NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES • Coffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds,

commonly called coffee beans. They are seeds of “coffee

What is beverage cherries” that grow on trees in over 70 countries.
 A beverage is any drink that is NOT pure water.
• Due to its caffeine content, coffee can have a stimulating
 The word beverage was derived from Latin word called effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most
“bever” which means rest. consumed beverages worldwide.

 Any potable liquid which is alcoholic or non-alcoholic is TYPES

known as a beverage.
Based on Coffee plant species
 The beverage is mainly consumed to quench thirst, feel fresh
Two main species:
and to compensate the loss of body fluid due to perspiration.
1. Coffea Arabica – the more traditional coffee and considered to be
 Non-alcoholic beverage is a potable liquid which has either
superior in flavor.
no ethyl alcohol in it
2. Coffea Canephora – also known as Robusta. It contains higher
 It is defined in the U.S. as a beverage that contains less than
caffeine, more bitter and acidic in flavor. But it can grow in climates
0.5% alcohol by volume
and environment were Arabica would not be profitable and it is less
expensive.
Based on Style
• Americano (Caffe Americano): sometimes referred to as a
black coffee
• Cappucchino: espresso with warm milk
• Latte Coffee: white coffee
• Café Macchiato: layered coffee
• Flavoured Macchiato’s: Macchiato made with flavoured
syrup - Hazelnut,
caramel, mint, chocolate

COFEE

MANUFACTURING
The process of creating coffee, beginning with a seed and arriving in
a cup to be consumed by a customer, consists of a typical series of
steps to produce the coffee that many enjoy. A coffee bean begins as
a seed after being fermented, dried, roasted and ground, it is ready to
be brewed into coffee.
PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
The preservation technique for coffee is the preservation of the coffee
beans and not the brewed coffee itself. Based on studies, what is
claimed is;
A method for preserving green coffee beans comprising:
1. Flushing a low-oxygen permeability container with a gas, wherein
the gas is an inert gas (nitrogen) safe for food contact, wherein the gas
minimally reacts with green coffee beans;
2. Including at least one oxygen absorbent in said container;
3. Filling said container with green coffee beans; and
4. Sealing the said container.
This high technology packing technique can have variations.
2. Fermentation
Lactic, acetic, and propionic acids are produced in this process and are
believed to prevent the traditional fermentation taste by inhibiting
mold growth that would occur when drying in humid conditions.
TRIVIA
The most expensive coffee, Kopi Luwak, cost 160-$600/lb. or
3042.30-11408.64 pesos/lb., is an a processed palm civet poop. It is
also called “Toddy Cat poop coffee”.
Based from National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference from
the USDA, coffee is healthier than tea.
TEA
 refers to the aromatic beverage prepared from the cured leaves
by combination with hot or boiling water.
 is the most commonly consumed beverage in the world after
water.
 is derived from one plant, Camellia sinensis.
HISTORY
Shen Nung, the ancient Emperor of China, who, in 2737 BC, was
boiling his drinking water when leaves from a nearby tea bush tree
blew into the cauldron. After drinking the brew, the emperor was
pleasantly surprised by its flavor and restorative properties. Thus, tea
was born. It quickly became the favorite beverage in China and spread
to Europe and the Americas.
TYPES OF TEA • The basic operations involved in black tea manufacturing are:
Withering, Rolling , Fermenting, Firing, Sorting and Grading,
1. Green Tea
Storage and Packing.
• non-fermented tea has a more subtle, delicate flavour, and far 4. White Tea
less caffeine than fermented tea, is medicinally beneficial
because the non-fermented leaves retain a higher • is a very rare, expensive connoisseurs tea that is mainly
concentration of natural vitamins and polyphenols than produced in China in Fukien (Fujian) Province. Once
fermented counterparts. harvested, white tea is not oxidized or rolled, but simply
withered and dried by steaming.
• Three principal operations are involved in manufacturing -
pan firing or steaming, rolling and drying. The objective is to 5. Instant Tea - It is a ready-to-drink beverage just like instant
destroy the enzymes in the tea leaf as soon as it is plucked, coffee.
thus preventing fermentation all together.
MANUFACTURING
2. Oolong tea
• is a semi-fermented tea especially good for digestion, is
advised to take after a large meal.
• is a traditional Chinese tea produced through a unique process
including withering the plant under the strong sun and
oxidation before curling and twisting.
• has the colours and appearances of black tea but it has flavour
and taste of green tea.
• The elegant tea is sometimes known as the "champagne of
teas".
3. Black tea
• is a type of tea that is more oxidized than oolong, green and
STORING
white teas. It is generally stronger in flavor than the less
oxidized teas. • Green tea:
The best containers: aluminum foil bag, metal can, store in
refrigerator
Shelf life: 18 months • High Fructose Corn Syrup
• Oolong tea: • Fruit Juice
The best containers: tin can, iron can, porcelain can, etc. Sugar Substitutes (diet drinks)
Shelf life: 24 months WhySoft?
Soft drinks are called "soft” because they are non-alcoholic in contrast
• Black Tea
with alcoholic drinks which are called "hard“ drinks.
The best container: tin can, iron can, ceramic pot, purple clay jar.Shelf
Small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the
life: 36 months
alcohol content must be less than 0.5% of the total volume if the drink
• White Tea is to be considered non-alcoholic.

