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• X and Y and the direction along which the reinforcement is provided and SEdx
As per the approach suggested in this clause, the element is divided into three layers
of plate, each having 1/3rd thickness; top & bottom resist the in plane forces &
bending moments with resulting lever arm and the central one resists the out of
plane shear forces. The detailed procedure is available in Annexure B-1 and is
explained with worked examples in the commentary of the said annexure.
CI-9.1
WORKED EXAMPLE
Following are the results at the center of membrane element used for analysis of
diaphragm of bridge deck having thickness of 500 mm with Grade of concrete M40
and reinforcement Fe500
Since OEdx.OEdy > 'tEdx/and both OEdx& OEdyare compressive, no reinforcement in both
direction is required (provide the minimum reinforcement as given in section).
62
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IRC:SP: 105-201:
CHAPTER 8
SECTION 10:DESIGN FOR SHEAR, PUNCHING SHEAR AND
TORSION
The scope is to cover the design provisions for shear in flexural members including
arriving at the shear reinforcements.
The shear can arise out of (a) flexure, (b) Interface shear due to concrete cast at
different times (c) shear between web and flange in flanged sections (d) due to
punching (e) due to torsion. Different types of shear arising in flexural members can
be represented in the following flow diagram:
I Shea!
I
I
i
,
Flexural Shear
•
Interface Shear
(C oncrete ClSt
ar different
Shear between
flanue and web
III the flauaed
Punching Shear Torsional Shear
tune I beams
The shear design has to be carried out under ultimate limit state only. When the
member requires shear reinforcement, the reinforcement has to be calculated based
on a truss model. For members without shear reinforcement the capacity of the
section is estimated using empirical formula.
The adoption of higher grade of concrete with high permissible stress leads to
slender web resulting in large height to thickness ratio giving rise to significant
second order out-of-plane bending effect. This leads to failure of web at shear force
less than sectional force predicted based on uniform crushing of concrete using the
formula given in the code. Hence the code places restriction for shear strength of
concrete grades higher than M60. The shear strength for the same shall be restricted
to strength class M60 for design purposes.
8.2.1 Shear Design model of members without shear reinforcement CI. 10.2.1
The sub clauses of the code are quite elaborate and the same can be followed by the
designers without any difficulty.
64
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
Conservatively this increase in stress in the prestressing cable can be ignored and
only the prestressing force available may be considered after accounting all losses.
This method of design will lead to slight increase in shear steel.
For unbonded cable, at the ultimate limit state stage the force in the cable shall be
assumed to be same as the initial prestressing force less the losses. Increase in
cable force may not be considered. This will lead to slightly conservative design
shear force.
In the development length portion, the prestressing force develops gradually in case
of pre-tensioned girders. Hence the corresponding force shall be considered by
taking a linear variation.
In case of beams of varying depth, the design shear force shall be calculated by
ignoring the relief offered due to inclination of chords for justifying the no requirement
of shear reinforcement. However when the section needs to be provided with the
designed shear reinforcement, the relief or additional force due to chord inclination
shall be considered for arriving at the net shear force. The effect due to prestressing
force shall always be considered.
VEd is defined as the shear force in the section resulting from external loading and
prestressing. Chord forces also, if considered, then the net shear force is defined as
VNs in the code (i,e. VNs = VEd - Vccd - Vtd).
CI. 10.3
8.3 DESIGN METHOD
CI. 10.3
8.3.1 Elements not requiring Design Shear Reinforcement
(1) The shear capacity of concrete VRdcshall be greater than VEd which is the
design shear force in the section considered resulting from external loading
and prestressing. No relief due to inclined chord force shall be considered
while arriving at VEd. For sections having shear capacity VRdc more than
VEdno designed shear reinforcement needs to be provided. However
minimum shear reinforcement needs to be provided as per clause 16.5.2.
This minimum reinforcement can be omitted in case of slab structures.
(2) The formula given for calculating the shear capacity of section in the code is
empirical only. The shear strength depends upon the tensile strength of
concrete which in turn depends upon the compressive strength of concrete
to the power 1/3, longitudinal reinforcement ratio and depth of the section.
68
69
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
because VRde in case of beam having no shear reinforcement directly depends upon
As1, the longitudinal reinforcement which will be either absent or negligible.
Hence the designer, for most of the cases can straightway use Eq. 10.7 and 10.8,
without checking the capacity of section to carry shear using equation 10.1.
For sections having no shear reinforcement, the shear failure is expected to occur
when the principle tensile stress, anywhere in the section exceeds the tensile
strength of concrete feld, which shall be taken as felkos/Ym. Taking tensile stress as
negative, the minor principal stress
Where,
Oep is the compressive stress at centroid due to axial loading or
prestressing force (after all loss, including partial safety factor), taken as
positive.
Axis the first moment of area of the concrete above/below the plane of
consideration about the centroid of the section. This has been taken as S
in the code.
70
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'ptonuso ausoduroo 8lH inoqs
P!OJlU8::> 8l!Sodwo::> 84l 8Aoqe UOq::>8S iseoard 84l JO e8Je lU8WOW lSJ!J 84l S! .Jd~.Jdj-"
(Jd::1dV) ~:A= s2
q8M JO qipearq 84l S! q UO!P8S 8l!Sodwo::> JO eqJ8uI JO lU8WOW 84l S!
IRC:SP: 105-2015
Designers can observe that the clause 10.2.2.1 stipulates that no shear
reinforcement is required to be designed for a section within 'd' from support
except the reinforcement designed at 'd' to be continued upto support and
also for the shear generated due to loads placed in the zone covered by 8sup
and 8inf (i,e. between 'd' and '2.5d' from support in case 8inf is considered as
21.8°).
The first para of the clause 10.2.2.1 is applicable only in case if there is no
concentrated load occurring within a distance 'd' from support and the
structure is subjected to uniformly distributed load. The second part of the
clause covering the load placed between d and the distance corresponding
to minimum strut angle 2.5 d shall not be operated. Instead clause 10.3.2 (5)
shall be followed.
Clause no.10.3.2 (5) is not suited for multiple concentrated loads or moving
loads in case of bridges, indirect loads or subjected to uniformly distributed
load. This clause is applicable only when the structure is subjected to single
concentrated load. However if this clause is to the applied to the moving
loads, then the following procedure shall be adopted:
a) Workout the support reaction and shear at various sections due to dead
load.
b) It is assumed that there are three concentrated loads within a distance of
2d located at a distance of 0.5d, d and 1.5d. Any load occurring between
the support and 0.5d the same may be considered to act at 0.5d.
c) Place the first concentrated load W1 at 0.5d, W2 at d and W3 at 1.5d. The
P1, P2and P3factorwill be 0.25,0.5 and 0.75.
d) The support reaction.
e) Vsupport = VDLreaction + (reaction due to Wi) + (reaction due to Wz) +
(reaction due to W3) + reaction due to loads beyond 2d.
74
0·0 = d~D '.: 0 = peOlle!xy
£S·1 = ~
~/'- + 1= )j
.- . = SL·89X001 = pMq _ Id
20 > LSOO a·6£ lsV -
GWo LG·6£ = ISy
wWOOO ~ = 4lP!M SA!ps.u3
z
·wWS·L89 = sz OS - OSL = uidep SA!lOS.u3
w/zwo LG·6£ = lUSWSOJoJU!SJ JO eSJY
·WWSG~ e!p SG WSWSOJoJU!SH
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·sqels U! '4l!M pasuadstp
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aq ueo l! 'mns JO 5UI4SnJ8 JOJg·O~ uouenbs AJS!leSoi elqe osie aJe suouoas
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TO~
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.p uonoss a4l 6u!>I:Ja4:JJOJPZ le£M pue pg. ~ pue
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·lnJls
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g 6upnpOJlU! ln04l!M (p) U! UM04s se 'uouoeai uoddns a4l aleln:Jle:) (4
. ~·O~ uouenbs AJS!leSpinous (a) dais axoqe e4l U! ino pa>iJOMraaqs a41 (6
·PZ puoxoq spaoj oi anp raeus + .(EM peo: oi anp
Jea4s)Eo + (GM pao] Ol enp reaus) GO+ ("M peo] oi anp reaus) "0+ peoj
peap oi enp Jea4s /\ = aHil(peol uouoas JO Uel) pg·O uouoas le Jea4S (J
LL
8zl0J+T ..
T = 8zUIS. .
8zUlS 8zUIS
8z S0J US
+ 8z l 8z S~J +I
z 8 WJ +I
e z UlS = -=--=-----=-=----
I I I
8 c:U!S(0 lO:J + 8 lO:J) Z MqJo =
8 U!S x 8 U!S (0 lO:J + 8 lO:J) Z MqJo =
:Uoq:J8J!P 18:JqJ8/\ U! 8:JJOJ 8/\!SS8Jdwo:J 18::_
8 U!S (0 lO:J + 8 lO:J) Z Mq:.c =
8 U!S Z TirqJo = x-x 8U81d oi J8In:J!PU8dJ8d 8:JJOJ 8/\!SS8Jdwo:J 18::_
SS8JlS 8/\!SS8Jdwo:J 81q8MOll8 8lH SI :.c ~
8
-
/777777
x z
8 UlS 1\7
s = SOCI/\OS ~ = 0 U!S '0 = 0 lO:J '006 = 0 sdrurus 18:J!lJ8/\ JC=
() roo Z P'/.HI
V
S
(.8l0J +DlOJ
) Z· = sdruius JO raqumu 18+0-
s = 0 816u8 U8 l8 drums P8U!PU! JO 6Up8dS
~
IRC:SP:I05-2015
For members with vertical shear reinforcements, the shear resistance is the smaller
value of VRd,s and VRd.max. The maximum effective cross sectional area of shear
reinforcement for vertical stirrups can be found out by substituting 8 = 45° as the
capacity due to reinforcement cannot exceed the capacity of concrete.
As 8 cannot be assumed more than 45° ,the shear steel area cannot exceed the
above shown value in a section. In case if it exceeds, it means, the section has failed
in compression and hence need to redesigned
AswmaxfydXZ
VRds . S (cota+l)sina
V UCbWZv1fcd(1+cotU)
Rdmax (1+1)
V Rds~V Rdmax
Asw.maxfYd. 1 b f
S SIn a::; zacw wVl cd
(Codal Eq:]C' _
< ucvlfcd
Asw.maxfYd
bws - 2 sin «
A j'
s)"· yd
b s
At any situation if the provided shear reinforcement 10 works out to be greater
than ucvlfCdi it can be safely concluded the web has failed in shear and requires
2 sin tx
redesign.
It is necessary to restrict the shear resistance of concrete grades of higher than M60
to that of M60 grade for design purpose.
The adoption of higher grade of concrete with high permissible stress leads to
slender web resulting in significant second of order out plane bending effect leading
78
6L
'MOl8q uwous se inc
p8)lJOM 8q AeW P3/\ Je8L1S oi anp PJOLl::>UO!SS8Jdwo::> pue UO!SU8l U! 8::>JOJleUO!l!PP\i
8::>JO.::l8I!SU8.lleUO!l!PP\i
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z
'PSL'O S! L1::>!L1M
UlUl S'tlL = TLv - OS6 = WJe J8/\8l UlUlILt
005 X 5v X 5v'O
= 5n = 188lS JO 6U!PI8!A JOJ PJOLl::>UO!SS8Jdwo::> JO uidep S!SAleUe SSnJl WOJ.::l
OCiSx 5960T
'U0!l::>8S paouejeq e S! UO!P8S 8L1.l 'ZWWS960 ~
= 188lS JO e8J\i 'WWOS6 = uidap 8/\!P8JJ3 'wwooo ~ = L1ld80 'wwoos = L1lpe8J8 'S17lf\J
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'swe8q Jeln6uep8J '8'! (iueoq snonuuuoo
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'S8::>JOJle!Xe 6u!/\eLl UO!P8S 'S
suiseq p8SS8JlS8Jd 'z
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'P8/\!J8p eq pjnous WJe J8/\81lenpe 8L1l 'S8Se::>6U!MOIIOJ
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l! UO!P8S Jeln::>Jp JO 8Se::> UI 'swe8q-.l JOJ sjqaoudde AIUO S! 8p0::> 8L1l U! p8le::>!pU! P
6'0 WJe J8/\81 8L1.l 'p8J8JJO S! uouneo JO pJOM e 'p 6'0 WJe J8/\81 JO asn 8L1l 6u!pJe68C1
'UO!P!JlS8J S!L1lpsoeid sell 8p0::> 8L1l 8Jnl!eJ uons p!o/\e oi J8pJO
UI 'uotsserduroo le!xe J8pUn 8l8J::>UO::>JO 6u!L1snJ::>JOJ 8Iqe::>!ldde 8p0::> 8L1l U! u8/\!6
einuuo; 8L1l uo psseq peiejnojeo Alpede::> Je8L1S 8L1l ueui SS81 8::>JOJJe8L1Sle 8Jnl!eJ oi
IRC:SP: 105-2015
z J
v
-: ~/
"
,.
