ROMs. These questions were based on
commonly held misconceptions and to that end enabled the
students to identify these within their subject knowledge.
Neither identifying gaps in subject knowledge nor the
effectiveness of the online resource were mentioned in the
feedback, however its use did enable the students to get the
‘correct’ answers.
Discussion of findings and general outcomes
As demonstrated in the literature review, much has been written
and researched about the learning process, in particular about
school pupils. The majority of this applies equally to ITE and
other higher education students or indeed anyone in a learning
situation. In 2007, with the English education still in a state of
flux Ramsden claimed that education was perceived as a
production process ignoring the fact that students develop their
own competencies. He went on to recommend that education
should provide opportunities and materials to enable learners to
progress these attributes. The strategies adopted echoed the
foundations of pedagogic social constructivism introduced
several decades earlier.
Ramsden’s claims were in accordance with Biggs and Tang
(2007) who emphasized the role played by the learner in the
learning process. They highlight the value pedagogic
constructivism affords in universities stating that it is this
approach that can lead to enhanced teaching and thereby, quality
learning building on the previous knowledge, experiences and
competencies accrued by the learner. Ramsden’s (2007)
recommendation for education to supply opportunities to
encourage and enable such accruements supports findings from
the three case studies thereby enabling the student to become an
independent learner: taking responsibility for one’s learning,
being autonomous and creative in one’s thinking and critical in
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one’s understanding (Lakin, 2013). As eluded to earlier Johnson
(2007) supported these views suggesting that the most effective
teachers are those who can create ‘classroom dynamics’ that
enable pupils to develop a sense of ownership of their learning
(p.29). What is important is not only what support is made
available but also how the students use it.
Arguably by being competence across the spectrum of
higher-order skills; skills such as criticality, analysis,
problem-solving, application and synthesis (Lakin, 2014)
students are then able to take responsibility for their learning
through constructing arguments and asking questions to promote
critical awareness (Lakin, 2013 and Ross et al., 2015); and as
Bruner (2003 p.10) suggested earlier, facilitating
‘metacognition’: thinking about thinking. There is some debate,
however, as to when a learner is capable of metacognitive
practice. Earlier still Osborne (1996) suggested this is only
achievable once the learner has reached certain cognitive levels
of development. Arguably (Lakin, 2014) an important aspect of
teaching whether in school or HE, is to provide opportunities to
develop and promote this potential. It is this type of learning that
was recognized by Hargreaves (2007) as a requirement for
survival in our ‘knowledge society’; a society where information
through the WWW is readily available through every
conceivable source yet the skill is recognizing quality
information, then ‘knowing’ what to do with it, when, where
and how? (Lakin, 2013).
With the advent of the Widening Participation agenda (DfES,
2005; BIS, 2010) and increased emphasis on flexible and
‘blended’ learning [that which incorporates online learning,
face-to-face and any other combination of learning approaches
(Lakin, 2010)] the case studies outlined above focused initially
on the use of video but highlighting the use of technology to
assist teaching and learning, with the effectiveness of the end
product (the video and the use of the discussion board) being
greater than the sum of its parts. The perceived educational
benefits of combining technologies were reiterated in the
research findings; students emphasized the combined effect of
enabling learning to take place at their convenience whilst ‘…
identifying misconceptions and challenging their [own]
understanding.’(Lakin and Mann, 2006, p.45). The paper may be
challenged in terms of the nature and dynamics of the study
sample although at the time the outcomes received positive
acclaim at two major international conferences on the use of
‘DIVERSE (Disseminating Innovative Video Education
Resources for Students Everywhere) and Information
Technology’ in teaching and learning.
The use of the VLE (WebCT) enabled access to information
from a dedicated, secure website supported by online facilities
including a discussion board, quizzes, and various forums, all
with built-in monitoring mechanisms accessible by the tutor.
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The video had to be converted electronically (streamed) for
upload; a pioneering process that attracted attention within the
field. Outcomes for the Case Study B reinforced the need for
asynchronous tutor support.
The value of the streamed video as a learning tool in association
with expert scaffolding and support was also evident from the
research findings. The collective support material made
available for the students reinforced Davison’s (1999)
conclusions that ‘… there can be no single ‘best delivery style’,
and educational design should seek to offer maximum flexibility
even if it entails duplication’. However he also points out that
‘… teachers tend to deliver and assess courses in a way that
disadvantaged students with preferred learning styles which are
different to those of the teacher’ (Davidson, 1999, p.11 and13).
This idea is reinforced by one student who stated that she
learned visually and recognized the value of the VLE over
purely textual resources. However, as Davidson (1999) pointed
out, videos were often perceived as a ‘passive’ learning
resources, so the discussion board was introduced to incorporate
an active element, encouraging the students to participate. By
ensuring tutor involvement with the process, misconceptions
and misinterpretations could be addressed; while questions
arising directly from the video could be answered online, by the
tutor. Identifying and rectifying misconceptions was the ideal,
but in reality, it proved immensely time-consuming, so the
approach needed some modification to ensure it was sustainable.
Those students, who were not actively involved in the online
discussion, but accessed and followed its development, were
more proactive in the interview session in Case Study B and
gave a clear indication of the value of the online experience
despite their passive involvement. The suggested advantages of
covert involvement supported Lee & McKendree’s (1999)
findings that vicarious learning benefited students through ‘…
exposure to discussions among their peers and between students
and tutors’ (p.4). They went on to suggest that this peer support
structure ‘… creates positive feelings of being part of a learning
community’ (Lee & McKendree’s, 1999, p.8). This sentiment
was reinforced by the focus group involved in the study who
commented that had they been introduced to the discussion area
earlier they would have adopted this approach of their own
volition.
Case Study C involved a different cohort of ITE students and
aimed to evaluate their ability formatively to assess their subject
knowledge before, during and after a period of teaching. On-line
accessibility off-site afforded students the flexibility of access,
while built-in feedback informed their progression. This
assessment information was incorporates later as evidence
within their Professional Development Profile. The study
demonstrated that by using such facilities, both tutor and student
could assess and monitor progress. The evaluation focused
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specifically on the vehicle and process of delivery, both of
which were positively received.
This use of ‘Computer Mediated Conferencing (CMC): the
synchronous or asynchronous electronic mail and computer
conferencing, by which senders encode in-text messages that are
relayed from senders' computers to receivers’ ’ (Walther, 1992,
p. 52) set within a VLE to access and debate examples of good
practice emerged from Case Study C as a new and dynamic
research area. The approach was incorporated into other aspects
of the host university’s business and adopted by other HEIs
within the UK. The approach presented opportunities through
‘blendedlearning’ as a vehicle to enable students to take
responsibility for their learning, emphasizing nevertheless that
their value and effectiveness rely on the quality and
appropriateness of the content as well as how it is used (Lakin
and Burch 2005).
A decade on sees further additions to the portfolio of eLearning
vehicles, devices and tools, with the associated technical terms
being part of everyday language. Skype is used increasing as a
vehicle to host face to face tutorials, the VLE remains a
significant repository for information and a recognized vehicle
for independent and self-regulated learning (Dabbagh and
Kitsantas, 2012) although the discussion board is replaced by
FaceBook, Blogs, Twitter, and other social media (Gikas and
Grant, 2013). Technology continues to find its way into the
classroom or lecture theatre (ibid) the pinnacle of which has to
be the Digital Classroom space
(http://www.digitalclassroomroadshow.co.uk): a wireless active
learning space reportedly combining several areas of expertise
to create a learning and teaching environment that drives
full-participation amongst students co-collaborating in small
teams supported by their tutor’s proficiency and guidance;
which once again echoes the fundamentals of pedagogic social
constructivism. All these applications ultimately modifying the
way we teach and the learning experience afforded to the
students. How effective these are however, in ensuring that
quality, deep-learning takes place, mitigating against the
entrenchment of misconceptions and the ability to discern data
of questionable quality and authenticity dependents upon the
skills of the student as an independent learner (Lakin, 2013).
The messages and cautionary notes emerging from the
cutting-edge research undertaken in the early noughties (Lakin
and Mann, 2006) helped paved the way for the development of
pedagogically effectual ‘e’ and blended learning in the host
institution and elsewhere. Despite the considerable range of
hardware and the compatibility and accessibility limitations of
the software, the ITE students welcomed the approach and the
scholarly freedom that eLearning afforded them. Today the take
home message remains the same: the technology remains a
powerful tool but it is important however to remember that it is
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just that, a tool to assist learning. For learning to be retained,
useful and effective the learner must be encouraged to take
responsibility for their learning, be autonomous and creative in
their thinking and critical of their own understanding (Lakin,
2013). This principle applies equally to all aspects of the
traditional and more modern forms of education.
References:
Ausubel, D. (1968) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View,
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York
Bennett, J. (2003) Teaching and Learning Science: a guide to
recent research and its applications, Continuum Studies in
Research in Education, London
Biggs, J. and Tang, C. (2009) 3rd Edition, Teaching for quality
learning at university OUP, Berkshire
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., and William, D.
(2004) Working inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning
in the Classroom, Department of Educational and Professional
Studies, Kings College London.
Coles, D., and Price, A. (1998) How does a constructivist
perspective influence Mathematics teaching? In Littledyke, M.,
and Huxford, L. (Ed) (1998) Teaching the primary curriculum
for constructive learning, Fulton Publishers, London
Davidson, L. (1999) Reflecting students learning styles, Active
Learning, (10) p.10-13
Dabbagh, N. and Kitsantas, A. (2012) Personal Learning
Environments, social media and self-regulated learning: A
natural formula for connecting formal and informal learning,
The Internet and Higher Education, (15) 1, p.3-8
Gikas, J. and Grant, M.M. (2013) Mobile devices in higher
education: Student perspective on learning with cellphones,
smartphones and social media, The Internet and Higher
Education, (19) p.18-26
Kelly, G. (1971) Ontological acceleration. In Maher, B. (ed.)
The Selected Papers of George Kelly. Wiley, London
Lakin, E. (2010) Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of
Gloucestershire Lakin, L. and Burch, G. (2005) Promoting an
effective e-Learning environment for use in Teacher Education,
Research and Development 5, Satz und Druck, Krems, Austria,
p.403 – 408
Lakin, L and Mann, C. (2006) Use of DIVERSE video to
support teaching and learning in Initial Teacher Education
Video for Education, 1, DIVERSE and Association for Learning
Technology, p.40-47
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Lee, J. and McKendree, J. (1999) Learning vicariously in a
distributed environment, Active Learning, (10) p.4-9
Johnson, M. (2007) Subject to Change: New Thinking on the
Curriculum, ATL, London
Jones, A. (2003) The use and abuse of PowerPoint in Teaching
and Learning in the Life Sciences: A Personal Overview, BEE-j
(2) November 2003 Meyer, J and Land, R. (2003) Threshold
Concepts and Troublesome Knowledge: Linkages to ways of
thinking and practicing within the disciplines, Enhancing
Teaching-Learning Environments in Undergraduate Courses
Project, Occasional Report 4, University of Edinburgh
Millar, R. (1989) Constructive criticisms International Journal
of Science Education (11) p.587 – 596
Osborne, J. (1996) Beyond Constructivism in Science Education
80 (1) p.53 – 82 Ramsden, P. (2007) 2nd Edition, Learning to
teach in higher education, Routledge Falmer, Oxon
Ross, K. A., and Lakin, E. (1998) The Science of Environmental
Issues. CD-ROM: Cheltenham: The Cheltenham and Gloucester
College of Higher Education, Cheltenham
Ross, K. Lakin, L., Burch, G., and Littledyke, M. (2002)
Science Issues and the National Curriculum (CD-ROM),
University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham Ross, K., Lakin, L.,
McKechnie, J., and Baker, J (2015) 4th Edition. Teaching
Secondary Science: constructing meaning and developing
understanding, David Fulton, London
Sheyer, M., and Gamble, R. (2001) Bridging from CASE to
Core Science, ASE, Hatfield Smith, A. (2002) Accelerated
Learning in the Classroom, Network Educational Press Ltd,
Stafford
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The Impact of Noncognitive Factors in
Addressing the Needs of the Whole Child
Williams, R.L.
University of Colorado Colorado Springs
ABSTRACT: Often dismissed as unnecessary in the education
systems instead of academic skills, noncognitive factors are now
being realized and reclaimed as necessary skills that all students
should achieve before they enter the workforce. These skills are
called by a variety of names such as social, emotional learning,
non-academic factors, social and emotional intelligence, soft
skills, mindsets and behaviors, and 21st-century skills, or people
skills, yet none of these names capture the essence and value of
these essential skills. Although the term noncognitive or soft
skills, only implies a lack of value, it was originally intended as
making the distinction between the “hard skills” of cognition in
areas of literacy and mathematics (Gutman
& Schoon 2013). However, a strong body of research (Bowles &
Gintis, 2002; Farkas, 2003; Heckman, Lochner & Todd, 2006)
now reports the necessity of helping students develop
social/emotional intelligence to balance a whole child with a way
to attain academic success. This article discusses the need for and
value of intentionally teaching these essential skills to students,
which research shows will enhance their academic performance,
impact the culture of the schools, and create workforce-ready
students. Who best to teach these necessary skills other than those
trained in the social/emotional cognate, school counselors?
The Impact of Noncognitive Factors in Addressing the Needs
of the Whole Child.
Often dismissed as unnecessary in the education systems instead
of academic skills, noncognitive factors are now being realized
and reclaimed as necessary skills that all students should achieve
before they enter the workforce. These skills are called by a
variety of names such as social/emotional learning, non-academic
factors, social and emotional intelligence, soft skills, mindsets and
behaviors, and 21st-century skills, or people skills, yet none of
these names seem to capture the essence and value of the
combination of these essential skills. Although the term
noncognitive or soft skills imply a lack of value, it was originally
intended as making a distinction between the “hard skills” of
cognition in areas of literacy and mathematics (Gutman
& Schoon 2013). However, a strong body of research (Bowles
& Gintis, 2002; Farkas, 2003; Heckman et al., 2006) now
reports the necessity of helping students develop
social/emotional intelligence to balance a whole child as a way
to attain academic success. The workforce is begging for
schools to teach more of these competencies since many are
entering the workforce without an ability to work
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Copyright © GSTF 2017
ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.41
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collaboratively on a team or effectively problem solve. Many
cannot adequately handle a conflict with others or successfully
communicate with coworkers. This article will discuss the need
for and value of intentionally teaching these essential skills to
students, which research shows will enhance their academic
performance, impact the culture of the schools, and create
workforce-ready students. Who best to teach these necessary
skills than those trained in the social/emotional cognate, school
counselors.
A definition for noncognitive factors is discussed along with
current research on the value and impact of teaching these skills
in the educational setting. The high cost of not adequately
addressing these valuable lifelong skills with community, schools
and the individual students will also be presented including how
school counselors can be an integral part of the curriculum
development and delivery of these necessary skills.
Defining of Noncognitive Factors1
For many educators and students, the general definition of success
is limited to academic accomplishments. However, critical to
academic acumen is the need to utilize the psychology of a child
to help develop behaviors, attitudes, and strategies that enhance
their performance
(Conley,2007; Farkas, 2003), thus noncognitive skills. Based on
what Gutman and Schoon (2013) stated: “The term ‘non-
cognitive skills’ refers to a set of attitudes, behaviours, and
strategies that are thought to underpin success in school and at
work, such as motivation, perseverance, and self-control.” (P.2)
Sometimes identified as motivation, noncognitive factors, the
often over-looked psychology of the students, (Dweck, Walton,
& Cohen, 2011) may be the key to keeping students focused, and
engaged in completing their education. According to these
researchers, the necessary skills for work and life success include
such things as work habits, timeliness, selfesteem, self-efficacy,
self-advocacy, self-discipline, self-awareness, self-regulation and
social problem solving, to name a few. However, none of these
noncognitive skills can be evaluated in isolation of all the others
as they are all interrelated and inextricably connected. Gutman &
Schoon (2013) affirmed that these noncognitive skills must be
taught in combination with each other and not parsed out as
independent factors. Dweck, et al., (2011) stated that “the
noncognitive factors that promote long-term learning and
achievement can be brought together under the label academic
tenacity.” (p.4).
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Adding social and emotional intelligence to the amalgamation
of skills in noncognitive areas, Basu & Mermillod, (2011) added
a definition of Emotional Intelligence as:
(1) the ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express
emotion; (2) the ability to access and/or generate feelings when
they facilitate thought; (3) the ability to understand emotion and
emotional knowledge; and (4) the ability to regulate emotions to
promote emotional and intellectual growth” (P. 182).
Although there is no official consensus regarding the definition of
noncognitive skills, it is important to consider the extraneous
influences that these skills have on education such as school
climate, curriculum availability, and most importantly effective
teaching (Gutman & Schoon, 2013). As educators, the key issue
to forming a definition for this fusion of skills is to factor in a
student’s psychological substructures which affect their
perceptions, and motivation which then influence a students’
academic success. In addition to having a more pleasing school
culture, Heckman et al. (2006) suggested that there are high
returns for workforce success and may indeed help in closing the
achievement gap.
If research indicates that all of these psychological factors can
positively influence a student’s academic performance, workforce
readiness, and lifelong success, why then are we not teaching
these noncognitive factors to all students? What is keeping
educators from addressing these invaluable learning strategies
and what impact does this negligence have on students’ lifelong
success and well-being? It seems that school counselors are ready
and willing to teach the very skills by which their education is
focused, and their profession is based.
Impact of Noncognitive Factors
There have been many documented positive impacts on students,
teacher/student relationships, school environment, community
and workforce achieved by merely teaching these necessary
skills (Duckworth & Seligman 2005; Dweck, Walton, & Cohen,
2011). Belfield
(2015) indicates that there is a positive return on investment by
teaching these “soft skills.” Duckworth and Seligman (2005)
specially identified the factor of self-discipline as a better
predictor of academic success that IQ scores. Several studies that
suggest that by directly teaching noncognitive skills there is not
only an impact on students but an impact on improving
teacher/student relationships, more positive parent interactions,
enhanced school culture and favorably impacted community and
workforce readiness. (Conley, 2007; Duckworth & Seligman
2005; Dweck, et al., 2011; Heckman et al. 2011). If the impacts
are so positive, and the costs of not teaching these skills are so
great, it seems to beg the question whyare educators not including
these competencies into the curriculum?
Impact on Students:
Conley (2007) has shown that academic behaviors, attitudes, and
strategies for success improve through directly teaching
noncognitive skills. Students achievement can be affected by
utilizing interventions that focus on students’ psychological
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factors. According to Bandura, (1997), by merely teaching self-
efficacy a students’ academic performance can be boosted beyond
what their measured IQ indicates. A study by Gutman & Schoon,
(2013) found that there is a strong correlation between self-
control and school engagement and even the future financial
stability of the individual. This research also suggested that self-
control and school engagement may correlate with reducing
crime. The development of soft skills help balance an individual
and allow them to effectively cope with the social/emotional
issues in their lives, and make better decisions and life choices.
(Basu & Merillod, 2011).
As researched by Farrington et al. (2012) the implications of the
mindsets of a child have influence over their academic
perseverance which subsequently affects academic behavior in
turn affecting academic performance. Studies have shown that a
student’s mindset about intelligence can be predictive of their
academic success. Therefore, teaching students about how the
brain works, the limitations of fixed mindsets and growth
mindsets have a positive change on how students perceive their
own intelligence (Dweck et al., 2011). If the perceptions of one's
intelligence are changes it willl result in a school culture will be
changed as well.
Impact on School Culture:
One of the most powerful influences on school culture and
school engagement is the relationships between the teachers and
students. Higher academic achievements are yielded through
positive teacher/students’ interactions and relationships.
According to Mashburn et al. (2008), these instrumental
relationships are a better predictor of students’ academic
adjustments than any other educational issues including teacher
to student ratios, or a teacher’s education. These positive
teacher/student relationships, along with improving
social/emotional skills help students to connect to school and have
been shown to impact social behaviors and reduce conduct
troubles and discipline issues. (Payton et al., 2008). This impact
is especially true for students from a lower socioeconomic status,
and students with lower academic attainment.
Schools and classrooms that build and support positive mindsets
tend to establish clear goals and have high expectations for
student success. These types of classrooms teach and practice
strategies that help students become capable learners, and have a
significant level of teacher monitoring and support. These
teachers encourage multiple opportunities for students to achieve
success and have an absence of fear of failure within the
classroom setting. (Dweck, et al., 2011).
The residual effects of these invaluable essential skills not only
impact individual students, teachers’ relationships with students
and the climate of a school, but there is a lasting impact on how
students relate to their work environment.
Impact on Workforce Readiness:
Developing workforce-ready students is one of the premier
tasks of educational settings. The dovetail effect of teaching the
noncognitive skills in the K-12 setting has an impact on success
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in the workforce. When employers do not have to waste
valuable time teaching new employees the benefits of getting
along with their colleagues, or how to collaborate or problem
solve, it makes employers are happier, and workplaces are more
productive. Business and industry are seeking a more
concentrated effort from the schools to develop these essential
skills as part of the workforce readiness competencies. Belfield
(2015) suggests that “the economic value of perseverance is
much more robust than of achievement” (P. 48). Heckman
(2006) indicates that those students with GEDs have poorer
performances because of their lack of noncognitive skills. He
directly speaks to the need for employees to have effective time
management, motivation, and self-regulation. Without these
skills, there is a direct impact on the labor market productivity.
Employers want workers who have people skills, who can work
with diverse groups and effectively problem solve.
(CasnerLotto, Barrington, & Wright, 2006). Even teaching
individuals to regulate emotions and manage conflict has a
direct impact on society’s economy. “investment in the
education of children’s “non-cognitive” skills — like
motivation, perseverance, and self-control — is a costeffective
approach to increasing the
quality and productivity of the workforce.” (Heckman &
Masterov 2015, p.36). If the education system would commit to
teaching these essential skills, the impact would only continue to
ripple into the community in which the students work and reside.
School counselors have the knowledge and expertise to integrate
these people skills into a core curriculum without diminishing the
academic focus.
Impact on Community:
Research by Farrington et al. (2012) realized the value of teaching
social/emotional intelligence, academic tenacity, perseverance or
any of the other names one might choose to call these invaluable
skills. It is important to factor in the impact on a community these
skills can have. In their research Farrington et al. (2012) indicate
that “early disadvantage advances academic and social
disadvantages. If it is addressed early on strides can be made in
closing the gap.” (Heckman & Masterov, 2015) found that “Early
interventions that partially remediate the effects of adverse
environments can reverse some of the harm of disadvantage and
have a high economic return” (p.32). Discrimination, stereotypes
and stereotype threat all add to the inequities in education which
can subsequently impact the neighborhoods and trickle into future
societal progress (Farrington, et al., 2012). All of these
researchers concluded that gaps in school performance by
race/ethnicity or gender could be reduced by focusing on teaching
these noncognitive factors. In addition, these skill development
strategies can also extend to college success making post-
secondary education more effective and cost efficient (Conley,
2007).
What works?
Given all of this research and information, how does a school
start implementing noncognitive skills into the curriculum? Based
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on this review of literature strategies for social skills
development, learning skills, and academic tenacity are
suggested.
Social skills are considered the weakest research link directly
connected to grades, it is however, considered so only because of
the interconnection with all of the other noncognitive skills
(Farrington, et al., 2012). As Gutman and Schoon, (2013) indicate
it is very difficult to study any of these factors separately. The
interwoven tangle of academic tenacity, social/emotional
intelligence, resiliency, learning strategies and personality traits
cannot be fundamentally disentangled without losing the essence
of what make all of the skills so powerful.
If we can consider some of the following strategies that tie into
social skills development we should consider teaching
interpersonal awareness, empathy, cooperation, assertion,
personal responsibility, and social/emotional learning. Suggested
strategies include:
• Mindfulness exercises which have become
very popular and have shown to be helpful in
lowering anxiety among students.
• Role plays which help students engage with
each another while also developing necessary
personal awareness.
• Peer counseling, peer mentoring and peer
mediation programs empower students to
empathize with other students and can be effective
in the area of conflict mediation.
• Decision-making trees allow students to work
through the process of effective decision making.
• Small group leadership programs are effective
and time efficient in developing specific skills for
social, learning and academic tenacity topics.
Learning strategies offer a variety of ways for students to study
better without having to study harder. Teaching skills like goal
setting, metacognition, critical thinking, personal agency,
executive functioning skills, time management, organization and
honing creativity fall under the auspice of learning strategies.
Suggested strategies include:
• Developing growth mindsets instead of fixed
mindsets (Dweck et al. 2011).
• Engaging in long-term projects which tend to
be one of the best learning strategies for students to
build perseverance (Duckworth, et al., 2007).
• Developing attention to effort rather than
attention to outcomes.
• Receiving high-quality feedback.
• Visualize completing their homework and
intentionally considering ways to make it more
challenging. Challenging oneself increases the
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likelihood that they will finish their work and be
more deeply engaged in it.
• Setting aside small chunks of study time over
several days in a row rather than cramming it all in
at the deadline.
• Developing metacognitive creativity such as
assessing their own learning style and self-appraisal
of skills (Savitz-Romer, 2012).
• Envisioning multiple solutions to a problem.
Academic tenacity is another component of noncognitive skills.
In this arena grit, tenacity, self-discipline, self-control, delayed
gratification, curiosity, zest, persistence, resiliency, and
conscientiousness is included. Many strategies can be used to
enhance the academic tenacity of students. However, a major
component of this essential skill is a student’s sense of belonging
to this educational environment. Helping students see the
relevance of what is being taught in connection to their future
world is another aspect of academic tenacity. Teaching students
to delay gratification and the ability to persevere or have grit will
certainly enhance a student’s skills in this area. Other skills to be
developed under this topic would include a willingness to seek
out challenges rather than avoid them, overcome obstacles,
achieve long-term goals and understand the impact of
stereotyping and cultural sensitivity. Self-control and emotional
regulation, attention and behavioral management also factor
under these skills. Suggested strategies based on Dweck et al,
(2011) for developing academic tenacity include: • Weekly
reflections on what the student has learned this week and lessons
on
monitoring their own progress.
●Students identify reasons why the schoolwork was
relevant.
• Exercises that help students imagine themselves
being successful in school and what their future self
might be doing.
● Character education programming and creating
a positive school climate.
● Making learning a game. Turning the problem
into a picture or puzzle.
● Teaching children how to set goals, and
monitor progress toward long-term goals.
● Developing skills on how to handle high-
pressure situations.
● Praising effort, not ability.
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● Normalize difficulty and de-personalize
challenges.
● Teach delayed gratification.
● Reduce stereotype threat and stereotypic
thinking.
Conclusion
While many of the strategies listed in the three areas of social
skills, learning strategies, and academic tenacity may seem like
common sense to educators, they are often overlooked or
discounted as not having an academic focus. However, as
previously mentioned attending to only academics misses the
psychological factors that complete a whole child. Many
educators minimize noncognitive factors as "touchy feely" and of
no value in the educational system. But the research mentioned
above indicates there is a high price to pay if students are not
taught these essential skills. In actuality, these skills can easily be
taught by educators who relish the value and importance of the
noncognitive skills. However, those most educators most
knowledgeable about these noncognitive topics are the educators
who were explicitly trained in social/emotional learning, i.e., the
school counselors. Using these qualified educators for the
noncognitive, essential skills training through advisement
programs, classroom guidance, necessary skills workshops, or
individual counseling, may be the most time efficient,
educationally effective way to develop lifelong success skills for
all students.
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On the Value, Characteristics and
Development Models of Rural Education
Yang Haiyan Gao Shuguo
Renmin university of China
[Abstract] Rural education is a kind of human social activity
in rural areas, transmitting general and regional experience in
production and life for a variety of people within the regions,
inheriting human civilization and rural culture, promoting the
transformation of rural society and the coordinated development
of diversified industries in rural areas, and cultivating people with
modern productive and living ability as well as continuous
learning ability. Rural education in our country has four
characteristics, namely rurality, diversity, pluralism and
autonomy. There are mainly four types of development models:
population mobility model, government-led model, culturally-
endogenous model and industrial agglomeration model. In the
future, the scale and structure of rural education will present the
following development trends: before 2030, the pace of education
urbanization will be further accelerated; urban and rural
education will enter a balanced development period in 2025;
education counter-urbanization will appear in China in 2030.
[Key word] Transformation of rural society; Rural
education; Education urbanization
[Authors’ introduction] Yang Haiyan, associate
professor, School of Education, Renmin University of China,
Ph. D. (Beijing 100872); Gao Shuguo, the director and
research fellow of Strategy Office, Center for Education
Development Research, Ministry of Education (Beijing
100816)
In the past 20 years, China's urbanization rate has
continued to advance at an average annual rate of more than
one percentage point. There are 20 million people going to
cities and towns from countryside every year. Under the
background of urbanization, industrialization, informatization
and modernization in rural areas, and the guidance of the idea
of "re-understanding knowledge, learning and education"
proposed by United Nations Educational Scientific and Culture
Organization, how to define knowledge, educatee, education
methods and education outcomes in terms of rural education,
how to promote the development of rural economy, society and
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culture, and how to promote the development of the rural
population have become the new thinking points for rural
education reform.
I. Redefinition of rural education
(1) Redefinition of rural education
Countryside is a historical regional concept, referring to
the region far from cities and towns and under the jurisdiction
of county and township government. Rural education is a kind
of primary education, transmitting life and production
experience as well as local culture from generation to
generation. It gradually carries more political, economic and
cultural functions in the national education system. Since
1980s, there have been three main definitions of rural
education: regional theory, population theory and industrial
theory. Along with the development of the reform and opening
up, industrialization and urbanization, the rural social
structure, industrial structure and productivity have undergone
tremendous changes, so the rural education serving farmers to
improve the cultural level of farmers and promote rural
economic and social development also has undergone
tremendous changes both in function and structure. Therefore,
the previous definition of rural education can't adapt to the
needs of farmers and countrysides in the current and future
development stages. In the face of the changes in the current
rural education practice as well as new problems and future
development trend in the process of rural education
modernization, there is a need for new theoretical thinking,
new trend judgment and model construction of rural education.
From the international experience, to provide quality and
equitable basic education between urban and rural areas for
the rural population, provide targeted vocational education
with practical economic returns for the rural workforce, and
promote the transformation of rural society other than the
development of agricultural economy through education have
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become new functions of rural education. Therefore,
considering the existing and future development trend of rural
social development, this paper demonstrates the connotation
and characteristics of rural education on the basis of the
integrity of national education and the particularity of regional
education.
In 2001, UNESCO International Rural Education
Research and Training Center (INRULED) released the
Education for Rural Social Transformation: A Policy
Framework, breaking through the traditional concerns about
rural development, rural changes and rural education,
suggesting that rural education is an important means to shape
and realize the transformation of rural society, and making the
train of thought and the method change of rural education clear
from the traditional response, adaptation, pursuit and imitation
to enthusiasm, initiative and autonomy. In 2010, the seminar
on "education for rural social transformation" sponsored by
Stockholm University, Sweden, re-clarified the strategic
thinking and action strategy of the autonomic, characteristic
and pluralistic development of rural education. The function of
rural education is positioned as promoting the transformation
of rural society instead of one-dimensional increase in quantity
and quality. In the future, in addition to still far higher
agricultural output, the rural areas will be more synchronized
with cities and have their own distinctive features in the third
industry, the Internet economy and intelligent management.
Therefore, the traditional rural education, which serves the
agricultural development in the rural areas, will inevitably
undertake new functions and bring new value into play for
leading and promoting the transformation of rural society.
Before 2030, China will continue to push forward the process
of urbanization and rural modernization. According to the
international experience, counter-urbanization will appear
after urbanization rate reaches 70%. Then, population counter-
flow and population diversity will also occur in the rural areas
of our country for the transformation of rural education
functions and the realization of rural education functions in for
people in serving population development and rural social
development.
Under the background of national comprehensive
urbanization, the definition, function and status of rural
education must be redefined: Rural education is a kind of
human social activity in rural areas, transmitting general and
regional experience in production and life for a variety of
people within the region, inheriting human civilization and
rural culture, promoting the transformation of rural society and
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the coordinated development of diversified industries in rural
areas, and cultivating people with modern productive and
living ability as well as continuous learning ability. First,
inheriting the attributes of rural areas proposed by the regional
theory and adhering to the natural geography and
administrative territoriality of countrysides. Second, making
breakthrough on the narrow idea of population theory that only
farmers are educated there, adhering to the rural education for
agricultural population living in rural areas, taking into
consideration the local population engaged in non-agricultural
industries in rural society in the process of transformation of
industrial structure and the "new villagers" returning from the
city to the rural areas in the future, and adhering to diversified
education objects of rural education. Third, expanding the
industrial theory, namely the social functions of rural education
will no longer be positioned as promoting the development of
local agriculture, but develop the upgrading and diversity of
industrial structure in rural areas, and adhering to the view that
rural education should promote the coordinated development
of various industries and the transformation of rural society.
Fourth, increasing one dimension, namely the geographical
features, including the distinctive rural natural resources,
production conditions and cultural characteristics into the
content of educational heritage, and adhering to the view that
rural education content should include local production and life
experience and local cultural connotations, and that rural
education should give play to the functions of education in
transmitting local experience and rural culture and promoting
the sustainable development of local characteristic industries.
Fifth, expanding the training goals of rural education, from
traditional goal for further education to the goal of combining
a higher school entrance in city and local life. Thus, rural
education is not only a student base for city schools, but also
the labor training base for local social production. The future
workforce is new workers with continuous learning ability and
the modern living and production ability, graduated from
primary and secondary schools in rural areas. Therefore, rural
education has four basic characteristics, namely regional
rurality, diversity of training goals, cultural pluralism and
autonomy of governance.
(2) The main characteristics of rural education
Education is an important means of inheriting and
developing human civilization, and rural education and urban
education have their own characteristics in addition to
commonness. Rural education is unique because of its special
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geographical space, special cultural field and special
educational content.
1. Rurality -- spatial location
Rural schools should be kept close to nature, assimilated
into nature, drawn from nature and serving rural development,
which is its inherent qualities. The rurality of rural education is
mainly manifested with the rural conditions of education
environment, rural attributes of education objects, rural
requirements of education content, and local accent of
language in education.
First, the rurality of education environment resources.
Rural schools are built on the edge of farmland and gardens
and in the midst of farmhouses. Even in the process of standard
construction required by compulsory education, the buildings
of rural schools appear more modern and more unified, located
in different places with different natural landscapes and
architectural styles, but the schools will also shed unique
regionality and rurality in school style and school culture. The
architectural style and school culture have a profound impact
on the teacher-student concept and behavior in rural schools.
Rural schools are located in countrysides with rich local
resources, which are inexhaustible resources and materials for
school education. Regional characteristics of rural education
will be highlighted in classroom teaching, extracurricular
activities and school-based curriculum because of the
uniqueness of these resources.
Secondly, the rurality of education objects. Rural
education is carried out in rural areas, so the service objects are
all residents living in the areas. Even in the stage of
counterurbanization after urbanization rate reaches 70%, long-
term residents living in these areas mainly are farmers. The
education for them, the local accent and local nostalgia
inherited by them, and their primitive life ideas and customs
naturally form the characteristics of rural education objects,
namely rurality.
Thirdly, the rurality of education content. Rural
education bears the responsibility of transforming the
countrysides, which includes both the cultural choice based on
cognition and the cultural improvement based on cognition.
The curriculum system of rural school contains a large number
of local cultural and natural knowledge in the local curriculum
and the school-based curriculum, which can make education
objects have more comprehensive and profound understanding
of local history and culture as well as resource characteristics.
Rural schools scientifically and rationally select excellent local
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culture for inheritance by combining the national curriculum
and the goals of modernization, reform concepts and customs
that are not suitable for modern society and rural
modernization, and play the role of rural education in serving
local culture and inheriting local production and life
experience. The rurality of rural education resources is also
manifested with the fact that rural schools can make full use of
local resources for teaching, tap the educational value of local
production and living materials, natural materials, and improve
the teaching effect of rural schools through natural and local
materials. In rural areas, the rurality of education content is also
manifested with the fact that rural education provides the local
population with targeted labor skills that can be directly
applied to local industrial production.
In addition, the rurality of language in education.
Language is the carrier of information and the tool for cultural
inheritance. Although Mandarin is used for the teaching in
China, most local teachers still use local language as the main
language for interpersonal communication in the intramural
activities and extramural activities outside the classroom as
well as campus daily life in rural schools, which can better
promote emotional communication between teachers and
between teachers and students, making the organization of
teachers' educational work and activities full of rurality. Thus,
students can understand the teachers, helping solve problems,
which can not only convey information, but also inherit
culture.
2. Diversity - training goals
Education has the function of talent training and supply.
Since 1990s, more and more rural population have entered
cities. Rural education started to draw lessons from urban
education and imitate urban schools for development. Rural
students entered urban schools as migrant workers' children or
by passing entrance for higher education. Rural education has
been positioned as an imitator of urban education and a
supplier of student source. Rural education’s closeness to cities
make it highly questioned in terms of "whether it can realize
continuous development" and "how to develop". Rural
education has long been wandering between "keeping rurality"
and "omitting rurality". However, rural education as one of the
basic forms of China’s education should also provide qualified
human resources for rural economic and social development in
addition to providing basic literacy for students entering cities
for further study and development. Graduates’ choices either
in entering cities or in staying in the countryside are the basic
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manifestations of two-way training goals of rural education.
For the modernization of rural education, people with modern
characteristics should be cultivated, because people's
modernization is the most important. Rural education can
provide the educatees with the concept and skills of decent life
in the rural areas under the development of modernization,
maintain the stable development of rural community, and also
politically function in ensuring social stability, community
stability and territorial stability in remote border areas. Both
ancient rural education and modern rural education bear the
political function of stabilizing the territory and educating the
people. Yan Yangchu put forward the three missions of civilian
education: human reform, social reform and national
reconstruction. [1] Rural education must also educate people's
attitudes and values. It should not only satisfy people's demand
for occupation and economic returns, but also satisfy people's
needs for social, political and cultural life. Thus, it undertakes
four functions, namely talent transfer, manpower development,
cultural heritage and community stability, that is to say,
achieving educatees’ free choices in staying in cities or
countrysides through education, achieving the manpower value
of talents staying in countrysides for the local rural economic
and social development, promoting the heritage of local
excellent culture, and protecting the stability of territory in
remote areas.
3. Pluralism -- cultural attributes
Rural areas have a longer history than cities, and rural
communities have more pluralistic aggregation patterns than
urban communities. Thus, there are more pluralistic group
culture in rural areas. With the development of urbanization
and modernization, cities are becoming more and more
homogeneous. The urban appearance, functions, industrial
structure, residents and culture are alike. However, the
agricultural communities originated from farming society have
formed different group cultures for a long time because of their
different natural environments and resources, different living
communities, and different modes of production and ways of
life. The pluralism of village culture will inevitably lead to
distinct differences of rural schools in school-running concept,
curriculum content, teaching methods student activities and so
on. The cultural differences of rural communities the schools
are located in or the cultural differences of schools themselves
are all needed by cultural pluralism, and also the inevitable
results of multicultural heritage and condensed characteristic
school culture. Pluralism is the fundamental reason for the
existence and richness of the world. Maintaining pluralism and
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avoiding singleness are the goal of biology, species and human
development. Therefore, maintaining pluralism of rural culture
through rural schools and shaping distinctive human groups
through the development of characteristic school culture are
required not only by cultural development, but also education
development.
4. Autonomy -- governance structure
From the analysis of governance structure, rural
education emphasizes autonomy and adaptation to local
conditions. The autonomy of rural education originates from
the autonomy of rural social power. Because of closer
relationship between rural schools and farmers' families as well
as their life, the rural governance has a long tradition of
autonomy and collegiality. Thus, rural education strengthens
the village community at the rural level and the villagers'
autonomy also has a practical basis. With the development of
new countryside and beautiful countryside, more and more
"new farmers", "new rural sages" and "rural elites" with higher
education, entrepreneurial success, projects and capital, return
back to the countryside and work in rural areas. Their arrival
will inevitably enter the community of village autonomy
because of their social influence to participate in village
management and rural education governance. The village in
the future will integrate agriculture, industry and service
industry into the economic structure with different proportions,
which requires the village autonomy community to select
industry type and structural system more suitable for the local
conditions and select an educational structure system more
suitable for promoting local industry development and
promoting industrial coordinated development according to its
own resource advantages and local industry planning. Such a
choice is not only the result of rural autonomy, but also the
result of rural education autonomy. Therefore, rural education
is carried out not only for further education, but also for
promoting the coordinated development of various industries
in rural areas, promoting social progress, cultural renewal and
the heritage of modern education in the process of talent
transfer.
The above four characteristics expand and deepen the
connotation of rural education: first, from the rural spatial
region, further understanding spatial characteristics of rural
education under the background of urbanization; second, from
the view of culture, conducting profound understanding of the
cultural uniqueness of rural education; third, from the view of
training goals, re-positioning the goals, content and methods of
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rural education; fourth, from the view of future development,
constructing a governance model with the combination of
traditional and modern rural educations.
(3) Comparing the elements of rural education and urban
education
Education is an important social activity of human
being. Urban education and rural education should have both
the common nature of education and different characteristics
due to different educated populations and education resources.
The ultimate models of urban and rural education development
should be intersected in core accomplishments of citizens, and
their differences lie in the production and living experience and
regional culture of the city and the countryside. The national
curriculum system guarantees the realization of education in
both urban and rural areas, and the local curriculum and
school-based curriculum guarantee the characteristics of urban
and rural education. The reform of the national governance
mode will inevitably give the countryside greater autonomy,
and local curriculum and school-based curriculum more space,
and lead to prominent differences between urban and rural
areas.
(seen in Table 1)
II. Development models of rural education
The modernization of rural education in China is mainly
motivated by four aspects, which also form four models of
rural education modernization: culturally-endogenous model,
industry-driven model, government-led model, and social
mobility model. (seen in Figure 1)
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Figure 1 Development model of rural education in China
(1) Culturally-endogenous model
Culture is stable ideological concepts, social conventions
and living habits, and cultural inheritance, integration and
innovation are the driving forces for social or organizational
development. Culturally-endogenous model takes the cultural
development of a country, region or organization as the main
motive force to promote the sustained development of the
country, region or organization. In rural areas, long-term
coexistence of diverse rural cultures has different impacts on
the development of local rural education. Through education,
ignorance and backwardness, weak governance and poverty
are eliminated; through the development of education, talents
are cultivated; through the demonstration and leading role of
excellent talents, the general mood of society is rectified. A
new impetus is injected into the local social development
through the transformation of rural culture, which is also a
manifestation of culturally-endogenous model. This is the
theoretical logic of civilian education of Mr. Yan Yangchu.
Culturally-endogenous model has many successful cases in the
development of rural education in China. Pujiang County of
Sichuan Province is one of the cases. Pujiang County has more
than 1500 years of history, a starting point of Tea-horse
Ancient Road. Heshan Academy founded by the famous
philosopher and educator Wei Leweng 800 years ago by not
only produced so many excellent talents, but also had a positive
impact on the local social culture, namely advocating culture,
which established the spiritual details of Pujiang people
pursuing knowledge. Pujiang’s concept in advocating
education not only made it enjoy the social reputation of "third-
circle economy and first-circle education", but also became the
source of a series of education reforms, such as actively
innovating education system, comprehensively promoting
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education balance, and vigorously improving the quality of
education. Pujiang, based on modern rural construction and
traditional cultural heritage, has created modern pastoral
education with "nature, green, open and integration" as the core
concepts in a remote rural area where the economic
development is not very good, and proved the essential
attributes of rural education, namely returning to the
countryside, returning to agriculture and returning to farmers.
The culturally-endogenous model explored by Pujiang rural
education once again proves that rural education is not the copy
of urban education, and confirms that the rural education has
its own unique social value and development mode and that
rural education is an important form of education development
in China.
(2) Industry-driven model
Industry, especially modern agriculture and the secondary
and tertiary industry, is an important driving force for the
modernization of rural education. Enhancing the literacy and
technical level of local middle and high school graduates and
the agricultural surplus labor force through education, and
supporting and promoting the coordinated development of
local industrial clusters through education have become new
functions of rural education in our country. The combination
of rural education and industrial clusters in rural areas is not
only the manifestation of rural modernization, but also the
concrete manifestation of the rural education modernization.
Industrial development is an important driving force for the
modernization of rural education in China, and the driving
modes of different industries produce different results on rural
education. A historical and cultural city, Gaozhou, Maoming,
Guangdong, is taken as an example. Gaozhou was founded in
the eighteenth year of Emperor Suikai, and now it has more
than 1400 years of history. In recent years, Gaozhou has been
embarking on a new path of urbanization, which has the
following features: putting people first; integrating the
development of industrialization, IT application, urbanization
and agricultural modernization; improving the spatial layout;
protecting the ecological environment; and carrying forward
Chinese culture. It has also been balancing urban and rural
development, accelerating the construction of New
Countryside, constructing various parks, like development
parks, industrial parks, logistics parks, and agricultural
products wholesale markets, making the scale of county-level
industry bigger, and enhancing industrial quality. Thus, the
construction of characteristic small towns cuts a striking figure,
and the level of public service, such as education, medical
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treatment, culture, sports and social security, has been
remarkably improved.
Guangdong Gaozhou Agricultural School was Founded in
1905. For more than 100 years, it has cultivated 50 thousand
high-quality talents, like Ding Ying, the world famous rice
expert and first president of Chinese Academy of Agricultural
Sciences. The school innovated the teaching model, "the
integration of teaching, production and marketing",
implemented "order-based" training, and ran the school
together with enterprises. "Government, enterprises and
villages" cooperated on modern farmers training to increase
farmers’ literacy and income.
(3) Government-led model
The government-led rural urbanization model is a model
of rural education modernization with the government's
administrative and economic interventions as the main means.
The government-led model is a reform and transformation
mode in rural economy, society, culture and education, directly
organized, involved, managed and implemented by the
government. In essence, the government-led model is a kind of
"exogenous" education modernization model outside the rural
areas. Taking Dehua County of Fujian Province as an example.
The government has played a leading role in urban
development, population development and education
development since 1990s, when the "Big City" strategy was
implemented. Dehua County drove population agglomeration
and promoted the development of education urbanization by
the advantage of clay resources and with the ceramic industry
as a driving force. In 2015, the rate of urbanization in Dehua
was 73.6%, and the rate of education urbanization was 95%.
The rural education modernization model driven by
urbanization is an externally-embedding model, reflecting the
government's dominant position and intervention effect. This
model is characterized by direct intervention, powerful driving
force and strong passivity. Countryside, farmer and agriculture
are in a passive state, and through "one night" process of
urbanization it is difficult to realize the citizenization and
modernization of people.
(4) Social mobility model
Social mobility is an endogenous model driven by the
upward mobility of rural social strata, leading to rural
population flow. It is also one of the important ways for the
modernization of rural population. A typical case of promoting
and helping rural population to flow into cities through
education is Hebei Hengshui Middle School. The school is a
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large-scale middle school, and well-known for its ability in unprecedented strategic challenges. The key to the challenge
examination-oriented education. Its largest label is the of rural education is to make a calm, objective, scientific and
production line of elite students, "the strongest army" in the strategic judgment on the development trend and
province's college entrance examination for 14 consecutive characteristics of China's rural education in the next 15 years.
years. It has become a social climbing ladder for many rural (1) Further accelerated pace of education urbanization
children. Similarly, Huanggang model, eponymous with
before 2030
Hengshui model, relies on “students hard working, teachers
According to the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences,
hard teaching and parents hard assisting". The common feature
in 2030, the urban school-age population will continue to grow,
is the education concept and education mode under which the
forming a new pattern of urban and rural education. Urban
education digresses the requirements of social and economic
development and the all-round development of human beings school-age population for preschool education will increase by
but only focuses on entrance examination for higher education 29.43%, that for primary school will increase by 46.19%, that
for middle school by 57%, and that for high school by 44.80%.
and meets the demands of students and parents for entering a
On the contrary, the rural school-age population will continue
higher school. At present, China's rural schools are oriented by
to decline. Wherein, the school-age population for preschool
examination, so they are basically defined as the student base
education will decrease by 54.65%, that for primary school will
of urban secondary schools. The graduates failing in the
entrance examination are forced into labor market due to no decrease by 53.81%, that for middle school by 42.04%, and
proficiency in a particular line. There are complicated that for high school by 29.01%.
economic, social and cultural reasons for the examination-
oriented rural schools, which are closely related to single
functional orientation, development model and assessment
system of rural schools.
In the four models in Figure 1, a dotted line from the first
quadrant to the third quadrant divides the four models into two
regions, which reflects different characteristics and value
orientation. First, the modernization of rural education has
accumulated different development models because of
historical and regional differences. These models coexist. In
the process of rural education modernization, in some areas,
there are combined several models or different models at Figure 2 Prediction on the population changes in school
different times. Second, the upper left part reflects more age and primary school age in urban and rural areas from 2016
positive and active characteristic, and the lower right part to 2030 (10 million / year)
reflects more negative and negative characteristics. We The relevant data shows that the school-age population
advocate a more positive and active model, namely the for middle school in urban and rural China will show an
government-led education modernization promoted by the inflection point in 2025, and that the school-age population for
endogenous power of rural culture and industrial development urban middle school will be 24 million 820 thousand,
power is a healthy and sustainable model of rural education exceeding the school-age population in rural middle school (23
modernization. million 140 thousand) for the first time. Besides, school-age
population in urban high school will also exceed that in rural
high school in 2027. Since then, for the rural and urban school-
III. Development trends of China's rural education scale
and structure in the future age populations, one falls and another rises, forming a general
trend of 2 to 8 and remaining relatively stable. (seen in Table
Along with the integration of urban and rural areas, and
2)
the increase of the rural education level, faculty and education
quality, a quality rural education is just around the corner. The
rapid urbanization has made China's rural education face