The best containers: tin bottle, porcelain jar, colored glass bottle, and TYPES OF SOFTDRINKS
carton.
 Regular
Shelf life: the aged the better  Diet
 Calorie-based
BENEFITS
 Flavored
• Reduces risks in heart disease.  Caffeneited
 Caffeine Free
• It has cholesterol lowering effect.
• Reduces risk in Cancer
1. Regular
• Antioxidant property
 Most commonly found soda drink, popularized
• Antibacterial worldwide by Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Fanta, Dr. Pepper and
similar drinks.
SOFT DRINKS  A Regular Pepsi-Cola (12 oz) contains:
i. Calories = 150
A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a ii. Sugar = 41 grams
sweetener, and a natural/artificial flavoring. iii. Caffeine = 38 mg
 A Regular Coca-Cola (12 oz) contains:
Sweeteners:
i. Calories = 140
• Sugar
 ii. Sugar = 39 grams 5. Caffeinated
 One of the most popular types of soft drinks, present in almost
iii. Caffeine = 34 mg
all products from Companies. Presence of caffeine gives
Regular Soft Drinks use High Fructose Corn Syrup and Sugar as drinkers quick boost of attention, making them more awake
sweetener and euphoric. It also makes them addicted a little.
 The U.S. Food & Drug Administration regulates that a 12-oz.
2. Diet drink can only contain 71 mg per serving. Caffeinated soft
 Diet soft drinks are those that don’t use natural sugar in them, drinks that contain this limit or nearly this limit include Vault,
but just small amount of artificial sweeteners. This makes diet Jolt Cola, Mountain Dew MDX and Coke Black. This amount
soft drinks into beverages that have much less or zero caloric is comparable to one shot of espresso, which contains 75 mg
value. of caffeine. A 16-oz. coffee contains 320 mg of caffeine.
 Diet Soft Drinks contains artificial sweetener which relies on
Aspartame. 6. Caffeine-free

3. Calorie-based  Soft drinks who are specifically made not to give users
 Soda and sweetened drinks are one of the main sources of positive and negative effects of caffeine intake.
calories in many countries around the world, so manufacturers
 Some soft drinks do not contain caffeine. These include 7-Up,
started offering special drinks that are calorie-based. These are
Fanta, Fresca, Sierra Mist, Mug Root Beer and Sprite. All
balanced soft drinks that have majority of their sugar
flavors and versions of these contain no caffeine.
removed, having zero natural sugar and often are marketed to
have zero or 1 calorie. PRODUCTION OF SOFTDRINK
 Sodium cyclamate, was once act as the sweetener of coke zero
 Water Treatment
but was removed in 2009 because it was believed to be a
carcinogen.  Deaeration

4. Flavored  Blending
 This type of Soft Drinks is usually found when manufactures  Carbonation
of carbonated mineral water wants to spice up their drinks
with some specific flavor. The vast majority of the base  Filling and Packaging
drink remains the same, and just small amount of artificial
sweetener is added.
 The sugar substitutes included in flavored soft drinks are
sucralose, acesulfame-K, aspartame and cyclamate
1. Water Treatment and ratios of the liquids. The vessels are pressurized with
carbon dioxide to prevent aeration of the mixture.
Water Treatment
4. Carbonation
• Clarifying
• The temperature of the liquid must be carefully controlled
- Suspended particles, organic matter, and bacteria are
since carbon dioxide solubility increases as the liquid
generally removed through the traditional process of a series of
temperature decreases. Many carbonators are equipped with
coagulation, filtration, and chlorination.
their own cooling systems. The amount of carbon dioxide
• Filtering pressure used depends on the type of soft drink.