"
~
~
~
,V
-.' -. ~
-"1
This force has been shown in Fig: CIO.8. Distributing this force between tension and
compression chords equally the additional force =t:.ftd = ~2 V(cot S - cot a). This
tensile force shall be added to the tensile force generated due to flexure and the
MEd
reinforcement to be provided accordingly. The total tensile force at a section z +
t:.ftd -:; ME~maxwhereMEd,max is the maximum moment along the girder.
The angle of compression strut shall be limited to minimum of 21.8° and maximum of
450. Similarly the angle of shear stirrups shall be limited to minimum of 45° and
maximum of 90°. Alternatively shift rule can be applied as per clause 10.3.2 (6).
The spare capacity available in prestressing steel can be used to carry this additional
tensile force arising out of shear. In case if the cable is draped the inclination has to
be taken into account.
I Esurnatc the maximum allowable shear stress 0225 \' r "for strut angle corresponding 10 (F45"
Is
No ••I Redesign
The \ (I 225 v r ,k
the seCll(JI1
Is :\0
I'hc v 0 155 v f; ------.,
lake 0
Determined
\'cs TaI"c
0-218'
16.5
Ensure spacmg Lmutanon for vertical shear reinforcement Fq 16,6
Fig.l 0.9- Flow Diagram for design shear reinforcement in RCC Beam
82
IRC:SP: 105-20 15
When the loads are placed closer to the support, the part of the load will be carried to
the support directly by the arch action and part by truss action, involving bending and
shear. Closer the load to the support, greater is the portion of load which will be
carried to the support directly. Hence a reduction factor is given in the Code to
account for the reduction of this load for the direct transmission of shear while
designing the shear reinforcement. In case of bridge superstructures, as the loads
are moving loads, this provision may not be much useful. However this reduction is
not applicable for verifying the concrete capacity as per Eq. 10.5. This clause is really
applicable for single static load as explained before. While verifying the reinforcement
requirement for resisting shear, only the shear reinforcement within central 0.75a,
shall be considered. This limitation is made because tests carried out indicated that
the links adjacent to both load and support do not fully yield. The procedure of
considering only the links between the load and the support works only for single
loads. Where the structure is subjected to series of loads beyond '2d' and contribute
to the shear, then the shear design for these loads should be carried out as outlined
in earlier clauses for loads beyond '2d'. The link requirement from both the analysis
should be added and provided. Similarly shear should be added from both the
systems for checking the crushing. As pointed out earlier this reduction factor is not
applicable while checking the capacity of strut (concrete crushing). For a, less '0.5d'.
then a, shall be taken as '0.5d' as minimum.
a. Choose sections between 'O.5d' and '2d' starting from 0.5d, 'd' and '1.5d'.
c. Place W1 at av1 and arrive at the shear at support and the reinforcernen:
between support and av1 using Eq. 10.17. This reinforcement is to be
provided within a distance of 0.75 av1 between the load and the support. For
convenience if the reinforcement is divided by 0.75, then the tot a
reinforcement in the zone av1 can be obtained.
d. Reduction factor shall be used to reduce the shear reinforcement. Let this be
Asw1.
84
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
Estimate the shear force VEDl due to loads placed within 2d without
1) VED1
applying the reduction tactorf and the shear stress bwd.
Estimate the shear force VED2 due to loads placed beyond 2d and the
2)
VED2
shear stress .
bwz
Combined shear stress = VEDl + VED2 + VEDL which should be less than 0.51,
bwd bwz bwz
fed·
In case if one wants to simplify the calculation for checking the crushing of
concrete calculate the total shear force and calculate the allowable shear
force by adopting 0.5 bwz v fedby substituting the d, by z in Eq. 10.5 anc
compare. This will simplify the elaborate calculation. It shall be kept in minc
that for loads beyond 2d, the angle 8 has been assumed as 45°. Under this
condition only both struts effects can be superposed. Hence while arriving at
shear reinforcement for loads beyond 2d in using equation 10.7, 8 to be taker
as 45°.
k. For sections beyond '2d', Eq. 10.7 and 10.8 of the Code, shall be used and
the sections shall be designed.
I I
I
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p
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p
:!
IRC:SP: 105-2015
1400
1---->7--.---
r/ 300
150
1700
- 2S0 ~li
'150 -'c,,:I .~
2bO
88
68
90'LElOJ x SlV x L8'O 5
ULUL/ Z ULULL01'Z = OSZ x £O·t = -MSY
'pasn aq ueo al6ue aLll 6u!lew!lSa JO:J.UMOLISemuuo; aLllleLll sal\oJd S!Lll a:JU8\-
SHti = SH-
80'Z 90'L£UEH90'L£lOJ
£0'17 = S£xSt'OXZ£S'OXl = S£ X St'O X Z£S'O X 1 £O·V . =
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5
ULUL/ ZULULOSZ'O = OSZ X£_Ol X 9Z0'1 = MSVWW09l Mq JO::l
s
ULUL/ ZULULL99'0= OS9 X£_Ol X 9Z0'1 = MSVWW099 Mq JO::l
s )[11.] SMq
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
The addition longitudinal tensile steel required at various sections for the original
calculation.
Additional longitudinal steel over and above that required to resist the moment has to
be provided. It is to be noted that as e becomes shallower, the longitudinal steel
increases but the shear steel reduces. If e increases, the additional longitudinal steel
will reduce and shear steel will increase. Alternatively shift rule may be followed
instead of providing additional longitudinal reinforcement.
90
16
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IRC:SP: 105-20 15
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Average I
3012 3049 3101 4059 4307 4318
I I
compressive stress
PIA in kN/m2
f-- i
.:..
+Pe 4.91 6.05 6.89 10.82
A Zb
12.21 12.3:
I
Bottom fiber I
stress due to
prestress in MPa
92
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
To calculate the shear reinforcement the most important parameter required is lever
arm Z which is obtained from bending analysis.
Analyzing Section 4 - 4
Assuming the stress in the cable corresponding to the yield strain (Assumption steel
yields)
To balance this tensile force, the neutral axis will occur at 0.18M for top
Lever arm = 0.80 + 0.83 - .09 = 1.54M. Note: all cables are provided in one row.
Shear stress
2 x
2785
0.293 x 1.6
= 29702'mkN. : Taking cot e = 2.5, . As
mln~
s
x 293
= 0.872.97x 415 x 2.5
=
0.964mm2 jmm, 10 @ 150 will give = 1.048mm2/mm
For section 5.5 mean compressive stress = 4307 kN/m2
Allowable compressive stress = fcd= 17866 kN/m2(o.67 x 40000)
1.5
Max allowable shear force = 1.25 x 0.118 x 40000 x 2 x 0.30 x 1.6 = 5664kN if e = 45°
And with = 21.8 e = 1.25 x 0.081 x 40000 x 2 x 0.3 x 1.6 = 3888kN
Shear force at the section = 1750 kN
94
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IRC:SP:l05-20l:
Lenzrh of
Flallz.::
L
Force along the diagonal _F_ = VEd cot8hf = VEdLhf _ (1)
cos 8 cos 8 sin 8
,
Fig: CI0.17Force in the Compression Strut of Flange
The diagonal compressive strut represents the compressive force in one panel as
shown.
Length of the plane Y-Y over which the compressive force is acting = x cos (90 - 8)
100
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
Calculate, the Longitudinal shear stress \ED=""Fdihr6,or ~ x Ratio effective width of flanges
No
Redesign the section
+ Yes
Is
No Min strut capacity 8f = 38.6
The length of flange
VRdmin = 0.130 fck (1- fckl 310:
nder consideration is in
compression 0.6 x 0.67 x 0.67 xO. 782 x 0.624= 0.13(1
Yes Yes
Determine 8f from
No 8f = 0.5 sin-lvEd/0.135 fck (1 - fckl 310)
Take 8f y=
Note: The term 'VEd' shall be taken as 'X.VEd', in case the neutral axis lies in web.
Fig C10.18 Flow Diagram for the design of flange of T beam and Box girders
102
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IRC:SP:I05-20IS
The Reason for calculating at the face of the load area is to ensure that concrete strut
does not get crushed. If the section is unable to salsify the shear capacity then one or
more of the following actions are to be taken.
The reason for checking at the control perimeter is to check whether the section can
carry the load without of punching shear reinforcement.
8.4.3 Checking of punching shear stress at the control perimeter CI. 10.4.3
(1) General
W 1 is defended as WI = fl e I dl
(I
"e" is the distance of dl from the axis about which the moment MEd acts. k
is the constant depending the value of C1 and C2. C1 is the dimension of
the cross section perpendicular to the axis of bending and C2 is the
dimension parallel to the axis of bending.
104
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IRC:SP:] 05-20] 5
-'.1]
-'.
. ----,x
2d
-<4--. •••.
C I----:-~-:-.l-I
_\...-1-
=
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/ sin e de
f 2dde
_ 2d[-cosel~/2 _ 2d 2dx1x2 4d
- [el~!2 I1/2 I1 I1
UI = Il (D + 4d)
2(2d+D/2) _
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n
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WI
---------=
2(D+4d)(2d+D/2)
-----
2(2d+D/2) (D+4d)
(4) For edge columns, when there is no eccentricity the basic control perimeter
as shown shall be used.
108
601
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
The shear will be distributed along the periphery due to moment and
control perimeter is '2d' away from column face.
I 2d
I .1
,·····-t-"----:jm/;--'I:--- ,
I ~ ( .!
~., I
16 d2 +
50% of central column value =__ 2DdC
---..2
2 2
110
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IRC:SP:105-2015
NEdy, NEdy are the longitudinal forces. The force may be either due to prestressing or
axial force.
Acy, Acz are the corresponding cross sectional areas of concrete resisting the axial
forces.
8.4.5 Punching Shear for Foundation Slab and Pile Caps: CI. 10.4.5
The punching resistance of column bases for open foundations and pile caps shall be
verified at control perimeters within 2d from the periphery of columns.
This is because the angle of punching cone will be steeper due to the favorable
reaction from the soil. Checking the punching shear for open foundation with the
basic control perimeter, ignoring the favorable reaction from the soil will lead to
conservative assumption. When the foundation is subjected vertical loads only, the
net shear force causing punching is calculated by subtracting the net relief offered by
soil.
Ll VEd is the net upward force within the control perimeter considered i.e. upward
pressure from soil which shall be reduced by self-weight of the foundation.
The allowable shear stress in concrete VRdc without any punching shear reinforcement
_ 1/3 2d 2d
VRdc - 0.12k (80 Pl!Ck) x - 2: vminx-
a a
k = 1+ J2~O2: 2.0 and d in mm .
Where k is defined in Eq. 10.25 or 10.30 of the Code as appropriate and W is simile"
to Wi for the chosen control perimeter u.
For checking of punching shear in pile caps without shear reinforcement, no specific
guidance is provided in the Code and the general rule as specified can be applie:
112
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IRC:SP:105-20l5
L START
+
Determine the value of ~
Determine the value of VEd.max punching shear stress at column face =B VEd
uode!!