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Table 2 The entry / exit ratio of school-age population at
all levels of education from 2016 to 2030
Note: entry and exit ratio = the number of people entering
a new level of education ÷ the number of graduates at the level
of the education × 100.
From the data analysis, in 2030, the urban school-age
population will continue to grow, forming a new pattern of
urban and rural education. Urban school-age population for
preschool education will increase by 29.43%, that for primary
school will increase by 46.19%, that for middle school by 57%,
and that for high school by 44.80%. On the contrary, rural
school-age population will continue to decrease. Wherein, the
school-age population for preschool education will decrease by
54.65%, that for primary school will decrease by 53.81%, that
for middle school by 42.04%, and that for high school by
29.01%. Therefore, small-scale, modern, high-quality rural
basic education is the future development requirements and
trends.
Urban and rural preschool and compulsory education
show a balanced pattern, and both have their own
characteristics. Rural primary and secondary schools show the
characteristics of combining moderately centralized school
running and decentralized school running. The proportion of
small-scale schools or teaching points will be higher. From
now on, the research and exploration of the regular situation
and school running mode of small-scale schools are the focal
point of rural education reform adapting to the future trend.
The future occupation education in rural areas reflect more
obvious differences between formal education and non-formal
education. More formal occupation education shows the
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characteristics of integration of urban and rural areas,
undertaken by urban occupation colleges, and governments at
all levels increase aid efforts for rural students, reducing
household financial burden of rural students for receiving
education far from home. Non-formal occupation education
needs to strengthen the pertinence of the training, provide more
effective ongoing technical training based on local conditions
through the Internet and other modern means.
(2) Entering a period of balanced development in urban
and rural education in 2025
In 2025, the overall strength and competitiveness of
China's education will obviously increase, and the level of rural
education will continue to rise. The important sign is that the
layout of rural education will have been basically stable by
2020, and entered the overall mature stage. Specifically, there
are four characteristics. First, the education urbanization rate
will be close to 80%, the educated population in rural areas will
maintain stable as 20% to 30% of the overall educated
population. The stable population will maintain the stability of
rural education, so the rural education serving some population
will continue to exist and get stable development. Second, the
overall layout of rural education is mature and stable. After the
school layout adjustment for nearly ten years in the future, with
the urbanization rate of population maintained at a stable level,
the rural education system adapting to the layout of rural
population and industrial layout, from preschool education,
compulsory education, high school education to adult
education will be more stable and mature. Third, rural school
scale is further reduced. After 2025, China's rural population
will account for 20% - 30% of the total population, and this
part of the population will scatter in China's vast rural areas,
which will inevitably cause the fact that less population lives
in concentrated areas, and the scale of schools located in the
areas is small. Thus, small scale will become the norm of rural
schools. Fourth, rural education will be highly quality and
distinctive. Small rural schools make it possible that these
schools can build the curriculum system more in line with the
local production and living needs, so that these schools can
improve teaching and use local resources for personalized
teaching. When the curriculum and teaching no longer refer to
urban schools and talent training is carried out not just for
sending students to urban schools, which can become the norm,
rural school must be highly quality and distinctive by adopting
measures suiting local conditions, and teaching students in
accordance with their aptitude.
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(3) The phenomenon of "education counter-
urbanization" in China in 2030
By 2030, when China's urbanization rate reach more than
70%, the increasingly balanced and improved public services
will attract more and more urban population to return to
countryside. The synchronous counter-flow of educated
population will inevitably lead to the phenomenon of education
counter-urbanization in rural areas. At that time, because of the
diversified education objects in rural education, rural schools
will inevitably expand their education goals because of the
needs of education objects. The characteristics of rural
education, namely diversified education goals, will be more
prominent. First of all, with the popularization of high-quality
and unique rural education with diverse goals, rural education
has irreplaceable advantages in giving full play to humanistic
thought, cultivating talents with local sentiment and
humanistic care, and cultivating modern labor force promoting
local economic and social development. Secondly, with the
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balanced development of urban and rural education, China's
rural education will continue to increase conditions of running
schools, funding level and teachers’ ability in the future. The
rural education will attract more urban population. The
educated population in rural areas shows diversified
characteristics with more diverse demands for education. To
this end, rural education should be well prepared in the training
goals, curriculum and teaching in advance to meet the
requirements of these people for education. Under the co-
governance of "new rural sages" and "new villagers" back to
the countryside from city, the sustainable development ability
of rural education will continue to improve, and the functions
of rural education will be better realized.
——————————————
References:
[1] Yan Yangchu. Introduction to Civilian Education[M].
Beijing: Higher Education Press, P21-22. 2010.
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Students’ Experiences and Perceptions on Online
Collaborative Learning
Bengi Sonyel
Asst.Prof.Dr: Department of Educational Sciences
Eastern Mediterranean University
Famagusta, TRNC
Abstract— Nowadays, computers are the main parts of any
organization whether it is in an educational field or related to any
other subject. Computing education is one of the most significant
subject in Cyprus. Considering the structure of the education
system in Cyprus, which is centralized, it is corrupted. The major
goal of education is to deliver the information in the most influential
way/s to learners. Collaborative learning can be one of the learning
methods that can be applied to achieve this goal. Therefore, this
study aims to examine the Master of Arts (M.A) and Master of
Science (M.Sc) students’ perceptions on the effective use of online
collaborative learning. Mixed approach has been used both
qualitative and quantitative to collect the necessary data. Authors
had conducted the research with 136 master students from three
different departments at Eastern Mediterranean University in
Cyprus. The first set of data consists of 44 master students from
the Information Technology Department, the second 49 master
students from the Education Department and finally 43 master
students from the Pharmacy Department. The results show that
while the students from different departments have a different
level of experience on online collaborative learning, they all
stressed the significance of online collaborative learning as a
methodology.
Keywords- Learning, collaborative learning, online learning,
cooperative learning
I. INTRODUCTION
Information technology (IT) expands with much more
products than any time before. The e-learning software and
educational tools considered one of the growing areas in IT since it
can help educational organizations to save a lot of money (12).
New ways of collaboration and communication
introduced with information and communication
technology (ICT). ICT enables learners and teachers to interact
with each other and with resources in new ways that weren’t
available before. Technology needs to be seamlessly integrated
and grounded in the context to support the needs of learners (13).
Many researchers in these days focus on collaborative learning
in an online environment. Collaborative learning in an
online environment can help learners in constructing knowledge
using interactive technology
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Copyright © GSTF 2017
ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.52 97
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Mohammad Khaleel Sallam Maaitah Dr:
Department of Computer Engineering
Near East University
Nicosia, TRNC
(6). Teachers should support and encourage students to
exchange knowledge, ideas, and experience to achieve the best
knowledge base tasks that can help them to solve problems (9).
(38) noted in his study that collaboration in online environment
enhances the achievements of the learners. E-learning qualitative
research study by (33) noted that collaborative learning is
“based on a simple but powerful idea: creating groups or learning
communities that ground their professional development on
mutual learning processes” (p.193).
To design and implement effective online collaborative
learning we suppose to understand the nature of it. Online in
online collaborative learning field refers to software, and
collaborative learning refers to educating adult learners. (15)
defines collaborative learning as “an educational endeavor
that involves people in different locations using internet tools
and resources to work together, much pedagogical
telecollaboration is curriculum based, teacher-designed, and
teacher coordinated” (p. 55). (10) clarified the differences
between cooperative and collaborative learning and they had
described collaborative learning as “…two or more subjects
build synchronously and interactively joint solution to some
problem.” (18) noted that the learning outcome of students
achieved by collaborative learning is better than the one in face-
to-face classes. (25) noted in his study that the interaction between
students enhance exchanging knowledge, experience and achieve
a higher level of learning according to student perception. (3)
studied reciprocal teaching, and they found the interaction
between students’ increases and has an influence on students
learning positively. Reciprocal teaching is one type of
collaboration that can help learners to divide the cognitive load
by sharing knowledge, experience, and understanding of the
given task. (10) and (4) stressed that, the most important factor
that makes collaborative learning effective is the discussing and
sharing the ideas and experiences between students during the
engagement of collaborative assignment (30). (30) mention as
well that knowledge in collaborative learning engagement should
have been verbally exchanged which was also agreed and
emphasized later on by (37)
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(21) noted that collaborative learning never described as
cognitive development theories according to Vygotsky’s social
interdependence theory, so they provided a theoretical basis for
collaborative learning. The mutual dependencies exist when
students work with each other and
each member depends on the others. In this case, the students
achieve more knowledge with less effort spent (21). The
complexity of the task can lead to the better result from
collaborative learning approach (21). (21), noted that
"conceptual models of how technology and teamwork may
be productively integrated are practically nonexistent" (p. 1038).
The teachers should follow some guidelines to implement
technology assisted collaborative learning (TACL) (26).
(14) provided appropriate guidelines for the teachers to initiate
and manage online collaboration. In this research, authors also
follow some guidelines for monitoring collaborative learning
among the students in an online environment.
Starting from the 90s, most of the s paid a lot of attention
to Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and how it can
help in education (7). CMC definition differs from one paper
to another but almost all mention and include forums, chat,
email and computer conferencing. Now the information
technology expanded rapidly, and the video/audio conferencing
can be easily found with different features to support CMC.
Much eLearning software nowadays implemented in the way
that can enhance and promote collaborative learning,
Blackboard classroom (2), Virtual Classroom (36) and Virtual-
U (14) are good examples for such a system. When computer-
mediated communication (CMC) presented to the world,
education was one of the most organization who took
advantage from CMC especially in distance instruction.
(11), noted that “a collaborative, respectful
interdependence where the student accepts the responsibility
for personal meaning as well as creating mutual
understanding in a learning community” (p. 17). After use of
computer conferencing in tertiary programs, a lot of authors
predicted that CMC could have been used an entirely new type
of learning. (18) gives constructive ways that virtual classroom
can improve education process, mention as well the flexibility
that provides according to location and time of student, refers
to support of collaborative learning as well “in a peer-support and
exchange environment” (p. 12). Computer conferencing
considered more efficient and appropriate for online
collaborative the medium of online collaborative learning
because of the “reflective and thoughtful analysis and review of
earlier contributions” (23). This medium considered the
framework for successful collaborative learning in distance
education according to (17) point of view.
It is not difficult to build interaction in an online environment
especially if proper resources will be provided. Although in
collaborative learning some restrictions may be used to the
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resources, always the technologies make the life easier for both
students and teachers. Even though the technologies simplify the
process of eLearning and enhance the ways and feature of
interaction among participants still online learning can be more
problematic for some students (7). (7) noted that “The lone
student scrolling through pages of on-line text is a step
backward regarding t h e quality of teaching and learning.
There is, therefore, need to gather information about the
experiences of students engaged in study in the new flexible
delivery modes” (p. 21). Also, it is important to point out the
instructor’s skills in developing, implementing and managing
interactions in collaborative learning (24). He believes as well
that most people have necessary and formal training experience
that makes their interaction with online activities successful.
Solving problem-based assignments as a member of a group will
help students to gain experience and develop skills. This acquired
experience highly transferable to team-based work
environments (31). (5) emphasize that “... the world of work
requires that learners can apply, analyze, synthesize and evaluate
information...” (p. 220). Usually, college students are needed to
take courses related to the computer for building up essential
computer skills (34).According to (32), in online environment
constructing and achieving knowledge can be accomplished
through interactions between learners. It is the duty of educators to
develop a learning environment that encourages group
connectivity and experience to help apprentices achieving the
required skills they need for effective participation in online
collaborative learning.
Many asynchronous tools used in online collaborative
learning are like discussion forums. Asynchronous discussions
had been evaluated a valuable collaborative tool in small
groups (1). In online collaborative learning, a teacher should
do initiation before starting the activity (35). Online
collaborative learning needs essential computer knowledge and
skills. A lot of students suffer from collaborative learning because
they don’t have necessary skills that can help them accomplish
the task with the group.
Based on the literature review, in this paper, the experience
and significance of the M.A and M.Sc students’ using online
collaborative learning tools in an impressive way when they
had been given a problem with student-student online
interaction have been underlined. Online collaborative learning
can’t be assumed exactly as the same as face to face
collaborative learning. By implementing the experiment with
three different groups of students, authors tried to view three
different perspectives regarding the effectiveness of online
collaborative learning as a methodology. The results of this
study will also lead the authors to see whether among the other
approaches used in teaching, online collaborative learning is a
useful tool to be used by teachers and if from the students’
perspective it is preferable to be used. Therefore, the following
research question was set up to investigate this problem: How
can we as researchers monitor students’ experience and
interaction regarding the significance of online collaborative
learning as a teaching methodology? This study is significant as it
presents data considering the effectiveness of online
collaborative learning and its use. The study provided interesting
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findings regarding the nature, structure, and philosophy of
online collaborative learning which might shed light to other
researchers as well.
II. METHOD
A. Research Design
The study was carried out by using mixed approach paradigm
where interpretivism is adopted as an epistemological
position. Phenomenology is used as the investigation design
within interpretivism. The phenomenological research
design emphasizes the understanding of the social world through
an examination of the interpretation of that world of participants.
(16) stated that “For whatever it might be suitable to state
about philosophy in a preface-say, a historical sketch of the
main drift and point of view, the general content and results,
a string of desultory assertions and assurances about the truth-
this couldn’t have been accepted as form and procedure
in which to clarify philosophical reality”.
B. Study Group
The total number of students participating in this research is
136 master students from different departments assigned to the
same collaborative assignments Fall (2014-15). The first class
consists of 44 students from Information Technology
Department which are expected to be more experienced students in
an online environment. The second class consists of 49
students from Education Department. Students from this class
are projected to graduate after one semester. The third class
contains 43 mixed students from Architecture and Pharmacy
Departments. All students receive the same course called
Information Technology and Instruction. All students were taught
by the same teachers, and they used the same materials. Each of
these students had already taken at least two computer courses
when they were studying at undergraduate level. In this research,
it was noted that the majority of the students were male. (M = 82,
F=54).
C. Procedure
There are three different classes (Class A, B, and C) which
students participated in this research. The experiment designed to
monitor and record students’ behavior and experience with
online collaborative learning. All classes received the same
assignments within the same duration. Students are divided
into groups. Each team consists of 6-8 members for interaction,
collaboration, discussions and learning from each other’s
experience to solve the assignment. Students had 3-weeks to
finish the duty. All students used Cisco WebEx meeting
program which works as a synchronous tool and allows students
to collaborate by sharing files, desktops, labs, videos, audios, etc.
Authors chose this application because it has all the functions
(compact) that a student might need during the online
collaborative learning process and allows participants to record
each meeting with all its details. The authors assign online
meeting one time a week for each group without a date limit.
All students received 30 minutes initiation of Cisco
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WebEx meeting application and how it was used. After each
activity, not only the teacher but students can also check their
online performances. That is to say; they can self-assess
themselves.
D. Data Collection Method
Each group was required to build an online interactive course
using Articulate Storyline application. All the meetings should
be online and recorded. The teacher’s assessment is divided
into two sections. The first part 50% was in online meetings
and assignments in class fully recorded sessions, the second part
50% was tasks after course again online but not live. Cisco
WebEx is used as a software program in this research. Cisco
WebEx is a flexible program like it allows students to record
the session with specific details. Each student was asked to record
sessions (recording meeting with the full desktop is one of the
features provided by Cisco WebEx Meeting application). The
authors used these recordings with the entire files of
collaborative learning with full logs of students’ attendance
and their actions. Authors start with the discussion between the
group members during the session and noted down the number of
messages among team members that were related to the
assignment subject. The shared files and tests also noted down.
Finally, the authors went through video recordings for each team
and noted down whatever the students performed. Authors
divided the data collection and analysis into two stages. The first
stage was going through over 20 hours of video per week for
three weeks. The second stage was through using SPSS program to
analyze the numerological data.
E. Data Analysis Method
Data collected through video recorded sessions are analyzed
through content analysis method. “Content analysis is a widely
utilized qualitative study technique. Instead of being a single
approach, current applications of the content analysis indicate
three distinguished approaches: conventional, directed, or
summative. All three manners are used to expound meaning from
the content of text data and, hence, adhere to the naturalistic
paradigm. The major diversities between the methods are
coding schemes, origins of codes, and threats to trustworthiness.
In formal content analysis, coding categories are taken directly
from the text data.” According to the research questions, themes
are deducted, and each participants’ view is categorized by using
those subjects. Then the overall percentage of each topic was
taken to see the significance and use of the effectiveness of
online collaborative learning. For the assignments and online
participation, SPSS program was used to analyze the qualitative
part of the data (number of times participants logged on the
system after class). The results are cross- checked by the
researchers by comparing and contrasting so as to eliminate any
misunderstandings and thus enhancing inter-rater reliability and
validity (8).
III. RESULTS
The first class consists of 44 students from Information
Technology Department. The interaction was good in most of
the groups. The authors categorized and sort the data and tools
used by information technology students during the online
meeting (Fig. 1).
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TABLE 1. CLASS A STATISTICS

File Meeting Collaboration Content

Week Participants Messages Annotate
sharing time points Points
Week
6/6 47 0 92m 1
1
Week
G1 6/6 22 8 126m 1
2 49/50 48/50
Week
6/6 19 6 117m 3
3
Total -- - 88 14 335 5 - -
Average Week 100% 29.3 4.7 112 1.6 - -
1
5/6 37 0 38m 0
Week
2
G2 6/6 46 0 67m 0
Week 47/50 49/50
3 6/6 62 0
9 87m
--
Total Week -94.44% 145 9 192 0 - -
Average 1 48.3 3 64 0 - -
6/6
Week
41 0 94m 1
2
6/6
Week
G3 8 6 133m 2
3 50/50 50/50
6/6
--
22 6 117m 5
Week -
Total 1 100% 71 12 344 8 - -
Average Week 23.7 4 115 2.7 - -
4/6
2
67 0 34m 0
Week
5/6
3
G4 89 0 37m 0
-- 24/50 33/50
5/6
Week
48 0 28m 0
1 -77.78%
Total Week 204 0 99 0 - -
6/6
Average 2 68 0 33 0 - -
Week 6/6 18 0 46m 0
3
-- 6/6
G5 8 6 37m 0
Week 42/50 46/50
1 -
33 6 51m 0
Week 100%
Total 2 59 12 134 0 - -
5/6
Average Week 19.7 4 45 0 - -
3 6/6 5 0 23m 0
--
Week 6/6
G6 7 6 49m 0
1 43/50 44/50
Week -94.44%
14 6 70m 0
2 6/8
Total Week 26 12 142 0 - -
Average 3 8/8 8.7 4 47 0 - -
--
118 0 88m 0
- 8/8
G7 -91.66% 129 0 65m 0
50/50 50/50
- 102 8 60m 0
Total 94.05% 349 8 213 0 - -
Average 116.3 2.7 71 0 - -
Group
942 67 1459m 13 - -
Total
Group
134.58 9.8 209m 1.86 43.57/50 45.7/50
Average

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The attendance was around 94%. Observing the record
provided by the students, authors noted that the students from
Information Technology Department were comfortable with
using Cisco WebEx Meeting, although it was their first
experience with this application. It took from each group 13-17
minutes to setup and figure out the interface and the tools. 32
students from 44 students explore the menu and the functions of
the application during the first engagement. Students used fewer
amount of chatting messages and preferred to deal with
audio/video conferencing most of the time (942 messages in
1459 minutes). Each student used file sharing feature at least
once during online collaborative learning assignment.
IT students were able to achieve exchanging knowledge and
experience with each other. While monitoring the students’
engagements, authors find that IT students take advantage of
desktop sharing at most to show and transfer knowledge and
experience. In the second week, 3 out of 7 groups combine the
member achievements into one project.
The second class consists of 49 students from Education
Department. The interaction was good in most of the groups
after the first week. The authors categorized and sort the data
and tools used by the students of Education Department during
the online meeting (Fig. 2). The attendance was around 88%.
Observing the record provided by students, authors noted that
most students in this class spend the first meeting just to
understand and test the application. It took from each group 20-70
minutes to setup and figured out the interface and the tools.
During the first engagement, all students explore the menu and
the functions of an application. The text chatting function
compared to other functions like audio, the video, file sharing,
etc. was the only function that has been preferred by the students of
this class.

TABLE 2. CLASS B STATISTICS

File Meeting Collaboration Content

Week Participants Messages annotate
sharing time points Points
Week
4/6 93 0 24m 0
1
Week
G1 4/6 213 0 78m 0
2 38/50 43/50
Week
6/6 143 1 34m 0
3
Total -- -77.78% 499 1 136 0 - -
Average Week 166.3 0.33 45 0 - -
6/6
1
56 0 19m 0
Week 4/6
2
G2 74 0 37m 0
Week 35/50 44/50
5/6
3
183 4 69m 0
-- -83.33%
Total Week 313 4 125 0 - -
6/6
Average 1 104.3 1.33 42 0 - -
Week 4/6 319 2 87m 0
2
Week 6/6
G3 34 0 16m 0
3 34/50 31/50
-- -88.89%
243 2 52m 0
Week 3/6
Total 1 596 4 155 0 - -
Average Week 4/6 198.6 1.33 52 0 - -
2
48 0 28m 0
Week 6/6
3
G4 -72.22% 89 0 37m 0
-- 29/50 36/50
Week 6/6 111 0 33m 0
1
Total Week 6/6 248 0 98 0 - -
Average 2 82.6 0 33 0 - -
Week 6/6 82 0 56m 0
3
-- -
G5 100% 144 0 72m 0
Week 45/50 40/50
1 6/6 261 2 77m 0
Total 487 2 205 0 - -
Average 162.3 0.66 68 0 - -
G6 78 0 22m 0
18/50 15/50

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Week
5/6 46 0 31m 0
2
Week
6/6 219 0 19m 0
3
Total -- - 343 0 72 0 - -
Average Week 94.44% 114.3 0 24 0 - -
1
5/6 282 0 102m 0
Week
2
G7 6/6 129 0 129m 3
Week 47/50 50/50
3
6/6 102 6 79m 1
--
Total Week - 513 6 310 4 - -
Average 1 94.44% 171 2 103 1.33 - -
Week
5/7 22 0 13m 0
2
Week
G8 7/7 74 0 16m 0
3 15/50 13/50
--
7/7 154 0 34m 0
-
Total - 250 0 63 0 - -
Average 100% 83.3 0 21 0 - -
Group
- 3249 17 1164m 4 - -
Total
Group
88.88% 406.12 2.12 146m 0.5 32.63/50 34/50
Average

40 students out of 49 have been lost in the first 20 minutes
of first meeting. Students in this class used the good amount of
chatting messages and preferred to deal with audio/video
conferencing besides chatting. The total amount of chatting
messages was 3249 messages in 1164 minutes. File sharing
feature was not used well during the assignments; overall it has
been used 17 times by 14 students (only five groups used file
sharing). Experience of the students was at the average level,
because after the first week most of the students used the
computer experience that they gathered from the previous week.
Authors also observe that the education student will not survive
the collaboration concept without text chatting system. Students
in this class were able to achieve better IT skills using the
collaborative learning by guiding each other which affect their
achievements and progress on assignment. 6 out of eight groups
submit the task as one project but content wise the project
inconsistent. That says the work hasn’t been linked to each other.
In the second week, none of the groups were able to link the
work to form the project as one. However, among all the groups
only two of them managed to connect their task as to create the
project collaboratively.
The third class consists of 43 students from Pharmacy
Department and Architecture Department. The interaction was
good in most of the groups after the first week. The authors
categorized and sort the data and tools used by students during
the online meeting (Fig. 3).