- The clarified water is poured through a sand filter to remove 5. Filling and Packaging
fine particles of floc. The water passes through a layer of sand and
 The finished product is transferred into bottles or cans at
courser beds of gravel to capture the particles.
extremely high flow rates. The containers are immediately
• Sterilizing sealed with pressure-resistant closures, either tinplate or steel
crowns with corrugated edges, twist offs, or pull tabs.
- The water is pumped into a storage tank and is dosed with a
small amount of free chlorine. The chlorinated water remains in  Because soft drinks are generally cooled during the
the storage tank for about two hours until the reaction is complete. manufacturing process, they must be brought to room
temperature before labeling to prevent condensation from
• Dechlorinating ruining the labels.
- activated carbon filter dechlorinates the water and removes PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
residual organic matter, much like the sand filter.
1. pH Contol
2. Deaeration
 Cola (2.5-2.8)
• A vacuum pump de-aerates the water before it passes into a  Lemonade (2.8-3.2)
dosing station.  Flavored Drinks (2.5-3.5)
2. Heating and Homogenization
• When water is deaerated, the concentration of the gas  Syrup
molecules in the water is lower at the contact surface.
 Water Treatment
3. Blending  Packaging
3. Chemical Preservatives
• The water and syrup are carefully combined by sophisticated  sulphur dioxide
machines, called proportioners, which regulate the flow rates  sorbic acid and its salts
  benzoic acid and its salts
BOTTLED WATER AND BEVERAGES
 The term “bottled water” actually applies to a number of
different beverage products, including: spring water, purified
water, mineral water, sparkling bottled water, well water and
artesian water.
 The term “water beverages” applied to a number of different
beverages including flavored water, enhanced water, fortified
water and fitness water.
1. Spring Water
 Bottled water derived from an underground formation from
which water flows naturally to the surface of the earth.
2. Purified Water
 A bottled water that contains no dissolved solids. Purified
water may be labeled by other names depending on how it is
produced, such as, “distilled water” if it is produced by
distillation, “deionized water” if it is produced by deionization
or “reverse osmosis water” if the process used is reverse
osmosis.
3. Mineral Water
 Bottled water containing not less than 250 parts per million
total dissolved solids may be labeled as mineral water.
Mineral water is distinguished from other types of bottled
water by its constant level and relative proportions of
minerals.
4. Sparkling Bottled Water
 Water that after treatment, and possible replacement with
carbon dioxide, contains the same amount of carbon dioxide
that it had as it emerged from the source.
5. Well water
 Bottled water from a hole that is bored, drilled or otherwise
constructed in the ground, which taps a water aquifer (a water-
bearing underground layer of rock or sand).
BOTTLED WATER PURIFICATION TECHNIQUES
WATER FILTRATION
Your water must be free of any contaminants that will spoil its quality,
reduce its shelf life, and be a pathogenic threat to consumers.
TANK VENTING
The air in the storage tank must be free of microorganisms to ensure
that the water stored will not be contaminated.
DISINFECTION
Disinfection with sodium hypochlorite or ozone. Usually ozonation
would be preferred, because ozone not only kills bacteria and viruses;
it also improves taste and odour properties and breaks down micro
pollutants. Ozone diffuses through the water as small bubbles and
enters microrganisms cells by diffusion through cell walls. It destroys
microrganisms either by disturbance of growth or by disturbance of
respiratory functions and energy transfers of their cells. During these
processes ozone is lost according to the reaction O3 -> O2 +(O)
JUICE
 Juice is a liquid naturally contained in fruit or vegetable
tissue.
 It was developed from the Old French words "jus, juis, jouis",
which mean "liquid obtained by boiling herbs".
  The largest fruit juice consumers are New Zealand (nearly a
cup, or 8 ounces, each day) and Colombia (more than three
quarters of a cup each day)
Orange juice
 The juice with the highest amount of vitamin C and potassium
and a good source of folate and thiamin. It also contains
cancer-fighting phytochemicals.
Grapefruit juice
 The juice with the second highest amount of vitamin C.
Apricot Nectar
 This juice is high in vitamin A and contains a small amount of
iron and zinc.
Prune
 The juice highest in iron, zinc, fiber and niacin.
Apple
 This juice has no nutritional advantage over other juices, but
is good for flavoring water because it dilutes well.
PRODUCTION OF JUICE
1. Preparation of the fruit
Fruit should be washed in clean water, peeled and the stones removed.
All fruit should be ripe and free from bruising. Pineapple contains an
enzyme that damages the skin.
2. Pulp/Juice Extraction
Juice is extracted in a number of different ways - steaming, reaming,
pressing and pulping. Fruit can be pulped in a liquidiser. To make fruit
squash or cordial, the extracted fruit juice is mixed with sugar syrup
to give a final sugar concentration of 12-14%.
3. Added Ingredients
Pure fruit juices have no added ingredients, but sometimes
preservatives such as sodium benzoate or citric acid are added. Fruit
squashes have sugar added to preserve the squash after opening.
4. Filtration
To make clear bright juice, the juice should be filtered to remove the
fine suspended particles. Pectic enzymes are sometimes added to the
juice to break down the pectin which is naturally present and which
gives the juice a cloudy appearance.
5. Fill and seal
For large scale operations, a range of filling machines are utilized. The
juice containers should be thoroughly washed and sterilised before
filling. Bottles that are recycled should be checked for cracks and
chips. Only new caps should be used for sealing the bottles.
6. Heat Treatment/Pasteurise
The juice/syrup mixture is quickly heated to pasteurising temperature
and hot filled into sterilised bottles and sealed. Fruit juice is
pasteurised after it has been bottled. A measured amount of syrup is
mixed with the fruit juice in a stainless steel pan, which increases the
temperature of the juice to 60-70deg C for 5 – 10 minutes.
7. Cooling
After heating, the bottles are cooled to room temperature by
refrigerating. If the bottles are cooled too quickly they will crack and
break.
PRESERVATION METHODS
 Refrigeration
 Even in the absence of pathogenic microbes, the natural
microflora present will be active.
 Going from an exceptionally low refrigeration temperature to
a merely good one (2ºC to 5ºC) can reduce shelf life from
greater than a month to less than 3 weeks
 One rule of thumb specifies each 10ºC increase in temperature
roughly doubles reaction rates.
 Freezing
 Freezing raw fruit and/or vegetable juice at -3 to -5 C will
extend the life of juice for two to three months. For extended
shelf life, pasteurization is recommended. Pasteurized juice
should keep well in your freezer for six months or longer.
 Competitive inhibition
 These microbes, designed to grow well under conditions of
storage abuse including temperature, oxygen level, pH, water
activity, etc., will dominate spoilage and readily signal their
presence thus harmlessly causing rejection of the spoiled item.
 The development of these fermented foods served to
stabilize and improve the original materials.
 Canning
 Standard canning procedures specify filling cans or jars with
hot juice (~70 to 80ºC), sealing and processing at 100 to 105ºC
for up to 10 minutes and cooling immediately.
 Hot fill
 It is easy to hot fill pack juices by rapidly heating the juice in
a heat exchanger and filling containers with the hot juice
measuring around 95ºC followed by sealing and inverting,
thus pasteurizing the container
 Aseptic processing
 A more elegant aseptic system rapidly heats, holds the hot
juice to implement pasteurization and cools the juice before
filling into sterile laminated paper/plastic/foil containers
which are literally formed around a cylinder of flowing sterile
juice (Tetra Pak, 2000).
 The rapid heating and cooling of the product guarantees
microbial and enzyme destruction.
MILK
A whitish liquid containing proteins, fats, lactose, and various
vitamins and minerals that is produced by the mammary glands of all
mature female mammals after they have given birth and serves as
nourishment for their young.
 Minerals
• Calcium
 Builds strong bones and teeth strengthens body cells; aids in
blood clotting; regulates muscles, including the heart;
maintains normal nerve functions
• Phosphorus AQUATIC FOODS
 Strengthens body cells; combines with calcium to make bones
and teeth; helps in the oxidation of foods
 Vitamin B1 (thiamin)
• Assists in maintaining normal appetite, a healthy digestive
system
 Niacin
• Nerve function; helps release food energy for the body’s use
 Vitamin D
• Helps body to use calcium and phosphorus to build strong
bones and teeth.
 Vitamin A
• Aids vision and growth; helps maintain health of mucous
membranes PROTEIN
 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
 is a macronutrient
• Aids growth; helps maintain health of skin, eyes, and tongue;  unlike carbohydrates and fats, our body does not store protein,
helps nerve tissues function; helps digestive tract so it has no reservoir to draw from when you are running low.
FOUR GOOD REASONS WHY WE NEED ENOUGH
PROTEIN