+
Determine the value of VRd.max
VRd.max =
O.134fck( 1- ~~~)
No
Is VRd.max>VEd.max
'----. Redesign the section
Yes
Deterrni
ermlnevEd = fJ -- VEd
u1de!!
For control perimeter varying between d and 2d
Yes
2d
= 2 (C1 +C2) + 4 x xx 2
= 2 (C1 +C2) + 4 rt xd
= 2 (1.0 + 1.0) + 4 x nx 0.625
= 11.85m
Area within perimeter =(4 xll x 0.6252 +4x 0.625 x 2 x 1.00 x 1.00 x 1.0 = 10.908m=
Relieving Pressure from this area:
on the conservative side
Base Pressure
187.70+42.7 2
Average pressure = 115.2 kN [m.
2
Total upward force = 10.90 x 115.2 = 1255 kN
Net shear force = V Ed.red = V Ed - fl V Ed
VEd.red= 2000 - 1255 = 745kN
k = 1+~ = 1.562
0.18 /3
VRdc -5-x1.565
O.
(80xO.00392x35)1 = 0.417MPa
=
Governing VRdc 0.417 MPa
For an Internal columns subject to moment
(C1)2 2
W1 = -2- + C1C2 + 4C2d + 16d + 2ndC1
= ~2 + 1 + 4 x 1 x 0.625 + 16 x 0.6252 + Zll x 0.625 x 1.0
=0.5 + 1 + 2.5 + 6.25 + 3.92 = 13.17 m2
116
-------- --------- ----------___;j
LTT
18J8U88
S'O~ 'I~
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[
EOT x 5Z6'L x90T x OOOT x 9'0 1 EOT x £TVT
M pa·l'G3 A ] pn
[ n~ >t + 1 pa.lP3A = P3A =
zlli8£8'9 = £96'1 + 5ZI'£ + 5Z'1 + 1 + 5'0 =
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5Z9'O 5Z9'O 5Z9'O zO'1
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v
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N)f £ ~17~= L89 - OOOl =8~JOJ J884s l8N
N)f L89 = Lv x 9l~ = 8~8J pJ8Mdn 18101
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[
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M pa.rP3A J pTn
[ n PHW >t +1 pa.1'P3A = P3A
IRC:SP: 105-2015
When a concrete element is subjected to Torsion the longitudinal fibers are free to
undergo deformation. Torsion can be of classified into Equilibrium Torsion and
Compatibility Torsion. Equilibrium Torsion is that torsional resistance which is
required to keep the structure in equilibrium and is essential for the basic stability of
the element or structure. A few examples are canopy cantilevering off an edge beam,
Beams/ Box girders curved in plan. Element subjected to Equilibrium Torsion has to
be designed for full torsional resistance in the ultimate limit state.
The torsional resistance of a closed section may be calculated on the basis of a thin
walled closed section. The equilibrium is satisfied by closed shear flow. Solid sections
can be modeled by equivalent thin walled sections.
In case of complex shapes such as T section, the section shall be divided into series
of subsections. The acting torsional moments on subsections can be distributed in
proportion to the uncracked torsional stiffness. Each of the subsections can be
modeled as thin walled section and the torsional resistance can be computed.
When hollow sections are modeled as thin walled section, the thickness of section
shall be taken as A/u which will neither be less than twice the axis distance of
longitudinal bars from the outer surface nor greater than the actual thickness. For
conversion of solid section to equivalent hollow section Fig. C10. 27shall be referred
to.
In the analysis the torsional stiffness may be based on uncracked sectional stiffness
for equilibrium torsion and 25% of the uncracked sectional stiffness for compatibility
torsion to allow for torsional cracking.
118
IRC:SP: I 05-20 1 ~
tef.i is the effective wall thickness. It may be taken as A/u, but should not be
taken as less than twice the distance between edge and centre of the
longitudinal reinforcement. For hollow sections the real thickness is
an upper limit.
z, is the side length of wall I defined by the distance between the intersectior
points with the adjacent walls
The shear force generated due to torsion shall be calculated using the following
formula 8 angle shall be same as what has been assumed in shear analysis.
VTorsion = TEd
2 Ak
z, Which can be equated to Ast
St
r.t;« cote (Eq.10.7 of the Code to get
the transverse reinforcement)
. Ast - TED where Ast is area of transverse reinforcement in thickness tefi with
St 2 Aktyd cote
a spacing of St.
v is the strength reduction factor aew is the coefficient. Both the factors are
as defined in earlier sections.
IRC:SP: 105-20: ~
The box girder shown in example 10.3.3 is subjected to torsion of 5000 kNm c.
support. Design the shear and longitudinal reinforcement.
But TEdZi
2 Ak
= Ast
St
Z·f
t yd
cot e
. Ast _ TEd
'.' St 2 Akf yd cot e
8 should be same as what has been assumed in shear analysis.
e = 21.8° fyk = 0.87 x 415 = 361 N/mm2
Ast 5000 x 106
--------,..---- = 0.32 mm2/mm
5t 2 x 8.57 xl06x 361 x 2.5
15% of allowable torsion the section is carrying. Hence VEd will workout to 0.85.
VRdc
Hence, the section can be subjected 85% allowable shear.
Similar exercise has to be done for other sections.
122
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4
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:q81S )fOSO JO 8!:j..Jsul 18UO!SJOl
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f
!
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OOG
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IRC:SP: 105-2(1 :
Total Torsional Inertia of Section = 18.3 x 108 + 12.68 x 108 + 63.9 x 108 +53.25 x 10=
= 148.13 x1 08mm8
The torsion will be shared in proportion to their torsional stiffness.
~
148.13
x 50 = 21.57 kNm
But this thickness should not be taken less than 2 twice the distance of longitudinal
bar from the surface [effective cover].
=
Effective cover 40 + 10 + 5 55m.Twice the 110mm.
As 110 > 76.9mm consider 11Omm.
Ak = (400 - 110) (250 - 110) = 40600mm2
e
The value of will be same as what has been worked out in shear analysis. However
for simplicity assume 8 45° =
Ast TEd 4.28 x106 2
s, = 2 Ak/Yd cote = 2 x 40600 x 361 xl = 0.146 mm jmm
124
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lRC:SP: 105-2015
nd
The slender piers of the bridges are commonly affected by 2 order analysis
while the provisions related to same are also applicable to other slender
members with significant axial loads like pylons and decks of cable supportcc
bridges.
(3) Where second order effects are significant, these must be taken in to account ir.
the analysis by linear elastic method in conjunction with further magnification
of moments and reduced stiffness properties, accounting for cracking anc
creep.
However, for the analysis at the ultimate limit states, section properties used
shall be similar to that at serviceability limit states as per the clauses 7.2 anc
7.3 of the Code.
(4) This clause clearly defines conditions under which the second order effects are
to be considered. The clause requires that the structural behaviour to be
considered in all directions in which significant second order effects can occur
and bi axial bending to be taken in to account when necessary. Quite often the
deformations in orthogonal directions need to be considered in bridge design
though some times, one direction moment is negligible.
The distinction between long and short columns is made on the basis of 10°
difference criteria as given in the clause (5) below.
(5) This clause permits second order effects to be ignored if the same are less thar.
10% of the corresponding first order effects. When column is within range of
short column parameters the effects are deemed to be within 10%. For all other
cases the effects will need to be analysed to determine their magnitude.
(6) For the analysis, if the column length is modified to effective length as per the
criteria for stiffness at column ends, column is also deemed as short column
Second order effects can be ignored in this case. Specific second order analysis
is not necessary as well. The clause 11.2.1 provides a simplified criterion for
isolated members with uniform cross sections based on limiting slenderness for
the same.
(7) Second order effects apply to both 'isolated' members as well as 'group 0:
components', which can sway involving several members. Piers with variable
cross section and piers located in river and creeks where substructure is
supported by pile foundations with free length due to the scouring action wil.
128
611
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iii
IRC:SP: 105-2015
I Value of rpc/ is not explicitly defined in the Code. Simplified value of 'A'0.7, which
corresponds to rpeF 2.0 would be typical of concrete loaded at relatively young age with a
loading being entirely quasi permanent. Using the default value of A = 0.7 is reasonably
conservative as the same in any case is not sensitive to realistic variation of rpef
B = -Jl + 20)
I Where OJ = AS/l'd I(Acfcd ) is the mechanical reinforcement ratio. If the same is not known,
'B' is recommended as 1.1 for first iteration, that is equivalent to OJ = 0.1. This value would
usually be achieved in a slender column; however this is generous in comparison to minimum
reinforcement clause 16.2.2. As such refining the design with actual value is imperative.
I
I
¥
Where rm
C = l.7-rm
= MOl I M01; moment ratio. A1;)pA~)2arethe first order end moments at two
ends of member as calculated from the analysis of structure, where IMo11 ~ IMoi l.If the end
moments MOl &Mo2give tension on the same side, r111 should be taken as positive (i.e. C ~1.7),
otherwise negative (i.e. C >l.7).
If'rm' is not known, C may be taken as 0.7 which corresponds to uniform moment throughout
the member. C also should be taken as 0.7 where there is transverse loading, where first order
moments are predominantly due to imperfections and where the members are not braced. As
such refining the design with actual value is imperative.
Before carrying out the nonlinear analysis as per clause 11.3 and simplified method as per
clause 11.3.2, it is usual to check whether such effects can be ignored by achieving Abelow
the limiting value as A/1m.
The clause 11.2.1 (3) permits the independent verification in each direction for slendemess
criteria. On the basis of limiting )l value, further exploration of requirement of second order
effects can be decided. Depending upon the value of )l for each of the directions the
slenderness effects can be neglected respectively i.e. if within individual values of A/im.
For bending in two orthogonal directions, the use of simplified interaction diagram may be
adopted as shown below:
,\I,t! .. I :\1..;1 :
---!~
1\L, .. I 1\ I :..'.
130
IRC:SP: 105-2015
Parameters for calculating effective lengths for isolated members are available in this clause.
Multiplication factors for calculating effective lengths are given on the basis of end conditions
in Table 11.1 of the Code which has been reproduced here above for the purpose of
illustration.
For the cases from (2) to (6) assumption is that the restraint at one or both ends are infinitely
stiff for determining rotational stiffness. It is difficult to achieve this boundary condition in
reality. As such the effective lengths for the rigid restraints will always be somewhat greater.
Mathematical approach for determination of the rotational flexibility by equations 11.2 and
11.3 are available in clause11.2.2 (1) of the Code, which are reproduced here below.
For compression members in regular frames, the effective length Ie is determined in the
following way:
Braced Members:
Ie = 0.5/0
(
1+ kl
0.45 + kl
J * ( 1+ 0.45i,....
+ k2
J
Unbraced members:
Where,
In this method an estimate of the maximum possible curvature is used to calculate the second-
order moment. The clause specifies the limitation that the method is applicable for isolated
members of the bridge with constant normal force and the defined effective lengths of the
members that will depend upon the boundary conditions. The first-order moment, including
that from initial imperfections, is added to the moment from the additional maximum
deflection according to the expression in 11.3.2.2 (1) for design moment value.
Cl. 11.3.:':
9.3.2.2 Design Bending Moments
Where:
The note (2) of this clause gives method to evaluate equivalent 1st order end moment Moefor
differing end moments. Moe for differing end moments can be
Sign convention is important here for the moments. If the moments are giving tensions on the
same side they have to be given the same sign, otherwise opposite signs shall be assigned. It is
to be noted, however that this note does not apply to bridge piers having bearings on top of the
piers as the system is not braced system.
The nominal second-order moment is given under the note (3) of the clause which IS as
follows:
The latter value of c is best illustrated by considering a free-standing pier of length L with
rigid foundations and hence to = 2L. For constant curvature, 11r, the deflection is obtained by
integration of the curvature as follows:
From the above formula for e2, with c = 8 and 10 = 2L, the deflection is:
136
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IRC:SP: 105-20 1~
This clause discusses the lateral stability of concrete beams. The concrete girders ar-:
vulnerable to instability due to out of plane bending resulting in lateral and torsiona
displacements. The lateral and torsional instabilities are essentially to be checked durin~
prestressing, side shifting, transportation and erection or launching as the beams are normall
safe once deck slab is in place.