TABLE 3. CLASS C STATISTICS

File Meeting Collaboration Content

Week Participants Messages annotate
sharing time points Points
Week 1 6/6 193 0 44m 0
G1 Week 2 3/6 227 0 68m 0
30/50 38/50
Week 3 5/6 371 0 82m 0
Total - - 791 0 194 0 - -
Average - 77.78% 263.7 0 65 0 - -
Week 1 6/6 291 0 37m 0
G2 Week 2 4/6 169 0 49m 0
28/50 33/50
Week 3 4/6 412 0 95m 0
Total - - 872 0 181 0 - -
Average - 77.78% 290.7 0 60 0 - -
Week 1 6/6 67 0 22m 0
G3 Week 2 3/6 122 0 36m 0
28/50 27/50
Week 3 6/6 472 0 122m 0
Total - - 661 0 180 0 - -
Average - 88.33% 220.3 0 60 0 - -
Week 1 6/6 356 0 71m 0
G4
Week 2 5/6 410 0 96m 0 42/50 45/50

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Week 3 5/6 442 1 124m 0

Total - - 1208 1 291 0 - -
Average - 88.89% 402.7 0.33 97 0 - -
Week 1 6/6 64 0 41m 0
G5 Week 2 3/6 92 0 33m 0
22/50 30/50
Week 3 3/6 105 0 66m 0
Total - - 261 0 140 0 - -
Average - 66.67% 87 0 46.7 0 - -
Week 1 6/6 119 0 68m 0
G6 Week 2 2/6 69 0 23m 0
31/50 28/50
Week 3 5/6 509 0 118m 0
Total - - 697 0 209 0 - -
Average - 72.22% 232.3 0 70 0 - -
Week 1 7/7 396 0 53m 0
G7 Week 2 3/7 145 0 37m 0
33/50 37/50
Week 3 6/7 573 0 126m 0
Total - - 1114 0 216 0 - -
Average - 76.19% 371.33 0 72 0 - -
Group
- - 5604 1 1411m 0 - -
Total
Group
78.27% 800.6 0.14 202m 0 30.58/50 34/50
Average

The average percentage of attendance was 78.27%.
Observing the record provided by students, authors noted that
most students in this class spent most of the first and second
meetings by looking for functionality and trying to understand
the application. It took from each group 40-70 minutes to setup
and figured out the interface and tools. 26 students out of 43
explore the menu, looking for functions and tools. Others just
gave up waiting for other members to guide them. The chatting
was the most effective function used by this class even when
they shared internet information, they copy and paste instead of
sharing screen or file sharing feature. 38 students were lost
totally in the first meeting and most of the second meeting.
Although the students keep using the text chatting, the third
meeting was used more effectively because students were more
familiar with the interface and functionality. In the last meeting,
the most of the students in this class were able to use audio/video
conferencing beside the text chatting. The amount of text
messaging was 5604 messages in 1411 minutes. Just two
students from 2 different groups shared files in last weeks’
meeting. Authors evaluate the experience in online collaborative
learning in this class as under average; however, the experience
(collaborative learning) was at the accepted level (see Table 3) in
the last meeting of the assignment. Observation shows that this
class will not survive the “online collaborative learning”
concept without the text chatting system. However, it was
difficult to fulfill collaborative learning goals for this class in the
first and second weeks, but later on the third week, this was
achieved. At the last meeting, all students show better and
acceptable level of experience to deal with online collaborative
learning. One out of seven groups could deliver the assignment as
one project successfully. Finally, none of the groups in this class
succeeded to combine achievements using collaborative tools
(file sharing, desktop sharing, etc.) in an online
environment.
IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In this section discussion and conclusion of the findings will
be presented compared to the work of other researchers in this
field.
A. Discussion
Authors noted that students from IT department have the IT
skills that help them to start online collaborative learning from
the first week however they spent time discovering the functions
regarding enhancing the experience with the application. In the
first week, the first class spent 60 minutes at average, the second
class spent 44 minutes at average, and the third class spent 48
minutes at average. It is worthwhile to emphasize that the first
class was the only class starting the task collaboratively at the
first week.
After the first meeting, meeting times increases and used
more efficiently by the students to solve assignments using
online collaborative learning tools (Fig.1). Students enjoyed and
spent more time in an online environment after gathering the
experience needed to deal with online collaborative tools.
Observing the students’ behaviors, authors found that in each
meeting the IT skills enhanced among the students and reached
acceptable collaboration level. What is meant by “acceptable
level” is that when the teacher assigns one task for his/her
students to do by using basic IT skills through online
collaborative learning, students master the task with minimum
error.
Furthermore, the effect of social media and basic chatting
tools used by students had paid back as experience. Students had
good experience using text chatting tools. This tool is
widely utilized by the second and third class. Neither class A nor
class B would survive the assignment without using text chatting
tool (Fig. 2).

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Also in Fig. 2, authors noticed that increase of using text
messaging device as the primary tool decreases the IT
experience of students.
Using file sharing and desktop sharing tools by class A
shows how collaborative tools can save time and enhance
knowledge and experience exchange among students. Class A
used file sharing tools 13 times during the assignment. Class A
successfully achieved a good score (89.27 in average) unlike
Class B and Class C which score in average 66.63 and 64.58
respectively.
In the first class, there were 44 students from Information
Technology Department. The interaction was good in most of
the groups. The authors categorized and sort the data and tools
used by information technology students during the online
meeting (Fig. 1). Observing the record provided by the students,
authors noted that the students from Information Technology
Department were comfortable with using Cisco WebEx Meeting,
although it was their first experience with this application.
Students did not find any difficulty in using the online
collaborative system with its facilities such as sharing desktop,
chatting, etc. Students after being engaged in online
collaborative tasks realized the significance of collaboration in
learning. Comprehending, as referred in the literature review by
Vygotsky social constructivist, on your own does not contribute
self or professional development of students. However, learning
by doing in collaborative groups or using online collaborative
learning contributes self or professional development.
The second group was from Education Department 49
students in total. The authors categorized and sort the data and
tools used by the students of Education Department during the
online meeting (Fig. 2). Unlike to the first group, observing the
record provided by students’ authors noted that most students in
this class spend the first meeting just to understand and test the
application. It took from each group 20-70 minutes to setup and
figured out the interface and the tools. During the first
engagement, all students explore the menu and the functions of
the application. This figure shows that these students were not
familiar with online collaborative learning. The text chatting
function compared to other operations like audio, video, file
sharing, etc. was the only function that was preferred by the
students of this class. 40 students out of 49 were lost in the first 20
minutes of first meeting. After the first week, students started to
understand what was going on regarding online
collaborative learning. They lack the skills and also the functions
of online collaborative learning.
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The third group of 43 students from Pharmacy Department
and Architecture Department found it was hard to fulfill
collaborative learning goals for this class in the first and
second weeks. But on the third week, they achieved to start using
online collaborative learning and its functions. The authors
categorized and sort the data and tools used by students during
the online meeting (Fig. 3). Observing the record provided by
students, authors noted that most students in this class spent most
of the first and second meetings by looking for functionality and
trying to understand online collaborative learning. In the
beginning, it took each group 40-70 minutes to set up and figured
out the interface and tools. These findings show that these
students have no experience in online collaborative
learning.The chatting was the most impressive used by this class
even when they shared internet information, they copy and paste
instead of sharing screen or file sharing feature. After they had
gone through online collaborative learning, students expressed
that they are capable of using online learning for their future
classes more beneficial than before. Moreover, they realized
through online collaborative learning likewise to group 2 they
can not only as self but also professionally develop themselves.
B. Conclusion
The significance and contribution of online collaborative
learning on students’ learning and experience is emphasized
in this study. Students prior knowledge and experience
plays a substantial role in the application of online collaborative
learning. Novice students can be trained to use online
collaborative learning to get benefit from it. It can be concluded
from this study that, online collaborative learning not only
as self but professionally develop students. Furthermore, online
collaborative learning increases interaction, active participation
and urges students to exchange their view with each other. So,
three keywords can sum up online collaborative work
“interplay, active involvement and exchange of ideas.” We can
also deduce from this research that online collaborative learning
opposes with the traditional type of instruction. Students
construct their knowledge through discussions, active
participation and using the facilities of online collaborative
learning. Students are not passive receivers rather active builders.
Through online collaborative learning, as discussed in the
literature above students learn to use the skills of online
collaborative learning such as criticizing, discussing, sharing,
reporting, etc. According to the results, the three different
group of students from other departments agreed on the issue that
online collaborative learning is significant and can be applied
under the circumstances of being taught in advance how to use
and apply it. Otherwise, students feel lost, demotivated or take
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them too long to find out what’s going on. Briefly, the findings
of this study supported the notion of the significance of online
collaborative learning. Students having gone through the
C. Implications and Suggestions for Further Research
The research results depict that students who experienced online
collaborative learning believe that they got to benefit from its
use and enjoyed themselves throughout the course. It looks like
that the outcomes of this experience changed students’ views
regarding online collaborative learning and also the way they
were trained in their courses. Students prefer to be active rather
than passive after their experience of online collaborative
learning. They want to construct their knowledge rather being
spoon fed. We as researchers can suggest that online
collaborative learning can be used in other faculties as As a
longitudinal study, we can have a look at the
effectiveness of the use of online collaborative learning in
other departments and make a comparison between them.
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The Use of Technology in the Teaching of a Human

Anatomy and Physiology

Huiyu Zhang and Linda Fang

School of Engineering
Temasek Polytechnic
Singapore

Abstract—This study reviewed the use of infocommunication
technology (ICT) to improve the learning and teaching of 75-
hour Human Anatomy to second year Biomedical Engineering
Diploma students at Temasek Polytechnic in Singapore. These
were in the form of interactive e-learning lessons, game-mode
quizzes, online topical reviews and mind-maps for five topics,
spanning six weeks. The effectiveness of these e-learning lessons
and activities were evaluated using Kirkpatrick’s first two levels
of learning. These were firstly, the extent the learners find the
ICT-enabled e-lessons and activities engaging and relevant; and
secondly the degree to which they acquired the intended learning
outcomes. Data were collected from 80 students between April to
July 2016, through surveys and formative assessment
performances. The findings showed that students perceived the
interactive e-learning lessons as engaging and improved their
motivation to learn. They also scored better than their
predecessors for their term test.
Keywords- e-activities, engagement, e-learning, human
anatomy, interactive lessons, motivation
I. INTRODUCTION
Learning Human Anatomy and Physiology is challenging
because it requires mastery of a vast number of details about
the human body. Studies in the recent decade have shown that
different learning approaches favour the learning of this
subject, such as teaching anatomy in a problem-based learning
(PBL) curriculum [1], [2], directed case approach (with
defined, inclusive learning objectives); informative, engaging
case scenarios; and pertinent, didactic questions [3],
encouraging reasoning over memorization [4], and exposing
learners to multimedia and presentation software [5]. Materials
can be produced to enhance learning of body systems as well.
An example is the three-part multimedia CD-ROMs that
include animations, interactive glossary, self-assessment
quizzes and video clips [6]. Another interactive learning aid
also allows users to examine virtual 3D models of the human
anatomy and provide short quizzes to assess learners on their
ability to recall the various anatomical parts [7].
For Diploma in Biomedical Engineering (BME), Temasek
Polytechnic (TP) of Singapore, Human Anatomy and
Physiology (HAP) is a 75-hour subject offered to second year
students in this program. It is a foundational subject that
familiarizes students with the anatomical structures of various
organs and organ systems with their functions and explains
how physiological processes lead to the normal functioning of
the human body. The method of instruction of this subject
focuses on lectures, textbook reading, tutorial and laboratory.
Students struggle with endless number of terminology and
identification, and heavily rely on the mode of through
memorization, as observed by the Subject Review Committee
in 2015.
In 2015, the ICT Mentor Programme was established by the
School of Engineering, TP, to support individual Engineering
diplomas achieve a specific target for using ICT for learning
and teaching. The ICT Mentor from BME took the opportunity
to use ICT tools and appropriate pedagogical principles to
design and develop e-learning objects and e-activities for HAP.
This paper evaluates its effectiveness in terms of the level of
engagement and motivation of the learners from using these
objects, and whether it leads to better subject performance in
the term test. The framework follows Kirkpatrick’s first two
levels of learning [8].
The subject team in BME, consisting of an ICT Mentor and
two other lecturers, aimed to move the learning of HAP beyond
mere mechanical acquisition of factual information, to deepen
knowledge and understanding better, to enhance the application
facts to identify and explain clinical situations. However, the
team also believed the accurate use of vocabulary of the
anatomy and physiology terms is essential in articulating the
problem and solution [9].
Undergoing the interactive e-learning lessons out of the
classroom encourages active and self-directed learning, as
proposed by Brooks and Brooks [10]. HAP was conventionally
taught fully in face-to-face lectures, tutorials and laboratory
sessions. Hence, the subject adopted a blended-learning
approach so as to move the acquisition of facts out of the
classroom, allowing higher cognitive thinking learning during
the face-to-face (F2F) lessons.
There are softwares that can help transform lessons on
human anatomy into interactive ones [11], [12]. O’Byrne et al
[13] found that their Human Anatomy students used their
online interactive learning and self-testing tools, although their
summative examination outcomes of students who had access
to the online tools did not differ with a corresponding student
group from the previous academic year who did not.
Game based learning is much welcomed in today’s classes.
However, its impact varies. For instance Wang et al [14] found
Kahoot! improved motivation, engagement, enjoyment and

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concentration on the gamified approach but learning based on accuracy and speed. Another game-mode quiz that
improvement was not significant. On the other hand, Iwamoto assessed the last topic “Endocrine system”, was an online
et al [15] found that students enjoy learning with Kahoot!, medical internship game where students role-played a medical
adding to a fun and engaging environment that supported intern to help diagnosing the various clinical conditions
improved academic performance. presented by hormonal changes.
Mind-mapping is one way to help students learn human Each eLesson covered the concepts to achieve the learning
anatomy. In their review of 65 studies on concept mapping, outcomes for one topic. The Articulate Presenter’ 13 was used
Pudelko et al [16] found that the hypothesis that mapping per to convert Powerpoint slides of the content into interactive
se furthers and supports meaningful learning, memorisation or presentations. A formative topical quiz, termed eQuiz was
factual recall could be supported. Documented improvements embedded at the end of each eLesson. Students were allowed
in learning often occurred when mapping was used in concert to review the eLessons and try out the quizzes without any
with other strategies, such as collaborative learning or restrictions on the number of attempts. Data for each eLesson,
instructor modelling, scaffolding and feedback such as the number of attempts, percentage of completion
(based on the slides reviewed) and most recent eQuiz results
The design of e-lessons and activities anchored on the were captured and sent to the grade center of the LMS through
Cooper’s theory of Constructivism [17], where students needed SCORM 1.2 [19].
to build their own understanding and knowledge of the content,
through experience and reflection; rather than students
passively absorbing the presented knowledge during lesson
time. Hence, the face-to-face time was allocated for facilitated
and interactive in-depth discussion and application of the
concepts in practical scenario-based problems. To address
these challenges, learning objects in the form of interactive e-
learning lessons (coined eLessons) and online games were
introduced in the April 2016 semester. These were supported
by other e-activities (online multiple-choice type topical review
questions and mindmapping). The purpose of study was to find
out if this approach of using these eLessons and e-activities
will generate interest and engage the students to learn better
and apply the concepts with more technical accuracy.
II. METHODOLOGY
A. Participants
A total of 80 students from three BME classes participated Figure 1. Labelled graphic interaction panel to teach organelles in a
in this study. They consisted of 41 males and 39 males, with a generalized cell.
mean age of 19 years. This HAP module was conducted in a
blended-learning mode for 6 weeks, between April to June
2016.
B. Intervention Procedure
The teaching approach incorporated a blend of e-learning
components and F2F sessions. Some examples are having
graphics-intensive interactive eLessons delivered in a flipped
classroom manner; F2F game-mode quizzes; asynchronous
MCQ questions housed online in Blackboard Learn
environment [18] and pen-and-paper mindmapping. The topics
covered are “Introduction to anatomy and physiology”; “Cells
and tissues”; “Integumentary, skeletal and muscular systems”;
“Nervous system and senses”; and “Endocrine system”. Each
eLesson has a duration of approximately 45 minutes that can be
paused, replayed, closed as per user’s request. There were four
game-mode quizzes using Kahoot! corresponding to the first
four topics listed previously in order, each consists of
approximately 15 questions. During each gameplay, only one Figure 2. Scenario-based question at the end of the eLesson to self-assess
question and 4 multiple choice options are displayed on the understanding.
main screen each time. Each choice is associated to a unique
colour and shape. The students’ devices will not show the
questions, but only multiple choice options. Players would
need to frequently look at the main screen to interact with their
peers and the instructors. Scores of the player are awarded

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Figure 3. One clinical situation for students, role-playing as medical interns,
to diagnose.
The Blackboard Learn learning management system (LMS)
was used to host the eLessons and topical reviews, providing
self-paced learning. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are screen shots from two
eLessons for topics on “Cells and tissues” and “Nervous
system and senses” respectively; while Fig. 3 shows a capture
of the medical internship game.
C. Lesson Plan
In a week, there were F2F sessions comprising 3 hours of
lectures, and 2 hours tutorials (or 3 hours laboratory), where
students had the opportunity to meet with the instructor to
clarify the concepts acquired from flipped learning of the
eLessons and discuss the applications of these factual
information into clinical situations. At the end of each topic, to
reinforce the learning, students were expected to submit
mindmaps for feedback and correction. A typical lesson plan is
as shown in Fig. 4.
Figure 4. Lesson plan for a week.
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TABLE I. INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION
Kirkpatrick’s
Instruments
Levels of Learning
Online survey for motivation, engagement,
Level 1 Engagement perceived competence and self-efficacy,
adapted from [20]
Level 2 Learning Quizzes and Term Test
D. Instruments
Data to evaluate the learning outcomes from using the
eLessons were collected from the student's’ term test
performance, survey statistics and (class) responses in Kahoot!.
The instruments used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
interactive learning objects and learning [8] are listed in Table
I.
For motivation, an online survey consisting of 15 questions,
adapted from a questionnaire developed by Temasek
Polytechnic [20], was designed to assess students’ perception
of their level of motivation and engagement, and perceived
competence and self-efficacy. The questions were categorized
into two groups, namely motivation and engagement, and self-
efficacy and perceived competence. Responses were scored on
a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree). The survey was administered online in July
2016, 4 weeks after the students sat for their HAP term test,
with informed consent obtained from the participants.
Data on learning came from students’ performance in term
test and game-mode quizzes using Kahoot! The term test
consists of five multiple choice questions (two marks each) and
four short application question (around 10 marks each). The
test consisted of the following:
 35% knowledge-type questions (requiring skills of
recalling information, listing, and naming)
 40% comprehension-based questions (requiring skills of
understanding, translating, demonstrating, and
discussing)
 25% application-based questions (requiring applying
knowledge to explain observations).
The Kahoot! platform was constantly used in F2F tutorial
sessions to check if the students had achieved higher level of
learning outcomes from the eLessons. Statistical analysis was
performed using Statgraphics Centurion XVII. As there was no
control group of this cohort of participants, comparison of
performance was measured against the previous cohort (April
2015) which was of the same cumulative grade point aggregate
(cGPA).
III. RESULTS
A. Level 1 Engagement
Students’ responses from the survey showed that they were
overall motivated and engaged with the e-learning objects.
Responses to the seven questions in this category showed a
Cronbach’s alpha of 0.70; whereas in terms of self-efficacy and
perceived competence, the students also appeared to exhibit
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high satisfaction, with an alpha of 0.84 for the responses to the
eight questions in this category.
TABLE II. SURVEY RESULTS
Mean Standard Alpha Max.
Deviation Mean
Motivation and
4.17 0.82 0.70 4.93
Engagement
Self-efficacy
and
3.75 0.82 0.84 3.85
Perceived
competence
The mean and standard deviation of their perceptions are as
tabulated in Table II. In this study, it is designated to follow
[20], mean scores below 2.33 as low, between 2.33 and 3.66 as
moderate, and above 3.66 as high.
The students were also requested to vote in the survey, for
each e-learning activity (eLessons, game-mode quizzes,
mindmapping, MCQ-type topical reviews), whether the activity
was “Engaging” and the activity “Helpful in the learning of the
subject”. About 43% of the respondents found the interactive
eLessons most engaging, 36% preferred the game-mode
quizzes instead, bringing a total of close to 80% of the
respondents finding the eLessons and game-mode quizzes
engaging. On which activity was most helpful in their learning,
while 28% of the respondents voted for eLessons, 27% voted
for game-mode quizzes, interestingly there is also a fair share
of students, around 24% preferred the mind-mappings.
A contingency table as shown in Table III was constructed
based on their individual responses, to validate the association
between engagement level and achievement level of the
learning outcomes. As a simple description on how the table
was constructed, we are going to use the top cell (row 1,
column 1) as an example. In this cell, 56% of the responses
(based on 45 out of 80 votes distributed amongst these five
learning activities) stating that a particular activity was
engaging and also helpful in their learning. One should also
note that a test of significance (Chi square test of
independence, p=0.05, test statistics=6.00, critical value=3.84)
showed that indeed there was a significant association between
engagement and learning.
TABLE III. CONTINGENCY TABLE
Engaging Not Engaging
Helpful 45 (56%) 35 (38%)
Not helpful in learning 35 (44%) 58 (62%)
Total 80 (100%) 93 (100%)
For the open-ended survey question on which are the
thing(s) they dislike about the eLessons, most of the
respondents found the slow internet speed or network
reliability an issue for them. Around 10% of them opined
distractions such as switching to YouTube videos and inability
to focus made them procrastinate in using the eLessons.
Another 10% of the respondents recommended having an
online platform to clarify or provide further explanation
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following the eLesson activity. A few respondents found the
eLessons monotonous and boring over time upon completion
of the five topics.
Min.
Mean
3.71
3.30
Figure 5. Word clouds generated from the open-ended responses using
Wordle.
B. Level 2 Learning
To evaluate the students’ Term Test performances,
statistical analyses were performed to gather evidences if the
eLessons were effective in improving their grades. As we do
not have a control group for this cohort, we have compared the
performance of this pilot study, Group E, against the previous
run, Group C, where the learners did not undergo e-learning. A
two-tailed t-test was conducted to assess if there was any
significant difference in the Term Test results. As a start, t-test
of equal variances carried out to assess the equivalence of the
two groups in terms of academic ability using their cGPA,
showed no significant difference at p=0.05 between the two
groups (nC=85, ̅̅̅ =3.313, σC=0.472 nE=87, ̅̅̅ =3.264,
σE=0.532). Hence when t-test was again performed to test for
the hypothesis that there is a difference in the mean mark of
Term Test between the two groups, the statistical significance
can be attributed to the intervention of eLessons ( ̅̅̅ =31.7,
σC=8.954, ̅̅̅=36.649, σE=7.816, p=0.0002). The Spearman’s
rank correlation procedures were also conducted to perform
statistical inference on the hypotheses listed in Table IV.
Among the four abovementioned e-learning activities, a
partial correlation analysis shows that the eLessons have the
greatest strength (ρpartial=0.2533, p=0.0193) in improving the
Term Test marks.
TABLE IV. SPEARMAN’S RANK CORRELATION
Null Hypothesis Results
H0 rejected
H0: There is no correlation in the percentage completion
1 p=0.0000
of eLessons and the Term Test mark.
ρ=0.4485
H0: There is no correlation in the number of times H0 rejected
2 completing the self-assessment in the eLessons and the p=0.0001
Term Test mark. ρ =0.4356
H0 rejected
H0: There is no correlation in the number of times
3 p=0.0011
completing eLessons and the Term Test mark.
ρ =0.3514
H0 rejected
H0: There is no correlation in the number of mindmaps
4 p=0.0000
completed and the Term Test mark.
ρ=0.4407
Last but not least, through the game-mode quizzes results,
it is evident that the students demonstrated clear understanding
of the factual concepts. For example, in the last topic, the box
plot depicted in Fig. 6 shows the students’ performance in the
Kahoot! has a median score of 66 (out of 100) with 75% of the
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students scoring more than 56 and 25% of students scoring
more than 75%.
Figure 6. Box plot of Kahoot! results
The tutors also sensed a trend that the students were able to
score well in their Term Test in answering the knowledge-type
and comprehension-based questions with correct technicalities,
as the marking scheme was based on the appropriate use of
terminology to discuss solutions. The use of Kahoot! as a tool
to reinforce the HAP terminology is probably a contributing
factor in honing this ability.
IV. DISCUSSON AND CONCLUSION
The entire teaching methodology involved getting the
students to learn before coming to the classroom, using
eLessons; followed by in-class reinforcement of concepts
through game-mode quizzzes; and asynchronous consolidation
using e-activities in the form of MCQ-type topical review
questions and mindmaps. With this approach, results gathered
suggest that students were overall more engaged with the use
of eLessons and game-mode quizzes. This could in part be
related to the features available in eLessons such as interactive
graphics panels that allows user’s autonomy to pace the
learning, application problems to trigger their thinking skills,
which resonates with the views of Brooks and Brooks [10] on
providing active and self-directed learning environment. The
formative game-mode quizzes further allowed a motivating and
enjoyable environment for the students to pit against peers in
their level of understanding. From the survey, the students
perceived they were competent and rated themselves high in
terms of self-efficacy. A possible attribute to these results is
again the self-directed nature of the eLessons, which helped the
students to review as and when they require and build their
confidence. The instantaneous feedback of their performance
during game-mode quizzes is believed to have contributed to
this aspect.
In terms of learning, the eLessons were also significant in
helping the students learned better. The students’ test marks
were higher, with less variation in their understanding of the
subject, and achieved better retention of details. Along with the
game-mode quizzes, students overall perceived the eLessons,
not only were engaging, but also were most helpful in their
learning. As predicted, these e-learning objects that provided a
fun and engaging environment had supported improved
academic performance, which was also demonstrated by
Iwamoto [15]. While there seem to be little engagement
provided by the mindmapping activities, there is a significant
correlation in performing mindmapping and obtaining good
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test marks. Instructors can then consider including such activity
with other strategies that enhance students’ engagement in
facilitating factual recalls, as suggested by Pudelko [16] also.
We recognize that the new millennium learners are
conditioned to interact with devices, have shorter attention
spans, consume content through a multitude of ways, as
reported by Groff [21]. Our approach presented, with the use of
eLessons and game-mode quizzes, seem to exhibit such
elements to engage the students and support their learning.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the staff from the
Infocomm Solutions Centre (TP), especially Wong Poh Leng
and Jinnie Ong, for contributing to the design and
development of the eLessons, Subbaraman Ravichandran and
Adrian Danker from BME (TP) for supporting this running of
this pilot study.
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the first word in a paper title, except for proper nouns and
element symbols.
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[3] W. H. Cliff and A. W. Wright, “Directed case study method for teaching
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[13] P. J. O'Byrne, A. Patry, and J. A. Carnegie, “The development of
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[18] BlackBoard Learn. Available at http://www.blackboard.com/learning-
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on Education
The Retrospect and Prospect of Art Therapy in
Taiwan
Diana Ruei-Jen Fan
Department of Early Childhood and Family Education
National Taipei University of Education
Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Abstract—This brief article presents the initial development of
psychotherapy and counselling in Taiwan, followed by the
introduction of art therapy in Taiwan, with a focus on the
retrospect and prospect of art therapy in Taiwan. This paper
contributes to the literature by highlighting the achievements of
the Taiwan Art Therapy Association, reviewing the efforts that
have been made toward mental health in Taiwanese society, and
providing micro-perspectives on art therapy in Taiwan. The
methodology of this paper is a literature review. It is necessary for
us to stay current with the progress of the global profession of art
therapy. We must overcome cultural differences in the style of art
education, religion, and the credential authentication system. Due
to the many complicated issues that are faced in Taiwan, people
may suffer from emotional or psychological problems. Therefore,
the study and practice of art therapy as a means of improving
mental health in Taiwan demands our immediate attention.
Keywords-component; Art therapy in Taiwan, Taiwan Art
Therapy Association, Art therapy
I. INTRODUCTION
Art and images are completely individual, which regardless
of age or ethnic origin, are the first models by which human
beings share experiences and communicate values and meanings
[1]. During the past ten years, many enthusiastic American art
therapists have introduced their professional knowledge of art
therapy to many countries [2,3], and global art therapy training
has been appraised [1,4,5]. As a result, many art therapists are
invited to travel to various countries as visiting lecturers and
researchers. The International Network Group (ING) is a
significant contributor to art therapy, and it provides a powerful
platform for sharing knowledge of art therapy to create a
structure that contributes to the globalization of art therapy. At
present, there are 39 international art therapy associations
around the world [3] and 27 association websites from different
countries.
In Asia, the Hong Kong Association of Art Therapy was
established in 2002 to promote and focus on the continued
development of art therapy practice under the guidance of an
ethical and professional standard as well as the Expressive Arts
Therapy Association of Hong Kong, which was founded in 2012
to support art therapists, artists, social workers, educators, and
others using multimodal and/or intermodal art processes as
integrated skills to promote healing, personal growth, and social
transformation. The Korea Art Therapy Association was
founded in 1992, more than ten years before the TATA. The
above three associations are close to our country and are good
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Paul Juinn-Bing Tan
Department of Applied Foreign Languages
National Penghu University
Penhu, Taiwan, R.O.C.
models for us to learn how to develop educational programs. In
particular, there are ten art therapy graduate programs in Korea
[6], which may help us overcome the growing pains of
formalizing the practice of art therapy in Taiwan. We can follow
the development of art therapy in Korea, which has progressed
smoothly and has gradually become a profession.
It seems that the knowledge and practice of art therapy have
led to a global movement rigorous. Art therapy has blossomed
over the last 10 years in Taiwan since the first graduate art
therapy program opened in 2003. I would like to share the
retrospect and prospect of art therapy in Taiwan to provide
updated information on the development of art therapy in
Taiwan. Art therapy is increasingly needed for the welfare and
mental health of our society. It is necessary for us to be
enthusiastic about linking our associations and practitioners with
other countries’ art therapy associations and practitioners and to
encourage therapists in other countries to share their knowledge,
support art therapy educational programs, establish and develop
collaborative research, and connect with professionals in
neighbouring nations.
I would like to share the retrospect and prospect of art
therapy in Taiwan to provide updated information on the
development of art therapy in Taiwan. Art therapy is
increasingly needed for the welfare and mental health of our
society. It is necessary for us to be enthusiastic about linking our
associations and practitioners with other countries’ art therapy
associations and practitioners and to encourage therapists in
other countries to share their knowledge, support art therapy
educational programs, establish and develop collaborative
research, and connect with professionals in neighbouring nations.
II. THE PAST (1995)
The system of counselling was established several years
ago; however, many issues focused on students. The first
institution and pioneer of caring about mental and/or
psychological welfare was the Chinese Mental Health
Association [7], which was founded on March 20, 1955, and
employed mental and psychiatric medical professionals and
other professionals who
advanced such efforts (formerly known as the Chinese Mental
Health Association in 1936 Nanjing); it formally resumed in
1995 (The Ministry of the Interior after the change of its
registration number: No. 8419893) in Taiwan.
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The other institute is the Taiwan Guidance and Counselling
Institute [8] (formerly known as the China Society of
Counselling), which was formed in 1958 based on Dr. Jiang’s
proposal. It is the first institute related to mental health in
Taiwan, with a focus on students’ academic difficulties. In a
sense, there is greater concern about the problems that are
experienced in school rather than in society.
Passion and hard work gradually led to the promotion of
the work of counselling. To our knowledge, counselling began
in schools due to the completion of laws that pertained to the
practices of psychologists. Counselling has been actively
promoted by the legislation of the Student Guidance Law and by
the professional development of school counselling work. After
years of effort, the Student Guidance Law finally achieved its
goals in 2014. Announcing the implementation of the
professional development of school counselling work was a
major step forward for the establishment of the knowledge and
practice of counselling as a profession.
At the same time, the Taiwan Counselling and
Consultation Association has invited internationally renowned
consultative psychologists to Taiwan to hold various
professional workshops and plans to hold an international
counselling and consultative academic conference so that
Taiwan's counselling and consultative professional
development exhibition can align with international practice.
To reflect on the rapid development of society and the
trend of the international situation, the Taiwan Society for
Counselling and Consultancy has further developed its focus on
"diversification" and "localization". The council will further
promote the integration of Chinese and Western cultures. It
further seeks to promote Asian culture through a process of
"localization" to create a localized consultative theory and
practice model that reflects both the universal mental structure
and Chinese cultural mentality.
Psychological counselling in Taiwan is an emerging
industry that developed from the psychological division of
legislation approximately ten years ago. The psychological
division can be subdivided into two categories: "clinical
psychologist" and "counselling psychologist". We may confuse
"psychologists" with "therapists". In fact, there are no
psychologists in Taiwan. There is no classification of
"Psychology" in Section 3 of the Specialist Discipline
Definitions under the "Division of Specialist Subsidy and
Screening Measures" as amended by the Ordinance No.
0990201749, and there are no "psychologists" in clinical
practice in Taiwan. The closest thing is "psychiatric
specialists," who work in hospitals [9].
There are three types of therapists in Taiwan: psychiatrists,
clinical psychologists, and counselling
psychologists. Psychiatrists who graduate from the Department
of Medicine are required to obtain a specialist license. The main
areas of work are practiced in hospitals or private clinics.
Clinical psychologists who graduate from the Institute of
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Psychology are required to obtain a clinical psychologist
certificate. The work areas are mainly in medical institutions in
psychiatry or other subjects. Counselling psychologists who
graduate from counselling that is related to the Institute are
required to obtain a counselling psychologist license; the main
work areas are in the school system, community mental health
institutions, or private counselling clinics. Counselling
psychologists must complete two years of training in a solid
curriculum and receive practical training. In addition, a full-
time one-year training internship is subject to a consultative
psychological internship and internship review. Through the
literature review method of this paper, the researchers
considered several research papers and websites to organize the
data and determine how to formalize art therapy in three stages
of psychotherapy or counselling development in Taiwan.
It is important to note that the first international art
therapy conference was held by the TATA in Taiwan. We must
acknowledge the influence of guest lecturers at the International
Conference of Art Therapy Education at Taipei Teachers’
College in 2001 [10]. This was crucial after the formidable
earthquake that struck Taiwan on the 21st of September 1999,
which was known as the Chi-Chi earthquake. Many natural
disasters followed and caused a tremendous amount of
devastation and extensive injury, which required much aid and
care. In addressing the issues as well as the healing and
consoling nature of art education, Dr. Fan, who is a professor at
Taipei Teachers’ College (now National Taipei University of
Education), was awarded a budget from the Taiwan Arts
Education Institute to plan the conference. Dr. Fan set out to
organize the International Conference of Art Therapy
Education Seminar in 2001 with the objective of garnering
intellectual resources and experiences. It was the first voice that
enabled exchanges to enhance the position of local art therapy
in both academic and practice aspects. For this conference, four
therapists were invited from America, Dee Spring, Deborah
Good, Bobbi Stoll, and Sharon Heath, as well as one therapist
from England, Colin Tesadale, all of whom were lecturers.
They also held a one-day workshop, and their performance
greatly enhanced our understanding of art therapy and led us to
pursue the profession of art therapy. This conference was an
important event that could not have unfolded without the
dedication of the planners and full support of the National
Taipei Teachers’ College, which managed the subsequent
execution and enabled the smooth and successful progress of
the conference from the 7th to the 9th of December 2001. There
are the art therapy-related association in Taiwan as following:
There are the art therapy-related association in Taiwan as
following:
TABLE I.
TABLE II. ART THERAPY-RELATED ASSOCIATIONS IN TAIWAN
Name of Institutes Year
Mental Health Association Taiwan 1955-present
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Taiwan Guidance and Counselling 1958-present the Master of Art Therapy Process (hereafter referred to as the
Association learning process). With regard to total session enrolment, the
Music Therapy Association of Taiwan 1996-present
Institute of Arts Therapy (2005 enrolment), the fourth Master of
Arts Program of Treatment (2007, 2009, 2010, 2011 admission),
Taiwan Association of Psychology 2001-present
the annual enrolment rate was 10% (2009, 6.78%; 2010, 8.00%;
Taiwanese Society for 2002-present 2011, 4.71%). Competition is fierce; it is the first professional
Sand play Therapy art training therapists Master’s Degree in art therapy in Taiwan,
Taiwan Dance Therapy 2002-present and it expands connections with other professionals in the field.
Taiwan Art Therapy Association 2004-present In this sense, art therapy became a department program after
Association for Taiwan Play Therapy 2005-present 2011. This means that art therapy still does not exist as an
From the Taiwan Art Therapy Association [11] independent institute. This presents a complex issue in school
policy. Eventually, more students will enrol in the art therapy
Name of Institutes Year linking website program. Ironically, students obtain a Master’s degree from the
Established Department of Fine Arts Vision; however, they are not eligible
Mental Health Association Taiwan 1955 http://www.mhat.org to take the test to become a counselling psychologist.
.tw/ Dr. Lu is the pioneer practitioners who got the Master of Arts
Taiwan Guidance and Counselling 1958 http://www.guidanc (Expressive Therapies) from University of Louisville, USA
Association e 1987, and taught at Taipei City Education University,
Music Therapy Association of 1996 http://www.musicth Department of Visual arts and Master of arts in art. She retired a
Taiwan erapy.org.tw/ couple years ago. Because of Dr. Lu’s efforts, the organization
Taiwan Association of Psychology 2001 http://www.tap.org.t
serves as the conduit between American and Taiwanese art
therapists to expand the field of art therapy. Dr. Lu was the
w/
president of the Taiwan Art Therapy Association (TATA) in
Taiwanese Society for 2002 http://www.enpo.org 2004. The TATA is a group of academics and practitioners who
Sand play Therapy .tw/www/sandplay/p have a passion for art therapy. The goals of the TATA are to
g01.htm promote the application of art psychotherapy and art-as-therapy
Taiwan Dance Therapy 2002 http://blog.yam.com/ to mental health and development, as well as education. The
user/tdta.html education factor combines three fields: art, psychology, and
Taiwan Art Therapy Association 2004 http://www.arttherap medicine. The TATA website includes continued education, a
y.org.tw journal, a healing web, and qualified membership. The
prosperity of art therapy in Taiwan has great potential to further
Association for Taiwan Play 2005 http://www.atpt.org.
become an important career in the mental health.
Therapy tw/
The last president, Dr. Jiang of the TATA, said that schools,
ten years after the Society was founded, have been striving for
III. THE PRESENT (2005-2015) and have taken the lead in recent years to promote the Society
In Taiwan, the Taipei Municipal University of Education for Art Therapist professional certification, and they have taught
established the Institute of Arts Therapy in 2005, which belongs a total of 56 certified professional art therapists. The Society
to the Art and Craft Department of Education (now the grants a very strict professional certification, which must be
Department of Fine Arts Vision). It is the first in the formal accompanied by proof of a relevant portfolio; students must
school system to in Taiwan, the Taipei Municipal University of complete a Master’s level program, such as psychology or art
Education established the Institute of Arts Therapy in 2005, therapy, and complete an internship of 700 hours in T-ART. The
which belongs to the Art and Craft Department of Education association often invites foreign art therapists to share their
(now the Department of Fine Arts Vision). It is the first in the knowledge and to run workshops to emphasize the experience
formal school system to include art therapy in its name; and practice of art therapy [11]. Thus, although there is an art
however, it is also the only school to do so, and it only has eight therapy certificate, art therapy is not yet a non-division
students each year. undergraduate program.
Nevertheless, it was compelled to cancel its policy of Despite the civil part of the certification, it is a strictly
recruiting graduate students in 2011 due to a change in the determined license. It is hoped that if the legislation is passed by
department’s educational policy. Although students receive a our Ministry of Examination, this will lead to regulatory
Master’s degree, they will not be qualified to take a test as a standards that are comparable to those of Western countries.
counselling psychologist or a clinical psychologist unless they Simultaneously, there are many institutes, personal art studios,
complete a Master’s degree that is related to the field of and talent programs that are open to art therapy training courses
psychology or counselling. or workshop. There has been a trend for people to pursue
knowledge or analytical skills in our society based on art therapy
Art therapy is a combination of art, psychology, education, healing. Consequently, there are many hospitals, centres, and
and the emerging health interdisciplines, and it is designed to foundations that apply art therapy as a service.
strengthen the consolidation of visual arts, music, psychology,
and special education resources of the original Art Institute to A variety of art therapy theories and methods have been
establish additional treatment. In August 2007, this changed to studied and accepted in the consideration of the cultural