 It is a component of every cell in our body. In fact, hair

and nails are mostly made of protein.
 Our body uses it to repair tissue
 We need it to make enzymes, hormones, and other
important body chemicals
 It is an important building block of bones, muscles,
cartilage, skin, and blood
AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
1. Fresh Water
2. Marine Water
Saltwater and freshwater aquatic zones cover about 71% of the
earth's surface.
Difference between Freshwater environment and Marine/Saltwater
environment
1. Salt content: The most significant difference between the
freshwater and the saltwater ecosystems is the salt content
difference between the two. The freshwater ecosystem has
less than 0.05% salt content; saltwater ecosystems, on the
other hand, are characterized by about 3.5% salt content. The
life in these two ecosystems has adapted to these different salt
contents.
Saltwater Salinity: 3.5%
Freshwater Salinity: 0.1%
2. Physiology of organisms: The organisms that live in
freshwater ecosystems have adapted to lower salt content, as
compared to the saltwater organisms.
Freshwater organisms exist in a hypotonic
environment since the salt content inside the organisms is
more as compared to their surroundings. Hence these
organisms have to overcome the osmotic pressure caused by
the salt content difference between the inside and outside of
their bodies.
In comparison, the saltwater environment is isotonic
and the saltwater organisms have to exert very little effort to
overcome the osmotic pressure.
*This vastly different salt concentration affects the way fish
regulate water and salts in their body is called
osmoregulation.
3. Temperature: The ocean and sea are relatively large bodies
and have a uniform temperature throughout the year. In
comparison, freshwater bodies may have more variations in
the temperature through the year. Depending on the size, some
freshwater bodies may have low water content during the
summer months and hence the survival of organisms may
become tough.
4. Species variability: Freshwater organisms can be classified
as either tropical or cold water; in comparison, the saltwater
organisms are only coldwater organisms.
FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT
• Ponds
• Lakes
• Wetlands
• Rivers
Factors affecting which organisms live in freshwater ecosystems
• Temperature
• Sunlight
• Oxygen
• Nutrients
1. Ponds
Pond is a small shallow depression in the earth filled with
water from rain or snow-melt runoff, springs, or groundwater.
Ponds can lose water through seepage, evaporation, or
transpiration (plant respiration).
2. Lakes
Lake is larger and deeper than a pond. It is too deep for water
plants to grow except around the shoreline. Lakes provide
abundant fish and wildlife habitats.
3. Wetlands
Wetland is generally a shallow, low-lying areas (near the
water table) with fluctuating water levels. The soils are wet
most of the year and they support an abundance of aquatic
plants. It is an area of lands covered in water for at least part
of the year.Wetlands once were considered “useless” lands to
be used only as dumpsites or drained, ditched, and dredged for
farming and building sites.
a. Marshes- A marsh can be thought of as a wetland
dominated by grassland. It can occur in low, flat lands
and have little water movement. It is an important
feeding and nursery areas for fish.
b. Swamps- Swaps are wetlands dominated by trees and
other woody plants. This type of wetland is often
found along large rivers and lake shores. Swamps
often have stagnant, slow-moving water. Swamp
vegetation is often dependent on the water level
fluctuation. This in particular is the case with swamps
found near large rivers.
4. Rivers
Flowing water systems contained within a channel bounded
by uplands.
Many begin from snow melt in mountains
• Cold, full of oxygen, fast moving
River flows down the mountain
• Becomes wider, warmer, slower, less oxygen
A river changes depending on the land and climate it is
flowing through.
MARINE ENVIRNONMENT
1. Wetlands
Saltwater wetland ecosystems include mangroves and
marshes. Organisms adapted to living in wetlands habitats live
part of their life outside the water and must adapt to a cycle of
changing water salinity. Mangrove trees are essential to
coastal marine ecosystems. Saltwater marshes occur in
protected areas along the coastline and provide many of the
same benefits of mangrove habitats.
 Salt Marshes
 Mangrove Swamps
2. Estuaries
Estuary is an area where fresh water from a river mixes with
salt water from an ocean. It provides an important habitat for
birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and insects, and estuary
vegetation helps to filter runoff and other pollutants.
a. Currents form here
i. Cause mud and nutrients to fall to the bottom
ii. Marsh grasses will begin to grow here
b. Constantly receiving fresh nutrients
i. Makes it a very productive ecosystem
3. Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are among the world's richest ecosystems, second
only to tropical rain forests in plant and animal diversity,”
according to the EPA. Tropical coral reefs occur in shallow,
warm waters, typically off the coast of a land mass or in areas
where islands once existed. Larger reef species rely on corals
as a source of food and for protection, and coral reefs provide
a protected nursery and hatchery area for many important fish
species.
4. Open Ocean
The open ocean is the largest marine ecosystem, according
to the National Earth Science Teachers Association (NESTA).
 The further the ocean stretches from the coast, the more its 3. Gastropods - large & highly diversified class within the phylum
depth increases. The large fish of the open ocean are an Mollusca
important food resource for humans and include tuna,
- Many possess a shell whereas some are without shells
swordfishes and sharks.
- The shelled gastropods are also called univalves
VARIETY OF AQUATIC FOODS
Examples: Abalone, whelks
1. Mollusk
4. Holothuroidea - They are marine animals with a leathery skin and
2. Crustaceans
an elongated body containing a single, branched gonad.
3. Gastropods
Example: Sea cucumber
4. Holothuroidea
5. Echinoderm- member of the phylum Echinodermata which
5. Echinoderm contains a number of marine organisms recognized by their
pentamerous radial symmetry, calcareous endoskeleton, & a
6. Thalassinideans
water vascular system which helps operate their small podia.
7. Fish
Podia - small extensions of flesh which are operated by water
8. Marine mammals pressure and muscles, and controlled by the nervous system of the
echinoderm. The calcareous endoskeleton is made of many small
9. Marine plants plates that overlap under the skin, forming an armor and a structural
1. Mollusk - large & diverse phyla of invertebrate animals, form for the organisms.
featuring over 110,000 species. Example: Sea urchin
- phylum name, Mollusca (means "thin-shelled) though 6. Thalassinideans - is a former infraorder of decapod crustaceans
many species lack shells that live in burrows in muddy bottoms of the world's oceans.
Examples: clams, oysters, scallops, mussels, snails, Example: Mud shrimp
squid, octopuses, slugs, nudibranchs, sea hares, &
several classes of deep-sea wormlike creatures 7. Fish