If for any reasons the requirements as specified in 11.4.1 (3) are not met then second-order
analysis needs to be carried out to determine the additional transverse bending and torsiona.
moments developed. Geometric imperfections must be taken into account and the clause
requires a lateral minimum deflection of 1/300 to be accounted as a geometric imperfection
where 1 is the total length of the beam. It is not necessary to include an additional torsiona.
imperfection as well. Irrespective of the method used, the supporting structures and restraints
must be designed for the resulting torsion as per clause 11.4.1 (4)
Cl. 11.-1 :
9.4.2 Slendemess Limits for Beams
nd
This clause gives criteria for ignoring 2 order effects in beams.
The above lateral stability formulae based on numerical study (3) don't cover for lateral
stability of prestressed beams during transportation, handling and even during prestressing.
arising out of casting imperfections, inclinations etc.
For the factor of safeties against lateral buckling of beams during prestressing, transportation
and handling etc., special literature may be referred to and one of the papers could be (41
under references.
References :
1. C R Hendy and D A Smith, Designer's Guide to EN 1992-2, Thomas Telford.
2006
5. British Standards Institution (1990), Steel, Concrete and composite Bridges Part
4:Code of practice for the Design of Concrete Bridges, London, BSI 5400.
140
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IRC:SP: 105-2(i ~~
T~-Ie nndqe pier in \.'\i!]n,:ecj example '1 has concrete '1/1,I'itrl cnaractenstrc strenqtn 6m' v 1F'a and carries an axial
loacl of 1:1'1268 k;f'o,j(741:'jtif':i ~.d'"jL!]n'~l term ann 6:3[12 ~.:;J'"j
short term). Calculate the slencerness about the
lon!~litucJinal axs ancJ deterrrune \l1/~-lett-ler"seccno order effects may be i~lnorecJ. Take the effective length as
'1.2f':i7 trnes tne ~-leil~l~-lt.T~-Ie moment of inertia of the cross-sectmn about the minor axis =39.7535 mfl·4.
I I\·f ck I t",j
fcd:= -- = 2f:i.i:i.--._,
'";t"n mrn"
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moments at eacJI end of a pier" that i::; r-lelcJ in pnsltlon at notn ends) ,As per" Clau::;e '1'1.2.'1
A= 0.7
1'1 + IJ2 ·4, ef'
~v1oEqp
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~~"1oEd
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MoEqp := 4Ei475kt"J· rn
~V1oEdis the Design load comtnnanon in I._.ILS= '1.:35DL + 1 .75SIDL + '1.5PS +'1.5 LL ( in this case)
MoEd := ]9:3Ei:3kt\j· rn
t~ed
The relanve normal force is given tl~/: n:= --- = O. '1113
,Ac ·fed I
(20 .,A,. B· CI
J...lim:=· r '= 29.6013
Hence "./ n
Ie
so the slenuemess ~:= - = 46.964
i
Henee, ,\ > Alimi Second oruer Effects cannot tnererore tie ignorecJ for this pier.
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
The stress in prestressing steel shall not exceed the limits prescribed in clause 7.9.2 after
allowance for losses. If it is ensured that for prestressed concrete structures, under the frequent
combination of action and prestressing force, only compressive stresses occur at the extreme
concrete fibres, under Serviceability Limit State fatigue check is not required ..
By limiting crack width, the functioning and durability of the structure is ensured. In the
reinforced concrete structures cracks are inevitable due to tension, bending, shear and torsion
which is a result of either direct loading or restraint of imposed deformations. This may not
necessarily impair serviceability or durability.
Cracks may also occur due to other causes like plastic shrinkage or chemical reactions
accompanied by expansion of hardened concrete. The measures to control width of such cracks
are covered in Section 14. Design crack widths are specified to satisfy requirements of
functionality, durability and appearance.
(1) This clause requires that the design crack width to be chosen such that cracking
does not impair the functioning of the structure. Cracking normally 'impairs' the
function of the structure by either helping to initiate reinforcement corrosion or
by spoiling its appearance. The size of the cracks also has an influence on the
time to initiation of reinforcement corrosion. Noticeable cracking in structures
causes concern to the public and it is therefore prudent to limit crack widths to a
size that is not readily noticeable. The above considerations have led to the crack
width limitations specified in Table 12.1 (Reproduced for ready reference.).
Crack width is to be generally checked for quasi-permanent load combinations
for reinforced concrete members and prestressed members with unbounded
tendons. For prestressed members with bonded tendons check shall be for
frequent load combinations, unless a different load combination is specified.
Condition of Exposure I)
Reinforced members and
Prestressed members with
As per Clause 14.3.1 prestressed members with
un-bonded tendons bonded tendons
Quasi-permanent load Frequent load combination
combinatiorr" mm Mm
146
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
(3) The PSC members with unbounded tendon alone are treated like RCC member
as specified in the clause. However, for prestressed members having combination
of bonded and unbounded tendons, limits of bonded pres stressing apply.
(4) An alternative for crack width calculations out as specified in the clause 12.3.4
or by providing bar spacing and sizes in accordance with the clause 12.3.5 is
available. For latter it is not necessary to calculate the crack widths as crack
control criteria is deemed to be satisfied by adopting this clause.
For a section subjected to uniform tension, the force necessary for the member tc
crack is Ncr = AJctm, where Ncr is the cracking load, Ac is the area of concrete ir
tension and fctm is the mean tensile strength of the concrete. The strength of the
reinforcement is As!yk. To ensure that distributed cracking develops, the stee
must not yield when the first crack forms hence:
(2) The above equation needs to be modified for the stresses other than uniforrr.
tension. When the section is subjected flexure for example, the stresses var.
across the depth reducing tension consequently the requirement of reinforcement
Thus a factor k; is introduced in the above equation to account for the same
Another factor k is introduced to account for self equilibrating stresses arising
out of variation in strain along the depth of the member. The shrinkage anc
temperature differences are the common cause of non-linear strain variation. Fo:
instance surface shrinkage occurs faster than interior and similarly the surface
which gets heated up faster also cools faster than interiors. The factor k therefore
reduces the reinforcement necessary where self-equilibriating stresses can occur
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1
(Js - O.stetmC p + ae)
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Cl. 12.3.5
10.3.5 Control of Shear Cracks within Webs
In the prestressed concrete as well as in RCC members where shear cracking has to be checked,
the code specfies the criteria for deciding reinforcement required for crack control.
Cl. 12.3.6
10.3.6 Control of Cracking without Direct Calculation
On the basis of calculations under clause 12.3.4 above, Code includes a tables for different steel
stresses and corresponding spacing or the specified bar diameters for crack widths of 0.2mm and
156
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IRC:SP: 105-20 .:
Excessive sagging deflections under permanent actions can generally be overcome by pre-
cambering. Dynamic considerations are to be given for live load and wind-induced oscillatior..
respectively. Resonance of bridges needs to be checked, especially for pedestrian bridges, whe:'e
frequency of walking personnel can cause high amplitudes of vibrations.
The Code expects acceptable limit values for deflections should be established by owner or t
agreement between the stake holders. In the absence of the same, the following deflection lim'.
under Live Load may be considered for concrete bridges
- Vehicular : Span/800,
- Vehicular and pedestrian or pedestrian alone: Span/1000,
- Vehicular on cantilever: Cantilever Span/300,
Vehicular & pedestrian and pedestrian only on cantilever arms Cantilev c-
Span/375
In order to ensure a satisfactory behaviour in the serviceability limit state, deformations shou. ~
be calculated as follows:
• The long-term deformations are calculated for the quasi permanent loa;
combinations,
• The instantaneous deformations are calculated for the rare load combinations.
For the calculation of camber, only the quasi-permanent load combinations are considered. Ir
order to calculate camber, the mean values of the material properties may be used.
The actual deformations may differ considerably from the calculated values; in particular if the
values of the applied moments are close to the cracking moment. The difference will depend on
the dispersion of the material properties, the ambient conditions, the loading conditions, the
previous loading conditions, the restraints at the supports, etc.
Attention must be paid to cases where the basic assumptions of plane sections and uniformly
distributed stresses across the section may not be adequate, such as in the case of shear lag
effects in large prestressed structure.
In case of cracked sections appropriate moment of inertia should be used. If the accurate
determination of MI is not possible, 70 % of uncracked MI should be used. For Prestressed
Concrete members, generally uncracked MI should be used as the section is under compression.
158
6~1
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
Check/or cracking:
If the section is un-cracked, compressive and tensile stress at the top and bottom of
the section respectively, would be:
6 9
(flOp M *y! I = 144 X 10 x 175! 3.573x 10
= (fbot= = 7.05 MPa
From Table 6.5 for M50 grade of concrete,
fctm = 3.5MPa < Cibot;
(a) Check for stresses assuming short term creep and elastic modulus:
= 78.02mm
The cracked second moment of area in steel units from following equation is:
I = As(d - de)2 + _!_ Ec.et1 bd3
3 E, c
From 12.2/clause 12.2 (2), the compression limit = O.36fck = 0.36 x 50 = 18 MPa
> 13.98 MPa, hence OK.
160
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IRC:SP: 105-20 I~
12.3.6 (without direct calculation) is used to check crack control and minimum reinforcement j,
checked in accordance with clause 12.3.3.
Table 12.1 requires crack widths to be limited to 0.3mm under the quasi-permanent loac
combination for a moderate exposure class. Thermal actions have 'P2 = 0.5 and so should be
considered. Only the secondary effects of temperature difference, however, need to be
considered; the primary self-equilibriating stresses may be ignored.
For convenience here, the same moments as in Worked example 1 of 144 kNmlm, comprising
22.5% (DL-I-SDL) and 77.55% LL actions will be taken. The make-up would, however, be very
different as discussed above; it is unlikely that temperature difference would produce effect.
anywhere near as severe as those from characteristic traffic actions.
From the above example, the serviceability stress in the reinforcement has already beer
calculated as 220.35 MPa. To comply with clause 12.3.6, either:
(1) The maximum bar size must be limited to 12mm (from Table 12.2); or
(2) The maximum bar spacing must be limited to 225mm (interpolating within Table
12.3).
The provision of 20mm diameter bars at 125mm centres complies with the limit OI~
bar spacing in (2) above (which permits a reinforcement stress of 300 MPa for bars
at 125mm centres) and the design is therefore acceptable. It does not matter that it
does not comply with the limit in (1) as well.
Additionally, it is necessary to check that the reinforcement complies with the
minimum reinforcement area required in accordance with clause 12.3.3. This will
rarely govern at peak moment positions, but may do so near points of contra flexure
if reinforcement is curtailed:
Act is the area of concrete within the tensile zone just before the first crack forms.
The section behaves elastically until the tensile fibre stress reaches I,«; therefore.
for a rectangular section, the area in tension is half the slab depth, thus:
For rectangular sections of less than 300mm depth, k should be taken as 1.0 and can
in general be taken as 1.0 conservatively. For sections with no axial load, i.e. (Jc = 0
MPa, reduces to kc = 0.4 x (1 - 0) = 0.4.
o, may in general be based on the maximum allowable value from either Table 12.2
(222MPa for 20mm diameter bars) or Table 12.3 (300 MPa for 125mm bar centres).
162
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
(It should be noted that the concrete cover term, 3.4c, contributes 170mm of the total 287mm
crack spacing here, so is very significant.)
From Worked example above, the reinforcement stress assuming a fully cracked section is 221.1
MPa, so the minimum value of 0.6 (js is 0.6 x 221.0 / (200 x 103) = 0.663 X 10-3
Es
k, = 0.5 from Table 6.5 for M50 concrete, jet,eff = jctm = 3.5 MPa. a;
= 200 / 35 = 5.714.