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differences that lead to conflict, which is not as significant as the
initial conflict between art therapy and art as treatment in the
United States. By contrast, there is a rapid growth of interest in
art therapies to improve the art of treatment training and
education programs in many different schools; however, there
are no uniform art treatment standards for those who wish to
pursue art therapy as a profession. This phenomenon is the same
in Korea [6]. We are striving to attain professional recognition
as a legitimate form of psychotherapy in our society and to
academically obtain a global standard.
Bonin and Muller have made clear recommendations for the
training and further education of therapists [12]. These
recommendations enable art therapists around the world to gain
a more holistic view of the field of art therapy by understanding
how creative therapies are adapted and developed in different
cultures and health care systems around the world [6].
IV. THE FUTURE
We want to be more open-minded regarding the discussion
of the differences, as is described in the following section.
A. The system Factor
What is an art therapy program? An educational system? A
form of medicinal healing ? Or a social work program? These
questions present blurred contexts and demonstrate the issues in
the field of art therapy regarding its range of approaches to
psychology, art education, or medicine. There are few
universities and colleges that offer art therapy classes in relative
terms. There are a few colleges and universities that provide art-
therapy-related classes. Art therapy in Taiwan is growing
quickly; it understandably suffers from growing pains in our
society. The standards of art therapy education and practice vary
widely throughout the world, and they are often adapted to a
country's unique and established practices. However, the growth
pains that are experienced in developing a workable art therapy
profession are staggering and predictable [13].
In Taiwan, there is a yearly psychologist license examination
in November. The test distinguishes between clinical
psychology and counselling psychology. Unfortunately, there is
no test for art therapists. Thus far, ATR psychologists are from
other countries, such as America, England, and Australia. This
means that if a practitioner wants to be a psychologist and have
a clinic in Taiwan, she or he must obtain a license from the
Taiwan government. There is no official test to qualify a
practitioner to become an art therapist as established by the
government. There is no system that has been designed to
evaluate art therapists. Therefore, certain individuals will claim
to be healing experts. One may have credentials that have been
authenticated by the Taiwan Art Therapy Association. The issue
is whether that person has training or has adequately cultivated
a framework of psychology and art therapy. In a sense, universal
issues, such as theoretical conflicts, competition, organization,
practice, certification, and marketing issues, seem to hamper the
development of such efforts [13].
B. The Context of Society Factor
In general, researchers typically discuss two cultural
phenomena: 1) independent and individualistic phenomena,
such as those that are found in Western cultures, and 2)
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interdependent and collectivistic phenomena, such as those that
are found in Eastern and Southern cultures (e.g., Central and
South American). Western cultures are often described as those
for whom members value assertiveness, expressiveness, and
competitiveness; whereas Eastern and Southern cultures are
often described as those for whom members value group
harmony and cooperation [14]. More recently, there has been
agreement that most countries are a combination of both of these
constructs, with some being relatively more individualistic and
others being relatively more collectivistic. Significantly, the
society in Taiwan is different from that of China and other Asian
countries. The people of Taiwan are a combination of
Taiwanese, Hakka, native Taiwanese, and immigrant residents.
Herein, the context of society will focus mainly on the
differences between Western and Eastern cultures, which affect
the theories of art therapy in Taiwan.
Art therapy’s great movement appears to be horizontal at this
time. Art therapy as a profession is rooted in Western
psychological constructs of understanding human behaviour.
Clinicians, including art therapists, tend to understand the
diagnosis, aetiology, and treatment of psychotherapy according
to definitions of art that have been set forth by the “dominant”
society within that Western cultural framework. Comparatively,
in Chinese society, people assume personal problems, especially
psychological problems. One may go to church or temple to ask
for blessings or to ask a fortune teller to predict one’s fortune. It
seems that the results are more effective and sometimes cheaper.
In Taiwan people usually suffer from problems, especially
psychological or mental problems. Family members of those
who suffer from such problems feel shame about their condition.
It may be hidden as a “family scandal”. They may seek the
advice of fortune tellers or go to temple or church to confess
their guilt. There is a perception that if one were to ask a
professional psychologist for help, not only would it be
expensive, but it would not produce instant results.
C. .Future Trends in the Development of Psychotherapy in
Taiwan
1. Art therapy is a preventive medicine for people who suffer
from many stresses in their surroundings; art is a useful and
cathartic means to help people to self-express.
2. According to the economic performance of the Four Asian
Dragons, the Gross National Product (GNP) of Taiwan is
lower than that of Hong Kong (retrieved from
htpp://wwwkerwinhh.pixnet.net/blog/post/103875278).
The Hong Kong Association of art therapy was established
in 2002, earlier than that of Taiwan. Can we assume that
the social and economic status of a country will influence
people’s sense of their psychological and/or mental
condition?
3. Because there are many institutes that use art therapy
programs as a method of treatment, art therapy has become
a popular trend that has led many people to become
interested in becoming art therapists. Thus, it is important
to establish a standard for the licensing of art therapy in
academia and society. In addition, it is important to
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consider how to establish academic programs that combine society. Art therapy in Taiwan should enlighten and bridge the
the three study fields: arts, psychotherapy, and counselling, globalization of the art therapy profession. Art therapists in
as cross-study areas will become a trend. Taiwan are working hard to establish a legitimate system and to
openly create a bridge with other countries to stay current with
4. China is a developing country, and both Hong Kong and the global art therapy profession. They are invited to present,
Taiwan have become developed countries. Because the educate, advise, recommend, and supervise in countries that
populations of these countries are mostly Chinese, cultural seek an introduction to art therapy and to expand existing
diversity may not be a significant issue. It seems that art interest. We need to overcome cultural differences, style of art
therapy programs should be established as a foundation in education, religion, and credential authentication system. The
Taiwan, and there is a question as to whether they should Taiwan Art Therapy Association must establish a legitimate
position in our country; we are a multicultural society, and each
be supported not only in terms of budget but also through
of us faces different life challenges. Therefore, the study and
government training programs. This could help the field to practice of art therapy as a means of improving people’s mental
become more stable and organized in the context of health in Taiwan demands our immediate attention.
professional learning in our educational system. The
establishment of a licensing policy for the practice of art REFERENCES
therapy in Taiwan is an urgent issue.
[1] Arrington, D. B. (2005). Global art therapy training—Now and before.
V. CONCLUSION The Arts in Psychotherapy, 32, 193–203.
Art is a bridge for sharing experiences and communicating [2] Anderson, F.E. (2006). Art therapy in Taiwan: Pioneer Dr. Liona Lu leads
the way. ING/AT, 17, 9–10.
values and emotions, even in different cultures. It is a powerful
[3] Stoll, B. (2005). Growing pains: The international development of art
“language” that provides individuals with a uniquely personal therapy. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 32, 171–191.
creative expression. It is helpful to know that Dr. Kim’s paper
[4] Kalmanowitz, D. & Potash, J. S. (2010). Ethical consideration in the
mentions that “the professional development of Korean art global teaching and promotion of art therapy to non-art therapist. The Arts
therapy should not be limited to Korean art therapists, but bring in Psychotherapy, 37, 20-26
art therapy to other Asian countries in the near future” [6](p.3). [5] Potash, J.S.;Bardot, H. & Ho, R. T.H. (2012). Conceptualizing
Surely, there could be a strong link among the practitioners of international art therapy education standards, The Arts in
art therapy in Asia, and we should be able learn from each Psychotherapy39, 143-150.
other’s strong points. [6] Kim, S. (2009). Art Therapy development in Korea: The current climate.
The Arts in Psychotherapy, 36 1–4.
People first recognized and intentionally focused on health [7] Chinese Mental Health Association, retrieved from
and education in the early 20th century, “art therapy in most http://www.mhat.org.tw
countries is either beginning development, still developing, [8] Taiwan Guidance and Counselling Institute, retrieved from
expanding job opportunities, being re-defined or defined, http://www.guidance.org.tw]
seeking inclusion or struggling for formal acceptance and [9] Taipei Municipal University of Education, retrieved from http://
qualifying credentials to practice” [3](p.189). Undeniably, there www.utaipei.edu.tw/
is no universal formula for success in the development of a [10] Chang, Y.C; & Fan, D. C. F, (2001). The international Conference of art
pattern and a sequence. therapy education. Taipei: National Taiwan Arts Institute.
[11] Taiwan Art Therapy Association, retrieved from http:
Despite the various differences, the common www.arttherapy.org.tw
denominator for art therapists worldwide is the healing power of [12] Bonin, D. V., & Muller, M. (2007). Competencies in arts therapies: A
the creative process and the symbolic language of art. We must rating of importance, training and performance by practitioners and
to learn to read the “language” with global professional views. referring professionals in Switzerland. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 34, 11–
21.
VI. CONTRIBUTION [13] Stoll, B. (1991). Art therapy: From isolation to international visibility.
IJAM: International Journal of Arts Medicine, 1(1), 27–32.
The contributions of this paper are as follows: It provides [14] Rubin, K. H.;& Menzer, M. (2010). Culture and Social Development.
micro-perspectives on art therapy in Taiwan. We need to Encyclopedia on early Childhood Development
consider cultural differences, style of art education, religion, [15] The Economic performance of Four Asian Dragons, retrieved from http://
credential authentication system, and context of Taiwanese www.kerwinhh.pixnet.net/blog/post/103875278

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Reducing Racial Isolation Online Through The
Classes Without Walls Program
Randall Glading , Charles Britton, Kristin Rainville, Karen Waters, Eric Freedman
Sacred Heart University
On the fiftieth anniversary of Brown v. Board, Jonathan Kozol
(2005) observed that “schools that were already deeply
segregated twenty-five or thirty years ago are no less segregated
now.” He concluded that the nation’s schools were “still
separate, still unequal— America's educational apartheid” (p.
41). This paper reports on a program called Classes Without
Walls (CWW) that uses videoconferencing and other online tools
to reduce racial, ethnic, and economic isolation among
elementary school students in the State of Connecticut.
Background
Connecticut represents a textbook case of lingering school
segregation. Despite its small size, 169 towns and cities operate
independent districts in the state, and state law allows school
boards to deny educational services to children who reside
outside the district. This fact, coupled with Connecticut’s long
history of residential racial segregation, has led to a highly
stratified and segregated public school system.
In 1999, the Connecticut State Supreme Court decided in Sheff
v. O’Neill (1999) that the
Hartford Public School District was “racially, ethnically, and
economically isolated” (p.1). The
Court, however, allowed the Connecticut State Legislature to
devise its own remedy, and the Legislature responded by simply
allowing families to enroll their kids in a charter, magnet, or
technical school outside their assigned district (Connecticut
Office of Legislative Research, 2003). For a variety of reasons
(e.g., procedural barriers, satisfaction with neighborhood
schools), most families chose not to participate.
The Sheff ruling considers a school segregated if 75%
or more of its student are either
White or Minority, and hyper-segregated if more than 90% are.
As shown in Tables 1 through 4, 61% of Connecticut students
still attended segregated schools and 19% attended
hypersegregated schools in 2012-13 (Connecticut State
Department of Education, 2013). Connecticut thus represents a
compelling case of a state that attempted to integrate its schools
but failed.
Classes Without Walls was devised and implemented in this
context. Third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students from an urban
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doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.56
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community are partnered with same-grade students from a
neighboring suburban community. Introductions occur through
online face-to-face conversation in Google Hangout, where
members can participate in text, voice, or video chats. The
partners continue to work together throughout the school year on
online projects in ELA, Social Studies, and Science. For
example, a Social Studies module has the student partners give
each other a virtual tour of their neighborhoods using Google
Earth. In another project, partners interview each other and create
a slide presentation on each other’s cultural heritage. As a
culminating activity in June, partnered classes meet in person to
share their completed work at the
Celebration of Friendship and Learning.
Theoretical Framework
Studies show that school desegregation in the wake of the Civil
Rights Movement benefitted black students academically and—
at the very least—did not harm white students (Hochschild &
Scovronick, 2003). Reviews of diversity initiatives in K-16
schools have shown numerous benefits including improved
cognitive skills and cultural understanding, as well as reduced
prejudice (Denson, 2009; Walton, Priest, & Paradies, 2013;
Zirkel, 2008). Classes Without Walls is also supported by
sociocultural theory, which holds that learning is a
communicative, collaborative enterprise. Through discussion
and problem-solving with others, learners can incorporate each
other’s critiques and divergent points of view into their thinking,
leading to deeper understanding (Eun, 2010; Vygotsky, 1978;
Wertsch, 1998). Banks (2008) argues that such collaboration is
particularly beneficial when the participants hail from diverse
backgrounds (see also Epstein, 2009; Lim & Renshaw, 2001;
Nieto & Bode, 2012).
The use of computer technology to facilitate collaborative
learning is now commonplace in schools and well-described in
the literature (see, e.g., Çiftçi, 2016; Lantz-Andersson, Vigmo,
& Bowen, 2013; Merryfield, 2000; Price-Dennis, Holmes, &
Smith, 2015; Saye & Brush, 2007). Few studies, however, have
analyzed attempts like CWW that use e-learning and
videoconferencing to bring segregated students together (for an
exception, see Kolikant & Pollack, 2015). Videoconferencing
was used by a few Connecticut schools in the 1990s, but the
impact was not rigorously assessed (Sembor, 1997). To our
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knowledge, CWW is one of the first attempts to use e-learning
as a form of “virtual desegregation.”
Method
This paper reports on a mixed-methods pilot study of
CWW’s effectiveness in its first two years. Our research
questions were: 1) Did CWW foster sustained interaction among
students who otherwise would not come into contact? And 2)
How did teachers and students respond to the program?
We began by meeting with superintendents and principals from
the Bridgeport and
Trumbull Public School Districts. Several principals expressed
interest, and from that pool we selected two schools, Madison
Elementary School (MES) in Bridgeport, CT, and Daniels Farm
Elementary School (DFES) in nearby Trumbull, in part because
of the proximity of the two schools to each other (6.4 miles). The
two schools epitomize the racial, ethnic, and economic
segregation across the state. During the 2015-16 academic year
at MES, 85% of the students were Minority, 18% were classified
as English Language Learners, and 100% were eligible for free
or reduced-price meals. That same year at DFES, 78% of the
students were White, 2.8% were classified as English Language
Learners, and 5.7% were eligible for free or reduced-price meals.
CWW was first piloted in 2015-16 with one 3rd-grade class from
each school. The pilot was expanded the following year to
include four 3rd-grade classes, four 4th-grade classes, and four 5th-
grade glasses, split evenly across the two schools.
Qualitative data sources included interviews with all
participating teachers and principals, field notes gathered during
student presentations, and open-ended questions on the student
postsurvey. We transcribed and inductively coded this data using
QSR NVivo, following the tenets of grounded theory (Glaser,
1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Quantitative data sources
included pre- and post-surveys administered to all participating
students in year two.
To gauge students’ ethnic isolation prior to beginning the
program, we asked if they had any friends or relatives who lived
in the city (for DFES students) or suburbs (for MES students).
We also asked how often they used computers and collaborated
with others online at home and at school. To determine if the
project fostered sustained interaction among diverse students, we
asked on the post-survey if the project “helped me learn with a
student NOT from my school” (see Appendices 1 and 2 for
additional questions).
To ascertain students’ and teachers’ overall reactions to the
program, we posed on the post-survey several Likert-scaled
questions (e.g., “I look forward to working with students from
[Madison Elementary / Daniels Farm] School next year”) as well
as open-ended questions (e.g., “What did you learn about your
partner?”). We also asked teachers to evaluate their experience
(see Appendix 1).
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Findings
Research Question 1. Pre and post student survey
results are presented in Tables 5 through 8. Findings suggest that
prior to participation in CWW, students from both DFES and
MES had minimal experiences interacting with diverse peers.
These results align with the principals’ and teachers’ views, all
of whom said that the racially, ethnically, and economically
homogeneous environments at their schools did not provide
robust opportunities for students to interact with diverse peers.
In the post-surveys, 67% of DFES students and 81% of MES
students agreed or strongly agreed that the project helped them
learn with a student not from their school. Qualitative data from
the teacher interviews confirmed these findings. We thus
concluded that CWW did foster sustained interaction between
students who otherwise would not come into contact.
Research Question 2. The qualitative and quantitative
data sources showed that both teachers and students reacted
positively to Classes Without Walls (see Tables 5 through 8). On
the open-ended survey questions, the most common response
was that students learned that their partner played soccer, went
on trips, hung out with friends, and generally did the things a
normal kid does. Students had far less to say about observed
cultural or economic differences, such as living in poverty or
privilege or experiencing discrimination. Teachers also reported
facilitating only a small percentage of the CWW activities
available on the website due to time constraints and logistical
barriers. In this sense CWW’s potential was only partially
realized in its pilot years.
Discussion
In his historical analysis of social studies teaching,
Thornton (2005) observed that teachers are often the
“gatekeepers” of curriculum reform, adapting materials to fit
their needs and constraints. Gatekeeping clearly occurred in the
pilot years of Classes Without Walls: only a fraction of the web
activities were used, and were used to foster shallower
engagement with cultural concepts than the program intended.
That said, CWW did bring otherwise isolated students together
and taught them something about each other. For students to
learn, as they did through this project, that a Black, Latino, or
White kid from across town plays the same sports or video games
that they do, is one important step in breaking down stereotypes
and promoting intercultural understanding (Banks, 2008; Nieto
& Bode, 2012; Tatum, 1992; Walton et al.,
2013; Zirkel, 2008). Teachers and students also enjoyed
participating in the project. In this sense, CWW holds potential
for combatting racial and economic isolation in schools, even if
that potential is not yet fully realized.
The pilot study had some limitations worth noting. For
one, the project’s designers were also its evaluators, which could
have infused bias into the interpretation of results. The use of
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quantitative measures and transparent coding procedures helped

to mitigate this concern.
With the pilot nearing completion, we are planning the
research project’s second phase, where we will analyze
transcripts of students’ online conversations and assess their
multicultural competencies before and after participating in
CWW. In light of findings from the pilot, we also scheduled a
two-day professional development program for participating
teachers in year three to better familiarize them with the online
activities. The design team is also modifying the materials
themselves to include more “hard scaffolding” (Saye & Brush,
2007) in the form of models, explanations, and probing
questions, to better ensure that students probe deeper into the role
that race, class, culture, and geography play in people’s lives.

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Appendix 1. Teacher Interview

1. How racially ethnically and economically diverse was

your classroom this year?

2. Besides Classes Without Walls, what else have your

students done to interact with diverse students and teachers
this year?

3. How effective was Classes Without Walls at promoting

greater awareness of racial, ethnic and economic diversity?

4. How could we improve Classes Without Walls to

promote awareness of racial, ethnic and economic diversity?

5. Besides Classes Without Walls, how else are your

students using technology to develop 21st century skills?

6. Besides Classes Without Walls, how else are your

students using technology to collaborate virtually?

7. How effective was Classes Without Walls at promoting

online collaboration and 21st century skills?

8. How could we improve Classes Without Walls to

promote virtual collaboration and 21st century skills?

References

Banks, J. A. (2008). An introduction to multicultural education

(4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Çiftçi, E. Y. (2016). A review of research on

intercultural learning through computer-based digital
technologies. Journal of Educational Technology &
Society, 19(2), 313-327.

Connecticut Office of Legislative Research. (2003).

Sheff v. O'Neill Settlement. Hartford: Office of
Legislative Research. Retrieved 24 July 2017 from
www.cga.ct.gov.

Connecticut State Department of Education. (2013).

Edsight insight into education: Connecticut education
at a glance. Retrieved from
http://edsight.ct.gov/SASPortal/main.do.

Denson, N. (2009). Do curricular and cocurricular

diversity activities influence racial bias? A meta-
analysis. Review of Educational Research, 79(2), 805-
838.

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Epstein, T. (2009). Interpreting national history: Race,
identity, and pedagogy in classrooms and communities.
New York, NY: Routledge.
Eun, B. (2010). From learning to development: A sociocultural
approach to instruction.
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Glaser, B. G. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity: Advances
in the methodology of grounded theory. Mill Valley,
CA: Sociology Press.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of
grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research.
Chicago, IL: Aldine.
Hochschild, J. L., & Scovronick, N. B. (2003). The
American dream and the public schools. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press.
Kolikant, Y. B.-D., & Pollack, S. (2015). The dynamics
of non-convergent learning with a conflicting other:
Internally persuasive discourse as a framework for
articulating successful collaborative learning.
Cognition and Instruction, 33(4), 322-356.
Kozol, J. (2005). Still separate, still unequal: America's
educational apartheid. Harper's Magazine, 311(1864),
41-54.
Lantz-Andersson, A., Vigmo, S., & Bowen, R. (2013).
Crossing boundaries in Facebook: Students' framing of
language learning activities as extended spaces.
International Journal of Computer-Supported
Collaborative Learning, 8(3), 293-312.
Lim, L., & Renshaw, P. (2001). The relevance of
sociocultural theory to culturally diverse partnerships
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Merryfield, M. M. (2000). Using electronic
technologies to promote equity and cultural diversity in
social studies and global education. Theory and
Research in Social Education, 28(4), 502-526.
Nieto, S., & Bode, P. (2012). Affirming diversity: The
sociopolitical context of multicultural education (6th
ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Price-Dennis, D., Holmes, K. A., & Smith, E. (2015).
Exploring digital literacy practices in an inclusive
classroom. Reading Teacher, 69(2), 195-205. doi:
10.1002/trtr.1398
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Saye, J. W., & Brush, T. (2007). Using technology-
enhanced learning environments to support problem-
based historical inquiry in secondary school
classrooms. Theory and Research in Social Education,
35(2), 196-230.
Sembor, E. C. (1997). Citizenship, diversity and
distance learning: Videoconferencing in Connecticut.
Social Education, 61(3), 154-159.
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Tatum, B. D. (1992). Talking about race, learning about
racism: The application of racial identity development
theory in the classroom. Harvard Educational Review,
62(1), 1-24.
Thornton, S. J. (2005). Teaching social studies that
matters: Curriculum for active learning. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
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development of higher psychological processes.
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An Onto-semiotic Analysis of a Modeling
Task Involving Linear Function
Lucia Yeni Wulandari Suharman (Author)
National University of Timor Lorosa’e
(UNTL)
East Timor
Abstract— The nature of the tasks proposed to the students
determines their activity in the classroom. The characteristic of
the task of mathematical modeling gives students the opportunity
to be involved in the construction of knowledge and to the
mathematical thinking. Based on this assumption, this study
presents an onto-semiotic analysis of mathematical modeling
task, involving the linear function, with the objective to show the
effectiveness of some theoretical and methodological tools from
the onto-semiotic approach (OSA) and, also, to analyze the
Involvement of the algebraic reasoning (AR) present in students’
responses. These analyses will allow us to identify the type of
tasks that the teacher must take into account to developing
students' algebraic reasoning.
Keywords - onto-semiotic approach, modelling task, algebraic
reasoning level.
I. INTRODUCTION
The mathematical tasks play a significant role in student
learning by contributing to the development of mathematical
reasoning. The teacher's knowledge in task determination is
one of a crucial aspects to develop students' thinking.
Therefore, the teacher should have the knowledge and ability
to analyze the important components that must involve the
tasks.
Several studies in mathematics education (Godino,
Rivas, Castro & Konic, 2012, Rubio, 2012, Pochulu, Font &
Rodríguez, 2016, Godino, Giacomone, Batanero & Font,
2017, and Giacomone, 2017) applied the OSA in formation of
pre-service mathematics teachers and they emphasized the
importance that the teacher should know and also know how
to use the conceptual and methodological tools that can help to
describe, to understand and to value the processes of teaching
and learning mathematics.
In this communication, we present an algebraic task,
involving a linear function illustrated by problem situations of
the choice of two options for the classes, regarding their type
of payment. Some students' answers are presented as examples
of tasks solutions. These task solutions are analyzed with the
theory of onto-semiotic approach (Godino, Batanero and Font,
2007) and it involves the categorization of AR levels (Godino
et al., 2015).
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
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on Education (WNC 2017)
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Teresa Bixirão Neto (Author)
University of Aveiro
Research Centre on Didactics and Technology in the
Education of Trainers - CIDTFF, University of Aveiro,
Portugal
This paper presents the following sections: a description
of the theory and methodology used in this work; The analysis
of a linear function task based on the onto-semiotic approach;
The AR level analysis of examples of student responses; And
a synthesis of the study where the final considerations are
presented.
II. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
The onto-semiotic approach (OSA) is a theoretical the
framework that aims to articulate different points of view and
definitions of mathematical knowledge, its teaching and
learning. Additionally, it is also a theoretical system for
research in mathematics education, concerning categories of
analysis as tools to identify and classify the knowledge
required for teaching mathematics, and to analyze the
knowledge put into play by the teacher (Godino, 2009).
Among the definitions present in this theoretical
framework, the concept of OSA (of practices, objects and
processes) responds to the need to identify the objects and
processes that are involved and emerge in the mathematical
practices that are shown in the resolutions of problem
situations (Godino, et al., 2017). Godino, Batanero & Font
(2007), in their theory emphasizes that the object and process
configuration is considered as an important basis in the
description and analysis of mathematical activity:
• Problem situations (extra mathematical applications,
exercises, etc.);
• Linguistic elements (terms, expressions, notations,
graphs, etc.) in their various registers (written, oral,
gestural, etc.);
• Concepts / definitions (introduced by definitions or
descriptions: straight line, point, number, mean,
function, etc.);
• Properties / propositions (statements about concepts,
solutions to problem situations, etc.);
• Procedures (algorithms, operations, calculation
techniques, etc.);
• Arguments (statements used to validate or explain
propositions and procedures, deductive or otherwise).
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All objects are related to each other and this interconnection indeterminate or information.
variables are
can be epistemic (networks of institutional objects) or carried out.
cognitive (networks of personal objects), defined as the 4 - Variables, There are Symbolic – literal;
network of objects that intervene and emerge from the systems unknowns and operations with symbols are used
parameters; variables but not analytically,
of practices and their relations (Godino, Batanero & Font, - Families of with the without referring to
2007). Still, these authors mention that "Problem situations are equations and parameters contextual
the origin or rationale of the activity; language represents the functions information.
(Intensive
other entities and serves as an instrument for action; the objects with

Algebraic reasoning (AR) for the Secondary Education

arguments justify the procedures and propositions that relate the third grade
the concepts to each other "(Godino, Batanero, Font, 2007, of generality)
5 - Variables, There are Symbolic – literal;
p.14). unknowns and operations with symbols are used
The onto-semiotic model is a referencial to the parameters; the parameters analytically,
construction of an analysis model to categorize AR for Basic - Families of and hence with without referring to
equations and objects with a contextual
Education, where four levels of AR are distinguished and also functions third grade of information.
the objects and processes that intervene in Mathematics (Intensive generality
activity (Godino et al., 2014). Moreover, these authors objects with
the third
developed these levels in more three levels of algebraic grade of
reasoning (AR) for Secondary Education. Regarding the generality)
definition of AR levels, this is based on distinctions of onto- 6 - Abstract There are Symbolic – literal;
semiotic nature: algebraic operations with symbols are used
structures the objects analytically without
• A presence of intensive algebraic objects (i.e., entities (vector spaces, forming parts of referring to
of general or indeterminate character); groups, rings, the structures contextual
…) information.
• Transformations (operations) applied to these objects - General binary
are based on the application of structural properties; relations and
• The type of language that is used. its properties
(Intensive
objects with
The table 1, brief the essential features of the algebraic the fourth
reasoning levels as described by Godino et al. (2015), grade of
generality)
completed by level 0 (absence of algebraic characteristics).

TABLE 1. ALGEBRAIC REASONING LEVEL It is considered that the AR levels of Mathematical

activities could help to become aware of the processes of
Levels Objects Transformation Languages generalization, symbolization, as well as the modeling in a
0 - No intensive Operations are Natural, numerical, structural, functional and analytical, it is also allowing the
objects are carried out with iconic, gestural;
involved. extensive symbols referring
creation of significant connections between algebraic thinking
- In structural objects. extensive objects or in Primary and Secondary Education. The didactic analysis,
tasks unknown data can centered on the recognition of objects and processes of
unknown data take part.
can be used.
algebraic thinking, may help to identify characteristics of
mathematical practices that can interfere to gradually increase
Algebraic reasoning (AR) for the Primary Education

1 - In structural In structural Natural, numerical,

tasks unknown tasks relations iconic, gestural; the AR level of students' mathematical activity.
data can be and properties of symbols referring This study assumes a qualitative methodology of
used. operations are to intensive
- In functional applied. In recognized that can exploratory-descriptive nature, which involves the collection
tasks intensive functional tasks be used. of descriptive data, collected in the direct contact of a
objects are calculation researcher with the situation where phenomenon could occur
recognized. involve extensive
objects. naturally and where they are influenced by the context
2 Indeterminate - In structural Symbolic - literal, (Bogdan & Bilken, 2013). This analysis is adapted from;
or variables tasks equations used to refer the (Godino, Font & Wilhelmi, 2006) to analyze the task;
are involved. are of the form intensive
Ax±B=C recognized, categories of AR analysis (Godino et al., 2015) to categorize
- In functional although linked to AR levels of student responses.
tasks generality the spatial,
is recognized but temporal and
operations with contextual III. AN ONTO-SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS OF RESPONSES TO
variables are not information.
carried out to get TASK AND ALGEBRAIC REASONING
canonical forms
of expressions. Below we analyze the different types of objects involved
3 Indeterminate In structural Symbolic – literal;
or variables tasks equations symbols are used
in mathematical activity for the case of AR. One example of
intervene. are of the form analytically, the task is given below. The purpose of the task is to explore
Ax ± B = Cx ± D without referring to situations involving direct proportionality relations,
Operations with contextual

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encouraging them to write an expression that translates this Badinas 6 y= 20x = 20 (6) = 120
connection, involving a linear function. The solution of this 5. Argument showed by the involvement of the
task can be done by the various representations: table; graph; equilibrium concept of two straight lines of functions.
algebraic expression.
Figure 1. Mathematical modeling task of linear function
At the beginning of January, Joana intends to enroll in a class of the two
mathematical tutorial centers: "Matenek" and "Badinas", which exists in her city.
Explanation prices are as follows:
“Matenek” – registration fee: $30.00; monthly fee: $15.00
“Badinas” - registration fee: gratis; monthly fee: $20.00
a. If Joana has to take a national exam in June and wants to finish her classes
in the present month, what is the most beneficial tutorial for Joana? And
why?
b. What algebraic knowledge is involved in this task?
c. Do you consider this task to be suitable for secondary school students? If
so, indicate in which year and justify your response.
The cut-off point is the resolution of the two linear
At the "Matenek" a student must pay $ 30.00 for equation system and shows the equality of payment
registration and $ 15.00 for a monthly fee. While in the between both options is transformed to the system of
"Badinas” registration is free, but lessons cost $ 20.00 per linear equations.
month. In this task, the students are asked to analyze which is
the most advantageous tutorial centre for 6 months. In the following example, it is solved with the mixed
methods of the system of linear equations,
The resolution of this task involves several objects and !"#-%& ()*
+*#-%&* - %&
algebraic processes are given by the following sequence of - ; ! = = 6
- "#& ()* - '
mathematical practices. These allow performing detailed
analysis of mathematical activities emerging with a problem Substitute the value of x = 6 into second equation
solving. So 20(6) – y = 0 ; y = 20(6) = 120
It is based on the algebraic processes at the top, it
1. Observation of two options of tutorial centres,
turns out that the payment value for six months of
connection between natural language and figure
"Matenek" and "Badinas" are the same, which is $
representation, conventions assumed to identify the
120.00
most advantageous payment for 6 months of classes.
Matenek: $ 30.00 registration fee and $ 15.00
This task pretends to find the solutions that show the use
monthly fee
of the alphanumeric equation and the treatment of simplified
Badinas: Free registration and monthly fee $ 20.00
expression in the task. It involves the establishment of a
Simulation of payment methods regarding length of
formula (a function), a generalization activity, where n is a
time as in the following table.
variable that represents the position in the sequence mapped
Payment by Month of: Matenek Badinas from the standard (the domain of the function being the
January 30 + 15 = 45 20
February 45 + 15 = 60 20 + 20 = 40
natural numbers). The table regarding this solution helps to
March 60 + 15 = 75 40 + 20 = 60 see the characteristics of this pattern and that it is easier to
April conclude the form of a function (formula). Specifically, after
May finding the formulas, the results obtained by the substitution of
June
time duration (n) in the formulas.
2. Association of problem situation to the concept of
affine function y = ax + b Even so, there is a possibility in which students use a
3. Preposition of the affine function (in case of table observation; A resolution based on the observation of
“Matenek”) and the linear function (in the case of Arithmetic Progression (AP) patterns of the two payment
“Badinas”). types are also possible. This concept allows students to
4. Problem-solving through a concept of related function: understand the connection between the notion of function as
The payment of "Matenek" is associated with standard and regularity. In this case, the payment for the
function y = ax + b "Matenek" explanation is associated with progression: 45, 60,
The payment of "Badinas" is associated with function 75, 90, 105, 120 and for the "Badinas" is associated with 20,
y = ax 40, 60, 80, 100, 120. Based on the two progressions one can
the value of the payment up to 6 months obtained by observe their patterns and their canonical expressions, and
replacing the month number in each of the functions, solve the problem involved the formula of AP.
is thus the following:
Matenek: 45, 60, 75, 90, 105
Number of
Total payment Un = 15n + 30
months (x)
Matenek 6 y= 15x + 30 = 15 (6) = 90 + 30 = 120
n= 6 → U6 = 15(6) +30 = 90 + 30 = 120
Badinas 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120