2. Crustaceans –most diverse group of phylum arthropods after Family:

the insects, including over 800 families, & many subgroups.
Examples: crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, barnacles
brine shrimp, copepods, ostracods and mantis shrimps
a.) Cyprinodontidae - a large family (order Microcyprini) of small
scaly-headed soft-finned fishes that feed on water plants and insects.
Examples: killifishes, flag fishes, swordtails, guppies
b.) Engraulidae - Small to moderate-sized silvery fishes (to 30 cm
standard length, commonly 8 to 15 cm standard length), usually with
fusiform, subcylindrical bodies but sometimes quite strongly
compressed.
Example: Achovy
C.) Clupeidae - a family of ray-finned fishes, comprising, for
instance, the herrings, shads, sardines, ilish, and menhadens
- include many of the most important food fishes in the world, & are
also commonly caught for production of fish oil and fish meal
Examples: Cod, pollock, salmon, sturgeon, Cod, halibut, larger
pelagic fishes, Salmon, tuna, sturgeon, Sturgeon, sharks
8. Marine mammals - are aquatic mammals that rely on the ocean
and other marine ecosystem for their existence.
Classifications:
a.) cetaceans - whales, dolphins, and porpoises
b.) pinnipeds - seals, sea lions, and walruses
c.) sirenians - manatees and dugongs, and
d.) marine fissipeds - polar bears and sea otters
9. Marine plants
Sea Vegetables( Sea Weeds) - While they have an array of subtle
flavor distinctions, all seaweeds share a salty and savory taste and,
because they contain dimethyl sulfide, carry the aroma of coastal air.
/
Categories of Sea Vagetables:
1. Green seaweeds, such as sea lettuce, mainly contain chlorophyll,
similar to their land-based brethren.
*Sea lettuce (also called “ulva”) - is bright green and looks like leaf
lettuce.
2. Red seaweeds, which include dulse, laver, nori, agar, and Irish
moss, primarily have red pigments, although they can look purple as
well as a whole range of other related colors depending on the specific
kinds of carotene pigments present. Because this class of pigments can
be water soluble and heat sensitive, seaweed that looks red when
uncooked may change to a dark green after cooking.
*Nori - has a dark purple-black color that turns green when toasted
and is by far the most popular seaweed available. Wrap it around rice
and your favorite vegetables or fish for a quick sushi. Use as a
condiment when shredded or crumbled.
*Dulse - has a reddish-brown color and a soft, chewy texture. Use it
in salads, vegetable sides, noodle dishes and soups. It adds a nice
seafood flavor to chowder, minestrone or bouillabaisse.
3. Brown seaweeds, such as kelp, kombu, alaria, arame, wakame, sea
palm, and hijiki, depend on brown pigments from other carotenoid
pigments, fucoxanthin in particular. Although chlorophyll is also a
component of brown seaweeds, its green color is masked by the
brown.
*Kombu is a large and very dark-colored seaweed used to flavor soup
stocks in Japan. Soak kombu in your own soup stocks, then remove,
slice very thin, and add to soups, stews or beans.
*Wakame is similar to kombu and used to flavor soups such as miso,
and in vinegar and cucumber salads. To use wakame in salad, first
soak in cold water to soften, then finely chop. To use as a condiment WHY AQUACULTURE
on steamed brown rice, crumble it when dry.
• Food
Health Benefits: • Resource efficient
• Stock
• Sea vegetables may play a role in lowering risk of estrogen-
• Salvaging Endangered species
related cancers, including breast cancer
• Ornamental
• more interesting with respect to breast cancer risk is the • Industrial
apparent ability of sea vegetables to modify aspects of a
woman's normal menstrual cycle in such a way that over a
GENERAL AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
lifetime.
1. Warmwater Aquaculture – warm fresh water
• Tumor reduction, inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, free
radical scavenging, and significant antioxidant activity have eg. Catfish, crayfish, baitfish, sportfish, ornamental fish
been exhibited by red and brown seaweeds.
2. Coldwater Aquaculture – cool, fresh water
• Sulfated polysaccharides, a type of carbohydrate found in
eg. Trout, salmon, etc.
some of the brown seaweeds, are being explored as antiviral
agents and as aids in preventing blood clots. 3. Mariculture – saltwater or brackish water
• The sulfated polysaccharides in sea vegetables also have eg. Clams, oysters, seaweed, shrimp
important anticoagulant and antithrombotic properties that
bring valuable cardiovascular benefits. AQUACULTURE BASED ON INTENSIFICATION