Therefore:
3.5 (
221.0-0.50x- -_ 1+5.714xO.029) 2210-7034
0.029 = .. =0.753xlO-3
200x 103 200x 103
Therefore, maximum crack width, Wk = 287.2 x 0.711 x 10-3 = 0.20mm < 0.3mm limit, hence
OK.
Repeating the above calculation, the reinforcement stress could be increased to 288MPa until .:
crack width of 0.3mm is reached, assuming the same ratio of short-term and long-term moments
as used in this example. This compares with an allowable stress of 300 MPa from Table 12.3 fc'~
bars at 125mm centres as used in Worked 2nd example above. The method without direc:
calculation therefore gives a more economic answer here.
Example 4
Problem -
A beam has width of 150mm and depth of 300mm. it is partially prestressed with area of steel as
100 mmz Iocated at a depth of230mm from the top of section. Grade of concrete is M40.
a) lfthe stress in steel is 815 MPa, evaluate the depth of neutral axis and maximum
stress and strain values in the beam.
b) Find the force in steel corresponding to decompression limit. Also evaluate the
stresses in concrete.
164
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IRC:SP: 105-20 l ~
Strain at top, E
t := (J"tc = -3.293 X 10-5
Ec
-0.00003293
31TI
0.2
86.08 kN ~-----------i
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IRC:SP: 105-2(1::
Implying
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IRC:SP: 105-20 I ~
Additional strain till tensile failure, I1ce := cep - icz/ = 40172 x 10-5
0.23 m
0.20[1 m (J.3 rn
H----....lIL--:il'>-83.92 kN
-20.86 kN
170
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- Sn[npoUI UOqJdS
(CP)6:Jp _ Sp), sV' sUl
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+ Z(Cp)6:Jp -~) -p . qEJ + :;, qEJ =: CP)6:J/'9J inoqe e!lJau! JO iuawOII\j
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S V ' "ui + p , q EJ =: Cp) .I:JV 'uonoss pa~JeJJ JO ea.lV' (:
ui ' N>ft6'6 T =: "":
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IRC:SP: 105-20::
_Fp _ (Mext-Mp(d))
Stress at Neutral Axis, CJeNA (d) :=
Aer(d) ZNA(d)
Below we solve for depth of uncracked section, taking into account tensile capac it)
concrete.
Corrected depth of uncracked concrete, dNA: = root( CJeNA (dNA) + CJep, dNA) =
105.559· mm
. (Jt3 4
T op strain, Et3 := - = 4.663 x 10-
Ee
172
HI
um~lqq~nbd U~dlB SdJl0] coucq 'lUdUlOW IBUldlX;:) ;:)ljls~ ljY_
iu . N>f " t6"6 T = JauW 'odo~
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'UO~lJdS]O DJ moqn lUdWOW TBlOl
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'UO~lJdS Pd)[JBlJUn]O DJ tuo.u dUq ssans 0]0 dJUBlS~a
N>f" 0 = ~ - qJd + qJd =: Jaud 'dJl0] IB~xBIBUldlXd rxou 'dJUdH
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- dJUBTBqd;)1,: .;
IRC:SP: 105-2015
CHAPTER 11
SECTION 13: PRESTRESSING SYSTEM
Codal Clauses
This section covers requirements of the parts of prestressing systems which are
incorporated in the structure, which include anchoring devices and coupling devices for
application in post tensioned construction. It also covers provision of reinforcement in
anchorage zones in concrete.
Both, external and embedded types of anchorage systems are covered in this sub-
clause. Partially or fully embedded anchorages transfer the prestressing force to the
members by combination of bearing, friction and wedge action while the externally
mounted anchorages transfer prestressing force of the tendons to concrete through an
externally mounted bearing plate. Fig. 13.2.1 & Fig.13.2.2 show the typical details of two
types of anchorages.
Figure C13.2.1
Showing Partially or
Fully Embedded
Anchorages
Figure C13.2.2
Showing Externally
Mounted Anchorages
174
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IRC:SP: 105-20' :
The aim of dynamic load test is to determine the capacity of the tendor-
anchorage assembly under load fluctuation between specified variation c:
stress of tendons in terms of minimum specified cycles of loading as 8-
indication of the quality and reliability of the assembly. IS: 1343 specifie::
these limits as loading range of 80 Mpa for steel with upper limit of 65% c:
the UTS, and number of cycles as >2.5 million. Not more than 5% of cross
sectional area of tendons are allowed to fail. This test is carried out withe I... ~
using the trumpets, which bring the tendon assembly to a close-
configuration for passing through the duct. If tested with the trumpet, tr~
tendons (strands) fail at much lesser number of cycles (Thousands, rathe-
than millions) by fretting at the points of contact between tendon and tne
trumpet. In this sense, the test does not replicate actual loading conditio-
but is purely a test of the mechanical efficiency of the anchorage bloc-
wedges and tendon assembly in a stressed condition. This is acceptable fc-
grouted tendons where the relative slip between the tendon and trumpet ::
avoided by grouting and ultimate reliance for holding tendons in the stresse:
condition is placed on the grout.
176
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--
IRC:SP: 105-2015
Notations Used:
1 - Casting Unit; 2 - Coupling Sleeve; 2' - Stressing Head; 2" - Coupling Head; 3 & 3' _ Cone; 4
- Spiral; 5 - Sheath; 6 - Tube
11.4
End Block Design & Detailing
CI-13.5
In design, attention needs to be given to highly stressed concrete compression zone ir
the immediate vicinity of the anchorages; bursting stresses generated in the localizec
area of the anchorage as complimentary transverse tensile force arise from spread of
load in the mass of concrete, The design of Anchorage zones is an area of dual
responsibility between the supplier of post tensioning system & the design consultant.
The local anchorage zone reinforcement, which may be either spiral or an orthogonal
reinforcement or combination thereof, shall generally be specified by the prestressing
system supplier which has been tested for satisfactory performance in the load transfer
test. The recommendations of the prestressing supplier normally suffice for satisfactory
performance of the local zone behind the anchorage. This however may have to be
modified for a group of anchorages in their specific configuration for a specific design
situation by the design consultant. This is referred as the end block design.
11.4.1
Bursting Reinforcement for Post-Tensioned Sections
CI-13.5.1
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IRC:SP: 105-20 1~
Tendons anchored in blister block usually will have curved profile within the
blister zone, which will give rise to radial component of the load, which rnus:
be resisted by additional radial reinforcement anchoring back into the rnair
body. In addition, high local bending & shear stresses develop in the slabs a:
the location of blister blocks. Fig. C13.5 shows typical reinforcement deta
for blister blocks
b) Deviator Blocks
The term 'deviator' refers to discrete structural element which allows change
in profile of an external post tensioning tendonto be deviated from ar
otherwise straight alignment. The protective duct surrounding the tendor
strands is normally continuous through a deviator without direct connectior
to it. The structural unit providing deviation may be concrete or structure
steel.
180
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IRC:SP:I05-2015
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
This example of a Post Tensioned PSC Girder with internally embedded anchorage is
provided to understand tile design process by which reinforcement of an end block is
calculated.
= til
Width of Web. bw = rn '-'(~ ,fI
Area of Beam. A = S·:llil
l'--_--.4
Cg of Beam from bottom. If = m
III Moment of Inertia of Beam. I = rn
4
bo, T E ~JD B L c(:K
n Zt. T op Sectional Modulus of Bearr = m'
~. Zb, Bottom Sectional Modulus of B = Ii1
P Cg of Tendon 1 from bottom = rn
q Cg of Tendon 2 from bottom = III
I' C9 of Tendon 3 from bottom = III
s Concrete Grade. = rCube Strengtrl:
Min. strength at the time of stressing MpJ
As ciause 1:351 2 of I FtC 112 - F!.ecommenoation of The Ancnoraoe system Suppler snan IJe touoweo if'
case of Internal Anchorages for Ancnoraee Dlmenson. rvlinimurn Spacinf,1 h,'1niI1lUIT;CcncreteCrade am!
Reinforcement for Burstinq. There is no neeo fo, any addtnona: calcutaticn iYy'the Desiqner. Hie anchorage
omenstons. spaclnqs, edqe distances. rn.nlrnurn concrete qrade aile! the bursnnq reinforcement cetails snan t-
obtamec rrom tile system supplier
Since IRe 2 do not qrve any guideline on metnod of ct"lecl<TQof concrete bearing stresses behino
anchoraqe, reference be made to EufCI COGe Ee2 - Annex J for Cileckint;j of concrete stresses. Tile
relevant part of H-Iecode is reproduced below :
182
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
CJus.t 13 ::.2 cescnues ne 'IEeCj tor sPGllin9 rein~Cne'1le'It. however the quantum Of reilforcenler-'
required is no: 8Gcci"'ic.j i') tnc C.JX tor P:)3t t::r~3ionc.j bcarr s In a!:>:,cncc of ccccmc provision in
IRe 112 reference r-n;:r...IJe maoe to Euro C:}c:e EC:2,2 .. As Annex ,' Of EC:2,2. Area of such
reinforcement shJII not be less than =.:J3 -: Fn'3 :' 1:":1 X'I:,llf.w in eacn cLrection This remrorcement 'le:- :s'
Ie: be eJis:ri:Juteci n each ::Jirec:i::nove :tle le'V;!t'! cr ue rectan;;ular prism To Jvoi(j crack 'yvicltll
calculations, f"d '11 be consldereo as 250 f:1pa
SPALLING REINF.
(2 NOS 20 DIA)
Tendon 3
0
500 0 BURSTING REINF.
co
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(6 TURN 16 DIA
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IRC:SP: 105-21' :
• For alkali silica reaction (ASR) water is required to produce the expansr. ~
gel and therefore, depends upon the rate of water penetration into tr·~
concrete.
It is quite apparent that transport of fluids - both liquids and gases - into concrete _
important consideration. The various processes can be summarized as follows;
In view of so many possible modes, one should really be concerned with a notion 0:
collective 'penetrability' of fluids.; Nevertheless, the commonly accepted term is
'permeability', which is mostly adopted to describe transport of fluids through concrete
(Neville, 2000).
Fluid transport depends mainly upon the structure of hydrated cement paste. The
microstructure that forms upon hydration of cement consists of solids having pores o·
various sizes in addition to the spaces originally occupied by the water. The porosity
depends upon the age, the degree of hydration, the water/ cement ratio and the type of
binders. The primary influence is of water /cement ratio, as depicted in Figure C14.1.
186
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IRC:SP: lO5-20: ~
• Cathode:
From engineering stand point; two types of situations are necessary to be considered.
The steel reinforcement, being well protected in the alkaline medium in concrete, can
withstand a certain amount of chloride ions to be present before corrosion can take
place. On the other hand, if the passivity is destroyed because of one reason or the
other and the pH of concrete is below a certain threshold value, only oxygen and water
are needed for corrosion to take place. Presence of chlorides is not necessary.
188
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pH VALUE OF CONCRETE
Figure C.14.2.2
Interaction of chloride content and pH value of corrosion-
damaged concrete structures in India
Carbonation is not significant when the pores of concrete are saturated, because of
slow rate of diffusion of CO2 in water compared to that in air. On the other hand, if there
is insufficient water in the pores, CO2 remains in gaseous form and does not react with
the hydrated cement. The highest rate of carbonation occurs at a relative humidity of 50
to 70 percent (Neville, 2000).
'Moderate' category is for situations where the chances of carbonation are insignificant
because the pores of concrete are either saturated or dry. No ingress of chloride from
external sources is anticipated. Inadequate workmanship can lead to corrosion of steel.
Provision is also made against attack by other deleterious chemical agents, which are
facilitated by the presence of moisture.
'Severe' category is for situations, where presence of moisture (wet, rarely dry) and
some carbonation under humid conditions can lead to corrosion of steel. Wet, rarely dry
condition includes concrete surfaces subject to long term water contact and many
foundations. Concrete exposed to coastal environment can have access to chloride ions
increasing the risk of chloride-induced corrosion. Concrete components exposed to
industrial waters containing chloride will be included in this category. In spite of
presence of significant amount of chloride ions in sea water, risk of corrosion of
concrete completely submerged in sea water below mid-tide level is comparatively less
because of paucity of oxygen.