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Un = 20n
n= 6 → U6 = 20(6) = 120
We considerthat the resolution procedure can develop the AR
of the students.. It is a modelling process in terms of the
quality relevance of the standard; this is about the connection
between schematic representations and of formulas to
sequences (Stromskag, 2015).
EXAMPLES OF RESPONSES AND ANALYSIS OF ALGEBRAIC
REASONING LEVEL
Response A
An analysis of the object, the configuration process, and AR
level of response A:
Linguistic elements: connection between natural
language and table representation; convention
assumed to identify payment amounts in two
situations.
Situations-problems: identification and comparison of
the payment that has to be paid for two lessons
tutorial in 6 months.
Concepts: table of observation
Proposition: -
Procedures:
- Calculation of the payment amounts up to 6
months.
Arguments: based on counting values.
Algebraic reasoning level: level 0
- Does not involve any letter or symbol;
- Indicates the numerical value;
- No algebraic operation performed;
- Uses the observation of a table;
- The answer set is a numeric calculation.
- Uses arithmetic reasoning
Response B
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An analysis of the object, the configuration process, and AR
level of response B:
Linguistic elements: connection between natural language
and table representation; convention assumed to
identify payment amounts in two situations.
Situations-problems: identification and comparison of the
payment of two lessons explanations in 6 months.
Concepts: conceptual map of problem situation
Proposition: association of situations of two types of
payment with equations
Matenek: 6b + a; Badinas: 6d + c where c = 0
Procedures:
- Interpret the problem situation used a table as the
conceptual map
- Determine the differences between two types of
payment;
- Solving the problem by replacing the values in each
equation.
Arguments: based on counting two types of payment.
Algebraic reasoning level: level 1
- Involves the algebraic symbols (in this case they are
a, b, c, and d);
- Involves algebraic operation;
- Involves AR.
Response C
An analysis of the object, the configuration process, and AR
level of response C:
Linguistic elements: connection between natural and
symbolic language, table representation;
convention assumed to identify payment amounts
in two situations.
Situations-problems: identification and comparison of
the payment of two lessons explanations in 6
months.
Concepts: pattern and regularity of arithmetic
progression, involves the deduction of a formula
(designative expression of a function).
Proposition:
Difference between two successive terms
b = Un – Un-1
The formula of the arithmetic progression
Un = a + (n – 1) b
Procedures:
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- Interpret the problem situation used a table;
- Identify the difference between two successive
terms;
- Identify the pattern (the formula) of progression;
- Replace the values in the arithmetic progression
formula.
Arguments: it is based on the algebraic operation
involved the formula.
Algebraic reasoning level: level 3
- Uses letters, to represent numbers;
- Justifies in general terms, explains the operation
and structure of each solution;
- Identifies patterns of progression;
- Operates algebraically and even reaches a
canonical expression;
- The response configuration is functional algebra.
Response D
Analysis the object, process configuration and AR level of
response D:
Linguistic elements: connection between natural and
symbolic language, table representation;
convention assumed to identify payment amounts
in two situations.
Situations-problems: identification and comparison of
the payment of two lessons explanations in 6
months.
Concepts: pattern and regularity of arithmetic
progression, involves the deduction of a formula
(designative expression of a function).
Proposition:
The pattern of the arithmetic progression
Affine function y = ax + b
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Procedures:
- Interpret the problem situation used a table;
- Identify the difference between two successive
terms;
- Identify the pattern (the formula) of progression;
- Replace the values in the arithmetic progression
formula;
- Associate arithmetic progression with affine
function;
- Replace the number of the time duration (x) in
the function f (x) and g (x).
Arguments: based on the algebraic operation involves
the formula of arithmetic progression and related
function.
Algebraic reasoning level: level 3
- Uses letters, to represent numbers;
- Justifies in general terms, explains the operation
and structure of each solution;
- Identifies patterns of progression;
- Operates algebraically and even reaches a
canonical expression;
- Involves the concept of function
- The response configuration is functional algebra.
Regarding the four different examples that represent the
students' responses in this task, response A was an example of
using a table observation to solve the problem without the
involvement of AR. Response B shows the use of symbolic
language involving a conceptual map and operational algebra
by substitution properties, involving AR from the basic level
(level 1). The involvement of the algebraic symbol and
operation are shown in response C and D. In response C, the
domain of the concept of arithmetic progression helps to solve
this problem by identifying its pattern, the difference between
the two successive terms and the involution of the arithmetic
progression formula.
In a more analytical response, response D involves an
important association between AP and affine function. For this
student, the ratio of the AP is equal to the product between the
angular coefficient of the related function (in this case a = 15)
and the ratio (difference) between terms of AP (in this case b
= 15).
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The nature of the tasks and the way they were explored
contributed to the involvement of the students and the
establishment of several conclusions through the analysis of
several mathematical representations. Because tasks are
central to learning mathematics, in that they can provide
students with the opportunity to think about certain concepts
and procedures, explore various strategies for resolution, relate
ideas, and justify reasoning (NCTM, 1991; Chapman, 2013).
Furthermore, the modeling task is addressed multiple concepts
that provided opportunities for concept to be strongly
connected to students' understanding to form a deeper
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understanding of the connections between mathematics and
with the real world (Edward, 2005).
The OSA of the task’s, recognition, knowledge
management and accomplishment allow the teacher to analyse
the intervening and emerging objects in the resolution, from
which she can become aware of the diversity of meanings
attributed to the various contexts. Therefore, the teacher must
develop the specific capacity of didactic analysis and
intervention, as the ability to approach the problems of his
career (Giacomone, 2017).
The analysis level of AR shown in the students'
responses help the teacher choose the types of task that allow
the development of creativity in problem-solving and AR
involvement. Furthermore, this analysis helps identify the
difficulties emerging in the students' answers, allowing the
teacher to improve didactic strategies.
Considering the knowledge and understanding of the
configuration of objects and processes, AR levels can be used
in a competent way for the selection of tasks, which is part of
the didactics’ design process.
[10] Godino, J. D., Rivas, M., Castro, W. e Konic, P. “Development of
competences for the didactic analysis of the mathematics teacher,”
“Desarrollo de competencias para el análisis didáctico del profesor de
matemáticas,” Revemat: Revista Eletrônica de Educação Matemática,
vol.7(2), pp.1-21, 2012.
[11] Giacomone, B. “Ontosemiotic analysis of a mathematical modeling task,”
“Análisis ontosemiótico de una tarea de modelización matemática,” in J.
M. Contreras, P. Arteaga, G. R. Cañadas, M. M. Gea, B. Giacomone e M.
M. López-Martín (Eds.), Actas do Segundo Congreso International
Virtual sobre o Enfoque Ontosemiótico do Conhecimento e da Instrução
Matemáticas, 2017.
[12] National Council of Teacher of Mathematic Professional standards for
teaching mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM, 1991.
[13] Pochulu, M., Font, V. e Rodríguez, M. “Development of competence in
didactic analysis of trainers of future mathematics teachers through the
design of tasks,” “Desarrollo de la competencia en análisis didáctico de
formadores de futuros profesores de matemática a través del diseño de
tareas,” Revista Latinoamericana de Investigación en Matemática
Educativa, vol. 19(1), pp. 71-98, 2016.

REFERENCES
[1] Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. “Qualitative research in education: An
introduction to theory and methods,” “Investigação qualitativa em
educação: Uma introdução à teoria e aos métodos,”. Porto: Porto Editora,
2013.
[2] Chapman, O. Mathematical-task knowledge for teaching. Journal of
Mathematics Teacher Education, vol. 216 (1), pp. 1-6, 2013.
[3] Edwards, I. New wine in old skins. In W. Moroney & C. Stocks (Eds.),
Quality mathematics in the middle years. Adelaide: AAMT. pp. 73–81,
2005.
[4] Godino, J. D. “Categories of analysis of the knowledge of the mathematics
teacher,” “Categorías de análisis de los conocimientos del profesor de
matemáticas,” UNIÓN, Revista Iberoamericana de Educación
Matemática, vol.20, pp. 13–31, 2009.
[5] Godino, J. D., Aké, L. P., Gonzato, M., e Wilhelmi, M. R. “Levels of
algebrization of school mathematical activity. Implications for teacher
training,” “Niveles de algebrización de la actividad matemática escolar.
Implicaciones para la formación de maestros,” Enseñanza de las Ciencias,
vol. 32(1), pp. 199-219. 2014.
[6] Godino, J. D., Batanero, C. e Font, V. The onto-semiotic approach to
research in mathematics education. ZDM: The International Journal on
Mathematics Education, vol. 39(1-2), pp. 127-135, 2007.
[7] Godino, J. D., Batanero, C., Font, V. e Giacomone, B. “Articulating
knowledge and skills of the mathematics teacher: the CCDM model,”
“Articulando conocimientos y competencias del profesor de matemáticas:
el modelo CCDM,” in C. Fernández, J. L. González, F. J. Ruiz, J. A.
Macías, A. Jiménez, M. T. Sánchez, P. Hernández, T. Fernández y A.
Berciano (Eds.), Investigación en Educación Matemática XIX Málaga,
España: SEIEM, pp. 272-285, 2016.
[8] Godino, J. D., Giacomone, B., Batanero, C. e Font, V. “Ontosemiotic
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ontosemiótico de los conocimientos y competencias del professores de
matemática,” Bolema, vol. 31(57), pp. 90 – 113, 2017.
[9] Godino, J. D., Fernandez, T., Lacasta, E., Neto, T., Wilhelmi, M. R.,
Contreras, Á., … e Lasa, A. “Design of a questionnaire to evaluate
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33(1), pp. 127-150, 2015.

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Promoting Inquiry Based Learning in Support of
WISE in China
Ouminhua
Faculty of education
The University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong, China
Abstract
Recent efforts in science education in China focused on
introducing inquiry learning into courses to improve students’
understanding of science content and cultivate their creative and
independent thinking skills. This study investigated how to design
and implement a WISE project successfully in the guidance of
knowledge integration framework and examined its effectiveness
in students’ academic performance. Two groups of Grade 9
Physics students (n=46) in a Chinese secondary school studied the
thermal processes through WISE for a month long. Data were
collected through pre- and post-tests, Knowledge Integration
assessments, audiotapes of students’ conversation, collaborative
knowledge products, students’ individual interview and
classroom observation. Results suggested that students made
significant overall pre-test to post-test gains on Physics concepts,
and embedded assessments in WISE is the best indicator and
explanation for it, controlling for pre-test scores. And a case
study is illustrated how the WISE platform provided more
opportunities for students in integrating content and process.
Also, this study identified the most important considerations in
designing and implementing WISE project in a Chinese context,
they are: (1) emphasize the KI processes; 2) facilitate the
collaborative learning environments; 3) change students’ beliefs
of learning through WISE patterns; 4) provide effective teacher
guidance; 5) use the visualizations and experiments
meaningfully; 6) scaffold students’ metacognition.
Keywords: inquiry learning, WISE, Knowledge integration,
Scaffolding, Technology
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background of this study
Today more than ever before, we need efficient, effective
and enjoyable curriculum instructions in science. As the corpus
of science knowledge is expanding, standards-setting groups
not only require students have “sufficient knowledge of the
practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas of science and
engineering”, but also required students to have an ability to
discuss on science-related issues, “to be critical consumers of
scientific information related to their everyday lives, and to
continue to learn about science throughout their lives” (p.24)
[1]. In China, the reform of New curriculum standard was
accompanied, students’ workloads and the importance of
exams were to be reduced and the rote learning and the
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& e-Learning (EeL 2017)
traditional transmission and examination-oriented teaching
methods had to give way to more modern teaching and learning
methods [16]. Thereupon, the inquiry learning approach
becomes the starting point of the Su zhi jiao yu (Quality
Education), especially, for the experimental science courses,
physics, chemistry, and biology, promoting inquiry based
learning is the bright spot of this curriculum reform.
However, effective and extensive use of inquiry learning is
rare in China due to the diverse contextualized difficulty from
students, teachers, and technologies. Chinese students are more
achievement orientated who prefer to learn with deep achieving
strategies which relate to maximizing the cost-effectiveness of
time and effort [2]. And teachers get used to the “parental
directing” style in teaching practice who lack the experience in
conducting an inquiry teaching instruction; the technologies
supported inquiry learning usually separate the learning
activities and sources causing the difficulty in monitoring and
assessing students learning. So, we need to seek the help from
the WISE technologies and the Knowledge integration
perspective to overcome the weaknesses of the science inquiry
in China.
B. Purposes and research questions of this study
The goal of this study is to use what I know about the
learning sciences theories [3] and the knowledge integration
perspective [4] to fashion a web based inquiry learning
environment for Chinese learners to deeply understand science
core concepts, investigative skills, as well as foster 21st century
skills such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration
and creativity. Also, in teachers and designers’ perspectives, is
to practice the design of WISE in a Chinese context; to analyse
how the WISE promote the knowledge integration processes.
Therefore, in the future, the WISE can be promoted widely as
an inquiry tool to improve science education and this project is
served as an example to support the smooth implementation of
other projects in China. And the research questions will be
addressed in this study are: 1) Does knowledge integration help
performance on standardized tests? 2) how does WISE
environment promote knowledge integration processes? 3)
what are the most important considerations in designing and
implement WISE projects?
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II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Knowledge integration
Due to the higher science standards, current educational
approaches emphasize more ambitious environments which
consists of more authentic, challenging, and open-ended
problems and thus require significant disciplinary knowledge
and metacognitive skills on learners. [5][6][7]. Knowledge
integration(KI) environment is one of the best well known
approaches, through which learners engage in extended inquiry
to develop knowledge and skills in the context of investigating
meaningful problems.
1) WISE and knowledge integration
Technology-enhanced learning environments contribute to
coherent understanding and knowledge integration [8], such as
the web-based inquiry science environment (WISE) (Fig.1 is
the interface of WISE). WISE is a research-based digital
learning platform created and developed by WISE technology
team at the University of California, Berkeley. Since 1997.
WISE offers researchers and teachers a collection of free,
customizable curriculum projects as well as guidance to fosters
exploration and science inquiry. The interactive curriculum-
integrated technologies used in WISE include dynamic
visualizations, simulations, applications for drawing,
diagramming and animating, and tools for collaborative
brainstorming, discussion, and idea management, detailed
WISE features are shown on this website:
https://wise.berkeley.edu/pages/features.html. In addition,
WISE provides scaffolding for more than just student activities
[9], but also provides teachers with a suite of integrated tools
for efficiently managing and promoting student learning, to
name a few of the highlighted features: monitor students' real-
time progress, provide immediate feedback on student work,
and grade more efficiently using automated scoring systems,
flag student work (p.119) [4].
2) The principles, patterns, and processes of knowledge
integration
To support design teams in creating projects, Linn& His
and Linn& Davis, et al. have identified the knowledge
integration principles to support the use of WISE features and
tools, which also are the goals of the WISE projects, they are
(1) making thinking visible, (2) making science accessible, (3)
helping students learn from each other, and (4) promoting
lifelong learning [10][11]. However, Linn and Eylon noted that
the principles alone were not sufficient to guide the teachers
and designers to create instructional patterns that led to
coherent understanding and promote knowledge integration
[12]. Then Kali created the design principles database which
links the specific principles to features of curriculum materials
and helps designers, researchers and teachers to design and
refining projects more effectively [13]. Continuously, the
research team analyzed when WISE features succeed to
identify four general processes that, emerged in the
instructional patterns, can promote KI: elicit ideas, add new
ideas, distinguish among ideas, and reflect and sort out ideas
[12]. These learning processes are not linear but iterative
through the whole project. Thus, the theoretical frameworks to
guide the WISE designs contain four parts [4]:
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1. KI Principle. Specific guidelines that promote coherent
understanding (mentioned in this section).
2. KI features. Instructional designs that implement a KI
principle (visualizations, reflection activities, collaborative
activities, novel representations for evidence and Games)
3. KI patterns. Sequences of instructional activities that
reinforce each other to help learners create coherent views of
instructed topics (orient, diagnose, and guide, experiment,
collaborate and reflect)
4. KI processes. Students follow to integrate their ideas
(elicit Ideas, add new ideas, distinguish among ideas, reflect
and sort ideas).
Figure 1. Basic features of the Web-based Inquiry Science Environment
(WISE).
B. Science inquiry learning in China
Over a decade science education reform, it seems that
inquiry teaching has already been accepted by many science
teachers, however, this acceptance is from the perspective of
instructional design, teachers simply use it as a model of
teaching [14], which includes seven main steps “asking
questions- making a hypothesis- designing experiments-
collecting data- analyzing data- drawing conclusions-
exchanging evaluation ". Whereas this so call inquiry teaching
would cause students learned what to do at rote, procedural
level without connecting the epistemic questions guiding their
work to knowledge construction [15].
Also, many teachers including myself in China,
unconsciously influenced by Confucianism who prefer a
“parental directing” style in teaching practice [16], they think
that everything in the classroom should be well organised and
go as planned [2]. Therefore, they feel unsafe and lose the
authority in a classroom, importantly, they are lack of the
experience in scaffolding students during an inquiry. Students
in China afford the high pressure from the society, who are
more competitive and eager to get higher marks on public
examinations, they learn with deep achieving strategies which
relate to maximizing cost-effectiveness of time and effort. They
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prefer to believe the knowledge in textbooks and teachers
rather than what they investigate and explore because the
observations contain many wrong messages and require time
and effort in sorting them out. Although they always perform
better than their Western counterparts [17], they are widely
criticised as “Gaofendineng” (high score, low ability). The
China’s rigorous examination-oriented education has been
widely criticised and reforms have attempted to broaden
educational aims to focus on developing the whole people
rather than the only examination scores, however, it is a long
way to go because of the long history behind it.
C. The promotion of WISE in China
WISE platform has some highlighted characteristics which
overcome the weaknesses of the science inquiry in Chinese
context. In recent years, more and more WISE research
administrates in Chinese primary and secondary schools, which
proves the effectiveness of WISE in supporting inquiry
learning. What’ more, the official WISE server has been set up
in South China Normal University, the URL to the server is:
wise.scnu.edu.cn, which allows more schools beneficial to the
web based science inquiry environment.
III. METHOD
A. Participants and setting
Participants in this study included 46 Grade 9 students,
aged 14-16 years, who were all recruited from two intact Grade
9 Physics groups: Group A and B. Students were assigned to
sixteen groups having the equal learning ability in Physics
based on the last quarter test. The time to run this project was
from the end of April to the middle of June, totally 5 weeks, 10
lessons for each group, each lesson was 70 minutes.
All participants received the same intervention, the majority
of the time spent was interacting with WISE on computers,
students followed structured guides and prompts in WISE to
complete a sequence of activities. Students were encouraged to
talk to each other face to face. However, they mostly recorded
their results of discussion electronically through WISE.
Students were also allowed to work on the inquiry task during
free time. The role of the teacher was providing technical
support, answering questions from groups, giving written
feedback, and grading student work.
B. Curriculum
The selected unit was “thermal processes: conduction,
convection and radiation. Respond to the suggestion of the
development of “integrated instructional units” [1], this WISE
project incorporates experimentation activities within inquiry
investigations, provide learners with opportunities to test their
own ideas about the domain, and use the outcomes of
experimentation to generalize knowledge to new contexts.
According to the Scheme of work, Cambridge IGCSE Physic
0625 for examination from 2016, “learners have developed the
concept “heating” from using domestic heating systems and
seem much more comfortable with the specific example of
thermal energy and heating. Therefore, inquiry-based
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instruction is more likely to be successful in this project if they
use materials and situations that students are comfortable with
and have experience of using [18]. Also, the driven question
“how to keep ice cream from melting” is a personally relevant
problem which can be answered by designing and conduction
students own investigation.
C. Instructional design
This project was designed by the researcher, following a
model of engineering design which is a cycle and is iterative,
meaning that students were able to go back and revise their
work, and would learn more about science to help them
develop solutions. Also, the unit was based on two existing
projects in WISE project library, ice cream challenges and
solar radiation and solar ovens. The revised unit contains six
main phases and utilizes virtual investigations with one
NetLogo model and two dynamic simulations.
Phase 1: Specification and constraints
The first phase in engineering design was to identify the
problem that they were trying to solve. So, students were
introduced the learning outcomes, goals, and criteria of this
project.
Phase 2: Develop Knowledge
The second phase was to develop essential knowledge and
skills to solve the challenges. The KI patterns in this phase
includes: 1) the introduction of key concepts by visualizations,
e.g. the dynamic model of microscopic structure of matter (the
Concord Consortium 2006); 2) online discussion about how the
circulation of water developed; 3) “Mysystem”, which is a
Javascript-based diagramming and modeling environment that
enables students to integrate their understanding of the system
of Earth, Space and Sun by creating a diagram; 4) designing
and conduction their own investigation.
Phase 3: Ideate solutions
For many teams, this was the hardest step, so it started with
revisiting the needs, constraints, and goals from the earlier
steps, then students sketched at least 2 different ideas on the
“Draw board” (a feature in WISE), uploaded their best idea to
WISE, and brainstormed to generate a large number of
potential solutions to a problem. Finally, students selected one
best solution, filled a materials list and made a plan to move
forward with it.
Phase 4: Build prototype
The teacher helped identify and acquire appropriate
modelling materials and tools, and students constructed a scale
model based on their drawings. After making their models,
they were prompted to reflect on their building process by
answering “what are some of the problems you have faced
while you are building your ice cream cooler? How did you
overcome those problems?”
Phase 5: Test and evaluate the prototype
After building a prototype with a variety of simple building
materials, such as foam, newspaper, cotton ball, bubble wrap,
etc., students presented their prototypes to the class for testing,
first, they put the ice in their cooler and placed it under the heat
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lamp in the classroom, then wait for 10 minutes to weigh the
mass of the ice again. Also, students were prompted to evaluate
their prototype by comparing to the project criteria and found
out problems in their prototypes, then they were required to
peer critique their projects, so that they were able to create
prototype iterations based on feedback on the next go around of
the design cycle.
Phase 6: Refine Design
Gathering self and peer evaluation, students discussed how
to improve their solution and made a revision, drawn a new
design and iterated their design to make the product the best it
can be.
D. Data sources
The mixed-methods research design was used which
involves the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data
to address the research questions. The data involved pre- and
post-tests on science concepts, Knowledge Integration
assessments in WISE, audiotapes of students’ conversation,
collaborative knowledge products, students’ individual
interview and researcher's classroom observation. The
following sub-sections show the description and analysis
method for each data source.
1) Science test
Pre-and post- Science test were used for assessing students’
individual improvements of domain knowledge which was
administered both at the beginning and the end of the present
study, and two tests are the same. The test contained three
questions which were selected from the past paper year 2010-
2015, the Cambridge IGCSE Physics Examination and all
students’ pre-and post-tests were marked by the researcher.
Knowledge Integration assessments
Knowledge Integration assessments were designed to
measure how students interpreted the information in the
visualizations and developed a coherent understanding of
thermal processes, which also were analysed in conjunction
with post-test to gain a more holistic understanding of
progressions of change in students’ ideas. Knowledge
Integration assessments which captured the knowledge
integration processes and included: 1) Predictions; 2)
Observation; 3) Scientific explanations; 4) MySystem concept
map.
Students responded to these prompts in their groups, and
there was a total of 144 written responses to 12 prompted
questions collected and coded on a scale from one to five using
the KI rubric [11]. This rubric results in a scoring of student
responses not in terms of “right or wrong”, but rather in their
coherence and the connections they make between normative
science ideas and the students’ own ideas or experiences. The
total Knowledge Integration assessments score was the sum of
the scores on the twelve questions. The rubric explanations and
examples of students’ responses were given in the Appendix I,
II and III.
To determine inter-rater reliability, two independent coders
scored 40% of the Knowledge Integration assessments. Inter-
rater reliability was 78%. Inconsistent marks were discussed
and rescored until consensus was reached.

TABLE I. EMBEDDED PROMPTS/ASSESSMENTS CAPTURING THE KNOWLEDGE INTEGRATION PROCESS

KI process Description Prompting questions

Elicit ideas Generate alternative ideas about a topic or How do you think you can keep ice cream cold?
phenomena/elicit questions and frame the When do you think solar radiation transforms (changes) into heat energy? Make
investigation/generate ideas for a class or online your best scientific guess! And try to give out some daily life examples to support
discussion/identify question or conundrum. it.
Add ideas Orient learners to topic with a mini-lecture, video, or What happens to Solar Radiation (SR) when it is absorbed?
demonstration/generate or use methods to gather What do you think albedo (reflectivity) means? Watch the model and use the
evidence/review the ideas of other words "solar radiation" "infrared radiation" and "heat" in your description.
contributors/generate, read, listens or observe ideas
Distinguish Ideas Diagnose weaknesses and offer analogies, pivotal Why does the convection not happen in a solid?
cases or examples/evaluate results using criteria Read the brainstorm topic “What are differences among conduction, convection
consistent with the methods/evaluate ideas using and radiation? Describe and explain your answers”, then write your response in
personal or group criteria/identify personally valid, the blank box.
uncertain, or invalid ideas. Write two reasons how your designs meet the specifications and constraints of
the challenge.
Reflect Reconsider ideas based on alternatives, evidence, After making your cooler, answer this question: What are some of the problems
and criteria/connect results of an experiment to the you have faced while you are building your ice cream cooler? How did you
repertoire of ideas/create group consensus about overcome those problems?
connections/revise ideas and seek needed How well did your design do? Give your project a rating for each criterion and
information. explain your rating.

TABLE II. THE RUBRIC EXPLANATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF STUDENTS’ RESPONSES

Score/KI Response Description Sample Essay Question: Why does ice cream melt if you leave it outside?

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Level
1 Off task No answer, off task or I do not know. Students No answer
does not answer the question being asked
2 Isolated Non-normative ideas or links: scientifically non- “Ice cream contains a lot of air, up to half its volume. The air gives the ice”
normative ideas, vague ideas, or scientifically “the energy comes from the sun called heat energy. cells in ice creams take in energy, the
invalid connections between ideas, or repeating cell walls break, and the moisture leaches out.”
the question as an answer.
3 Partial Unelaborated connections using relevant features “The energy comes from the sun, and it goes to the ice cream, it transfers by the thermal
or scientifically valid connections that are not conduction”
sufficient to solve the problem. “From the sun the ice cream absorb the energy from the sun the ice cream melt because of
the sun energy.”
4 Basic Elaborate one scientifically complete and valid “Thermal energy from the sun, and the ice cream absorb the thermal energy and reach to its
connection between two ideas relevant to a given melting point; the particles move fast during this process.so the energy move in the air.”
context. “The energy comes from the sunlight and the air molecules. The energy goes to the place
which has a lower temperature. The energy transfers by the radiation and convection.”

5 Complex Elaborate two or more scientifically complete and “The heat energy is transferred from the Sun to the ice cream by radiation and ice cream
valid connections among ideas relevant to a given also absorbed the heat from the surrounding by conduction as the heat always transfers
context. from the hot area to the cold area.”

TABLE III. KI RUBRICS FOR MYSYSTEM DIAGRAMS

Score/KI level KI Coding of systems understanding KI coding of energy ideas

1 Off task No items, no links between icons No energy ideas present
2 Isolated Links showing the transfer of energy into the Earth-Space system Represent connections with concepts other than energy

3 Partial Links showing the transfer of energy into the Earth-Space system, with some Vague ideas about energy in general
energy reflected
4 Basic Links showing the transfer of energy into and out of the Earth-Space system Normative ideas about energy transfer including accurate
5 Complex Links showing the transfer of energy into the Earth-Space system plus a link Normative ideas about energy transfer and transformation.
showing transfer of energy into the beneath of the Earth
2) Audiotapes of students’ group interaction
The audio transcripts of students’ group work allowed us to
examine how students interact with the technology tool and
served as the data for the qualitative analysis. In total, there
were more than 8 lessons’ audio footage analysed for different
groups. Discourse within an episode that reflected on
knowledge-related and process-related actions was transcribed
and translated into English.
3) Collaborative knowledge products
The collaborative knowledge product was a prototype to
keep ice cream from melting for as long as possible. Students’
reports and written files in the WISE were used to evaluate
their prototypes, there were three categories: 1) insulating
power; 2) understanding of scientific theories behind the
design; 3) materials use.
4) Interviews with students
Students interviews were conducted to examine student’s
learning experience through WISE platform and whether the
design of this study supported their epistemic agency. There
were about 33% of the sample (N=15) attended the one-on-one
interviews with the researcher at the teacher’s office in the last
day of the study. The interviews were semi-structured and
understanding of when each form of energy can transfer
audio recorded and transcribed. and the students were guided to
talk about the following questions:
1. What is your experience in using WISE platform
2. How WISE platform help you learn in an inquiry
3. How do you collaborate with your teammates in WISE
environment
IV. RESULTS
A. Quantitative analysis
1) Overall Individual Impact of the Unit (Analysis on pre-
and post- test)
Six students who missed the post-test were excluded from
the pre- and post-test analysis., Paired t test was run to measure
the learning gain. The statistics results present students had
limited prior knowledge about this topic and had a mean score
(M=46) on the post-test that was higher than the passing rate
40, there was significant gain in this unit [ M=26.5, SD=18.05
(pre); M=46.0, SD=17.23 (post), t(40)=5.74,p<0.0001,
d=0.91]. According to Cohen’s criteria (1988), this gain is
considered large.
2) Overall Impact of the Unit at Group Level
Four student workgroups (12 students) which had students
uncompleted the post- test were removed from analysis. The

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mean of pre-test scores of the exclusive students was 2.5 which
was close to the mean score of the whole class so I assumed
that the reduction of the sample size did not make a big impact
on the data analysis. Here group pre-and post-test score in a
triad is the mean score which is calculated by
(Student1+students2+student3)/3. The data from the paired t
test showed the very large gain from pre- to post- test at group
level [ M=26.3, SD=14.6 (pre); M=46.8, SD=11.0 (post),
t(12)=5.57,p<0.0001, d=1.61].
3) Performance differences between more and less
successful triads
To further examine the effectiveness of WISE environment on
students’ post-test performance, I developed a second
analytical approach that uses the level of group performance on
a collaborative knowledge product-model making as a lens
through which I identify the more and less successful groups.
Firstly, I coded the model making assessments and used 70
marks as a criterion to classified the triads as more or less
successful. Totally there are 5 more successful triads and 7 less
successful triads.
The mean percent correct of the collective knowledge product
for more successful triads and less successful triads were 86.7
and 57.1, respectively. The significance of this difference was
confirmed by a t test, t (2,12) =5.19, P<0.0005.
There are two potential reasons for the variability in
collaborative knowledge products, one is the prior achievement
of this unit; the other one is the performance in WISE, the
independent samples t test was run that both variances were
assumed equal. Alternative explanations were tested and are
described in the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: more successful groups had higher average prior
science achievement scores than less successful groups.
To examine this possibility, the mean science pre-test scores of
more and less successful triads were compared, [M=22.2,
SD=16.2 (more successful); M=29.3, SD=13. 8 (less
successful)], the more successful groups even had lower prior
achievement on the pre-test, and the results indicated the
difference between prior achievement in more and less
successful groups was not significant t (2,12) = -0.816,
p<0.433.
Hypothesis 2: more successful groups performed better in the
Knowledge Integration assessments in WISE platform than less
successful groups.
Do more successful and less successful differ in their
Knowledge Integration assessments? To address this question,
the scores of Knowledge Integration assessments(KI) for more
and less successful groups was compared. The statistics table [
M=22.2, SD=16.2 (more successful); M=29.3, SD=13. 8 (less
successful); t (2,12) =2.511, p<0.031] suggests that there is a
significant difference between more and less successful groups
in the Knowledge Integration assessments. So, this approach
further confirms that the intervention “WISE” is the indicator
and explanation for the high achievement of the domain
understanding. The successful students benefited from their
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efforts in learning through the WISE platform rather than their
prior knowledge about Physics.
Overall, these results coherently showed that students
benefited from the WISE project. Particularly, students who
performed successfully on the Knowledge Integration
assessments in WISE made greater progress in their domain
understanding.
B. Case Study
Although the success of WISE project was discussed and
convinced quantitatively in the previous section, they did not
provide explanations and theoretical insight into how students
engaged in the learning processes through WISE. Therefore, I
chose Group A as representative group and triangulated data
sources: standardized science pre-/post- test, Knowledge
Integration assessment, audio transcripts for a full
contextualized analysis. The cases focus on the analysis of the
combination effect of the knowledge integration processes and
instructional patterns.
Pre-test Performance. Fiona, Kevin, and Owen were in
Group A who started with poor performances on the pre-test,
got 2/10, 1/10, and 1/10 respectively which were lower than the
mean score(M=2.56) of the whole class and three of them had
similar prior achievement on this topic.
During the project. Initially, they elicited the diverse ideas
about the project by answering the prompted question “how do
you think you can keep ice cream cold?” they explained “to
build a box that releases cold air conditioning to keep ice cream
cold and not melting.” Their explanation didn’t contain any
scientific ideas but connected to the everyday situation. When
continued to answer “why ice cream melt if it left outside”,
they gave out a sensible response “the energy comes from the
Sun, and absorbed by the ice cream”. The second KI process
was adding new normative ideas that got integrated with
existing ideas by animations, visualizations, virtual
experiments, and models. The episode of dialogue below (see
Table VI) shows this group’s interaction that co-occurred in
this process. Kevin fist watched the video clip about
conduction, he noticed that the bottom particles were vibrating
and later on the upper particles vibrated as well, but he didn’t
provide a coherent mechanism for his observations and used it
to explain “How energy is given to the ice cream through
conduction?” The teacher came and pressed on science ideas
“please look at it again and what happens when the bottom
particles are beginning to vibrate.” Kevin furtherly added
evidence “they will collide the particles above them.” And then
the teacher tried to integrated their ideas with a more abstract
notion and a more scientific norm “this is the microscopic
explanation of conduction.” At the same time, Fiona
recognized their mistake in the previous question “What does
the temperature measure inside a substance?” she referred and
made a link between what was learned and another question.
In this case, I saw that they were working to ensure that their
final explanations are consistent with what is observed and
starting to meaningfully use ideas with their epistemic agency.
The third process is distinguishing among ideas using scientific
evidence, Taking the investigation of infrared radiation as an
example to analyze Group A’s performance, early research
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suggests that experiments are improved by predictions [19],
Group A firstly made a correct prediction that the container
with a black surface will emit the infrared radiation at a faster
rate, then they draw the experimental diagram on the draw
board. Later they wrote a plan for the experiment, altogether
they generated two different versions of experimental plans.
Both versions were not sufficient to guide them complete the
investigation. But they started to appreciate the reliability of
their methods giving the evidence of controlling the constant
variables-starting temperature of both containers. After that
they were asked to peer critique each other’s experimental
plan. Group A successfully evaluated ideas and developed
criteria for distinguishing among the views, they mentioned
that “Group E was the best one because it is very
comprehensive and contains many detailed processes, the
results will be very accurate because they prepare a stopwatch
to measure the time accurately.” And I saw them revise their
plan by adding a stopwatch into the list of apparatuses. The
episode in Table IV showed that they were making sense and
discussing the purpose of the investigation before they planed
the experiment. They wondered whether the investigation was
about the reflective rate of these two containers and confused
the word “emit” with “reflect”, as they just completed the
NetLogo model. This showed that Group A not only absorbed
information from the visualization but also actively compared
ideas and identified the connections among ideas. Line 8 Fiona
led the conversation into the correct direction by invoking
teacher ideas “the teacher said, the experiment is to check the
emitting ability of these two different colors tins.” Then they
collected some facts of science ideas and developed a
meaningful understanding of the investigation.

TABLE IV. STUDENTS EPISODE OF DIALOGUE WHEN INTERACTING WITH THE VISUALIZATION
LINE SPEAKER QUOTE
1 Kevin Teacher, how to explain this observation, at the beginning, the bottom particles are vibrating, and later on the upper particles
vibrate as well?
2 Teacher Good question, you have a good observation, then please have a look at again what happens when the bottom particles vibrate.
3 Kevin Oh, they will collide the particles above them.
4 Teacher Yes, then they can pass the movement up
5 Kevin I see, vibrate, and transfer the energy
6 Teacher Yes, this is the microscopic explanation of conduction. so now maybe you can go back to the previous question about the
temperature.
7 Fiona So, our answer to that question is wrong
8 Kevin I need to add one evidence, "to transfer energy, the hotter particles collide with other particles"
9 Fiona This is one point, we should make it completed by adding "it makes other particles move faster and faster".

TABLE V. THE EPISODE OF PLANNING THE EXPERIMENT

LINE SPEAKER QUOTE
1 Fiona Is it to prove that the reflective rate, the higher the reflection, the faster the temperature rises?
2 Kevin Reflect light, the temperature rises?
3 Fiona Emit light, not reflect light
4 Kevin Should not absorb the heat, then the temperature rises faster? Reflect?
5 Fiona Fill two Tins with water, put the thermometer inside, measuring the increase in temperature to prove the absorption of heat.
6 Kevin What does this word mean? Why should we pour water into the tins?
7 Owen We should draw the experimental diagram
8 Fiona The teacher said the experiment is to check the emitting ability of these two different colors tins
9 Kevin Emitting heat?
10 Fiona Any hot objects emit infrared
11 Kevin How to emit heat?
12 Fiona The object as long as has a temperature will emit.But the higher the temperature, the more heat it emits
13 Kevin So, we have to pour the same temperature of water into the container, and then use the thermometer to measure the change of
temperature at regular time intervals.
14 Fiona But if we want to cool down the water, we should have a temperature difference?
15 Kevin We can put the container in cold water.
…..

