Prepared by : Dr.

Muddasar Habib
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Engineering and
Technology, Peshawar.
 Introduction
 Many Chemical process involves heating of material.
 E.g. distillation, evaporation, drying, crystallization
etc.
 At absolute zero temp substance have zero heat
content.
 Heat is form of energy.
 Unit is joules.
 The study of heat transfer required in designing the
plant efficiently and economically.
HEAT TRANSFER
 In any heat transfer process, the heat energy can
only travel in one direction, hot to cold.

 Objects heated by the transfer cannot be heated

higher than that of the flame or heat source,
unless of course the object being heated ignites.
 Sources of Heat
 Sun
 Hot interior of earth
 Chemical action : Burning of fuel,
Oxidation of food in body
 Mechanical energy of friction.
 Heat is produced by electrical energy.
 Heat energy is produced by a nuclear energy.
 Steam.
Heat transfer
 Heat Transfer
There are three ways in which heat can be
transferred from one object to another:
•Conduction – when two objects are in physical
contact.
 T 
Q  kA t
 L 
k = thermal conductivity
Q = heat transferred
A = cross sectional area
t = duration of heat
transfer In a hot oven the air and
L = length the metal rack are at the
∆T = temperature difference same temperature, but
between two ends which one feels hotter and
why?
 Convection and Radiation
• Convection – when heat is carried by a moving fluid
Example: heat house with radiator
Gulf stream transports Heat from Caribbean to
Europe
• Radiation – when electromagnetic waves (radiation)
carry heat from one object to another.
Example: heat you feel when you are near a fire
Example: Heat from the sun
 Conduction
 The heat transfer occurs by transmission of momentum
of individual molecules.
 Here, no mixing occurs, so conduction is limited to
solids and to fluids.
 Heat transfer occur when there is a temp gradient.
 The molecules at the hot end vibrate more rapidly than
molecules at the cold end.
 This vibration is imparted to the neighboring molecules
which vibrate faster and hence heat up.
 There is no actual movement or flow of the material.
 The molecule vibrate in just one place, but there energy
is transmitted.
Conduction Of Heat
Through A Material
Conduction
 Conduction
 CONDUCTION is the heat transfer to another
body or within a body by DIRECT CONTACT.
 As a solid wall is heated from one side, the
heat is carried from the hot surface to cooler
parts of the solid by conduction.
 The rate of heat transfer is simply the quantity
of heat imparted to the wall per unit time.
 Rate = driving force / resistance
 Conduction
 The driving force is the temp drop across the solid
surfaces.
 The greater the temp drop, the greater will be the rate of
flow.
 The flow of heat also depends on the conductivity of
materials through which it is flowing.
 Conduction of heat is faster through iron road than
wooden log.
 Resistance = thickness of surface (m)
mean proportionality constant (W/m.k) * area of the
surface (m2)
 Fourier’s Law
 It states that the rate of heat flow through a uniform
material is proportional to the area and the temp
drop and inversely to the length of the path of flow.
 Rate of heat flow α Area (m2) * temp diff (∆t)
thickness (m)
 T 
q  KmA 
 L 
Where Km = mean proportionality constant, W/m.k.
Conduction

Rate of heat transfer by conduction, Q/t through the

length, L across the cross-sectional area, A is given by
the following equation, where k is the thermal
conductivity and ΔT is the temperature difference
between the two ends.
Q kAT
 .
t L
SI Unit of Thermal Conductivity: J/(s · m · C°)
 Derivation
 Fourier’s law can be applied to a metal wall through
which the conduction of heat is taking place.
 Area of the wall = A, m2
 Thickness of the wall = L, m
 Face of the wall is maintained at a uniform, definite
and higher temperature = t1, K
 Face of the wall is maintained at al Lower, but
uniform temperature = t2, K
 The flow is right angles to the plane A and is
assumed to be in steady state.
 Derivation
 Consider a thin section of thickness dL at an
intermediate point in the wall.
 This section is parallel to the plane A.
 For this low Fourier’s Law may be applied as

dQ  kAdt
 .
d dL
 Where Q= heat transfer, J
Ѳ= time, s
K= proportionality constant, W/m.k
t= temperature
 Derivation
 The constant, k is a function of temp, but
independent of length.
 The minus sign indicates the decrease in temp in the
direction of flow.
 dt/dL represents the temp gradient.
 Heat transfer equation for steady state

dQ  kAdt
 const  q  .
d dL
 Where q= Rate of heat transfer, J/s or W.
 Derivation
 The temp diff in intermediate section is not known.
 We know the temp at two faces of wall.
 The area, A, may vary with L, but is independent of
temp.
 So by separating variable we can write
q.dL  kdt
 .
A
 Derivation
 Integrating equation between the limits
 L = 0 when t = t1 and L t2 t1
 L = L (total thickness)
 when t =t2 
0