'Very severe' category is for situations where exposure to air-borne chloride ions in
marine environment adds significantly to the risk of chloride-induced corrosion.
190
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
specified time interval (6 hours) through a concrete disc specimen placed between
solutions of sodium chloride (NaCI) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is measured, when a
potential difference of 60 V d.c. is maintained. The charge passed is related to the
penetrability of concrete to chloride ions, charge being greater, the larger the amount of
chloride ions penetrated. Guidelines relating chloride permeability of concrete to the
charge passed (Coulombs) during the test aregiven in ASTM C1202.
The following upper limits for RCPT values at 56 days are suggested for different
exposure conditions;
Apart from water - cement ratio and cover, Table 14.2 of the Code also lists two other
parameters - minimum cement content and minimum grade of concrete. Minimum
cement content specified is to ensure adequate workability of concrete. For a given
water-cement ratio, a given cement content corresponds to a particular water content.
which may result in high, medium or low workability. An appropriate value has to be
chosen keeping in view the placing conditions, cover thickness, and concentration of
reinforcement. For the values of water-cement ratio and cement content shown in the
Table 14.2, the water content in the concrete mix works out to 140 to 160 liters 1m2.
which will generally result in low workability (0 - 50 mm slump). For higher workability.
higher cement content (and higher water content, maintaining the water-cement ratio)
will have to be adopted or chemical admixtures used. Minimum cement content, along
with the water-cement ratio, is also required to result in sufficient volume of cement
paste to overfill the voids in compacted aggregates. For crushed aggregate of 20 mm
size, on which the Table 14.2 is based, the voids content is about 25 - 27 percent. The
values of water-cement ratio and cement content specified correspond to paste volume
of about 27 - 28 percent, equaling the voids content of the aggregate. A fuller
description is available in IS: SP-23.
The Note(5) below Table 14.2 clarifies that minimum cement content should include ali
cementitious materials inclusive of additions mentioned in CI. 18.4, as all these binders
comprise the paste volume with the water. Similarly, the water-cement ratio is water-
binder ratio when mineral admixtures are added, which control the chloride diffusion
coefficient.
The strength grade of concrete will be chosen from structural design considerations.
Concrete mix design should be based on that strength grade (see CI.18.5.3). Water-
cement ratio and cement content arrived at the mix design for that grade should be
checked with the provisions of Table 14.2. Lower water-cement ratio and higher cement
content between the two should be adopted. Compressive strength of concrete alone
does not guarantee durability under service conditions. The values of minimum strength
grade in Table 14.2 are those which can be generally expected with the corresponding
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IRC:SP: I05-2015
If aggregate of larger size than 20 mm, is used, the requirement of water in the mix for a
particular workability is reduced; so the cement content can also be reduced (to
maintain the water-cement ratio).
The threshold is best considered in terms of corrosion risk associated with different
amounts of chloride ions present in the structures. The following risk classification has
been proposed (Browne, 1982) and commonly accepted,
Chloride Risk of
(% by wt of cement) corrosion
< 0.4 Negligible
l__-- 0_.4
__to__1_.0 ~----P-O_S_s_ib_l_e _
I 1.0 to 2.0 Probable
I
I > 20. Certain
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IRC:SP: 105-20 15
sandstone, when containing 'strained quartz' have been found to be reactive (Mullick,
1992). Need of appropriate methods of evaluation of potential reactivity have been
emphasized.
12.4.5. Abrasion
The compressive strength of concrete is the principal factor controlling the resistance to
abrasion (Neville, 2000). The minimum strength required depends on the severity of
abrasion expected. For members in contact with water having high velocity of flow and
carrying abrasive bed material, concrete of higher grade may be necessary.
To decide the exposure condition (Table 14.1) applicable to a bridge structure or its
components, the chances of carbonation and availability of chloride ions should be
taken into account. A bridge structure in dry climate or its parts constantly immersed in
water will have less probability of carbonation corrosion. If no ingress of chloride ions or
other harmful chemicals are anticipated, such components can be classified in
'moderate' category. If the ambient conditions are likely to cause carbonation and
ingress of chloride ions or other harmful chemicals are expected, the classification can
be 'severe' to 'very severe', depending upon the relative humidity and level of chloride
ions, as described in Table 14.1. Classification under 'extreme' category is self-
explanatory from Table 14.1.
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
CHAPTER 13
SECTION 15: DETAILING: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The design anchorage length is obtained by allowing for the beneficial effects of actual
cover, confinement by transverse reinforcement, transverse clamping pressure, shape
of bent up bars besides the actual force in bar, expressed as ratio of required area to
actual provided (normally less than 1.0). Anchorages of shear reinforcements or links
are normally to be achieved by using bends, hooks or by welded transverse
reinforcements as in Fig. 15.3 of the Code.
Use of welded bar for stirrup is a new addition in the Code. Also there is a change in the
dimension of bends and hooks compared to previous practice.
The rules are splicing of bars by lapping are detailed in this sub clause. Lapping of
100% of bars is permitted with restrictions specified therein. The increased lap lengths
are specified for various quantum of the bars to be lapped at a section, including 100%
lapping. Reinforcement requirement across the lap is specified for various situations.
For HYSD bars, welding should be proposed only in special cases, when other
alternative methods of splicing are not feasible. Bars of diameter greater than or equal
to 20mm must be butt welded. Welded splices have to comply with the rigorous
requirements of the Code.
A mechanical splice including its connecting element shall develop at least 125% of the
characteristic strength, 't,'. This has been regarded as a minimum safety requirement
for safety to prevent brittle failures. Field tests of samples from actual site supply are
recommended. Reduced cover to concrete at the location of mechanical splice is
permitted subject to a minimum cover of 30mm.
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IRC:SP: 105-20 1~
to prevent cracking from excessive intemal restraints to concrete shrinkage caused by the
reinforcement.
All longitudinal comer bars in compression should be enclosed within lateral ties to hold them in
place and avoid its buckling. No longitudinal bar in a compression zone should be further than
150mm away from a restrained bar. Transverse reinforcement is also required in columns to
provide adequate shear resistance. Combination of various forms of ties / links, loops or spiral is
allowed, as per choice of designer. Salient detailing features of transverse reinforcement in
column areas under:
Wall is defined as vertical load bearing member whose larger lateral dimension is more than 4
times its least lateral dimension (clause 7.6.4.1). In case a wall is subjected to predominantly out
of plane bending (e.g. retaining wall, solid abutment or vertical of box structure), the provisions
for slab are applicable for the said wall. In situations where a wall is also subjected to high
concentrated load (e.g. plate type pier), the design and detailing may be based on strut-and-tie
model or an appropriate FEM model.
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IRC:SP: 105-20 1~
This clause provides altogether different shift rules for curtailment compared to earlier practice
for the length of the longitudinal tension reinforcement and anchorage in tension. Salient feature'
of shift rule are as under:
Fig. 16.2 of the code should be referred, which clearly explains the shift rule
philosophy.
• Ab,sup bottom steel at support ~ 0.25 times Asb,span, steel provided in the span.
The code recommends that the bottom reinforcement should be anchored to
resist a force of VEd x (a/I d) + NEd, as defined in clause 16.5.1.4 (2).
• The anchorage length is required to be measured from the line of contact of the
direct support. Minimum length should be = 2/3rdhnet.
• For indirect support, it is measured from a distance ofl/3rdwidth of support
from the face of support, beyond which a minimum length of Ibnet should be
provided.
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
Skin reinforcement (or surface reinforcement) may be provided to control cracking and to ensure
adequate resistance to spalling of the cover as in members with depth more than Im or in
situations where cover to reinforcement provided is more than the minimum cover required as
per section 14 of the code. This is also required in situations where bundled bars or bars of size
greater than 32mm have been used (refer 15.2.6 (10). In case of deep beams this reinforcement
generally comprises of smaller diameter bars placed in the tension zone within the links. Other
requirements are:
The clause applies for members defined as slab i.e. span to thickness ration is equal to more than
5.
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IRC:SP:I05-20I5
b) oe>0.5 x he
In addition to the main tension reinforcement, vertical links / stin'ups are re,,,imi
where the shear force exceeds the concrete shear. Same shall be such that
Ass'irrup?:O.5
Code. X .f'j /;d Reinforcement shall be detailed as in Fig. 17. (b) of the
C14.8
Articulations (Half Joints)
CI. 16.8
Articulation (or half Joint) is usually provided in bridges at a connection where the construction
depth is limited or in case of suspended span resting on tip of a cantilever. The treatment of
articulation shall be similar to a corbel or a nib. The Code cautions to avoid edge stress
concentration and to ensure rotation capacity.
CI4.9 Deep Beams
Cl. 16.9
A deep beam is a member whose span is less than 3 times the overall section depth. In bridge
design, this will most frequently apply to diaphragms in box girder, cross girders between bridge
beams etc. Specific detailing rules are included in the Code.
C 14.10
Members with un bonded tendons
Cl. 16.10
For the purpose of detailing. members with only unbonded tendons shall be treatcd the same way
as reinforced concrete members. In case members are with a combination of bonded and
un bonded tendons, requirements of bonded tendons will apply.
The value of rR.d" should be rcduced if the load is not unitonnly distributed on the loaded area
Am. Though no guidance is given in the code, the bearing pressure check could be based on the
peak prcssurc in case it is not uniform. Also in case shear force is less it can be ignored. For
higher shear, the code recommends adoption of 3D _ FEM analysis.
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
CHAPTER 15
SECTION 17: DUCTILE DETAILING FOR SEISMIC RESISTANCE
Codal
Clause
C1S.1 GENERAL C1.17.1
These provisions are based on the current national and international practices. Seismic
design and detailing are still evolving globally, making its codification an ongoing
process. The bridge designers are therefore encouraged to refer to specialist literatures
wherever required to augment the design and detailing practices.
The purpose of these design requirements for bridges in seismic zone III, IV & V are to
ensure that the bridge substructures are provided with adequate ductility to ensure that
the required overall global ductility of the structure is met and the plastic hinge formation
is preferably within the substructure rather than at foundations, which is difficult to
inspect and repair.
Requirements of this section are concerned with confining the concrete and providing
increased lateral support to the longitudinal reinforcement in plastic hinge zone. The
main function of the transverse reinforcement for confinement is to ensure that the axial
load carried by the bridge pier after spalling of the concrete cover will at least be equal
to the load carried before spalling & to ensure that buckling of the longitudinal
reinforcement is prevented. Thus, the spacing of the confining reinforcement is also
important.
• Eq.17.1 gives the minimum axial stress in piers beyond which the
confinement of the compression zone is required. The lightly loaded
bridge piers having normalized axial force less than 0.08 times the
capacity of concrete section (calculated without reinforcement)will not
require confinement reinforcement.
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Worked Examples:
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IRC:SP: 105-20 I~
lapping at the base is likely to stiffen the base and shift up the plastic hinge beyond the
lapping region, thereby increasing the seismic demand.
• Dimension b/h as shown above for rectangular hollow pier shall no:
exceed 8 in the plastic hinge region. In case of hollow circular piers, the
ratio d/h shall not exceed 8, where 'd,' is the inner diameter of the nouov
pier.
C15.3 Foundations
CI. 17.3
C15.3.1 General
CI.17.3.1
It is desirable that inelastic response in strong ground shaking occurs above the
foundations, as repairs to foundations can be extremely difficult and expensive. Code
does not allow foundations to enter within plastic range under design seismic action
except for pile foundation in unavoidable circumstances. This is generally ensured by:
In situations where it is not possible to ensure hinge formation at the pier base in an)
direction (e.g. in case of plate type piers), it may not be possible to avoid localized hinge
formation in the pile foundation due to seismic loads. In such cases, ductile behavior 0:
the piles shall be ensured by following measures:
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
CHAPTER 16
SECTION 18: MATERIALS, QUALITY CONTROL AND WORKMANSHIP
Codal
Clause
This section deals with the material properties and specifications for procurement of
Reinforcement, Prestressing Steel and Concrete.