16 Kevin We need to control the variables

17 Owen More water here
18 Kevin First pour the hot water into the measuring cylinder, and then to the tins, so that it will be more accurate

to 70 degrees and the volume of water in two tins to 200ml,

also the temperature in black tin decreased more than the silver
Another two important steps of experimentation beside
one. That means the black tin emits infrared radiation at a
planning, were data collection and conclusion. The data table faster rate. However, they failed to draw the correct conclusion
collected by Group A showed that they conducted the
using the evidence they collected. This unexpected result made
procedures accurately, they controlled the starting temperature

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me realize that only adding ideas using hands-on experiments
was not sufficient to promote integrated, coherent
understanding. The ideas students developed on their own had
a long history and multiple arguments in their favour. So, the
fourth KI process-reflection and sorting our ideas is critical to
the inquiry learning, when Group A responded to the
evaluation “how well did you do? Do we trust our results? If
so, why, and if not, why not?” They said that “everything goes
well, their results can support the correct theory.” They did not
do it seriously, and this kind of evaluation question didn’t
motivate their reflection. It would be better if it is designed to
compare the conclusion with their hypothesis made before the
experiment, like “Use evidence from the experiment to explain
why your prediction was correct, incorrect, or partly correct.”
It may help students make links across prediction, observation
and sort out incoherent ideas.
Model making. it was the final collective knowledge product of
this WISE project, including three main activities: design, build
and test and revise the prototype. Group A performed
excellently who got 8 marks out of 9. First, Group A ideate
their ideas by drawing a model with clear labels, this was the
only sketch captured by the platform, which suggested that
TABLE VI.
LINE SPEAKER QUOTE
1 Fiona Should we make the bottom thicker？
2 Kevin Right, the thickness of the cup is not enough to block the heat.
3 Fiona Like this
4 Kevin Cut it, if not, the thickness is not the same
5 Fiona I think it can make it like this, and then the remaining cotton can be used to make a lid
6 Kevin Yes
7 Fiona I think the sun light is from above, the bottom is no need to pack. And the aluminum foil is to reflect the light and heat.
8 Kevin In fact, Can the order of packing be disrupted?
9 Fiona Anyway, aluminum foil must be in the outermost
10 Kevin Is there a layer of aluminum foil inside the cup?
11 Fiona Inside?
12 Kevin Yes, wrap the cotton then add the aluminum foil inside.
13 Fiona No need, the foil is limited
This case analysis demonstrates that students engaged in the
WISE thermal processes project had effective guidance to
support them to act intentionally and check their understanding
using their knowledge and evidence rather than applying
procedures but not making sense of the outcomes.
Post-test Performance. Fiona and Kevin in Group A
successfully applied what learned in this unit to explain the
post-test question, so they got 60% and 80% accuracy. For
question 3 on the post test, Fiona got the correct prediction on
the pre- test, but did wrong on the post-test. From the previous
analysis, we knew that this group failed to draw the correct
conclusion from the hand on experiment, and the teacher did
not assess their understanding and provide the instant feedback
on their work, this was one limitation of the guided inquiry
compared with the traditional instructions. And student Owen
didn’t make any progress in post-test since he didn’t contribute
to the group discussion and the embedded assessments in
WISE.
In summary, this case focused on how student elicit, build,
enhance, and sort out the repertoire into generative and
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they did it intentionally. And they justified their design
regarding the specifications and constraints of the project and
explained it with a reasoning mechanism, “its cost under 20
RMB, our design minimizes heat transfer because it has
insulators (foam, bubble wrap) layer for keeping the heat from
outside and keeping cold from inside and its inner space will
place the ice cream. It has aluminum paper to reflect the
radiation.” Their response confirmed that they had sufficient
scientific knowledge to support their design. Also, the episode
dialog (see Table VIII) co-occurred with building process also
proved consistently. Line 2 they recognized the heat transfer by
conduction at the bottom of the cup, and line 7 later Fiona
argued the Sun was the heat source from the top, so no need to
made it thicker; line 5 was about the convection at the top, so
they made a lid for the cup; and line 8 Kevin did not just follow
Fiona’s ideas blindly, he asked “can the order of packing the
materials can be disrupted”, he tried to request the science
ideas behind the design. Line 9 Fiona said “the aluminum foil
must be in the outermost”, this firm response showed that
Fiona meaningfully used the evidence to guide her group’s
decision making. When testing their prototype, there was 93%
ice cream left, so they got 3 marks for the insulating power of
the model.
EPISODE OF MODEL MAKIN
coherent science ideas through WISE instructional patterns.
And the results show that students develop and improve their
domain understanding over time. Furthermore, it is crucial to
provide students a more effective guidance to combine their
experimental procedures with conceptual understanding of a
complex topic [19] and it is necessary to design visualizations
with surrounding instructional activities, such as prediction,
building explanation and reflection to maximize their effects
[20].
C. Audio transcripts and interview with students
Audio transcripts of students’ interactions and interview are
mainly used to address the third research question, the most
important considerations in designing and implement WISE
project. The conversation of student triads illustrated the
problem they have during the project and the interactional
contexts in their response to the WISE embedded assessments.
Students in the semi structural interview shared their
perceptions of the learning experience in WISE environment,
including the pros and cons of this innovative learning
approach and the way they collaborated with their teammates
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during the inquiry. Besides, students revealed their belief of meaningful. I feel too simple to do solar oven.”; Student
learning unconsciously. 1suggested that the WISE project “can be done as a revision
activity after a chapter, served as a kind of inquiry and
Difficulty in interacting with visualizations. My observation is
extension of learning. but as a basic education, it makes
consistent with the prior research on visualizations, which
students learn not solid because the supervision of the teacher
suggests that students have difficulty deciding what features
is not too much, so this can only as extensibility and
are important among the enormous amount of information and
overstating of study, cannot be used as a basis for learning.”
focus on details that are less important [21]. Take the molecular
and students 9 mentioned that “I feel that I cannot applied the
model simulation as an example, students spent most of their
knowledge to the real life, when we choose the insulation
time on the less important setting “Van der Waals attraction”
material, we do not know what materials have a better
rather than “the temperature”, They were struggling whether
insulation ability.” In addition, student 5 implicitly suggested
the force between molecular is an attractive or repulsive force,
that the project should emphasis the process of distinguishing
whether they should increase or decrease the force to change
ideas but not developing the new knowledge “our final project
the solid into liquid and whether the force is related to the
is about how prevent heat conduction, so I think you should let
space of molecules, although these ideas are considered as
the students talk about this topic, … instead, there is no need so
science ideas, they didn’t connect the observations of
many time for covering the science concept.”
visualizations to the purpose of this unit, thermal processes,
which is about the heat and temperature. metacognitive scaffolds assist students in monitoring learning
processes and reducing cognitive overload. student 6 is happy
Difficulty in distinguishing the non-normative ideas. The non-
with the autonomy they have, they can “adjust according to his
normative ideas students develop on their own have a long
own progress”; And students 9 argued that the extrinsic
history and multiple arguments in their favour, so it is hard to
motivation (such as house point and the score board) was
self-correct and distinguish them on their own investigations,
crucial in this environment, if not, they would not do the work
such as “conduction can transfer heat wither contact”;
they think meaningless, like answering reflection questions and
“conduction only occurs in solids”; “if two objects are in a
providing comments on each other’s work. Yet, Gao claims
liquid state, they didn’t need a conductor to transfer heat” and
that Chinese students are achievement orientated [2].
“the cooler object also transfer the "cold" to the hot one”. The
effective scaffolds are needed for students to add correct ideas Procedural scaffolds assist students to structure their tasks
observed in the visualization or other instructional design and necessary steps. student 1 said “it is good that there is
patterns and distinguish the wrong ideas bring to science class. guidance to complete the inquiry, if it is too open, we may be
So that they can form deeper interpretations of the hard to handle at this moment, but in this project, there are
visualizations and change their initial understanding. many prompted questions in a step by step to guide you to do
something, very good.”
Students mentioned the advantages of using the WISE
environment for inquiry science learning, expressed their Strategic scaffolds help students to find alternative
enjoyment in this project and pointed out the importance of problem-solving strategies. Students 1 appreciated the
guidance from teachers, technology tools and instructional collaborative learning environment the KI facilitated, “it has a
design. And I put their responses into four categories: (1) function, common editor, each student can write down the idea,
conceptual scaffolds; (2) metacognitive scaffolds; (3) and then because there is no only standard answer, that can be
procedural scaffolds, and (4) strategic scaffolds. revised after the discussion, often the ideas will be changed
after discussion, so I think that there is no single answer is very
Conceptual scaffolds help students to understand essential
important, we can continue to improve our ideas and include
ideas and theories. Student 12 took the advantages of the
all our thoughts into the answers.” And Student 9 claimed that
instructional design that the representation of information was
the best thing of this project is “the students work together, and
very clear through the animation, pictures, and video. And also,
then share what they know to others.” However, some
he can “refer to other people’ ideas and amend his own.”
problems in collaboration are revealed in students’ interview,
Student 6 appreciated the guidance of scientific reasoning, “we
Student said that “some weak students, they do not want to
can experiment together, and use the experimental data and
participate, but do not know what to respond”. Student 5 stated
evidence to justify the ideas, and we can upload the design to
their peers’ belief about collaboration, “they usually listen the
the computer and we can learn from our peers easily.” Student
most powerful person in a group and rarely put forward
11 compared the WISE to the traditional teaching, “we can
different views.” Furthermore, student 13 mentioned that “for
share our thoughts and then summarize them. There are
"online discussion many students just upload their own ideas
supporting questions, so I know how to learn on my own. This
without commenting on others”. And he gave out the solution
is much better than the traditional teaching like before the
that “it is better to have a mandatory request so that they must
teacher wrote in the blackboard, we copy notes, then we do the
review each other, increase the comparison between students,
exercises at home. but the time is too long to link the notes and
let us get more from each other.”
homework together.” Although many students mentioned that
they mindfully engaged in the investigation through WISE, in In summary, the WISE project has been suggested to support
students’ perspectives, the instructional and curriculum design students’ learning by providing conceptual, procedure and
should be improved. Student 13 pointed out the curriculum strategic scaffolds, however, the design of metacognitive
design should meet the diverse needs of students, “when I do scaffolds should be improved, and the guidance of the use of
the experiment, I can already guess the results, so it is not

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virtualizations and the process of distinguishing ideas are also
not enough.
V. DISCUSSION
A. Summary of key findings
The primary goal of this research was to examine whether KI
helps students have a better academic performance in a
standardize test. This study extended the pre- and post-test
analysis in three ways. First, by analyzing the standardized
science pre-and post- test at individual and group level, the
students’ learning gains confirmed the effectiveness of the
design and the success of the implementation of the WISE
project in a Chinese school. Second, by exploring the
relationship between students’ knowledge integration
assessments and pre-and post-test performance, the report
showed that students’ group post- test performance
significantly depended on their performance during WISE
project. Third, by furtherly investigating reasons for variability
in the collaborative knowledge products of more and less
successful groups, the results ruled out the possibility that the
performance difference was due to the prior achievement of
students, and confirmed that the intervention “WISE” was the
indicator and explanation for the high achievement on the
domain understanding. In addition, the improvements from
pre- and post-test of more successful students were greater than
the less successful. In contrast, less engagement in KI process,
resulted in less learning in this project.
A secondary goal of this research was to explain the
effectiveness of WISE platform in promoting knowledge
integration by a qualitative case analyse of a selected triad.
Consistent with prior research in KI which shows that
technology-enhanced inquiry instruction(WISE) is more
effective than typical instruction in knowledge integration [4].
Students started by eliciting ideas about the thermal processes
and possible solutions of the ice cream challenge from their
prior knowledge via the WISE online brainstorming tool or
embedded prompts, then they built upon their existing ideas
and made connections among these new ideas by powerful
visualizations and hands on experiment, also they were given
freedom to interact them and revise the previous steps as they
saw fit. An important step of KI framework was to help
students distinguish and sort out among their ideas, WISE
online discussion tools enabled them to post designs and offer
or receive feedback on each other’s design based on the given
criteria or the criteria developed by themselves. Finally, the
reflective processes were occurred after every activity, the
prompted reflection and the WISE report tool help them to
revise the work and designs.
The last goal of this research was to identify the most important
considerations in designing and implement WISE project,
through the analysis of the audio transcripts of students’
interactions and interviews, the results showed the essential
factors in WISE project: (1) emphasis the KI processes, respect
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students; 2) facilitate the collaborative learning environments;
3) change their beliefs of learning through KI patterns; 4)
provide effective teacher guidance; 5) use the visualizations
and experiments meaningfully; 6) scaffold students’
metacognition.
B. Educational implications
The study offers several important implications for science
education in Chinese context. First, this research shows that KI
processes- elicit Ideas, add new ideas, distinguish among ideas,
reflect and sort ideas provide students strategic scaffolds to
integrate their ideas, these processes iteratively happen and
surround the inquiry activity. Second, the KI patterns, like the
experiment, collaboration, and reflection which help learners
create a coherent and conceptual understanding of the science
topic; third, this study also provides strong evidence for the
potential advantage of using the WISE platform to support
knowledge integration principles; fourth, the results show that
some students have little learning due to the failure in the
collaboration with their peers, so the cultivation of a
collaborative learning environment is crucial and should be
placed at the first phase of an inquiry learning, when designing
and implementing the WISE project, we should provide
opportunities for students collaborate with others by adding
activities, like “Debate”, “Brainstorm” and “Discussion” and
more important is emphasising the learning community
concept by putting them together to building knowledge
collectively and making collaborative knowledge product, like
the model making in this study; fifth, WISE supports teachers
with a new interaction with students, teachers can provide
online guidance by the integrated teacher tools which should
focus on promoting the KI processes, especially distinguishing
and sort out ideas, in addition, though more effectively
facilitating classroom management, teachers are free to focus
on diverse students' learning needs by interacting with
individual students and gaining insights about classroom
learning as a whole. Last but not least, developing student’
metacognition is a way to promote lifelong learning,
metacognitive strategies, such as goal setting, planning,
monitoring, evaluation, and reflection, should be embedded
into the instructional design.
C. limitations
There are several limitations that should be addressed in future
studies. First, the generalization of the results in this study are
constrained by the small sample size, which only involved 46
students and 12 triads into participation. Second, my study
focuses on G9 students’ understanding of thermal processes,
and might not generalize to other grade levels or science topics.
Third, the study employed a case study approach which
provide a more qualitative understanding of the design and
implementation of KI and WISE rather than a quasi-
experimental approach, so it is no way to compare the KI and
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WISE intervention with the traditional teaching and learning [4]
instruction, this creates threats to internal validity. Fourth,
students spent a little time on the WISE project, that causes the
[5]
lower effect size on the learning gain due to the treatment.
Fifth, this study measures immediate effects of the treatment
using a post-test which only contains 3 questions, that is not
enough to measure the improvement in the academic [6]
performance, in addition, the study only measure the academic
aspect of learning but ignore the other aspect, also conducting a
delayed post-test is a desirable future study and could identify [7]
the long-term effects on student understanding and examine the
transformation capacity of the WISE project. Another
[8]
limitation is that the instructions to two classes of students are
slightly different due to the time conflict with the end of
semester examinations, group A students have more time on [9]
experiment planning and evaluation processes than group B.
What’s more, the teacher conduct this project has little
experience in this environment who did not fully use the
functions supported in WISE and did not provide the effective [10]
guidance during the project.
[11]
VI. CONCLUSION
[12]
This study raise and answer important questions about how we
design and implement the WISE project in a Chinese
secondary school. As this study suggests, the KI framework is
valuable and effective in multiple areas, e.g. KI Principles are [13]
the specific guidelines that promote students’ coherent
understanding (mentioned in this section); KI features are
supporting the instructional designs that implement a KI [14]
principle; KI patterns are sequences of instructional activities
that reinforce each other to help learners create coherent views [15]
of instructed topics and KI processes which students follow to
integrate their ideas. In addition, the study reveals the
challenges in the implementation of a WISE project, which [16]
include the teacher’s experience, the student’s belief of
learning and the school context.
[17]
REFERENCES
[1] National Research Council. (2012). A Framework for K-12 Science
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[2] Gao, Lingbiao. (1998). Cultural context of school science teaching and [20]
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[3] Sawyer, R. (2014). The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences [21]
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Understanding Relationship Building in Learning
Chinese as an Additional Language on
WeChat: Resolving Methodological Challenges
Yanjun Xue
School of Education
College of Arts, Social Sciences and Commerce, La Trobe University
Melbourne, Australia
Abstract— Paralinguistic features (or “nonverbal cues” in
some literature) are increasingly prevalent in text-based
computer-mediated communication (CMC). These features can
be used to convey both lexical and emotional meanings.
Research into their roles and functions in this field, including in
additional language learning is increasing gradually.
Understanding the role of such features is important since
misinterpreting either lexical or emotional meanings could
substantially influence the process of communication and
hence the opportunities for language learning experiences. This
paper documents some of the challenges in exploring the use of
such paralinguistic features in international, WeChat-based text
chats between Australian learners of Chinese and Chinese
mentors based in the PRC.
Two key paralinguistic features are emoticons and emoji.
Emoticons can be rendered consistently both in participants’
devices and in researchers’ devices. Emoji use two kinds of
codes, either the industry-standardised Unicode or codes that
are specific to certain operating systems or applications such as
the QQ codes used in WeChat. Unlike emoticons, emoji
present challenges for researchers since their renderings can
vary significantly in response to multiple, interacting
influences, even if they are encoded with the same Unicode.
Differences between the image encoded and the image viewed
may cause miscommunication resulting from different
interpretations of their semantics and sentiment (Miller et al.).
There are additional possibilities of miscommunication in a
longitudinal study as there may be updates of operating
systems and specific applications over time. In this paper, I
address the complex issues that emerged in my PhD research
project when participants used their own devices and interacted
over an extended period.
An additional complexity arises when using researchers’
devices to collect participants’ chat logs containing emoji
resulting in substantial methodological challenges in
interpreting the roles of emoji in participants’ relationship
building. In addition to accounting for platform and application
differences between participants, researchers must make sure
that what they can see with their devices (and software
versions) is the same as what their participants saw with
their devices and software versions.
This paper describes these methodological challenges and
explains how I resolved these challenges in my PhD research
project.
Keywords- computer-mediated communication, paralinguistic
features, emoji, emoticon, methodological challenges
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
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ISSN 2251-1814 140
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.61
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. About WeChat
WeChat (微信, Wēixìn) is an application developed by a
Chinese company Tencent (腾讯, Téngxùn) and released in
2011. It was originally restricted to private chat, group chat,
and posting updates on WeChat “Moments” (similar to
Facebook’s “Wall”). Consequently, its basic features include
that users can send text messages, audio messages, pictures,
web links, video clips, make audio and video calls, send digital
files, and share ideas with others on Moments. It has since
become a super application with an open and a public platform,
and is influencing people’s daily life (especially in Mainland
China) as the slogan goes: ‘WeChat is a way of life’1.
B. My research project
I taught Chinese language online from 2009 to 2011. At
that time I was in Beijing but my students were in different
countries. I realized from this experience that learning Chinese
language via desktops or laptops was convenient, but these
devices were still not portable enough, and after class the
students lacked opportunities to practice with Chinese native
speakers. The proliferation of both smartphones and WeChat
in China motivated me to connect Australian learners of
Chinese and Chinese native speakers via WeChat.
In my PhD research project, I recruited 15 Chinese mentors
to work with 17 Australian mentees, who were learning
Chinese as an additional language in a university program.
They ended up forming 23 pairs, and 19 of the 23 pairs
submitted their chat logs to me. The data collection method in
the private chat mode was: an Australian mentee and a Chinese
mentor chatted on WeChat, then one of them sent their chat
logs to me via emails from his/her phone, finally, I copied the
chat logs from my email and saved them into a Word file.
I collected participants’ private chat logs from WeChat
within the 14 weeks of the university semester (from 27 July to
1 November, 2015). Only one (A4-L3 & C13) out of the 23
pairs sustained the mentor-mentee relationship over ten weeks2.
During the 10 weeks, there were chats in this pair every week.
The relationship in the other pairs broke up mainly around
1 See more at https://weixin.qq.com
2 The Australian student only began to participate in my research in week
five, because he was absent from the introduction session to my research
project because of a time clash with his other subject.
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week four or five, so that no or only sporadic chats happened
after that.
To investigate what factors influenced their communication
with their mentors, I conducted a group interview with 5
Australian mentees including A4-L3. A4-L3 said:
(18’50’’) Because the teacher always uses emojis, and
always sends pictures and videos, and also like
constructive examples as well, I feel much more engaged
and always I feel more encouraged to ask more questions
and talk to her more. (Second round interview)
The other four mentees all commented on the positive
influence of paralinguistic features in their relationship
building and hence Chinese language learning. For example,
A1-L3 said:
(11’49’’) Well, it does help learning. Because it makes
the relationship more friendly, and when it’s more
friendly, you have more incentive or more reason to talk
with each other, so that’s why I think it helps. (Second
round interview)
Describing what factors had hindered the communication
with the mentee(s), a mentor C1 said one of the factors was:
“被试，实验被试无论是老师还是学生，他们之间缺乏情
感互动” ([S])ubjects, regardless of teacher or student, they
lack emotional interactions [exchanges] [my trans.])
(Interview transcripts: 19’28’’-29’39’’).
Another mentor C2 commented that the most basic
emotional exchange could not be achieved when learning on
WeChat, and that this kind of exchange had been reduced to
the minimum level. (Interview transcripts: 12’59’’)
These comments motivated me to explore the role of emoji
in sustaining mentor-mentee relationships and hence their
potential influence on the process of communication and
learning experiences.
TABLE I. EXAMPLES OF PARTICIPANTS’ CHAT LOGS AS THEY
APPEAR IN THE EMAILS ON MY MAC LAPTOP
Examples Note or Translation
1 谢谢/::) Thanks /::)
2 谢谢你[愉快] Thank you [愉快]
3 [Sticker Gallery] An individual WeChat animated emoji
was sent as a message and was translated
into “[Sticker Gallery]”
4 不客气[Smile] You’re welcome [Smile]
5 不客气� You’re welcome� (It is a black square)
6 But I don’t know In this message, a WeChat default
the character for it Unicode emoji or Unicode emoji is
yet [Sticker] translated into “[Sticker]”
However, in the chat logs that I received in emails on my
Mac laptop, I found some content was ambiguous. Table I
shows some examples of messages sent to me via emails by
different participants in private chat mode. The highlighted
parts were ambiguous.
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Further investigation revealed that the same message can
appear differently across platforms and software versions.
Some examples can be seen in Table II.
TABLE II. DIFFERENCES IN THE SAME EMOJI AS THEY
APPEARED IN MY RECORDS IN RELATION TO MY DEVICES AND VERSIONS
Devices and Example Example 2
versions 1
In email in 3 ok. SG is pretty good. I like it very much. � a
Mac (10.10.5)
In Word for b
Mac 2011,
version 14.4.1
c
In Word (2013)
for Windows 7
(6.1)
On WeChat
(6.5.8) for iOS
d
10.1.1
On WeChat
(1.2.2.1) for
Mac (10.10.5)
a. It is a rectangle after the full stop.
b. There is a blank space after the full stop.
c. It is a square after the full stop.
d. After copying and pasting this message containing this emoji on WeChat (6.5.8) for iOS (10.1.1)
(14B100) and WeChat (1.2.2.1) for Mac (10.10.5), it was re-rendered as this image.
C. About Paralinguistic Features
1) What are paralinguistic features
Paralinguistic features (Pasfield-Neofitou 123) in text-
based computer-mediated communication (CMC) are also
called: CMC cues (Vandergriff 1), nonverbal behaviors or cues
(Derks et al. 99; Dunlap et al. 164; Tossell et al. 659), textual
features (Pasfield-Neofitou, “Textual Features”), and
paralinguistic cues (Kim et al. 222). In this paper, I use
“paralinguistic features” as the sole term.
Paralinguistic features consist of nonstandard combinations
of punctuation symbols (“…”, “!!!”), lexical surrogates
(“hmmm”), non-standard spelling especially letter repetitions
(Darics, 141), exclamations, capitalization, and abbreviations
(Kalman and Gergle 187; Kim et al. 222), emoticons, and
emoji.
2) Paralinguistic features in text-based CMC
Among the paralinguistic features mentioned above,
emoticons and emoji have started to play more prominent roles
with the proliferation of social media and smart mobile
handhelds, such as tablets and smart phones.
a) Emoticons
Text-based CMC is criticized for being too lean, lacking
nonverbal cues (e.g., the body language or tone-of-voice cues
that convey this information in face-to-face communication
contexts or talk over the phone), which may result in
interactional incoherence and miscommunication due to a high
degree of disturbed turn adjacency, overlapping exchanges, and
topic decay. (Herring 1) And as Fahlman mentions, missing
nonverbal clues may cause serious issues: “(I)n at least one
case, a humorous remark was interpreted by someone as a
3 The graphics of Unicode emoji on different platforms in this paper are
downloaded from http://emojipedia.org/, unless otherwise specified.
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serious safety warning” (Fahlman “Smiley lore :)”). These
issues triggered Fahlman’s invention of the first two emoticons
on 19 September 1982: :-) and :-( (sideways smiley face and
frowny face). They are used “to explicitly mark posts that were
not to be taken seriously” (Fahlman, "Original Board Thread").
According to The Unicode ○R Consortium, “Emoticons
(from “emotion” plus “icon”) are specifically intended to
depict facial expressions or body posture as a way of
conveying emotion or attitude in e-mail and text messages.”4
Emoticons mainly use ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Exchange) symbols. Miller et al. point out that
despite some cultural differences, being text, emoticons remain
relatively consistent across operating systems.
b) Emoji
Emoji, according to the definition given by The Unicode○R
Consortium 5 , “are pictographs (pictorial symbols) that are
typically presented in a colorful form and used inline in text.”6
Most commonly-used emoji are encoded in the Unicode ○R
Standard7 for indexing characters.
The renderings of Unicode emoji do not necessarily look
the same even though The Unicode○R Consortium assigns a
code and CLDR8 (e.g., U+1F600 for “grinning face”). Any
pictorial representation of them is considered as an acceptable
rendition for a given Unicode emoji. However, The Unicode○R
Consortium posits that “a design that is too different from other
vendors’ representations may cause interoperability
problems.” 9 Additionally, Unicode emoji characters do not
have single semantics, as The Unicode○R Consortium explains:
“The meaning of each emoji may vary depending on language,
culture, and context.”
WeChat has three types of native emoji:
• WeChat QQ emoji (hereinafter referred to as QQ
emoji), which originated from QQ (another Chinese
social platform belonging to Tencent, launched in the
1990s);
• WeChat default Unicode emoji, whose images are
consistent with these on iOS; and
• WeChat animated emoji (hereinafter referred to as
“animated emoji”), which users can download and save
from WeChat’s “Sticker Gallery” or download after
they receive them from other WeChat users.
In addition to the three types of native WeChat emoji,
WeChat users may have access to:
• Unicode emoji that are built-in to their devices or
operating systems, which will be explained in the
following section;
4 See more at http://www.unicode.org/faq/emoji_dingbats.html
5 See more at http://unicode.org/consortium/consort.html
6 See more at http://unicode.org/emoji/
7 See http://www.unicode.org/standard/standard.html for more details
about the Unicode○ R Standard.
8 CLDR stands for “Common Locale Data Repository”. See more at
http://cldr.unicode.org/
9 http://unicode.org/faq/emoji_dingbats.html
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• Unicode emoji that are built-in to the third-party IMEs
that Android users can download.
II. METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES
A. Established methodological challenges: across platforms
(or operating systems)
Emoticons, as text, are displayed relatively consistently and
participants across genders have high agreement on the
sentiment interpretations of three emoticons (i.e., :-), :-( and ;-))
(Walther and D’Addario 335).
In Miller et al.’s study, they investigated 2510of the most
popular anthropomorphic emoji across 5 platforms (Apple,
Google, Microsoft, Samsung, and LG) by sending a random
sample of 15 out of the total of 125 Unicode emoji to the
participants, and asking them to interpret each of the 15 emoji
in terms of their semantics and record sentiment judgments on
an ordinal sentiment scale. Each sent emoji was displayed as an
image. The results of their study suggest that an individual
‘Unicode emoji’ with the same Unicode and CLDR can be
interpreted with quite different semantics, for example, the
Unicode U+1F601 with the Unicode CLDR “grinning face
11
with smiling eyes” was rendered as on Google (Android
12
4.4) , and was interpreted as “blissfully happy” by their
13
participants, whereas it was rendered as on iOS (5.0 and
14
6.0) , which was interpreted as “ready to fight”. Miller et al.’s
study reveals that the renderings of the emoji with this Unicode
and CLDR across the five platforms evoke very wide variation
in sentiment.
Miller et al.’s study reminds researchers of the
methodological challenges in interpreting the semantics and
sentiment of Unicode emoji. Specifically, researchers must
make sure what operating systems or platforms their
participants are using at the early stage of data collection, to
know what their participants can see within their operating
systems or platforms.
WeChat has versions for different devices, such as for
phones or tablets (with Android or iOS operating systems etc.),
for computers (for Mac or Windows), and for Web15. Therefore,
researchers who explore the roles of Unicode emoji on WeChat
must take account of WeChat versions on different operating
systems or platforms.
Although WeChat has two versions: one for users in
Mainland China (named “微信”, Wēixìn) and one for users
outside Mainland China (named “WeChat”), the main
10 They finally excluded 3 o f the 25 Unicode emoji because of the
incomplete data.
11 As for this Unicode emoji, please refer to
http://emojipedia.org/grinning-face-with-smiling-eyes/ . By clicking on the
Unicode emoji on a platform at this link, we may see the variations of a single
emoji across versions on this platform.
12 Miller et al.’s article does not mention the version numbers of this
Unicode emoji, whereas I found that it is necessary to specify this.
13 Please refer to the previous footnote. It will be explained in the
following sections.
14 https://emojipedia.org/grinning-face-with-smiling-eyes/
15 See more at https://weixin.qq.com/cgi-
bin/readtemplate?lang=zh_CN&t=weixin_faq_list
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difference between them is that users outside China can register
with their local mobile phone number or Facebook account and
share their posts on WeChat “Moments” to Facebook or
Twitter if the WeChat account is linked to them.
B. Methodological challenges in my research project
In addition to the methodological challenges implied in
Miller et al.’s study, I identified three more methodological
challenges. These challenges appear to be relevant for other
researchers investigating the roles or functions of emoji in text-
based CMC.
1) Challenge one: researcher’s devices as one more layer
In Miller et al.’s study, the relationship between researchers
and participants in the data collection process is bilateral (see
Fig. 1), that is, participants interpret the semantics and judge
the sentiment of the samples, then the researchers collect the
data and analyse them. The renderings of each Unicode emoji
being investigated in the process of data collection remain
stable or static, so that what the participants see on the survey
page is the same as what the researchers see before and after
the data collection.
Figure 1. Relationship between researchers and participants in the data
collection in Miller et al.’s study
Compared with Miller et al.’s study, the relationship
between my participants and me in the data collection process
is trilateral (see Fig. 2). That is, there are exchanges between
two parties (mentor and mentee) in a private chat on WeChat.
These chat logs are sent to me mainly by mentees, but
sometimes by mentors. Thus, the process of data generation
and collection involves three parties: mentor, mentee, and me.
Figure 2. Relationship between the two participants in a private chat and me in
the data collection
Taking account of Miller et al.’s research findings, there are
possibilities of miscommunication resulting from the different
operating systems or platforms among the mentee and the
mentor in a private chat mode if they send Unicode emoji in
their exchanges. And more possibilities of misinterpretation of
the Unicode emoji in participants’ chat logs may arise in my
research since the operating systems or platforms of my
devices (laptop or desktop) are involved in receiving and
translating these Unicode emoji.
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2) Challenge two: different software versions may
influence the interpretation of data
A specific Unicode emoji can vary across versions. For
example, the Unicode emoji (U+1F601, “grinning face
with smiling eyes”) on iOS 5.0 and iOS 6.0 looks closer to the
grimacing face on many platforms. It was changed into
on iOS 10.0, and is now consistently a smiling/happy face16.
This change may reduce the possibilities of users
misinterpreting the Unicode emoji (as in Miller et al.’s
study) if users have updated their iOS to version 10.0 or later.
For users who have not updated their iOS to one of these later
versions, the misinterpretation and miscommunication will still
exist, and therefore, researchers who collect and analyse
Unicode emoji on iOS operating systems need to be aware of
this change, and establish whether their participants are using
the Unicode emoji with iOS version 10.0 or a later version.
A set of Unicode emoji on a platform may also be changed
massively between versions. For example, Google has
announced that it would stop using the blobs and it would
adopt round yellow faces. This full redesign means Google has
dropped blobs completely (@rachelbeen & @agustin_fonts;
Hern). According to Google emoji team’s blog post on 19 May
2017 17 , the change is not only to address the stylistic
divergence resulting from the additional emoji added across
Google’s emoji categories over the years but to address Google
emoji’s cross-platform emotional inconsistency, and “to avoid
confusion or miscommunication across platforms”.
Although Google promises that Android users18 can update
their phones with newer emoji sets without installing new
versions of the operating system, as long as users do not update
their phones with these newer emoji sets, the potential for
miscommunication resulting from the old version of Google’s
Unicode emoji set still exists (Hern). Therefore, it is necessary
for researchers who investigate emoji involving Google’s
Unicode emoji to be aware of this change, and take account of
it in both collecting and analysing data.
3) Challenge three: participants’ input method editor
(IME)19 on their devices may influence their use of emoji and
researcher’s interpretation of data
Purewal’s article shows that Android users can use iOS
Unicode emoji. Then, if a participant is using a Samsung
mobile phone, the built-in Unicode emoji set on his/her phone
is Samsung’s, but (s)he has the chance to use iOS Unicode
emoji by downloading and installing third-party IME(s) and
sending iOS Unicode emoji to his/her interlocutor. In this case,
the problem with miscommunication or misinterpretation of
Unicode emoji may result from IME(s) on participants’ devices,
because iOS Unicode emoji and Samsung Unicode emoji have
16 Please refer to Footnote 15
17 https://medium.com/google-design/redesigning-android-emoji-
cb22e3b51cc6
18 These users exclude ones with Samsung phones and LG phones,
because these two manufacturers have their own emoji sets, which replaced
Google’s emoji set.
19 “Input Method Editor” is also known as “input method”, “input
keyboard”, or “keyboard”.
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different degrees of misinterpretation according to Miller et
al.’s study. Thus researchers have to establish what IME(s)
participants are using at the very beginning of data collection,
and ask participants to report any changes.
Moreover, some Android users may not download IME
with the Unicode emoji, but rather use the IME on their devices
with built-in Unicode emoji. For example, Huawei Honor has
Huawei IME, and Mi-4c has iFLY (讯飞, Xùnfēi). (See more
details about the two phones in Table V) The two built-in IMEs
have the iOS Unicode emoji set. In my research, one mentor’s
Coolpad 7390’s IME had built-in iOS Unicode emoji. WeChat
users with iOS devices may access the built-in iOS Unicode
emoji on their phones.
Furthermore, specific applications may have part of built-in
iOS Unicode emoji. For example, WeChat has a number of
default Unicode emoji on its emoji keyboard, so users can
choose them directly.
In conclusion, as long as participants have possibilities to
use Unicode emoji (including WeChat default Unicode emoji),
miscommunication may happen, and researchers may
misinterpret the roles of such emoji in participants’ relationship
building.
4) Challenge four: interpreting Emoji on WeChat in my
research project
From Table III we can see that among the total of 504
paralinguistic features in the records that I have, 369 were
initially ambiguous (up to 73.2%), and 323 out of the total 369
were QQ emoji.
TABLE III. PARALINGUISTIC FEATURES THAT I COULD (NOT)
RELIABLY INTERPRET IN THE PARTICIPANTS’ CHAT LOGS SENT VIA EMAILS
What I could reliably What I could not reliably interpret
interpret (initially)
Emoticons Unicode Animated QQ Unicode Animated Uncertain
emojia emojib emoji emoji emoji
109 25 1 323 31
a. I saw part of these Unicode emoji or WeChat default Unicode emoji in the original chat logs on an
Australian participant’s phone during the interview, and the others appeared as images in the emails that
b. I saw this WeChat animated emoji in the original chat logs on an Australian participant’s phone
The methodological challenges were threefold:
a) problems with interpreting Unicode emoji
Problems with interpreting Unicode emoji (regardless of
WeChat default Unicode emoji, built in or downloadedUnicode
emoji on participants’ devices) in my research include:
i. Across platforms
In the 19 out of the 23 pairs who sent their chat logs to me,
only 6 pairs used the same operating systems: 3 pairs with iOS,
2 pairs with Android (Samsung), and 1 pair with Android
(HTC). So possibilities of miscommunication resulting from
different renderings of Unicode emoji exist.
Fig. 3 suggests that, an individual Unicode emoji can be
rendered as two separate Unicode emoji, or translated into the
word “Sticker” in the emails that I received on a Mac.
Therefore, for a researcher like me who receives participants’
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chat logs via email on Mac, (s)he will not be able to know
which Unicode emoji participants actually used, as a
consequence, (s)he will not be able to analyse what emotion or
lexical meaning this specific Unicode emoji is conveying and
its role in participants’ relationship building. This happens
within WeChat between Apple devices, namely, iOS and Mac.
20
The Unicode emoji as The received
sent in WeChat Unicode emoji in
(6.5.7) from iOS WeChat (1.2.2.1) for
(10.1.1) Mac (10.10.5)21
[Sticker]
(What I saw in the email on my Mac (10.10.5))
Figure 3. A problem with Unicode emoji within WeChat between Apple
devices
One more example can be seen in Fig. 4. In this example,
one Unicode emoji with three people and with indicators of age,
gender and appearance is rendered with four people but
without those indicators. And it is translated into the word
“Sticker” in the email. This problem happens within WeChat
across platforms, i. e., iOS, Android, and Mac.
The Unicode emoji The Unicode emoji
as sent in WeChat received in WeChat
(6.5.7) from iOS (6.5.4) on Huawei
(10.1.1) Android (EMUI 3.0.1)
[Sticker]
(What I saw in the email on my Mac (10.10.5))
emoji: Figure 4. A problem with Unicode emoji within WeChat across platforms
[表情]
ii. Across versions
14 1
Since my data collection on the WeChat platform lasted 14
weeks, it involved updates of participants’ devices in terms of
I received. both their operating systems22 and versions of WeChat. The
updates may have influenced my participants’ use of Unicode
during the interview.
emoji.
iii. Different possibilities to access Unicode emoji.
My participants who were using Android devices could
access iOS Unicode emoji, which has been mentioned
previously. So I could not know what Unicode emoji they had
used. Taking participants who were using Samsung devices for
example, I could not tell whether they had used the built-in
20 The pictures of Unicode emoji and QQ emoji were screenshots taken
from my devices or devices available to me in Table V.
21 Users can only send chat logs from WeChat for phones or tablets.
22 Take the iOS operating system as an example, there are six updates
(from version 8.4 to version 9.1) during the 14 weeks of my data collection
from WeChat. The detailed iOS version history can be found at
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_version_history Although the six iOS
version updates did not mention there were changes involving emoji, there
probably be updates of other operating systems involving such changes,
considering my participants used different Android phones.
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Samsung Unicode emoji, or iOS Unicode emoji from the third-
party IME(s) they downloaded.
iv. Table IV suggests that for certain emoji I will not be
able to interpret the emotions and meanings they are
conveying from the translations of the Unicode emoji.
TABLE IV. TRANSLATIONS OF UNICODE EMOJI AND
ANIMATED EMOJI IN MY RECORDS
Types of Translations of Emoji in the chat logs that I
Emoji received
Unicode [Sticker] [表情] [Autocollant] (“Sticker” in French)
Emoji
Animated [Sticker Gallery] [表情] [ステッカーギャラリー]
Emoji
(“Sticker Gallery” in Japanese)
b) problems with interpreting animated emoji
i. Participants’ operating systems may influence the
number of animated emoji that I received in emails.
For a participant who uses iOS (for example, iPhones in
Table V), whether or not (s)he downloaded the animated emoji
that (s)he received from his/her interlocutor or (s)he
downloaded them from WeChat “Sticker Gallery” (表情商店,
Biǎoqíng shāngdiàn) may influence whether or not the
animated emoji appears in the chat logs in emails that I
received. There is a reminder after the sender has ticked the
messages that (s)he wants to send to me but has not sent yet,
which says: “(U)nable to send non-downloaded stickers 23 ,
videos or files form selected messages.” If the sender does
nothing in response, the animated emoji will not be sent and
will not appear in the chat logs in my email, and there will be
no indicator visible to me of the sender of this animated emoji,
the time when the system received it, not even a translation of
this emoji such as “[Sticker Gallery]” or “[表情]” or “[ステッ
24
カーギャラリー]” (see Table IV) in the email suggesting
such messages are missing. Therefore, I will have no way of
knowing if they have used animated emoji.
In comparison, if the sender of these chat logs is using
WeChat on an Android phone (for example, Huawei Honor
(EMUI 3.0.1) (Android: 4.4.4)), information about the
animated emoji can appear in the email that I received
regardless of whether (s)he has downloaded it or not.
As a consequence, it is necessary for researchers to be
aware of such differences, because if the sender of the chat logs
is using an iPhone, what the researchers can see in their emails
may not include animated emoji that the sender received from
his/her interlocutor, if (s)he had not downloaded them to
his/her WeChat.
ii. Impossible for me to interpret the emotions and
meanings they are conveying from the translations, as shown
in Table IV.
On the basis of the above analysis, I am not able to solve
the methodological challenges regarding Unicode emoji and
animated emoji that emerged from my research. I will focus on
23 That is, the animated emoji.
24 I tested with the four language settings on A’s WeChat at my second
stage of test, then I can see the animated emoji can be translated into four
languages respectively. Maybe if tested with more languages, there could be
more translations.
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analyzing the chat logs sent by participants with Android
operating systems, in case some animated emoji may not be
included in the emails that I received. And I will also analyse
the Unicode emoji and animated emoji that I saw on the
participants’ phones in the second round interview.
c) problems with interpreting QQ emoji
i. Across platforms
Different platforms have different numbers of QQ emoji,
which will be described in the following sections.
ii. Across WeChat versions
Over the 14 weeks of my study, different participants had
chances to use at least 10 versions of WeChat. For example,
some participants’ phones were set with automatic updates, so
their WeChat could remain the latest version, which has been
confirmed when I was handling the malware XcodeGhost issue
in September 2015, which happened in my data collection
period25. Additionally, two QQ emoji that my participants
used in 2015 do not appear in the WeChat emoji keyboard on
later versions of WeChat in 2017.
Even though the official website does list some versions of
the updates, there was no information indicating the change
(such as how many and what QQ emoji were changed at what
time) within the 14 weeks when I collected data from WeChat.
III. RESOLVING METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES
REGARDING QQ EMOJI
Resolving these methodological challenges regarding QQ
emoji involved two stages.
• Stage One: WeChat has a distinctive feature that is, a
user can send messages to him/herself. I took
advantage of this feature. I used my iPhone 5s and my
WeChat account, an international version that could
access Facebook and Twitter. I sent different messages
to myself, and I checked what I could see on my
devices, including WeChat for my iPhone 5s, WeChat
for my Mac, then sent the “chat logs” to my email
account from this phone, and read the email on my
Mac laptop and Windows desktop. I also used my
phone and other phones to send messages containing
different kinds of emoji to see what they would be
translated into.
• Stage Two: In this stage, I used an iPhone 6s with an
international WeChat account to simulate an Australian
student’s phone (A’s phone), and I used a Huawei
Honor phone with a Chinese WeChat account to
stimulate a Chinese mentor’s phone (C’s phone). First,
I set different languages on WeChat for each phone,
and sent a set of messages input in different languages
(English, Chinese, Japanese and French) from both A’s
phone and C’s phone. Then I sent their “chat logs”
from A’s phone and C’s phone separately to my email
account, and compared the translations of each emoji
in the emails on my computers.
25 See the versions of WeChat for different platforms at
http://weixin.qq.com/cgi-bin/readtemplate?lang=zh_CN&t=weixin_faq_list
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The process and the results of the two-stage tests are
described below.
a) Critical references and its drawbacks
柳峰 (Liǔfēng, his real name is 刘运强, Liú Yùnqiáng, but
he is known by his network name, “柳峰”) is one of the
pioneers who developed programs within WeChat Public
Platform. He posted some articles on his blog26 in 2013, and a
book based on these articles in 2014 (柳峰). Chapter seven of
this book discusses emoji, including QQ emoji and Unicode
emoji used on WeChat (柳峰 186-198).
柳峰 points out that QQ emoji are transmitted as codes, but
they are rendered as images, so there must be codes for each
QQ emoji (187). He posits that QQ emoji have two codes: “文
字代码” and “符号代码” (textual codes and semiotic codes27).
He also maintains that users can get QQ emoji by inputting
their codes (both textual codes and semiotic codes) without
choosing them from WeChat’s emoji keyboard, as long as
users know the codes (190). He lists codes and the
corresponding images of 105 QQ emoji used on WeChat28
(187-189).
The images that appeared in 柳峰’s blog post and book
were screenshots of the animated QQ emoji. In fact, according
to _Glen_, who posted an article saying that the QQ emoji for
smartphones on QQ were animated, but the QQ emoji on
WeChat were still29. In _Glen_’s article posted on 12 May
2015, there was a picture of the 105 QQ emoji. The images or
appearances of the 105 QQ emoji in that article are the same as
what I can see with the devices and version in May 2017. (See
Table V and Table VII). This means that the images of QQ
emoji that my participants used and viewed with their versions
in my data collection period in 2015 are the same as what I can
see with my devices and versions in 2017.
There is a drawback in 柳峰’s lists, specifically, that the
punctuation marks in the textual codes and the semiotic codes,
namely, “[ ]”, “/” and “:” must be English ones rather than their
Chinese equivalents, otherwise they cannot be rendered. For
example, in 柳峰’s book, the Chinese textual codes for are
“/ 微笑” and “[ 微笑 ]”, which cannot be rendered correctly
when being pasted and sent on WeChat, because there are
spaces between the Chinese punctuation marks and the
characters. Only “/ 微 笑 ” and “[ 微 笑 ]” can be rendered
correctly (187-189).
b) Assumptions
No matter what platform a mentor and a mentee used when
they communicated with each other in the private chat mode, if
they choose QQ emoji from the WeChat emoji keyboard, they
could see the images of QQ emoji, however, what I could see
26 http://blog.csdn.net/lyq8479/article/details/9229631
27 Although he says that he is not sure if these two names are precise on
his blog post. I accept these names and have translated them as “textual
codes” and “semiotic codes”.
28 These codes and their corresponding images of QQ emoji can be also
found on 柳峰’s blog post:
http://blog.csdn.net/lyq8479/article/details/9229631.
29 http://www.jianshu.com/p/9fb1bc4a77ea
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in the chat logs that I received was only codes. To know
whether or not what my participants saw with their devices and
WeChat versions is the same as what I saw with my devices
and WeChat versions, I decided to use the codes of QQ emoji
to do deductions.
According to 柳峰, each QQ emoji has two codes: a Chinese
textual code and a semiotic code (187). And from the chat logs
that I received I can see that each QQ emoji has more than one
code. So it is not a one-to-one relationship.
Among the 37 QQ emoji that my participants used in 2015,
two, i.e., and were not in the default QQ emoji in
WeChat (6.3.30), WeChat (6.5.7) and WeChat (6.5.8) for iOS
(10.1.1) that I could see in 2017.
A1-L3 22:05
/:eat/:strong
Two codes in the The codes were The codes were re-
chat log sent by a re-rendered as emoji rendered as emoji
mentee in the images in WeChat images in WeChat
email on my Mac (1.2.2.1) for Mac (6.5.7) for iOS
on 2 September (10.10.5) on 8 May (10.1.1) on 8 May
2015. 2017. 2017.
Figure 5. How the non-default QQ emoji is re-rendered in later WeChat
versions
c) Obtaining the English textual codes “[English]” and
Chinese textual codes “[Chinese]” for the QQ emoji
There were English textual codes of QQ emoji in the chat
logs that I received. But 柳峰 (“WeChat public account”; 187-
189) did not list English textual codes, therefore, it is necessary
for me to go back to fist principles to work out what they might
be.
Because my participants could only send chatlogs via email
from their phones, it is necessary for me to know the codes of
QQ emoji on phones.
By continuing to hold on the QQ emoji on WeChat for
phones when WeChat is set in English and in Chinese, I
obtained the English codes and Chinese codes of each QQ
emoji on WeChat for phones (both with “[ ]”), which are
supplements to what 柳峰 listed (“WeChat public account”;
187-189).
d) The QQ emoji that my participants used in the chat
logs that I received
By sending all the codes that I obtained to WeChat for
different platforms and WeChat versions (see Table V and
Table VII), I discovered that my participants had used 37 QQ
emoji. (See Table VI and Table VII)
e) Codes of the 37 QQ emoji on different platforms
After sending the 37 QQ emoji from WeChat for Mac and
for Windows to myself, I sent the “chat logs” containing all of
the received QQ emoji from my phone via email, then I
obtained the codes of QQ emoji on computers. Next, by
hovering the cursor on each of the 37 QQ emoji on WeChat for
Web (https://wx.qq.com), I obtained their codes on this
platform. Finally, by cross-referencing all of the codes of QQ
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TABLE V. TABLE V. DEVICES AND THEIR OPERATING SYTEMS, MODELS, VERSIONS TESTED TO OBTAIN THE CODES OF QQ
EMOJI