q dLA   kdt
t1
  kdt
t2

q.L Km(t1  t 2)
 .  Kmt
A
KmAt
 Rearranging the equation q .
L

 Where Km = mean proportionality constant

 Derivation
 In steady state heat transfer q remains constant.
 ∆t indicates driving force.
t
q
L
Km. A
 Comparing the equn with rate = driving
force/resistance
 Resistance = L / Km.A.
 Fourier’s law thus used to define the resistance
quantitative term.
 Applications
 The coefficient of thermal conductivity is quantity of
heat that flows across a unit surface area in unit
time, when the temp drop is unity.
 The thermal conductivity depends on the materials
used and temp.
 Thermal conductivity of liquids and gases is small
compared to solids so the resistance is high.
 In case of steam jacketed vessel the kettle ( inner
surface) must have good conductivity so that max
amt of heat passes from steam to the contents.
 Copper have high thermal conductivity.
 Substance Thermal Conductivity, k [J/(s · m · C°)]

Metals
High conductivity
Aluminum 240
Brass 110
Copper 390 High conductivity
Iron 79
Lead 35
Silver 420 High conductivity
Steel
14
(stainless)
Gases
Air 0.0256
Hydrogen (H2) 0.180
Nitrogen (N2) 0.0258
 Applications
 The metal used for jacket must have poor thermal
conductivity to prevent heat loss.
 Thermal conductivity values are useful to construct
the evaporator and heat exchanger.
 Heat transfer by conduction is often important in
equipment such as fluidized beds, rotary kilns, spray
driers.
 Compound resistance in Series
 Consider a flat wall constructed of
a series of layers.
 Thickness of the three layers = L1,
L2, L3
 Area of the entire wall = A, m2
 Temp drop across three layers =
∆t1, ∆t2, ∆t3, K.
 Resistance of 3 layers = R1, R2, R3.
 Total temp drop ∆t= ∆t1 + ∆t2 +
∆t3.
 Compound resistance in Series
 The rate of flow of heat through several resistance
series is analogues to the current through several
resistance in series.
 There fore, R = R1 + R2 + R3.
 As per Fourier's law R = L/K.A
 There fore, R1 = L1/K1.A1, R2 = L2/K2.A2, R3 =
L3/K3.A3
L1 L2 L3
 Now, R   
K 1A K 2A K 3A
 Entire heat must pass through a resistance series ,
heat q = q1 = q2 =q3.
 Compound resistance in Series
 ∆t= ∆t1 + ∆t2 + ∆t3.
q.L1 t 2  q.L 2 . t 3  q.L3 .
t1  . K 3A
K 1A K 2A
qL1 qL 2 qL3
t   
K 1A K 2 A K 3 A
 L1 L2 L3 
t  q.   
 K 1 A K 2 A K 3 A 
L
t  q.R1  R 2  R3 R
KA
 Compound resistance in Series
t
q
R1  R 2  R3
 The contribution of temp drop to the total temp and
individual resistance can be expressed
mathematically as
 ∆t : ∆t1 : ∆t2 : ∆t3 :: R : R1 : R2 : R3.
 Compound resistance in Parallel
 When several solids are placed side by side with their
edges touching, and direction of heat flow is
perpendicular to plane of exposed face surfaces.
 We can assume that temp drop taken place across
each solids is constant. ∆t = ∆t1 = ∆t2 = ∆t3
 The total surface area available for heat transfer is the
sum of individual area of solids.
 The total heat transfer is sum of individual heat
transfer. q = q1 + q2 + q3.
K1. A1.t K 2. A2.t K 3. A3.t
q  
L1 L2 L3
 Compound resistance in Parallel
 K1. A1. K 2. A2. K 3. A3. 
q  t.   
 L 1 L 2 L 3 
1 1  L
q  t. 
1
 R
 KA
 R1 R 2 R 3 

 This is the final equation for heat transfer through a

resistance in parallel.
 Heat transfer through a Cylinder
 In heat exchanger, hot fluid or steam is passed
through the circular pipe.
 The hot fluid transfers the heat to inner surface of
the pipe wall.
 Further heat transfer takes place by conduction
through a pipe wall.
 Consider the heat is flowing from inside to outside of
the hollow cylinder.
 Consider a very thin cylinder at the centre of the
pipe.
 Heat transfer through a Cylinder
 Mean thermal conductivity of
material of cylinder= Km, W/mk
 Temp of inside surface, higher
=t1, K
 Temp of outside surface, lower
=t2, K
 Radius of the cylinder = r, m
 Thickness of the thin section =
dr, m
 Radius of inner wall= r1, m
 Radius of outer wall= r2, m
 Length of hollow cylinder= N, m
 Heat transfer through a Cylinder
 The heat flow is considered as parallel and the rate of
heat transfer can be written as:

 kdt (2 rN )
q .
dr
 Where 2ПrN is the area of the heating surface, i.e.,
the interior of the cylinder.
 The mean surface area may be written as
circumference multiplied by length of cylinder.
 Separate the variable radius and temp.
dr  2 Nk
 dt
r q
 Heat transfer through a Cylinder
 Integrating the equation within the limits of
dr  2 N
r2 t2
 r = r1, when t = t1 and
 r = r2, when t = t2. 
r1
r

q t1 kdt
 This equation is used
dr 2 N
r2 t1

To calculate the rate of  r

 
q t2
kdt
Flow through a thick r1

Walled cylinder. 2 Nk
ln r 2  ln r1  (t1  t 2)
q
2 Nk (t1  t 2)
q
ln r 2 / r1
 Heat transfer through a Cylinder
 The rate of heat flow can be expressed as
coefficien t  Area  temp .diff
q 
lengthofme tallayer
A ( t1  t 2 )
q  k
L
By comparing equation A(t1  t 2)
q k
2  Nk ( t1  t 2 ) L
q
ln r 2 / r 1
kA ( 2  Nk ( t 1  t 2 )
t1  t 2 ) 
L ln r 2 / r 1
A 2 N

L ln r 2 / r 1
 Heat transfer through a Cylinder
 L is the thickness , it is related to thickness of the
tube, i.e.,(r2-r1) of the cylinder. This is substituted
for substituted for L and rearranged to obtain A
(mean area of a cylinder)
2  N ( r 2  r1)
A
ln r 2 / r1
 A may be considered as 2 ПrN.
 From the equation mean radius may be considered
as ( r 2  r1) ( r 2  r1)
r 
ln r 2 / r1 2 .303 log r 2 / r1
 Heat transfer through a Cylinder
 rm = is called logarithmic mean radius.
 Logarithmic mean is less convenient than the
arithmetic mean. The arithmetic is sufficiently
accurate, if the tube is thin walled.
 The value r2/r1<3.20 reflects that the wall is thick. If
arithmetic mean radius is used, the result will be
within 10% of that obtained by equation that uses
logarithmic mean.
 The value r2/r1<1.5 reflects that the wall is thin. If
arithmetic mean d is diameter used, the result will be
within 1% of that obtained by equation that uses
logarithmic mean.
 Conduction through fluids
 Conduction in liquids usually small and this presents
a considerable obstacles for heat transfer.
 Conduction in fluids is because of eddies set up by
the changes in density with temp, which is observed
in the boiling of liquids.
 Conduction through fluids rarely occurs in practice,
except when heat flows through thin films.
 Here the thickness of the film is not exactly known
so above eqn can not be applied.
 This difficulty can be over come by use of surface
coefficient.
 Convection
 When heat flow is achieved by actual mixing of
warmer portions with cooler portions of the same
material, the process is known as convection.
 The heat transfer in fluids occurs on account of
actual mixing of its layers.
 Two type
 1. Forced convection
 2. Natural convection.
 Forced Convection
 Mixing of fluid may be obtained by the use of a
stirrer or agitator or pumping the fluid for
recirculation.
 Such a process in heat transfer is designated as
forced convection.
 E.g. some type of tube evaporators, the evaporating
liquid is forced through the tubes under pressure.
 Natural Convection
 Mixing of fluid may be accomplished by the currents
set up when body of fluid is heated.
 Such a process is known as natural convection.
 E.g. in pan evaporators, convection currents are set
up in the evaporating liquids.
 Natural Convection
 When heat is passed through tube, stagnant films
are determining the rate of heat transfer.
 When fluid exhibits viscous flow, the velocity is zero
at the actual surface of the wall. It means that the
layer of fluid adjacent to the wall acts as a stagnant
film.
 A comparatively stagnant film can be observed even
in turbulent flow. At the centre, the fluid is
turbulent, while at the centre the fluid exhibits
viscous flow.
 When steam gives up latent heat, water will
condense on the surface of vessel. The heat must be
conducted through this water film.
 Natural Convection
 For heat transfer in a tube, heat must pass through
the stagnant film by conduction.
 Normally, thermal conductivity of fluids are low.
 The conductivity of the stagnant film will be still less
 E.g. A film of water has a resistance of about 500
times and that of air film is about 13,000 times
greater than a copper sheet of the same thickness.
 Thus, the resistance offered by these films is large for
the heat flow.
 Forced Convection-
Individual heat transfer coefficient
 If mixing of fluid is obtained by means of stirrer or
agitator or pumping the fluid for recirculation, is
known as forced convection.
 E.g. some type of tube evaporators, the evaporating
liquid is forced through the tubes under pressure.
 The heat transfer coefficient depends up on many
variables.
Thank You