It is important to note that although, primarily these are specified in terms of the Indian
Standards governing these materials, they are not limited to the same. If the materials
used in the design conform to other countries' codes, they can be used as long as they
meet the minimum specifications of the SIS codes. For materials where SIS codes are
not available, other codes are specified.
The Code makes it clear that for assessment of properties of materials in existing
bridges, the standards and specifications prevailing at the time of construction of the
bridge only are to be considered.
In the following explanatory part only the noteworthy points are discussed, since the
Code is very clear on the aspects of specifications for procurement. For items which
involve site fabrication or design and making and placing concrete, detailed guidelines
are given.
There are many methods in use for providing additional protection against corrosion.
The acceptable methods to the code are:
Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. Suitability or otherwise of
these methods in a particular case is not commented upon by the Code. Discretion of
the user is implied for adopting.
Other available techniques such as Cathodic Protection are outside the scope of the
Code.
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
The main properties considered relevant for the performance of grouts in post tensioned
concrete structures are:
c) Bleed of grout: It is considered important to limit free water inside the tendor
duct, and any bleed water to be reabsorbed by the grout within a specifiec
time.
The situations under which load testing of flexural members of abridge structure would
be resorted to are -
For members other than flexural members (e,g. Corbels, Deep Beams ... etc.), where
stress - strain relationship is not linear, the acceptance should preferably be based on
analytical investigation.
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
Direct and indirect actions can be further classified as permanent and variable actions.
Direct actions which are always present in the structure are termed as permanent
action, e.g. Self-weight, Superimposed dead load, Back fill weight, Earth pressure,
Prestress effects etc. Actions, which vary with respect to time are treated as variable
actions e.g. Carriageway live load, Footpath live load, Wind, Thermal action etc. Snow
load, even though it varies with respect to time, is treated as direct permanent action.
Settlement effect, which falls under the category of indirect action, is termed as
permanent action as the settlement effect becomes permanent, once the settlement
takes place. Thermal effect which also falls under the category of indirect action will be
termed as variable action as it can vary with respect to time. Thus it can be seen that
some indirect actions fall under the category of permanent action and some under the
category of variable action. Semi-permanent (Quasi permanent) actions are certain
fractions of variable actions which are likely to be present in the structure at all the time,
e.g. some fraction of thermal effect.
In addition, there are two more variable actions viz. Accidental action and Seismic
action. Accidental actions are those actions, of which the occurrences themselves and
their periodicity cannot be predicted. These are actions which the structure mayor may
not be subjected to during its life time, exemplified by barge impact and vehicle collision
with the parts of the bridge. Accidental action is direct variable action. Accidental actions
caused by explosions are special cases, which is not covered by IRC: 6, hence not
included in the Code.
The seismic action shall be considered as an indirect variable action as the forces are
generated in the structure due to ground acceleration.
Values of actions used within a particular combination of actions take account of low
probability of more than one action having their characteristic values at the same time
for determining the representative value. It also takes account of reduction in likely
maximum value of an action, if considered over periods of less than the design life
222
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
which is considered as 1.15 for permanent actions and 1.1 for variable actions. YD is the
partial factor for taking in to account the possibility of unfavorable deviation of action,
which is considered as 1.17 for permanent actions (load) and 1.36 for variable actions
(load). Hence the partial factor for a permanent action (load) will work out to 1.15 x 1.17
= 1.35 and for a variable action. 1.1 x 1.36 = 1.50.
A word of caution, that enhancing the permanent loads is to be done only when it
causes unfavorable effect (adding to the effects of variable action). In case it causes
favorable effect (opposing the effects of variable action) then the permanent action shall
not be enhanced by partial factor. For example, this situation will happen in continuous
structure or while establishing factor of safety.
For the verification of serviceability limit state and accidental combination, the partial
factor on actions shall be taken as 1.0 onlyi.e. the actions shall not be enhanced. For
prestressing action, the partial factor will vary under different conditions, for which
clause no. 7.9.5 of the Code shall be referred to. The factors Ys and YD are from other
International codes as there are no data available for these factors.
As explained earlier, the variable actions and permanent actions acting simultaneously
are to be combined in to order to carry out the verification of limit states. When actions
are to be combined, the reduced values of variable actions are to be used in order to
arrive at the probable severity of the effects as all the variable actions do not act at their
peak values at the same time. Combination factors are to be used on the variable
actions in order to arrive at the characteristic combination (basic combination) value or
infrequent combination value (rare combination) or frequent combination value or quasi
permanent combination value of variable actions from the nominal values.
The partial factor for actions given in Annex B of IRC 6: 2010 includes both the
combination factor and partial factor for variable actions. This means that partial factor
given in the code for variable action = Partial factor for variable actions x Combination
factor for variable actions i.e.y, x (410 or 411 or 412)' Hence, the partial factor as specified
in the code only needs to be applied. The philosophy of combination factor is given
herein only for the understanding of the engineers. As the combination factor is not
applicable for permanent actions the partial factor for permanent action does not include
the combination factor. The use of these partial factors given in the code is explained in
the worked out examples where they are shown in the brackets.
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"UO!18U!qw08 8!WS!es ~ UO!l8U!qw08 18luepp8V' 'UO!18U!qw08 8!S88 "eO!
SUO!18U!qw08 el81s l!W!1 eeJLjl rapun pamsua eq 01 eJ8 Al!l!q81s pU8 Lj15ueJ1S'Sln rapun
"(SlS) A1!l!q8e8!l\Jes JO e181S l!W!l pU8 (Sln)
Lj15ueJ1SJO el8ls l!W!l "eO!pe!JS!18S eq 01 eJ8 Lj8!LjM seiais l!W!1 JO sedA1 OM1 eJ8 eJeLj.l
lRC:SP:105-2015
(1) The static equilibrium; overturning, sliding, uplift for Basic, Accidental
and Seismic combinations.
(2) The structural strength under ultimate state for Basic, Accidental and
Seismic combinations.
Worked Examples
Partial factors are taken from IRC 6: 2010. The examples will illustrate the methods to
carry out the stability checks and to work out the disturbing and stabilizing forces I
moments for the various combinations.
226
WN)j 6"80v =9"G x g"G x L"£ x L ~ = II!.:!
wN)j LS = (G"O + 8"0) V"O x L"S x 9G = 118M
wN)j S"80 ~ = G/8"S X 8"S X g"O X 9G = U8Cl
'V moqe (4J6ual J!un JOJ) iueurour 6u!JoJsa~
wN)j~ ~"LL~ = ~g"9S + 09"Ov~ = lU8WOW 5U!UJnlJ81\0 18101
wN)j ~g"9S = _I__ X SS"O X 0 ~ X (G"~) = 85J8l.pJnS oi anp JO lU8W0V'J
Xv
c.
wN)j 09"OV ~ = GV"O X SS"O X s(S"V) X L~X f X (09"~) = lU8WOW 8JnSS8Jd 4lJ83
'V inoqe (4J6ual J!un JOJ) rueuroui 6U!UJnJj9AQ
>I:>a4:> 6u!UJnJjaAQ (~
o
lU 9 C
i UJ/NlIL I lq1lIJ,\\ llU(]
££'0 amssard
ljl1Bd .10 jUJ1:)UFlOJ
,)01 ~ 'D
:lIeM 6u!u!eJa~
:z aldwex3
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J81\81ilU88 84l 8::>np8J J84l!8 ejqeis l! 8)j8W 01 "8lq8lsun 88U84 pU8 SUJnlJ81\0 8JnpnJlS
wN)j G9"09~ >wN)j 8G"vv~
WN)j G9"09 ~ = 91"09 + 6"8 ~ + L8"OL =
Z X 6 X (09"~) + S X 9 X (90"~) + ~ X 9 ~ X (90"~) = lU8W0V'J 5U!UJnlJ8I\Q
zt zt
IRC:SP: 105-2015
6kN
I 4.5m I 3.0m
I 1
-9kNm
c
-18kNm
A B
Fig: 3 -Moment due to Concentrated Dead Load
228
wN>l 9Z~ - = {~1'Ov x 0' ~ + (S'L9 + 8~) 0' ~}- = 8le luawow (-) wnw!xeLAJ
UO!leu!qw0:J aJe~ (e)
alelS l!W!l }\m!qea8!AJas rsoun sluawoLAJ (Z)
'sluawow peo: peap JOJpasn uaaq sell S8' ~
JO JopeJ "laJes le!lJed alll pa:ua peol aA!I JO pa:ua oi ppe spa:ua paoj peap alll sV
wN>l v8'98
- = {SZ'OZ x S'~ - (~Z'v + 6-) s8'd = 8V JO lU!Od-P!LAJJO luawow (-) wnw!xeLAJ (8)
luawow pao: peap JOJpasn uaaq sell 0' ~ JopeJ "laJes
le!lJed alll 'pa:ua pao] aA!I alll asoddo spa:ua peo] peap alll se paiou aq oi S! II
wN>l 88'6Z = {8L'ZZ x S' ~ + (~Z'v + 6-) O'~} = 8V JO lU!Od-P!LAJle luawow (+) xeLAJ(Z)
wN>l Z'9L~ - ={ S'Ov x S'~ + (S'L9 + 8~) S8'~}- = 8le luawow (-) xeLAJ(~)
sluawoLAJ JO u6!sao (9)
ueds U!ln!M peol aA!l OJanp Juawow 9 :6!:I
8 \f
\f
IRC:SP:I05-2015
+ Moment at Mid-Point span of AB = {1.0 (-9 + 4.2) + 1.0 x 22.78} = 17.98 kNm
Maximum (-) moment at Mid-Point of span AB = -{1.0 (-9 + 4.21) - 1.0 x 20.25} =
-25.04kNm
(b) Frequent Combination
5m 5m 5m
f
A
f B
fC f D
Fig: 7 Continuity Beam
230
IfZ
wN)j SL8v + = SZ" ~~ x (O"~) - 09 x (O"~) = luewolN (_)
"WN)j SO~ + = Sv x (O"~) + 09 x (O"~) = luewolN +
8\1' ueds P!IN U! luewolN
:uoqeu!qw08 eJe~ (e)
:Sluewow elels l!W!l Al!I!qeeO!lues 10 uoqelnole8 "A
"leSJeAe~ 6u!05Jepun S! uouoas el.1l eloN
wN)j S£>9 ~ - = vTZ x (S"~) - SL8 ~ x (O"~) = luewOIN (_)
SLSS x (S"~) + SL8 ~ x (SS"~) = luewolN +
88 uedS 10 iueuroui uedS P!IN JO.:l "6
WN)j SL8"v9 - = SL9 x (S"~) + SL x (0" ~)- = luewOIN +
luewolN u5!seo wN)j Z"08 ~ - = S9"ZS x (S"~) - SL x (SS" ~)- luewolN (_)
=
8 le iusurour uoddns JO.:l "8
"AIUO0" ~ S! lO
e e
uo Jop 1l !lJed e4l eoue4 iusuoui peoi eA!! 5u!soddo S! luewow peoi peeO se 'eloN
wN)j SZ~ "Sv + = SZ" ~~ x (S"~) - 09 x (O"~) = luewolN _
luewolN u5!seo
Sv x (S"~) + 09 x (SS"~) = luewolN +
8\1' 10 ueds P!IN JO.:l "L
SluewolN elew!lln 10 UO!lelnOle8 "AI
"uoqelnoleo e4l A1!!dw!s oi Sluep!11eoO 5u!sn pelelnoleo ueeq eAe4 siusurou, e41.
wN)j vTZ - = 8 ~ X GS X ZSO"O - = 88 ueds P!IN le luewow - peol eA!l (!)