WeChat in Different Devices

Device WeChat WeChat
WeChat (International) (Mainland China)
Brand & Operating Android Version
Model System Version
iPhone 5S iOS (10.1.1) NA 6.5.8 √
(14B100)
iPhone 6S iOS (10.3.1) NA 6.5.7 √
(14E304)
iPhone 6 iOS (10.3.1) NA 6.5.8 √
Smart (14E304)
Phones Huawei EMUI (3.0.1) 4.4.4 6.5.4 √
Honor
CHM-CL00
OPPO R9m ColorOS: v3.0.0 5.1 6.5.8 √

Mi-4c MIUI 8.2 Stable 7.0 NRD90M 6.5.7 √

8.2.3.0
(NXKCNEC)
Mac 10.10.5
Laptop
Computer
Windows Windows 7
Desktop Ultimate
emoji on different platforms (phones, computers, and web), I
found that each of the 37 QQ emoji has at least 4 codes (one
two Chinese codes, and one semiotic code30), which is shown
in Table VI.
Each platform may have used different sets of codes. For
example, WeChat web version has used only two sets of codes:
the English codes and Chinese codes with “[]”.
Additionally, the codes may have variations across
operating systems or platforms. Table VII suggests that both
and have at least five codes. Specifically, although
the code “[Bye]” is not employed on WeChat for Mac and
WeChat web version, it is employed on WeChat for phones
and for Windows. And the code “/愉快” is not employed on
WeChat for iOS, for Mac, for WeChat web version, it is
employed on WeChat for Windows.
f) A resolution
These codes help me understand that among the 37 QQ emoji,
35 of them can be rendered as the same image by 4 codes, and
2 of them can be rendered as the same image by 5 codes. So no
matter which of the four (for the 35 QQ emoji) or of the five
codes (for the two QQ emoji and ) my participants’
devices have employed, as long as my participants used the QQ
emoji from WeChat emoji keyboard instead of getting them by
inputting their codes, they are all the same emoji with the same
appearance (which is less likely because they must know the
codes of QQ emoji very well). Then the codes in both Table
VI and Table VII can be used as reliable references for me to
connect the QQ emoji that my participants used and saw with
their devices and former versions and the QQ emoji that I can
see with my devices and later versions.
30 I do not test textual codes in languages other than English and Chinese,
because the chat logs that the participants sent to me did not include textual
codes in other languages.
NA 1.2.2.1 √
NA 2.4.5.37 √
IV. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The purpose of clarifying the codes of the 37 QQ emoji is
not to infer what codes my participants have used when they
were chatting.
Instead, with the codes of the 37 QQ emoji and taking
account of the consistency of the images or appearances of
them from May 2015 to the present, I can know the WeChat
QQ emoji that the participants used and saw with their devices
are the same as what I can (see Fig. 6). Thus, I will be able to
analyze the functions of QQ emoji in participants’ relationship
building and the subsequent Chinese language learning.
Addressing the methodological challenges regarding QQ
emoji enables me to interpret the 323 uses of the 37 QQ emoji
to understand how they might influence the relationship
building and the sustainability of their participation. Moreover,
the method that I used to resolve QQ emoji can be employed
by other researchers in WeChat context, and in other contexts if
they are able to see the codes in their data set. And the method
that I resolved the 37 QQ emoji can also be used by researchers
to resolve the remaining QQ emoji.
In addition to this contribution, I have also revealed
methodological challenges regarding researching Unicode
emoji and animated emoji in general and specific
methodological challenges emerging from my research project,
although I cannot solve them so far.
V. LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
A. Limitations
To collect chat logs from one-to-one private chat mode on
WeChat, there are at least three ways for participants to send or
forward their chat logs to the researcher:

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Textual Code Semiotic Image

TABLE VI. CODES FOR THE 37 QQ EMOJI IN THE CHAT LOGS English Chinese Code
SENT TO ME VIA EMAILS [Panic] [惊恐] /惊恐 /::!
Textual Code Semiotic Image
[Shake] [握手] /握手 /:share
English Chinese Code
[Trick] [坏笑] /坏笑 /:B-) [NosePick] [抠鼻] /抠鼻 /:dig

[Wave] [再见] /再见 /:bye [Scowl] [发呆] /发呆 /::|

[Puke] [吐] /吐 /::T
[Whimper] [可怜] /可怜 /:8*
[Shy] [害羞] /害羞 /::$
[Shocked] [疑问] /疑问 /:?
[Blush] [冷汗] /冷汗 /:--b
[CoolGuy] [得意] /得意 /:8-)
[Sweat] [流汗] /流汗 /::L
[Sleep] [睡] /睡 /::Z
[Cry] [大哭] /大哭 /::'(
TABLE VII. THE CODES OF TWO QQ EMOJI AND THEIR
RENDERINGS ON DIFFERENT PLATFORMS
[Dizzy] [晕] /晕 /:,@@
Image Codes In WeChat In WeChat In WeChat WeChat
[Moon] [月亮] /月亮 /:moon (6.5.8) for (1.2.2.1) (2.4.5.37) (Web)
iOS (10.1.1) for Mac for
[Determined] [奋斗] /奋斗 /:,@f (14B100) (10.10.5) Windows 7
(laptop) Ultimate
[Heart] [爱心] /爱心 /:heart (Desktop)
[Joyful] [愉快] /可爱 31
/:,@-D [Wave] √ √ √ √
[Bye] √ × √ ×
[Chuckle] [偷笑] /偷笑 /:,@P [再见] √ √ √ √
/再见 √ √ √ ×
[ThumbsUp] [强] /强 /:strong
/:bye √ √ √ ×
[Grin] [呲牙] /呲牙 /::D [Joyful] √ √ √ √
[Clap] /:handclap [愉快] √ √ √ √
[鼓掌] /鼓掌
/愉快 × × √ ×
[Smile] [微笑] /微笑 /::) /可爱 √ √ × ×
/:,@-D √ √ √ ×
[Tongue] [调皮] /调皮 /::P

[OK] [OK] /OK /:ok

[Peace] [胜利] /胜利 /:v

[Sob] [流泪] /流泪 /::<

[Grimace] [撇嘴] /撇嘴 /::~

[Awkward] [尴尬] /尴尬 /::-|

[Tormented] [抓狂] /抓狂 /::Q

[Drool] [色] /色 /::B

[Rice] [饭] /饭 /:eat

Figure 6. The relationship between an individual QQ emoji, it’s codes and me
[Shame] [糗大 /糗大 /:&-(
了] 了
• “One-by-One Forward” (OOF), that is, select
[Sun] /:sun
messages one by one and forward them to me;
[太阳] /太阳
• “Combine and Forward” (CF), that is, select up to 100
[Surprise] [惊讶] /惊讶 /::O
messages at one go and forward them to me;
• or choose multiple messages (up to 100 at one go) and
send them to the researcher from one participant’s
31 Note: This Chinese textual code has different characters from the other
textual code “[愉快]”. In 柳峰’s blog (2013) and his book (187), this textual
phone via email.
My decision to employ the third method was based upon
code is “/愉快”, but it cannot be rendered as the image on WeChat for four considerations below.
iOS and WeChat for Mac (see Table VII). Having tested with different
synonyms of “愉快” for many times, the researcher found that only the textual
code “/可爱” can be rendered as the image.