• Studies exploring polysaccharides in bladder wrack and kelp 1. Extensive Aquaculture

have also shown to be a highly effective agent for reducing
 low degree of control over the system
the effects of radiation toxicity.
traditionaltechniques
• Sea vegetables contains alkaloid antioxidants. eg. Seaweed culture, coastal fishponds

• Sea vegetables are an excellent source of iodine, vitamin C, 2. Intensive Aquaculture

manganese, and vitamin B2. They are also a very good source
 high degree of control full complement of culture
of vitamin A (in the form of carotenoids) and copper as well
techniques
as a good source of protein, pantothenic acid, potassium, iron,
eg. Freshwater, brackishwater and marine ponds
zinc, vitamin B6, niacin, phosphorus, and vitamin B1.
 3. Semi-intensiveAquaculture A. Pond Culture
Adoption of mid-level technology eg. Fresh- and brackish 2. Static freshwaterponds
water pond -fresh, still-water ponds- natural biological productivity
depends on soil & water qualities
TYPES OF CULTURE
3. Brackishwater ponds
1. Monoculture -located on a tidal creek or stream
-there is a system of sluices to control the ingress & egress of
a. Same age and size water into &from the ponds
b. Same sex (mono-sex)
B. Running Water Culture
c. Different size/age groups
- abundant supply of water, most intensive common carp
2. Polyculture
Advantages: stocking dissolved oxygen
a. compatible combinations
waste products rates of production
b. predator-forage combinations
Disadvantages: water artificial feed
3. Combination of pond fish culture with crop or animal
production initial cost energy wastage
–integrated farming and recycling of organic wastes
C. Culture in Recirculating Systems
TYPES OF AQUACULTURE
- water is filtered continuously and recirculated, often after aeration,
A. Pond Culture to the fish pond

B. Running water culture Recirculating systems: for incubation, seed rearing, fattening, study
of fish feeds, conditioning of fish for markets through removal of
C. Culture in recirculating systems bad flavors, etc.
D. Culture in rice fields Reconditioning processes: sedimentation, filtration, aeration, pH
E. Aquaculture in raceways, cages pens & enclosures control, temperature control, sterilization, degassing, ion exchange

F. Hanging, ‘on-bottom’ and stick methods of oyster culture
D. Culture in Rice Fields
- Culturing fish/prawn and growing rice together in the same paddy
fields
- combined production, alternating and/or simultaneous
- use of rice fields as nurseries.
E. Aquaculture in Raceways 4 Basic Cage Types
Enclosure 1. Fixed – by anchors
– natural or semi-sheltered bay 2. Flexible - usually floating, with collars that support catwalks
and working platforms
– solid barrier
3. Submersible – mollusk farming eg. Oyster culture
– range: 0.1-1,000 ha in S.A.
4. Submerged – storm prone eg. Tilipia culture
Pens – man-made
G. Oyster culture
– range: 1 m^2 to several ha
Cages – man-made 1. On bottom
– rafts, long-lines or racks
– float off the bottom - seed oyster are tied to horizontal poles
– range: 1-1,000 m^2 in S.A. 2. Sowing Method
- oysters are directly placed on the bottom
1. Rigid Structures– non-flexible structures; swiftly flowing 3. Stick Method
rivers & Streams (galvanized “chain-link” & galvanized - wooden sticks driven into bottom in the intertidal zone
“weldmesh”) eg. Milkfish farming in Laguna de Bay
2. Flexible Structure- Buoyed fish net enclosure but resting on INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF AQUATIC ORGANISM
bottom Eg. 10 ha trial enclosure in Laguna de Bay PRODUCTS/ BY-PRODUCTS

Floating Fish Cages I. AQUATIC ANIMALS

- seabed is unsuitable for shellfish A. FISH CARTILAGE AND SKIN used as / in

- predator control 1. Food Ingredients

-can be towed out
-Floats - rise and fall with fluctuating water levels
some countries kills shark to get its fins and have it as a soup. Due
to its unique thickening and textural properties which is perfect as a
food ingredient
NOTE: Sharks and rays are elasmobranch fish, characterized as
having an internal skeleton containing only cartilage and no ossified
bone.
2. Leather Production D. VISCERA AND UNDERUTILIZED FISH
The skins of shark, rays, sturgeons, salmon, and hagfish are tanned 1. FERTILIZER (NPK ,4-1-1)
into leather for high-end accessories, wallets and handbags, and
- also called fish amino acid
specialty footwear.
- provide quick nitrogen boost
NOTE: About 100 million of sharks were killed annually
3. Chondroitin Sulfate
Dietary supplement for treatment of osteoarthritis, from the cartilage
of sturgeon.
4. Gelatin
A hydrolyzed collagen and is an important industrial biopolymer
because of its utility, particularly as a food ingredient and in the
pharmaceutical, photographic and cosmetics industries. Functional
applications in food formulations include water holding, thickening, E. SHELL
colloid stabilization, crystallization control, film formation, whipping,
emulsification and melt-in-the-mouth perception. Recovered by a These type of aquatic animals comprise about 60% of total landings
series of extractions conducted on fish frames or skins and over 80% of the value of the total world fishery (FAO, 2008).
These shells are high in calcium, and oyster shell in particular is
B. ISINGLASS recovered, cleaned and powdered, and used as a nutritional
supplement.
- From dried air bladder/ swim bladder a kind of gelatin obtained
from fish (e.g.sturgeon) and used in making jellies, glue, etc F. EXOSKELETON
- Use to clarify wine and beer by aggregation - from crustacean type of aquatic animals e.g. crabs, lobster, cuttle
fish, shrimp, prawn
- available in powder and paste or highly viscous liquid
1. Chitin
C. BONE
2. Chitosan
Bone comprises a significant portion of seafood processing wastes.
The backbone is one of the major by-product fractions, yielding about -wound healing agent, hypocholesterolemic agents, anti-tumor, anti-
15% of the fish weight, which contains 60–70% minerals, mainly ulcer, anti-microbial
calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite, and about 30% proteins that
may be used for human consumption (Gildberg et al., 2002)
F. SCALES contributed from the surrounding insanitary a most suitable place for
their growth and multiplication.
- used in lipsticks due to Pearlescence from the shiny stuff found in
fish scales **Proteins, constituting 70 - 90 % are degraded by proteolytic
organisms
II. AQUATIC PLANTS
**The Carbohydrates, present in small amount in the fish flesh are
e.g seaweeds
spoiled by carbohydrate fermenting organisms like Streptococcus,
Used as: Leuconostoc, Micrococcus , etc.

-livestock fodder **Fats constituting 3 - 5 % of the flesh are digested by relatively few
gram negative bacteria.
- fertilizer
3. Enzymatic Action
-compost
Enzymatic action is due to action of various enzymes found in the
- mulch and bioremediation body tissues / cells of fishes. They spoil the tissue by the process of
PROCESSING AND FOOD PRESERVATION autolysis and make the fish susceptible to bacterial attack.

CAUSE OF SPOILAGE
1. Chemical Action
The chemical action involves oxidation of fat, contained within the
fatty tissues of the fish. The oil starts getting oxidized as soon as it
comes in contact with the atmospheric air, which is known as
rancidity. The colour of the fat and its viscosity changes and the fish
becomes strong tasted. Methods employed to prevent rancidity include
application of Antioxidants like polyphenols or other viscous fluid and
minimizing exposure of fish to atmospheric air. It is more pronounced
in fat fishes which as a result become decolourised. (e.g. oil sardine,
mackerels, catla, trout, grass carp etc.)
Autolysis of protein results in formation of amino acids and other
nitrogenous products, which on further decomposition produces
ammonia, carbon dioxide, volatile basic compounds like various
amines and fatty acids, and foul smelling products like indole, skatole
For Example:
** Proteinase can digest muscle proteins of the fish, catalyse the gill
spoilage
** ATPase brings about a complete disappearance of ATP, from
muscle tissue in 6 to 8 hours.
FISH PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES

2. Microbial Action 1. temperature control, using ice, refrigeration or freezing;

Microbial action involves bacterial decomposition of the fish flesh. 2. control of water activity and include drying, salting, smoking
The bacteria are found in the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract and freeze-drying.
and on the general body surface of the fish. They may also be
 3. physical control of microbial fish loads, such as through
microwave heating or ionizing irradiation
4. chemical control of microbial activity and loads by adding
acids, for example, to fish products.
5. oxydo-reduction, such as vacuum packaging.
FISH PROCESSING
Processing fish involves primarily the application of preservation
techniques in order to retain quality and increase shelf life. It may also
deal with value adding to produce a wide variety of products.
REASONS
1. Prevent spoilage and preserve
2. Create usable and desirable forms
3. Maintain quality
4. Assure the consumer of a safe product
5. Fully utilize the raw material
6. Add value
PRIMARY PROCESSING—ON-BOARD HANDLING
1. Chilling Method
A method to both preserve and process fish is to keep it cool
by covering the fish with layers of ice. For high quality, fish
should be chilled as quickly as possible to 0°C. Ice is effective
for short term preservation such as is needed to transport
landed fish to nearby markets or to canning factories, etc. Here
autolytic enzymic activities are checked by lowering the
temperature.
ACTIVITY OF ICE- It reduces the growth rate of bacteria by reducing
the temperature of the fish; It also washes the bacteria and slime away
as it melts. Because of this, it is important to keep melt water drained
away from the fish.
***Spoilage can never be prevented through chilling or cooling, but
the cooler the fish are, the greater the reduction in bacterial and
enzymatic degradation. For each 5°C increment in storage temperature
above 0°C, there is a significant reduction in shelf life. Fish that can
be stored for two weeks at 0°C may only last a day or two at 10°C
SECONDARY PROCESSING
The purpose of secondary processing is to convert the raw fish into a
form that is still acceptable to the consumer and that has a longer shelf
life. However, to ensure a high-quality finished product, it is necessary
to begin with a high-quality raw product.
SALTING
• Salting has no adverse effect on the value of fish protein.
• Bacterial growth can be significantly retarded by the presence
of sufficient quantities of common salt.
• The higher the salt concentration in the fish, the longer its
storage life.
TYPES
DRYING
Drying involves dehydration i.e. the removal of moisture contents of
fish, so that the bacterial decomposition or enzymic autolysis does not
occur. When moisture contents reduce up to 10%, the fishes are not
spoiled provided they are stored in dry conditions.
CANNING
This is a process involving heat treatment of fish in sealed containers
made of tin plates, aluminum cans or glass, until the product has been
fully sterilized. The canning process involves pre-treatment of fish,
preparation of can, filling and closure of the can, technique of heating
the filled cans to kill micro-organisms without damage to fish, finally
cooling, cleaning and storage of the product.
The raw material should be processed properly since it contains most
dangerous Clostridium botulinium which should be destroyed. This is
found in protein rich food such as fish which has pH 6- 7 and is
nonacidic. There are some other heat resistant bacteria like
Clostridium sporogenes which can be eliminated at a temperature of
5- 6 times more than Clostridium botulinlum. It needs a temperature
of 120oC for 4 minutes or at 115oC for 10 minutes to kill them in large
numbers.
PROCEDURE
FILLING
o Empty cans should be packed carefully by employing the
PROCESSING
manual labor or through mechanical device.
o While packing, care should be taken to see that no air pockets
are left which cannot be removed by exhausting.
o At the same time too tight packing should be avoided. It is
always better to leave some space at the top for
accommodating gas released while processing.
o Fatty fishes (salmon, herring, mackerel, etc.) results in
acceptable products when salt is added. Non-fatty fishes call
for special additives to improve flavor and texture.
o Brine is used when fish is not salted properly as an additive
for enhancing flavor. Monosodium glutamate is used as
additive for canned fish at a concentration of 1.6 gm / Kg fish.
o Vegetable oil and olive oils are also used for filling the cans.
EXHAUSTING
• The air and gas from the can should be removed before its
sealing process. This can be done by using exhausting which
minimizes the strain on the can through expansion of air
during heat processing.
• Removal of oxygen to avoid internal corrosion and creation
of vacuum when the can is cooled are indication of sound
packing since it protects colour and flavour of products and
retains vitamins, etc.
• Further it checks the growth of organisms which requires air
for growth. Later sealing is done to obtain air tight seal
between the cover and the body of container so that the
spoilage agents cannot enter the sealed container after the
canned fish has been sterilised.
 Removal of air as completely as possible is an important
factor in steam processing. The container along with the
contents fish is heated in a retort at a temperature which is
sufficient to kill the potential inactive spoilage agents without
any damage to the fish inside.
 The retort systems can be operated continuously or in batches.
In the recent times open boilers are being tried. Thus pressure
processing either by steam or by water is delayed in this
processing. The retort shall have an inlet at the top through
which steam enters. The weight of the steam that entered the
retort and the incoming steam both put together drives the air
out from the bottom without mixing.
 Air pockets if present in a retort may give rise to uneven
processing and lead to under processing while interfering
between pressure and temperature.
 The processing time and temperature required for each food
depends on various factors like types of pack, size of cans
retort system, etc. By adopting the above heating process the
majority of the spoilage agents or bacteria are killed.
 If any bacteria remains unkilled they can be eliminated by
subjecting it to rapid cooling immediately after processing.
The can should be cooled to a temperature of 35oC which is
sufficient for rapid drying of the can surface. It protects
against rusting.
 Chlorinated water of 5 ppm can be used for cooling purpose.
Even after careful regulation of pressure during and after
 processing, the cans are sometimes exposed to temporary
leaks. Through these leakages the bacteria may enter-after
processing. Hence, to minimise this, chlorinated water is used
for cooling.
 The canned product should not be transported immediately
since the salt pellets and other additives used may take some
days for equal distribution throughout the can contents. It is
advised to store for 3 months before final quality control.
During this period all cases of leak contamination would show
up.
DEMERITS OF FOOD PRESERVATION
EXAMINING AND STORING
 Finally the canned product is thoroughly examined by various
methods like examining the product organoleptically,
chemically and microbiologically for the quality of final
product.
 It is then properly labelled which should exhibit the name of
the product, meat contents and any specific information if
required.
 The processed cans can be stored at a room temperature which
should be just above the freezing point of canned products.
MICROBIAL SPOILAGE
 Microbial spoilage may be due to insufficient pre-treatment
especially inadequate cooling or improper preservation of raw
material. It exhibits signs of spoilage accompanied by the
presence of dead bacteria. These bacteria may at times
withstand the processing during cooling and storage.
 Insufficient processing leaves back a number of heat resistant
spores forming bacteria in the canned product. The commonly
observed spore formers are mesophilic anaerobes
(Clostridium sporogenes, C. putrificum). They produce putrid
swells, mesophilic aerobes (Bacilus sp) produces flavour and
changes colour and softens the contents.
 Thermophilic bacilli produce flat sours which are rare. The
bacteria has got ability to produce gas and to interact with the
material inside the can. The gas accumulated at the head
region in the can helps in determining the kind and cause of
spoilage. The swelling of cans may also be due to CO2 and
hydrogen formed due to microbial spoilage.
1. Chilling brings about denaturation of flesh. This is because of
ice crystals formed during chilling and causing mechanical
damage to the muscles. Cell walls burst, structure gets
deformed and the flesh loses much of flavour and taste. The
flesh also becomes dehydrated and losses texture (FAO,
2008).
2. If proper hygienic measures are not taken during the processes
like washing, guttation and evisceration, etc. more harm
would be done to the preserved material, owing to increase in
the bacteria population.
3. Incomplete or poor preservation leads to decarboxylation of
histidine of fish flesh into histamine. The latter some other
related substances, collectively called saurine, are common
causes of food poisoning (Karube et al., 2001).
4. Drying reduces weight, nutritive value and the digestibility of
the flesh.
5. Excess salting allows growth of salt tolerant bacteria, causing
pink eye spoilage of spoilage of fish flesh.
6. Salting combined with smoking results in loss of protein,
about 1 to 5 % due to salting and 8 to 30 % due to smoking.
7. Smoking also accelerates rancidity of fat and so reduces
digestibility of fat products.
8. Canning leads to much loss of vitamin B1, panthotenic acid,
vitamin-C and pteroxylglutamic acid *AKA folic acid* (FAO,
2005).