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1) Considerations of collecting turn-takings between
mentor and mentee in their private chats
If a mentor or mentee uses the OOF method to forward
their chat logs to me, what I can see on my WeChat is that all
messages are sent by one person (that is, the person who
forwarded the chat logs to me), which means I will not be able
to know the turn takings between the mentor and mentee. In
comparison, the CF method and the third method can avoid this
problem.
2) Considerations of workload
If the participants send chat logs to me with the OOF
method or the CF method, I need to type them manually and
save them into Word files as archives. Taking account of my
Chinese participants’ backgrounds and that I was asking them
to provide professional and tailor-made support for the mentees,
I anticipated that there could be a huge amount of data.
Employing the third method enabled me to copy the chat logs
from the emails that I received then paste them into Word files
or Excel workbooks easily. Nonetheless, I did not know that I
would end up with a total of only 2,871 messages (1,255 sent
by mentees and 1,616 by mentors), which in fact is not difficult
to handle manually, and I did not realize that the third method
would still have many disadvantages.
3) Considerations of collecting emoji
Both the OOF method and the CF method enabled me to
see the images of QQ emoji, whereas with the third method I
could only see the codes of QQ emoji in the emails, like
“[Smile]” or “[ 微 笑 ]”, then I thought it would not be
problematic for my interpretation of these QQ emoji since the
codes were also the meanings of QQ emoji.
As for the animated emoji, they were translated into
“[Sticker Gallery]” or “[表情]” in the emails that I received,
but I thought I could ask my participants what animated emoji
they have sent or received when necessary.
However, I did not realize that WeChat has default emoji
(they turn out to be WeChat default Unicode emoji) that could
not be translated into words or definitions like QQ emoji in the
emails that I received. And I could not anticipate that
participants could have different possibilities to use Unicode
emoji.
Overall, the methodological challenges emerging from my
PhD research project are in part because of my data collection
method, and in part because of the restrictions of WeChat per
se. I tried to weigh the pros and cons of different methods
prior to the data collection then I chose the one (i.e., the third
method, participants send chat logs to me via emails) that I
assumed to have the least negative influences. Nevertheless, I
still could not resolve some emerging methodological
challenges, for example, interpreting Unicode emoji, WeChat
default Unicode emoji, and WeChat animated emoji, which
remain limitations.
B. Suggestions
1) about researching emoji in general
• if it is possible to anticipate the quantity of the text-
based CMC, and it is easy to archive, and the archiving
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does not change the graphics of the emoji in the chat
logs, then researchers should collect screenshots of
participants’ chats.
• collect details of the operating systems and versions on
participants’ devices and applications, and the IMEs at
the start of the research;
• ask participants to report any changes regarding these
three respects during the process of data collection;
• keep track of the updates of every version in every
device, and take notes if there are changes involving
emoji.
2) about researching Unicode emoji
In addition to the general suggestions for researching emoji,
my further suggestions about researching Unicode emoji are:
In the official website of The Unicode ○R Consortium
(http://unicode.org), there is authoritative and professional
knowledge regarding Unicode emoji, and there are full
Unicode emoji lists including every version. Additionally,
Emojipedia (http://emojipedia.org) clearly shows the evolution
of each individual Unicode emoji on a specific platform and its
variations across platforms. Researcher may take advantage of
these two website to know what images of Unicode emoji that
participants have within their devices, as long as (s)he knows
participants’ operating systems and software versions.
VI. CONCLUSION
In this chapter I described the established methodological
challenges outlined in Miller et al.’s (2016) study, then I
revealed more methodological challenges emerging from my
PhD research project, which tend to be general problems in
researching the roles or functions of paralinguistic features in
text-based CMC. I have shown how to resolve some but not all
of these challenges.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The data in this paper is based on the data set of my PhD
research project, which is funded by the School of Humanities
and Social Sciences, La Trobe University under Grant No.
2015-1-HDR-5. I want to thank my principal supervisor
Associate Professor Howard Nicholas and my co-supervisor Dr
Baoqiang Gao for their constructive comments on this paper. I
would also like to thank my Australian participants and
Chinese participants for their contribution to this research
project.
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[19] Vandergriff, I. (2013). Emotive communication online: A contextual
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Within Parameters
Technology Advancements to Support Student Performance
Neffisatu J. C. Dambo
Counseling, Quantitative Methods, and Special Education
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, Illinois, USA
Abstract—Technology is widely used throughout the world and
has become a source of everyday living. Technology has
academic, career, and economic benefits that assists with the
development of children as well as the development of our
society. The multifaceted abilities of technology and the high
levels of social interactions that have occurred as a result of
technology has brought our attention to the importance of
integrating technology to enhance learning outcomes and future
innovation, as well as the need to heighten safety and privacy
regulations. This can occur through monitoring, training, and
multicultural considerations that promotes equitable resources
and supports. Therefore, this manuscript will discuss the
following: (a) the benefits, deterrents, and challenges of
integrating e-learning, (b) how technology access (school, home,
community) and usage may influence the technological divide,
and (c) a proposed research study and model that considers the
most prominent cultural stratifications that intermingles with
educational technology gaps currently affecting at-promise (low
SES) youth.
Keywords: technology, e-learning, socioeconomic status,
multicultural considerations
I. INTRODUCTION
The integration of technology has been on the rise since the
mid 90’s (Ceci & Papierno, 2005). Technology has been used
throughout the world for social networking, learning,
traveling, careers, government, and in the everyday
functioning of children and adults. While there are many uses
of the internet, it is important to understand that today’s youth
unprecedented ease of access to information and the relative
low cost associated with access provides children with distinct
advantages inside and outside the academic environment
(Dogruer, Eyyam & Menevis, 2011). As a result of the mass
evolvement of technology and advancement, it has been
identified as a necessary tool to efficiently operate in today’s
society.
Technology can have societal benefits and positive
influences on individuals’ development and opportunities for
success (Witt, Massman, & Jackson, 2011). However, there
have been reports of necessary precautions to consider with
the integration of technology in order to mitigate potential
fears related to safety, cultural inequities (i.e., technological,
educational, economic, and opportunity gaps), health, and
psychological development (O’Keeffe, Clarke-Pearson, and
Council on Communications and Media, 2011). These
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Randolph Burnside
Political Science
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, Illinois, USA
concerns are especially pertinent as it pertains to children and
youth who are highly prone to technological vulnerabilities
that may interact with their developmental progression and
transitions (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008; Newman &
Newman, 2015). Adolescents are at a critical juncture in their
lives when identity development and peer pressure can have a
vital influence (Newman & Newman, 2015). Therefore, adult
interactions, guidance, and boundaries play a crucial role in
their development and future trajectory (Eynon & Malmberg,
2011; O’Keeffe, et al., 2011). This emphasizes the need for
parents, educators, technical engineers, congress, and
governing policy makers to engage in and provide additional
education to children and stakeholders, as well as the need for
supervision, monitoring, training and research to provide
efficient parameters (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008; Jackson,
Eye, Fitzgerald, Zhao, & Witt, 2010; Rockman, 1995).
Without appropriate parameters, such as adult supervision
and student training (technology safeguards and privacy, self-
regulation, decision making, coping), youth are highly
susceptible to technological dangers and may engage in
inappropriate technology use (misrepresentation of identity,
sexting, cyberbullying, hate speech) O’Keeffe, et al., 2011).
These internet dangers have resulted in health issues (i.e.,
psychological distress, bystander or bullying trauma, self-
concept), teen legal charges (theft, child pornography), school
suspension, abduction, and mortality (Aslanidou & Menexes,
2008; Jackson, et al., 2010; O’Keeffe, et al., 2011). These
risks can also be detrimental to their health, academic
achievement, scheduled graduation, post-secondary academic
pursuits, and career opportunities (Witt, et al., 2011). While it
is important to acknowledge potential technology risks, the
benefits of technology can definitely outweigh the challenges
when proactive interventions are implemented to mitigate
technology risks that safeguard the future of youth. It is
imperative that scholars acknowledge the benefits and barriers
(i.e., access, resources, risk) to e-learning (curriculum
integration) due to the impact it can have on student learning
outcomes, performance, and developmental transitions.
Understanding how youth are using the internet is important
because it has the potential to enhance the learning
environment, deepen the quality of education, as well as allow
students with the opportunity to be more innovative, open
minded, and culturally aware of the world around them
(Ciglaric et al., 1998; Charp, 2000; Dryli & Kinnaman 1996;).
There are preexisting barriers to access, education technology
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gaps, and stratifications as it pertains to group identification
(i.e., socioeconomic status, parental education attainment,
disability, African-Americans) that can be perpetuated if
intentional safeguards are not put in place to deliberately
support the implementation of e-learning during the time of
rapid technological advances (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008;
Jackson, et al., 2010; Jackson, Zhao, Kolenic, Fitzgerald,
Harold, & Eye, 2008; Vikiri, 2010; Witt, et al., 2011; Zickuhr
& Smith, 2012). Rapid changes in how youth access the
internet provides challenges in understanding how this
enhances or inhibits the role of internet use in the learning
process. Unprecedented access to technology provides parents
and educators with the opportunity to rethink the learning
environment and the appropriate role of technology and
internet to be used as a tool to enhance learning. To this point,
numerous studies have come to the conclusion that access to
the internet and using it for a variety of functions are
widespread among today’s youth (Aslanidou & Menexes,
2008; Wells & Lewis, 2006; Todd, 2008; Witt, et al., 2011).
However, less is known about specific use of internet through
the differing devices that are available today and further, how
access to these devices lend themselves to the type of usage
for learning purposes.
Researchers are evaluating students’ access to computers
and e-learning outside the classroom (i.e., home), as well as
exploring how personality types may mediate technology
selection and activity amongst youth who have limited
personality role identification due to their development (Witt,
et al., 2011). While inferences have been made regarding the
influence technology can have on students’ academic
performance and developmental transitions, less is known
about the following: (a) how the specific implementation and
use of differing technology devices can be integrated into the
curriculum (e-learning) and, (b) the growth impact it can have
on bridging the gap of at-promise students’ academic
performance and developmental transitions (Beemt,
Akkerman, & Simons, 2010; Jackson, et al., 2008). There
were also a limited number of qualitative studies and scant
evidence regarding how access through a variety of devices
enhance or inhibit academic based learning for students.
Therefore, this manuscript will review the following: (a) the
benefits, deterrents, and challenges of integrating e-learning,
(b) how technology access (school, home, community) and
usage may influence the technological divide, and (c) a
proposed research study and model that considers the most
prominent cultural stratifications that intermingles with
educational technology gaps currently affecting at-promise
(low SES) youth.
II. TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING
The use and expansion of technology since its beginning
has developed into what is now referred to as the technology
world. This is due to the overwhelming technical presence
throughout nations, rather it be in the world of work, in
academic settings, businesses, government settings, homes,
and in the everyday functioning of human beings. These
aspects can be identified through individual’s use of teller
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machines, banking, phone communication, games, computers,
tablets, e-books, and other IT devices (Zickuhr & Smith,
2012). In the 21st century, technology is a necessity not an
optional incentive. Researchers have shown that there are a
mass number of technology users around the world, while
researchers have reported that more than 90% of youth and
approximately 80% of adults have had some form of access to
the internet (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008; Witt, et al., 2011;
Jackson, et al., 2010; Zickuhr & Smith, 2012). Recent studies
show that a majority of children are engaged in using the
internet at very early ages for a variety of reasons (Todd,
2008). Studies conducted throughout America and Europe
report that over 75% of students used the internet for
homework, while the primary use of technology and internet
include social interaction (email, social media), entertainment
(music, movies, gaming), and information seeking (current
events, academic) (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008; Witt, et al.,
2011). While today’s youth are actively engaged in the social
networking and entertainment aspects of the internet, even
more important, many students have now turned the internet
into their virtual academic library.
This brings us to the realization that technology is a widely
used tool throughout the world that may become as
compulsory as monetary funds to function in our evolving
society. Therefore, it is important to ensure adequate
resources, such as technology (i.e., devices, broadband,
whiteboards, cameras) are available and are appropriately
integrated into the curriculum (Purcell, Heaps, Buchanan, &
Friedrich, 2013; Zickuhr & Smith, 2012). The integration of
technology devices for the purposes of educational enrichment
and learning have been classified as e-learning. E-learning
within the curriculum may enable students to have an adequate
education that promotes their successful developmental
transition and position in a technologically advanced society.
III. TECHNOLOLOGY BENEFITS VERSUS NEGATIVE
OUTCOMES
The use of technology devices has resulted in mixed
reviews pertaining to how they may have a positive or
negative impact on student’s adjustment, academics, social
relations, family interactions, self-esteem, and behavior.
Majority of students who utilized the internet believed the
internet was a helpful tool (Jackson, et al., 2010; Vekiri,
2010), especially as it pertained to school performance
(Jackson, Eye, Edward, Zhao, & Fitzgerald, 2011). The
benefits of IT and internet were supported by Jackson, et al.’s
(2008) quantitative longitudinal study with 12 year old
students (N = 515) that found students’ positive academic
performance was predicted by the time spent using the internet
and computers. IT and Internet use have also been reported to
positively enhance students’ spatial performance, academic
performance (GPA, standardized test), memorization, reading
abilities, vocabulary, and other academic areas (Beemt, et al.,
2010; Eamon, 2004; Jackson, et al., 2010; Jackson, et al.,
2008; Witt, et al., 2011). In fact, Jackson, Witt, Games,
Fitzgerald, Eye, and Zhao’s (2012) longitudinal study with
youth (N = 482) found students with low reading skills,
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improved their reading following their use of IT. Additionally,
researchers have found that IT has promoted learning,
creativity, problem solving, critical thinking, self-concept, and
other desirable skills that are transferrable in the world of
work and in everyday life (Eynon & Malmberg, 2011; Jackson
et al, 2012). Jackson, et al.’s, (2010) study with 12 year old
students (N = 500) from South Michigan and an after school
program in Detroit illustrated the relationship between
students IT use and self-concept. They found a positive
relationship between high SES students IT use and their self-
concepts (physical, athletic, behavioral).
The benefits of IT and the internet were also reported by
educators. Purcell, et al.’s (2013) quantitative study with
highly qualified 6th thru 12th grade teachers (e.g., National
Writing Project teachers, Advanced Placement teachers) (N =
2,462) examined teacher’s ownership of technology and their
use of internet. This study found that internet had a major
influence on teachers’ ability to communicate, share ideas, and
access resources (Purcell, et al., 2013). Teachers also reported
that they used and integrated multiple e-learning devices into
the curriculum for research, discussion boards, homework,
collaborations, and peer editing (Purcell, et al., 2013). In
addition to the benefits that the internet and IT can have on
direct instructional practices (record keeping, data storage,
curriculum planning, student engagement, academic tracking),
there have been many reports on how these resources may
inadvertently enhance learning and communication. For
instance, IT and the internet have strengthened research,
communication (family, friends), networking opportunities,
career exploration, job opportunities, access to shared
resources (i.e., data, curricula activities), as well as lessened
communication issue related to language barriers (Jackson, et
al., 2010; Zickuhr & Smith, 2012). The integration of e-
learning as a supplemental tool may inspire stakeholders hope
in bridging existing cultural gaps, especially when proactive
measures are put in place to address potential digital divides
that perpetuate generational inequities.
There are opposing arguments that exist concerning IT and
internet use, as well as the integration of e-learning within the
curriculum. These include: supervision, demonstration of
clear relevance, safety needs of children, usability (skill,
complications with navigating), privacy, and the lack of
equitable access and resources (computers, broadband, cost,
personnel) (O’Keeffe, et al., 2011; Zichkuhr & Smith, 2012).
Adults also expressed concerns with IT and internet not being
used for learning, but fears students time being monopolized,
while promoting addictions, social relational barriers, blurred
boundaries, inappropriate sharing, poor health (obesity), as
well as a deterioration in physical activity, GPA, and desired
behavior (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008; Jackson, et al., 2010;
O’Keeffe, et al., 2011). Wood, Mueller, Willoughby, Specht,
and Deyoung (2005) study with elementary and secondary
teachers (N = 54) yielded similar findings regarding the
challenges of adopting e-learning and also reported computer
hardware and software as a barrier to integrating technology.
There were also reports made by educators pertaining to their
need for access, quality IT support, and e-learning training.
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Additionally, there were specific challenges and concerns of
integrating e-learning as it pertained to external expectations
of teachers to become IT experts and their evolving
multidisciplinary role to become aware of IT for the purposes
of implementation. Teachers noted concerns related to the
challenges of balancing multiple roles and pressures related to
meeting standards, pressures of standardized testing, managing
behaviors, diverse communication with families, enduring
classroom sizes exceeding IT management, and other
instructional responsibilities. Addressing the challenges
facing educators is critical because teachers’ knowledge,
familiarity, and comfort with IT influenced their attitudes and
behaviors of implementing technology into their classrooms
(Wood, et al., 2005).
IV. MULTICULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR E-LEARNING
Technology is believed to be a resource that can help
negate inequities and help level the playing field when
proactive measures are put in place (Jackson, et al., 2011;
Rockman, 1995). Access to adequate IT devices and internet
was a primary concern as it pertained to equitable
opportunities and educational opportunities for school age
children to engage in e-learning. Stakeholders (teachers,
researchers) have been extremely concerned with the potential
impact of digital divides, which could perpetuate educational
gaps (Purcell, et al., 2013; Vekiri, 2010; Witt, et al., 2011).
Researchers persistently illustrated current stratifications
between students’ IT and internet access, SES, geographic
location, and parents’ educational attainment. This was even
more prevalent with students’ lack of access to IT devices and
sufficient internet outside of school (Jackson, et al., 2010;
Zickuhr & Smith, 2012). The lack of students’ access (i.e.,
advanced placement) to e-learning devices outside of school
(i.e., home) has imputed great controversy due to the impact it
may have on students’ equitable learning opportunities, thus
resources that affect playing fields. Opportunely, the lack of
IT access in academic settings have decreased with more
schools increasing the presence of IT devices. According to a
report by Wells and Lewis (2006), nearly all public high
schools had access to the internet. However, there were
differences (i.e., location, quality) depending on the
characteristics of the schools. These findings suggest that the
access and use of the internet as a regular part of the secondary
school curriculum is widespread.
While it is important to ensure computer access and
internet in schools where approximately 40% of students were
first introduced to the internet, it is also important to consider
the need for students to have home access to computers and
the internet (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008). Students with
access to home computers used the device double the amount
when compared to students without home computers and were
likely to reap the benefits of additional use. Access for
students to home computers cannot be understated. Current
research indicates that computer access has positive impacts
on students’ skill development, academic performance, and
computer efficacy. Additionally, home computers have also
been found to engender positive attitudes and beliefs about
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computer use, which is known to promote efficacy and lessen
computer anxiety (Vekiri, 2010). Tsai and Tsai’s (2010)
quantitative study with junior high students (N = 936) showed
a significant (p = .016) relationship between students’ home
ownership of computers and their efficacy with using
computers. The influence of technology amongst particular
groups were also exemplified through Aslanidou and Menexes
(2008) quantitative study with high school students (N = 418)
from 17 schools located in Greece who examined the social
stratification, IT knowledge, and use of home internet. They
found a major difference between students who lived in small
provincial towns. These students were 30 to 40 percent less
likely to have internet than students who lived in the capital or
in larger urban cities. The findings from this research showed
that location and access to computers could influence computer
use, thus hinder individuals from reaping the benefits of e-
learning. Ensuring sufficient access and use of IT devices and
internet could be extremely helpful for students, especially at-
promise youth who have been known to incur challenges (lack
of resources, access, support) that result in their groups lower
academic performance (Zickuhr & Smith, 2012). Equitable
home resources can position low SES students and
underprivileged groups to reap the benefits of e-learning, as
well as emasculate predicted projections of underprivileged
populations to incur academic and skill deficiencies that could
interfere with future opportunities
(college, career, civic involvement).
A. Socioeconomic Status and Technology Ownership
According to Jackson et al. (2008), underprivileged
individuals (i.e., teachers, students) had similar interest in
using IT and integrating e-learning as their counterparts
(wealthier, highly resourced teachers). Unfortunately, students
from less affluent communities and groups (low SES) were
less likely than their peers to have access to educational tools
(e.g., computers, internet) outside of school and may be less
likely to have access to sufficient IT in schools than students
from more affluent families and communities
(Purcell, et al., 2013; Pew, 2015; Witt, et al.,, 2011). Eamon’s
(2004) quantitative study with children between the age of 10
and 14 (N = 1029) indicated that low SES students were about
four times less likely to own a computer than students with
higher SES. Vikiri’s (2010) study with 4th and 5th graders
(N= 345) in Greece also found low SES students were less
likely to have home computers and home internet. A 2015
report by the Pew Research Center found that 87% of
American teens ages 13 to 17 have had access to a desktop or
laptop computer, and 58% of teens have had access to a tablet
computer. Parents’ education attainment and income level
influenced students’ access to home computers and internet.
Approximately, 50% of adults had home internet (Aslanidou
and Menexes, 2008; Zickuhr & Smith, 2012), while
individuals who made less than $30,000 were 50% less likely
to have broadband than individuals with higher SES (Zickuhr
& Smith, 2012). Inherently parents use, access, and
knowledge of IT and internet can influenced students’ use,
skill, and access to sufficient internet and technical devices.
1) Technology interactions
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In addition to issues of IT access for low SES individuals, it
was also likely for underprivileged (low SES) groups to have
different experiences and interactions with technology (Vehr,
2012). This included how technology was used, introduced,
and promoted for learning purposes. For instance, IT devices
and the internet may be introduced differently with low SES
students introduced to computers being for remediation
purposes and basic skill development, while high SES students
were reported to have used technology as a supplemental tool
to create projects and for independent enrichment (Ceci &
Papierno, 2005). There were also notable differences amongst
certain groups related to the type and quality of technology
(i.e., broadband internet, computers) that students have access
to, in which the capabilities of the device could assist students
to engage in e-learning. Witt, et al.’s (2011) longitudinal study
with seventh grade youth (N = 600) in Michigan found that
low SES students were less likely to use technology devices
than students from higher income homes. Eynon and
Malmberg’s (2011) quantitative study (surveys and
interviews) with 8 to19 year old students (N = 1069) in the
UK analyzed student surveys and interviews, which showed
high SES families were more likely to have internet, a variety
of IT devices, and utilized it for more reasons (i.e.,
communication, creativity, gaming).
The research convincingly indicates students from
underprivileged backgrounds are less likely to have access to
diverse IT resources, especially computers and quality internet
to support their academic enrichment. In fact, they were likely
to have limited access to internet and IT devices outside of
school, but were more likely to utilize phone devices to access
the internet. This was supported by Zickuhr and Smith’s
(2012) quantitative study with adults (N = 2,277) concerning
internet use which found that low income households,
minorities, and individuals without postsecondary experience
were more likely to use their phones to connect to the internet.
Pew Research Center reported an overwhelming percentage of
teens who had access to smartphones, while there was a
marked increase in the use of smartphones with African
American teens being significantly more likely than
Caucasians to access the internet using a mobile device. The
study also illustrated an increasing reliance on smartphones by
low income households (less than $30,000). This gets at the
heart of some of the questions for the proposed study,
specifically as it pertains to how socioeconomic status coupled
with a lack of technological hardware can act as a barrier to
internet use for teens and how this impacts their ability to use
the internet as an academic resource (Smith, 2015). It also
draws attention to previous discussions regarding the
importance of the type of device used and socioeconomic
status of the user, which one could argue often dictates what
type of activities teens are more likely to be engaged in with
said devices (Lenhart, 2015). The source, type of device, and
quality of internet can influence students’ ability to efficiently
complete assignments, research, and engage in academic
enrichment, while their frequency of IT use may also be
influenced by intricacies related to the following variables:
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access, time to access quality computers, updated software,
and easy navigation.
There has been a lot of work done looking at cellphone use
and academic performance for students. Much of the work
indicates a multitude of negative consequences from cellphone
use as it pertains to academic performance, while other
concerns included anxiety, lower academic performance, and
distractions in the educational environment that shifted
students’ focus away from academic pursuits (Lepp, Barkley
& Karpinski; 2013). Researchers have reported negative
findings, such as a deterioration in grades, social interaction,
and self-concept (Jackson, et al., 2012, 2008). Additionally,
Jackson, et al.’s (2011; 2010) studies found gaming influenced
students’ aggressive thoughts and behaviors with twice the
effect size when compared to the influence of negative
influences of television. It is important to be vigilant and take
precautionary measures (i.e., supervision) when integrating IT
devices and interactive technologies. While there are potential
hindrances associated with particular IT tools, researchers
have also emphasized the positive influences that gaming
could have on student’s creativity, skills, and potential career
trajectory (Jackson, et al., 2012). For instance, gaming has
been said to positively influence skills, such as visual spatial
skills, math, and science (Jackson, et al., 2012, 2010; 2008).
Gaming research with adults has also asserted gaming may
benefit students’ academic performance and development
when properly guided and appropriate restrictions (i.e., time
limits, game choice) are in place (Witt, et al., 2011). Beemt,
et al. (2010) quantitative study with Dutch students (N = 178)
from three educational levels (primary, secondary,
postsecondary) also show students were highly engaged with
interactive media (i.e., networking, gaming) and found 100%
of the participants used some form of interactive media on a
weekly basis. Taking into account the high population
(approximately 72%) of households who have engaged in
gaming and the potential benefits when properly integrated
into learning, it may behoove educators to utilize this
information to consider how the creation, engagement, and
management of interactive fun games may motivate students
to engage in classroom and independent learning that could
benefit their development. Bridging students’ interest and
connecting with areas of familiarity could serve as a
scaffolding tool for engaging them in higher level learning.
B. Socioeconomic Status and Academic Performance
According to Sirin (2005) Socio-economic status (SES) is
“probably the most widely used contextual variable in
education research” (p. 417). Researchers have found that it
influences students’ performance on standardized test, and
whether or not students obtain their degree (Bailey &
Dynarski, 2011; Duncan & Magnuson 2011). Further,
research conducted by Barr (2015) found a link between SES
health outcomes and academic performance. She notes that
there was compelling evidence suggesting families who were
poor had worse health outcomes, which directly impacted
students’ academic performance. The literature is replete with
ways in which SES at the family, school and community level
impacts student performance. For example, research done by
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U.S. Department of Education (1996, 2000) found that there
appears to be significant and lasting differences between
student academic performance and the location of schools
even when accounting for family SES. Further, they also
found that children in wealthier suburban schools consistently
outperformed their counterparts in urban disadvantaged
schools. Thus, the impact of SES is widespread and extends
beyond the individual level.
There has been an overall increase in computer access and
teacher training in schools throughout the world. Teachers
generally reported that some form of IT support in schools
was available, but consistently expressed an interest in
receiving additional training and support (i.e., conference
funding, human resource personnel) in order to effectively
integrate e-learning devices (Purcell, et al., 2013; Rockman,
1995; Wood, et al., 2005). It is important to note the
expansion of technology throughout society, which serves as a
critical prompt for stakeholders to be alert and concerned
regarding the technology (i.e., computers, broadband)
inequities that continue to exist with school districts,
neighborhoods, and amongst academic course offerings
(Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008; NCES, 2005; Rockman, 1995;
Witt, et al., 2011) that evolve around the distribution of funds,
allotted budgets, and approved resources. These technology
gaps are generally related to economic status and privileges
associated with the dominant culture. It was more common
for affluent students to be enrolled in high level courses (AP,
college preparatory, dual credit, honors) and highly qualified
teachers to be located in high resource districts where teachers
and students had capabilities to efficiently integrate and utilize
e- learning resources for the purposes of learning (practice,
homework, projects) (Jackson, et al., 2008). Teachers who
taught advanced courses were about 30% more likely than the
U.S. population to own ipods, computers, and additional
technology devices, which was said to increase their
confidence and likelihood to integrate technology within their
classrooms. On the other hand, teachers who taught students
from less affluent families were less likely to have formal
training, adequate IT resources, and supports.
V. METHODOLOGY
An examination of the existing research and the continued
increase in internet use through a variety of devices provided
us with ample evidence to suggest that there are at least two
important factors that warrant further investigation as it
pertains to student internet usage and academic performance.
The first was that the type of device used played a significant
role on what students may be using the internet for and the
cultural factors that may directly impact their academic
performance. Additionally, access to internet outside of
school through broadband technology was still a significant
barrier for some children particularly those from lower income
and rural households (Pew, 2015). Thus, our goal for this
study is threefold: First we will examine the duration, types of
IT device, and purpose of internet used by 12-18 year olds.
Additionally, we will try to detect barriers to academic related
use for youth and finally we will attempt to develop a
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typology of youth internet use that takes into account access,
IT device, and the impact on academic performance.
A. Participants and Procedures
Participants will be secondary school students between the
ages of 12-18 from large secondary schools in the Midwestern
United States. A key variable in the study is academic
performance which the researchers will assess through two
ways. The first will be self-reported by the study participants
and the second will be verification when possible through
official school records. Additionally, SES will also be
determined through two distinct ways. The first will be
through student participation in the free or reduced lunch
program and the second will rely on self-reported data by the
participants. Participants will be recruited through making
contact with schools that fit the following criteria in the
Midwestern U.S. They will have more than 1,000 students,
have a minority percentage of more than 15 percent and will
include students from rural, suburban, and urban settings.
Each student will be provided with an informed consent form
that their parents must read and sign, which will include a
release agreement that will allow us to access the student’s
overall GPA. After this we will conduct a survey using an
online survey tool, as well as offer students the opportunity to
complete the survey in hard copy form so that our results are
not biased because of a lack of internet resources. Our goal is
to survey 500 students and analyze the results using
descriptive statistics as well as more rigorous methods as
deemed appropriate.
B. Theoretical Considerations
The authors reviewed literature and concluded theoretically
driven models concerning e-learning and cultural gaps were
nonexistent or limited in more recent educational technology
research. However, in reviewing the current literature, the
researchers found conceptual frameworks that implied
theoretical tenets had importance. The primary tenets
mentioned were related to development, social learning, and
cultural systems (Bandura, Coll, Lamberty, Jnkins, McAdoo,
Crnic, Wasik, & Garcia, 1996; Witt, et al., 2011). In designing
a model and survey instrument for the proposed study, it was
important for the authors to consider the interplay of cultural
context that included intragroup and intergroup variability at
the macro and micro levels. Therefore, the authors cautiously
considered prior theories, areas of expansion, and the benefits
of integrating theories. The primary constructs of this model
consists of socioeconomic status, broadband access and IT
device usage on academic performance, which emphasizes
cultural sensitivity when approaching the diverse needs, access,
and application of e-learning with primary and secondary
students. Additionally, we use a number of standard
demographic variables that are commonly found in studies of
this nature.
The literature on the impact on socioeconomic status and
student performance is extensive and overwhelmingly finds
that socioeconomic status regardless of how it is measured has
an impact on academic performance. However, very little
research has been done outside of surveys by the Pew
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Research Center on SES and its impact on technological use
by teens. Given, their findings those of others we propose the
following mode:
Our model examines the impact of SES on the device
used and access to broadband internet service on the academic
performance of students. As earlier noted in our literature
review, there is compelling evidence to suggest that access
and IT device use affect academic performance. While,
Lenhart (2015) finding clearly supports the authors premise
that the type of IT devices used by students are important in
understanding how much academic content versus other forms
of content that students are actively engaged in gaining
through online usage. This model will allow us to rigorously
test our assumptions.
1. Previous research indicates that SES is positively
correlated with device used in that higher SES
students will have a technological device advantage
their lower SES counterparts. As a corollary, we
posit that higher SES students will have better
academic performance outcomes.
2. Previous research indicates that SES is positively
correlated with broadband access in that higher SES
students will have more points of access than their
lower SES counterparts. As a corollary, we posit that
higher SES students will have better academic
performance outcomes.
Educators have a professional, ethical, and legal
responsibilities to support and educate all students, including
at-risk (at-promise) students. These responsibilities are
emphasized in the constitution (Ceci & Papierno, 2005),
standards of credentialing bodies, and through governing
educational policies, such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in
2001, the 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), and the
Title I Act of 1965 (Jackson, et al., 2008; U.S. Department of
Education, 2004, n .d.). In fact, the U.S. Department of
Education specifically addressed the importance and need for
students to be technologically literate before entering high
school, regardless of group identification (i. e., race, SES,
geographical location). Furthermore, high school teachers and
college educators are also held accountable for promoting
student’s technological skills (Gil, 2007). Government
affiliates may assist with ensuring students IT literacy by
developing and modifying protocol that helps support
underprivileged populations through programs and regulation
of income based home internet access, tax free consumption,
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and beneficial tax deductions for IT donors and suppliers
(training time, IT devices) (Jackson, et al., 2008).
There is a need for multicultural considerations and
interventions that promote equitable access (home, school)
and creative learning opportunities that are engaging and
known to enhance learning beyond basic skills. This is
important for meeting societies’ educational goal of
decreasing educational gaps, as well as to support the
academic, career, and social emotional development of
students. Researchers have illustrated the successful
development, transitions, and contributions of these students
when provided with the proper supports, relevant
interventions, evidence based practices (multicultural
education, constructivist practices, modeling), and strength
based approaches (i.e., resilience, social functionalism). They
have also suggested that the elaboration of how and the
purpose as to why (relevance, student interest driven, evidence
based pedagogy) IT will be integrated as an additive may
encourage curriculum integration and stakeholders (students,
parents, school boards, government funding) effort to use,
navigate, advocate, and supply technology devices and
training for the integration of e-learning. This may include
specific examples of how ways of integrating the following
expedites and enhances learning opportunities. IT integration
may assist with immediate feedback from participating in
unanimous class texting polls, individual assessments
(lifespan, career inventories), interactive websites and videos,
educational games, art, web design, music creation, the
inclusion of visual images, and the science behind technology
(i.e., advertisement, game development). This may encourage
student ownership of work, increase career opportunities and
options, as well as help promote higher IT skill amongst
students than lower skill levels that researchers have reported
(Beemt, et al., 2010; Eynon & Malmberg, 2011; Tsai & Tsai,
2010).
Additionally, there is a need for awareness, education, and
facilitated hands-on workshop trainings for all groups (i.e.,
educators, students, guardians) to help with access and
supervision (safety restrictions) to mediate precautionary
measures (Jackson, et al., 2010; Reinhardt, 2017; Wood, et al.,
2005). Eynon and Malmberg (2011) supported this notion and
suggested programs, more flexibility, and increased access to
personal computers for identified disadvantaged groups that
may be less likely to have quality internet use and IT skills
(Eamon, 2004). Providing access and monetary funds for
training may assist with efficient training, thus enhance the
likelihood of e-learning being efficiently implemented into the
curriculum. In response to the identified barriers and
challenges with supporting the advancement of e-learning, it
may be beneficial to include technology considerations, risks,
coping (emotion regulation), healthy relationships, leadership,
as well as developmental concerns pertaining to peer pressure,
bullying, addiction, time management and IT. Researchers
have suggested qualitative depth and evaluation beyond use
and access Aslanidou and Menexes (2008), easy navigation,
improved IT and internet restrictions and automatic privacy
protections, encryption, required safety training, professional
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boundaries for counselors and educators participating online
(ACA, 2014), credible counselor inquiry websites that are
developmentally appropriate and user friendly for clients
(students, parents) that provide opportunities for students to
access credible information, tips, and resources while staying
within legal and professional guidelines related to HIPPA and
data collection pertaining to minors and client consent
(Reinhardt, 2017). This may be a good resource for students
who have been reported to search on-line to learn more about
health issues (eating disorders, mental health) related to
adolescent development. Thus, emphasizing on the need for
IT supervision, restrictions, and security.
VI. CONCLUSION
Researchers have repeatedly indicated the lack of access
and opportunity to properly engage in internet use and
technology devices place students at a disadvantage (Jackson,
et al., 2010). Issues of IT access and appropriate resources
have consistently been noted as a barrier for students who are
low SES, although some initiatives have been put in place to
try and mitigate potential disadvantages (homework
completion, enrichment) that may occur from the lack of
personal (home) access. Despite access barriers, students
from low SES backgrounds and underrepresented (i.e., ethnic
minorities, low SES) groups made attempts to locate IT
resources and were more likely to utilize the internet for
educational purposes (Earmon, 2004; Jackson, et al., 2010;
Zickuhr & Smith, 2012). These students tried using and
sharing internet and IT resources of friends, libraries, internet
cafes when allowed and during the time when they were made
available (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008; Vikiri, 2010). These
resources may serve to add additional options for student use,
while some students may have difficulty being forced to
decide to utilize IT resources during restricted hours that may
conflict with other commitments (work, community service,
sports, after school enrichment and organizations) that may
contribute to their skills, development, future opportunities,
and home security. Witt, et al.’s (2011) study showed that all
students’ communication and computer use increased over
time, but gaming remained stagnant. It may be inferred that
the decrease in usage of controversial IT interactions and
devices (i.e., games, phones) may be related to the increase in
technology access, awareness of educational usage, and the
demands of technology use in schools as students become
older.
It is important that educators not only understand the
importance of technology and internet access, but how
students are accessing them. The type of devices used and the
amount of time students spend using them for academic
pursuits has consequences that have yet to be fully studied by
researchers. Further, the additional layer of SES and its
impact cannot be understated. Therefore, our model attempts
to address these issues in a comprehensive and inclusive
manner that may provide us with insight on the impact of the
diverse variables working in concert with each other.
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Lecturers’ Attitude towards e-Learning in
Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia
Ryan Hara Permana (1)
Faculty of Nursing, Universitas Padjadjaran
Sumedang, Indonesia
Gigin K. Basar (3)
Faculty of Social and Politics, Universitas Padjadjaran
Sumedang, Indonesia
Jimi N Mahameruaji (5)
Communication Faculty, Universitas Padjadjaran
Sumedang, Indonesia
Abstract—Universitas Padjadjaran (Unpad) currently has four
distance education programs and the implementation of e-learning
in these programs becomes pivotal. However, the traditional face-
to-face is still the main teaching method, so that the teaching costs
and efforts might not be efficient. One of the main issues is
lecturers’ attitude toward e-learning, whereas it plays a significant
role in the effective adoption of e-learning in higher education.
Lecturers’ pre-dispositions attitude greatly impacts on the success
of transformation from traditional into technology-enhanced
education. This study examined the lecturer's attitude towards e-
learning in order to design a comprehensive program and strategies
to improve the use of e-learning in Universitas Padjadjaran. The
data gained using a questionnaire consists of 22 items with five
points of Likert scale. The sample were 43 lecturers from 12
faculties. The result shows that the respondents have a moderately
positive attitude toward e-learning (mean=3.81). To conclude, a
sustainable training program and supports need to be conducted by
the stakeholders to improve the implementation of e-learning in
Unpad, specifically in the distance education programs.
Keywords- e-learning; attitude; distance education; lecturers;
Indonesia
I. INTRODUCTION
Universitas Padjadjaran (Unpad) is one of the biggest
universities in Indonesia. It is located in Sumedang city, West
Java. Unpad has the responsibility to provide quality education
for the society. One of the strategic plans to achieve this goal
is by providing distance learning programs. Currently, there
are some distance education programs that newly held in some
remote areas in West Java such as in Pangandaran, Cirebon,
Arjasari, and Garut district. This step is also fully supported
by the government [1].
7th Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Copyright © GSTF 2017
ISSN 2251-1814
doi: 10.5176/2251-1814_EeL17.71 159
Conference
(WNC 2017)
& e-Learning (EeL 2017)
Ira Mirawati (2)
Communication Faculty, Universitas Padjadjaran
Sumedang, Indonesia
Mira Trisyani (4)
Faculty of Nursing, Universitas Padjadjaran
Sumedang, Indonesia
E-learning implementation is essential, especially for
distance education program. E-learning provides access to
online learning materials and improves communication so that
teaching and learning can be conducted in anytime and
anywhere [2], [3]. Video conference, for instance, can help the
experts to deliver lectures from the main campus to the
distance campuses. E-learning also promotes the higher order
of thinking, enables personalized learning mode, and supports
collaborative learning. It also offers a more efficient learning
process [4], [5]. Although there is still no report related to the
cost-effectiveness evaluation in the distance program in
Unpad, the effective implementation of technology in distance
education program can significantly improve the teaching cost
efficiency [6]. Thus, the use of e-learning in the distance
learning programs is important.
However, the implementation of e-learning in Unpad
generally still needs some improvements. One of the main
issues is the lecturers’ low interest in using e-learning and it
impacts on the implementation of e-learning in the distance
education program. Currently, the main teaching methods in
the distance program are mainly the traditional face-to-face
mode. It indicates that the provided educational technology
has not been optimally used by the lecturers. In addition, the
number of online courses in Unpad fell sharply from 345
online courses in 2010 to only 71 active online courses in
2017 [7].
Kosak et al. [8] stated that one of the factors affecting
lecturers’ willingness and enthusiasm in using online learning
is their attitude towards e-learning. Some negative views of
lecturers toward the use of technology in education including
skepticism and resistance for shifting their traditional
pedagogy deliveries. The changing of work patterns, and poor
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& e-Learning (EeL 2017)

technological skills may also result in reluctant [9]. On the Likert scale was used and ranged from 5 ‘strongly agree’ to
other hand, Islam, Beer, and Slack [10] argued that lecturers ‘strongly disagree’. The questionnaire has a high internal
who have a positive attitude towards e-learning will promote consistency level (Cronbach-alpha co-efficient = 0.81) [13].
positive learning outcomes. Therefore, it is important to assess The online questionnaire was made on Google Form. The
the lecturer's attitude in Unpad towards e-learning in order to responses were downloaded into MS-Excel and then analyzed
provide evidence that will help the stakeholders’ decision using SPSS version 24 to reveal the mean of attitude scores.
making in developing e-learning implementation in Unpad. The range of scores are:
• 4.5 and above means positive attitude
An attitude is “an evaluation of an object of thought. • 3.5–4.49 means moderately positive attitude
Attitude objects comprise anything a person may hold in • 2.5–3.49 means neither positive nor negative attitude
mind, ranging from the mundane to the abstract, including • 1.5–2.49 means moderately negative attitude
things, people, groups, and ideas” [8, pp. 392]. A literature • 1.49 and less means negative attitude
review by Newtown [11] about the implementation of new
technology in higher education revealed that there are five
conditions affecting lecturers attitude toward e-learning which III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
are the time commitment, rewards, strategic planning,
technological supports, philosophical and pedagogical A. The respondents characteristic
training, and social value.
The respondents’ characteristic can be seen in Table 1. The
The aim of this study is to explore lecturers attitude in respondents came from 12 different faculties, consist of 63%
Universitas Padjadjaran toward e-learning. In this study, e- female and 37% male, with the age, ranged from 30-63 years
learning is defined in a more general term. E-learning is the old and mostly around 31-40 years old. The respondents’
use of information and computer technology to create learning teaching experience ranged from 2-33 years and mostly with
experiences [12]. The form of e-learning can be defined based 11-20 years teaching experience. All respondents use
on how the learning experience is generated, organized and computers on a daily basis, with 95% using e-mail and use the
created. This includes standalone courses, learning games and internet daily for searching information.
simulations, mobile learning, social learning and virtual
classroom courses, and other learning methods that integrate
TABLE I. THE RESPONDENTS CHARACTERISTIC (N=43)
technology.
No Characteristic Frequency Percentage
A similar study was held by Mishra and Panda [9] about (%)
1. Gender
the faculty attitude towards the use of e-learning in an open Male 16 37
university in India. This study used survey method using Female 27 63
questionnaire consists of 22 items with 5 points Likert scale. 2. Age (years old)
The respondents were 78 faculty members. It also examined 25-30 4 9,30
the motivators and barriers affecting the attitudes of the 31-40 17 39,53
faculty towards e-learning. The results revealed that the 41-50 13 30,23
faculty has a moderately positive attitude towards e-learning 51-60 8 18,60
(mean=3.81). A regular use of e-mail and computer is 61-70 1 2,32
significantly correlated with faculty’s positive attitude toward 3 Teaching experience (years)
e-learning. The strongest barrier was poor internet access by 1 - 10 16 37,20
students; lack of educational technology training; lack of 11 - 20 17 39,53
institutional policy and instructional design supports provided 21 - 30 9 20,93
31 - 40 1 2,32
by the institution. In addition, the significant motivators were 4 Computer usage frequency
personal enthusiasm in using technology and adequate Everyday 43 100
infrastructure. Every week 0 0
Every month 0 0
Never 0 0
II. METHOD 5 Email usage frequesncy
Everyday 41 95.34
This study used an exploratory method to identify lecturers Every week 2 4.65
attitude towards e-learning implementation in Unpad. The Every month 0 0
population of this study is all active lecturers in Unpad (1.066 Never 0 0
lectures). The survey was conducted using online 6 Internet usage for browsing
Everyday 41 95.34
questionnaire and filled by 43 lectures. The questionnaire was
Every week 2 4.65
adopted from Mishra and Panda [13] and translated into the Every month 0 0
Indonesian language. The questionnaire consists of 20 Never 0 0
questions including six negative statement. The five points

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B. The findings TABLE II. LECTURERS ATTITUDE TOWARD E-LEARNING

No Statement Means Std.
The result of descriptive analysis for the twenty statements Dev
about the attitude towards e-learning scale can be seen in 1 E-Learning will never replace other forms of 2,95 1,07
Table 2. The negative statement has opposite meaning of the teaching and learning
2 E-Learning makes me uncomfortable because I 1,97 0,73
scoring. The higher score means an agreement, vice versa. The do not understand it *
mean of the total scores was 3,81, that is the respondents have 3 E-Learning is a de-humanizing process of 2,53 0,90
a moderately positive attitude toward e-learning. This result learning*
supports an earlier study by Mishra and Panda [9] that showed 4 E-learning can solve many problems in 3,60 1,04
education
that the faculty attitude towards e-learning in Open University
5 E-Learning will bring new opportunities for 4,32 0,77
in India was moderately positive (mean=3.81). Another organizing teaching and learning
positive result found in a quantitative study by Gasaymeh [14] 6 E-Learning is difficult to handle and therefore 2,30 0,93
about faculty attitude toward internet-based distance education frustrating to use*
in Jordan. It revealed that the faculty had a moderately 7 There are unlimited possibilities of e-learning 3,95 0,92
that have not yet been thought about.
positive attitude (mean=3.5). 8 E-Learning saves time and effort of both 3,83 1,06
teachers and students.
As suggested by Gasaymeh [14] there are five factors 9 E-Learning increases access to education and 4,13 0,83
influence the lecturer's attitude towards e-learning which are training
computer and internet access, institutional support, perceived 10 E-Learning will increase my efficiency in 4,02 0,77
teaching
value, time commitments, and computer and internet skills 11 E-Learning enables collaborative learning 4,04 0,89
[14]. Mishra and Panda [9] found that the strongest barrier was
12 E-Learning can engage learners more than 3,41 1,05
internet access by students, educational technology training, other forms of learning.
institutional policy, and instructional design supports provided 13 E-Learning increases quality of teaching and 3,90 0,92
by the institution. The significant motivators were personal learning because it integrates all forms of
enthusiasm in using technology and adequate infrastructure. In media: print, audio, video, animation.
14 E-Learning increases the flexibility of teaching 4,20 0,80
addition, a research by Brooks [15] found that educational and learning
technology and gender (female) were the strongest predictors 15 E-Learning improves communication between 3,20 1,05
of faculty attitudes toward a blended learning environment. students and teachers.
16 I get a sinking feeling when I think of trying to 2,88 1,09
use e-learning for my courses*
Based on the factors that influence lecturers' attitude 17 E-Learning is not effective for student 2,06 0,96
towards e-learning above, the finding in this study might learning*
reflect that the infrastructure has been adequately supported by 18 E-Learning experiences cannot be equated with 2,20 0,83
the university. The respondents have a moderately good face to face teaching or even distance
education*
computer and internet skills and they perceived that e-learning
19 It is essential that e-learning material is of high 4,18 0,90
provided efficient time and efforts, and gave positive value to quality.
their teaching process. Most of the respondents are female 20 Universitas padjadjaran should adopt more 4,30 0,77
(63%) so that this also contributes to the result in this study. and more of e-learning.
However, there is no mean score reached 4.5 and above *Reverse scoring item
(positive attitude). It implies that the quality of all the factors
previously mentioned may still need some improvements. The above findings reveals that the respondents might have
a relatively low level of knowledge about the concept and
There are five items categorized into neither positive nor theories of e-learning. In fact, e-learning cannot substitute
negative position, including: other forms of teaching method as every learning method has
its own function and must be designed based on the targeted
• E-Learning will never replace other forms of teaching learning outcomes [12], [16]. For instance, to enabling
and learning (item 1) (2.95). students to solve a problem in a case study, an asynchronous
• E-Learning is a de-humanizing process of learning mode can be applied using Google docs so that the students
(item 3) (2.53). can collaborate and gather the resources. Then, a face-to-face
• E-Learning can engage learners more than other forms group discussion should be held specifically to promote their
of learning (item 12) (3,41) communication skills.
• E-Learning improves communication between
students and teachers (item 15) (3,20) The dehumanization issue happens when there is too many
• I get a sinking feeling when I think of trying to use e- independent asynchronous mode applied as it decreases
learning for my courses (item 16) (2.88) interaction [17]. Instructional designer should carefully plan
the activities. Technology should be wisely used to improve
interaction and communication. Therefore, a blended mode is
recommended by literature as the mix of e-learning and face-

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to-face method promote more interaction than the full e-
learning mode only [3]. In addition, technology enhancement
in teaching and learning, such as gamification [18] and iPad
activity [19], promotes students’ engagement.
The statement number 16 indicates that the respondents
had a low experience on using e-learning. The regular use of
internet and e-mail as an example of the advantages of using
technology in education could not rise respondents’ awareness
about the benefits of e-learning as they are not directly used in
learning activities [9]. Therefore, a sustainable training
program needs to be conducted to expose e-learning concepts
to the lecturers. This effort could enhance the adoption of e-
learning by the lecturers in Unpad, especially to be applied in
the distance education programs. Further study is needed to
assess the lecturers’ experience on e-learning, and analyze the
factors affecting the lecturer's attitude.
IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study reveals that the respondents have a moderately
positive attitude towards e-learning implementation (mean of
total score = 3.81). This result supports the earlier studies by
Mishra and Panda [9] and Gasaymeh [14]. Some factors that
may impact of the lecturer's attitude are the infrastructure,
computer and internet skills, and awareness about the benefits
of e-learning efficiency in time and efforts. However, there are
five items categorized into neither positive nor negative
position. This result reflects that the respondents had a lack of
knowledge about the conceptual theories of e-learning and its
benefits.
[5] T. Anderson, The theory and practice of online learning. Athabasca
University Press, 2008.
[6] A. W. T. Bates, Technology, e-learning and distance education.
Routledge, 2005.
[7] I. Mirawati and J. R. Suminar, “Student appreciation toward online
learning management system: A study in Universitas Padjadjaran
Indonesia,” 2013.
[8] L. Kosak et al., “Prepared to teach online? Perspectives of faculty in
the University of North Carolina system,” Online J. Distance Learn.
Adm., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1–13, 2004.
[9] S. Panda and S. Mishra, “E-Learning in a Mega Open University :
Faculty attitude , barriers and motivators,” vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 323–
338, 2007.
[10] N. Islam, M. Beer, and F. Slack, “E-learning challenges faced by
academics in higher education: a literature review,” J. Educ. Train.
Stud., vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 102–112, 2015.
[11] R. Newton, “Staff attitudes to the development and delivery of e-
learning,” New Libr. world, vol. 104, no. 10, pp. 412–425, 2003.
[12] W. Horton, E-learning by design. John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
[13] S. Mishra and S. Panda, “Development and factor analysis of an
instrument to measure faculty attitude towards e-learning,” Asian J.
Distance Educ., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 27–33, 2007.
[14] A.-M. M. Gasaymeh, “A study of faculty attitudes toward internet-
based distance education: A survey of two Jordanian public
universities.” Ohio University, 2009.
[15] L. Brooks, “An analysis of factors that affect faculty attitudes
toward a blended learning environment,” 2009.
[16] W. N. Mehanna, “e-Learning: principles and tools,” He@ lth Inf.
Internet, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 5–8, 2006.
[17] M. Duh and M. Krašna, “Interactive e-learning materials: How to
prepare and use it properly?,” in MIPRO, 2010 Proceedings of the
33rd International Convention, 2010, pp. 833–836.
[18] C. I. Muntean, “Raising engagement in e-learning through
gamification,” in Proc. 6th International Conference on Virtual
Learning ICVL, 2011, pp. 323–329.
[19] T. T. Diemer, E. Fernandez, and J. W. Streepey, “Student
perceptions of classroom engagement and learning using iPads,” J.
Teach. Learn. with Technol., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 13–25, 2013.

The moderately positive attitude should be taken into

account by the stakeholders to improve the infrastructure and
providing better supports and training namely in educational
technology and computer skills for the lecturers. Sustainable
training programs should be developed to increase lectures’
knowledge and experience in using e-learning in order to
promote the adoption of e-learning in Unpad, especially in the
distance education programs. Further study is needed to assess
the lecturers’ experience on e-learning and analyze the factors
that impact the lecturer's attitude towards e-learning.

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 Author Index

Alex Edmonds EEL-29

Amy Garbrick EEL-36
Andrea Gregg EEL-36

Bengi Sonyel EEL-52

Carol K.K. Chan EEL-34

Caroline Cohrssen EEL-17
Charles Britton EEL-56
Chenyang Zhu EEL-36
Collette Tayler EEL-17
Courtney Wiest Ed.D EEL-19

Debra Mims EEL-19

Diana Ruei-Jen Fan EEL-55

Eric Freedman EEL-56

Felicia Wilson EEL-19

Gao Shuguo EEL-50

Gavin TL Brown EEL-24
Gigin K. Basar EEL-71
Greg Ashman EEL-23

Holly Atkins EEL-19

Huiyu Zhang EEL-54

Ira Mirawati EEL-71

Isabel Brookes EEL-17

Jan van Aalst EEL-34

Jimi N Mahameruaji EEL-71
Judith Slapak-Barski EEL-29

K. Marissa Krupa EEL-27

Karen Waters EEL-56
Keya Mukherjee EEL-19
Kristin Rainville EEL-56
Kyle Peck EEL-36

Lin Car,ver EEL-19

Linda Fang EEL-54

163