wN)j
SLTS + =
= 88 ueds P!IN iusuiou, + peo j eA!l (4)
wN)j
SL9 + = = 8 uoddns le iueuroui + peo j eA!l (5)
wN)j
= 8 uoddns le luewow - peo t eA!l (1)
wN)j
IRC:SP: 105-2015
Moment at Support B
(-) Moment = -(1.0) x 75 - (1.0) x 52.65 = - 127.65 kNm
+ Moment = - (1.0) x 75 + (1.0) x 6.75 = - 68.25 kNm
232
ttl
£ ~6+ 06 ~ + L89 + O'£8v£ =
SUO!lEU!qWO~ Al!l!qEa~!AJas J01 siueuroui u5!sao (~)
WN>I S' ~££L =
£~6
x S' ~ + 06 ~ x SL' ~ + (L89 + OT8v£) S£' ~ = >I~aLp lH5uaJlS J01 iusuroui u5!sao 'I
xoauo lH5uaJlS alEW!lln J01 siuauroui u5!sao (~)
SluawoV\J u5!sao (~)
wN>I O'£~6 II pUE lld::l oi anp V\J8 (v)
WN>I 0'06 ~ 5UpEJjnS oi anp V\J8 (£)
WN>I O'L89 5UpEJjnS idsoxs lOIS oi anp V\J8(~)
wN>I O'£8V£ ampnJlS Jadns 10 PEol pEao oi anp V\J8(~)
armonnsracns Aq peisise, aq 01 siuauroui alH aJE 5u!MOIIO::l (~)
'SJOPE1IE!lJEd 10 idsouoo alH pueisrepun Al!sEa UE~ sreufnsap alH lELjl
os aJaLj U8A!5 S! airuonnsqns pUE arruonnsredng a5P!J8 10 su5!sao 10 aldwEx3 JaLjlouv
:~ aldwex3
airuonnsqng JOJ sluawolI\I pue speo'j pue anuonnsredng JOJ sluawolI\I u6!saa pOS
wN>I U! aJE UMOLjSsluawoV\J IIV
IRC:SP: 105-2015
= 5273.0 kNm
Moment for Rare combination check, including temperature gradient effect =
5273.0 + 0.6 times the moment due to temperature gradient effect.
e) Moment for Frequent Combination check = 3483.0 + 687.0 + 190+ 913 x 0.75
= 5044.7 kNm
Moment for frequent combination check, including temperature gradient effect =
5044.7 + 0.5 times the moment due to temperature gradient effect.
234
'a:JJO!resus auejd !O mo a~l AlJe:Joi peufnsap
S! JaAel aIPp!w/aJo:J a~l 'SJaAel uiouoq pue doi a~l !O sauejd 6u!pe sluellnsaJ ssans
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'luawa:JJo!u!aJ psorojurai pannbai
a~l mo PU!! oi ampeoord saJ\!6 amxauue a~l 'pa)j:JeJ:J S! wawala a~l !I 'P:J!~l6uaJlS
aJ\!ssaJdwo:J u6!sap a~l pseoxe lOU saop (ssans aJ\!ssaJdwo:J umunxaui 'a'!) ssans
ledpupd umununu le~l )j:Ja~:Joi S! pannba, UO!le:J!!paJ\AIUOa~l 'pa)j:JeJ:Jun S! luawala
a~l!1 '~-~-8 'ub3 6u!sn pa)j:JeJ:JS! luawala a~l Ja~la~M pa!waJ\ AllSJ!! S! l! 'poqieui S!~l
ul 'lsed a~l U! pouieui pasn Apelndod poutaui s,JawJ\;j-poOM oi Jel!w!s S! pouisur a~l
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a~l 'po~law luawala al!U!! 6u!sn pauuopad S! s!SAleUe a~l ua~M alqe:J!ldde AlleJaua6
S! poqieui S!~l 'sluellnsaJ eoro, !O raqumu l~6!a oi papafqns S! luawala lIa~s a~l '6
uo!pas U! pauiejdxe s\;j 'luawala lIa~s !O ufnsap !O pouiaui pal!elap saJ\!6 amxauue a~l
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8 ~~31d"H:>
IRC:SP:I05-2015
After determining the in-plane forces in the outer layers as per theSection-9, verification
at ULS is to be performed adopting the sandwich model for shell elements. The
procedure is demonstrated with the help of worked example.
o esrqn Ota a:
Geometry Material Data
Thickness 300mm Concrete Grade M 30
Clear cover 40 mm fem 40 MPa
fetm 2.5 MPa
fek 30 MPa
fed 13.4 MPa
Steel Grade Fe 500
fYk 500 MPa
fYd 435 MPa
Reinforcement details'
Top Layer Bottom Layer
Bar & Area 1m Bar& Area/m
spacing spacing
X dir" 16 @ 100 2009.6 16 @ 100 2009.6
Y dir" 16 @ 100 2009.6 16 @ 100 2009.6
236
L£Z
WW 9L Z ~~ - Z ~~ - 00£
= =oi ww 88~ = t6 + t6 = Z
WW Z ~~ = 9 ~ + 9 ~ + Ot x Z = !l wwt6 = 9 ~- Ot - 09 ~ = !f..
ww Z ~~ 9 ~ + 9 ~ + Ot x Z si
= = wWt6 = 9 ~- Ot - 09 ~ = sf..
!l = si
pU8 18nb8 8J8 S888! 8LH uioq uo 8Z!S J8q lU8W88JO!U!8J pU8 J8J\08 88U!S
:SJe7le/ ieuio U!LfJ!Mseuo; jO uO!Jen/eIl3
p8)j88Ja S! UO!P8S 841 '88U8H
£ ~ZO'O = <b
n)/ L'S rI
L'9 = -- 1 = tJ
~t'9 = O~ t ~ = y
Ot U1:1j
9Z90'O = s-z = ULPj = )j
0' ~ = G(LO'O- )j)8'9- ~ = G8
6'0)/ L'O
L~=-l- = ~8
S S
0> 1L
8 £S08 JO![(8£SOJ z]_ )SOJ lB-1 - -]S08~8 =Y
S
o < 8£S08 JO![ (8£SOJ ZJ)SOJ lB -]1 S08~8 = Y
Zt1't Z
tt£'O- = 6t5'O- X z.s = 8£S08
v'T){6
-=0
1
6~'£ =
t9'O-+8Z' ~+99'Z =
So + Zo + "0 = "1
6t9'O- sf =
( "o -So) X ( Uo -Zo) X ( Uo -10) Sf =
Z6L9'Z =
[G(SS'Z - t9'O-) + G(t9'O- - 8Z'1) +G (8Z'l - SS'Z)].2. = zf
1
(GUO -SO) + GeEO -GO) + GeGO -~o))~ = zf
/ oseo pe07 JO::::1
IRC:SP: 105-2015
b
l~c_~:~~:
~E:Ii~ '21)18
2 'Je:$j
+
z z
238
6£Z
=
edlAJ£~~'O- =
edlAJ ~L9'O- = xPHn
S8SS8JlS suicuodseuoo
]XPHu
WIN>! ££OO'g =
1APHU
wIN>! G9'G ~- =
]XPHu
wIN>! g'L6- =
I 8se::> peol JO! J8Aei uionoq 8l.ll JO! S88JO! suerqureu: 8l.ll 5UP8P!SUO::>
8/!SUB.l BJB UO!PBJ!P A pUB XU! SBSSBJJS :1 BSBO
9'66 zss £'0£ ~- G
9'6 £'17- G'£9-
g'L6- 9'vLG ~
O'g zst 9'G~- G'6
wIN>! wIN>! wIN>!
wIN>! wIN>! wIN>!
8se::>
]XPHu SXPHu peol
)APHU SAPHU
)AXPHU SAxPHU
JUBWBIB I/BL{S )0 SJB;{BI JBJno U!L{J!M SB:JJO:d)0 AiBwwns
881'0 881'0 SAxP3U
W/N>!G'9~ = --+
196'0 (v6'O-881'O)X szsz =
881'0 881'0 SAP3U
W/N>!G'6 = =
LvO'Z+ (v6'O-881'O)X 9v'£-
881'0 881'0 sXP3U
WIN>! 9'17 LG = =
£186'v£ + (v6'O-881'O)x -rz.z r
:SMOIIO! se I 8se::> peol JO! J8Aei doi
5u
JO! p8leln:Jle8 Alle8!dAl 8Je S88JO! reuejd '(e) asnapqns v~' ~8 '18 se suonanba 811l !Sn
WIN>! LVG' ~G < WIN>! 9LG'9v =':)'PtJ./\
G = ~ ~ + ~ = >! 8J811M
~
p'q[££'O()[]J1dOg) )[ ZI'O) =':)'PtJ./\
':)'PtJ./\!OuO!leln8Ie::>
LOO'O =
1766'0 x LOO'O + 900'0 x LOO'O =
IRC:SP:I05-2015
Considering the membrane forces in the top layer for Load Case I
nEdxi = 274.64kN/m
nEdyi = 9.1583kN/m
nEdxyi = 18.227kN/m
Corresponding stresses
Principal stresses
=
((J'Edx+ (J'Edy ) C((J'EdX+ (J'Edy)2 + T )
(Jl
2
+ 4 Edxy2
= 2.5443MPa
(J2 =
((J'Edx+ (J'Edy) C((J'EdX+ (J'Edy)2 + T )
2 4 Edxy2
= -0.01 MPa
240
IvZ
L900"0 = oldAd
PA I AP:lJ bar Ad
=
J
edlAJ 6LS"0-
:SMOIIO!
se UJ!P A. U! lU8W8:)JO!U!8J U! SS8JlS JO! uouanbs 84l s86ue4:J uouipuoo exoqe 841
pue P8p!I\OJd
aq IIe4s lU8W8:JJO!U!8J wnW!U!W 'SS8JlS 81\!SS8Jdwo:J S! SS8JlS 84l UJ!P-X U! 8:JU!S
edlAJSS80"0 =
edlAJ S9S"0- =
edlAJ VG6v"0 = xP30
S8SS8JlS 6U!pUOdS8JJ08
SAXP3U
WIN)! 6vLS"6 =
SAP3U
WIN)! GG"£9- =
SXP3U
WIN)! £S ~"SS =
II 8se8 peol JO! J8Aei do; 84l JO! S8:JJO! auerqureui 84l 6UP8P!SU08
81!SU81 8! uUJ!PA. u! pue 8rqsse.1dw08 S! j!P X U! sseJJS III esea
UO!SS8Jdwo:J U! 8!eS S! UO!P8S ' P~!>~O'8:JU!S
edlAJ OV"£ ~ = P~!
S9GO"0 = AXP3z1
SOOG"O Apgo xpgD
=
IRC:SP:I05-2015
242
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61 lIa~dVH;)
IRC:SP: 105-2015
The application of mathematical methods to solve engineering problems is developed in the last
180 years. Some of the basic laws, such as the Hook's laws of linear elasticity, (AD 1660), were
established earlier. However, the beam theory of Euler-Bernoulli, developed in AD 1750, can be
considered as the beginning of the present day mathematical analysis of structures. Methods of
the science of 'Strength of Materials', and 'Applied Mechanics', developed based on the
growing knowledge about the laws of equilibrium of forces acting on bodies as a whole (rigid
bodies) and elastic behaviour of linear members like columns and beams subjected to axial,
bending and torsional forces, together with the laws describing behaviour of structural materials.
These methods were suitable for hand analysis. Many of these are still being regularly used by
bridge engineers, as exemplified by the techniques of 'equilibrium of joints' and 'method-of-
section' used in design of trusses.
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A.2.4.3 Conventions used in tH'Odimensional and three dimensional plates and shells
The Plates and Shells are three dimensional structures. In the theory of elasticity, some of the
commonly met shapes like domes (surfaces of revolution) have exact solutions available for
some simple loading conditions. Many other shapes, like cylindrical shells, have approximate
solutions which can be accepted and safe structures can be designed using engineering
judgement and experience. For applications where such structures are required (e.g. fish belly
type cross section for superstructure) the Code has suggested a general method in the Informative
Annexure B 1: Concrete Shell Structures. For such applications this or other specialised text
books or literature may be referred to. Strict adherence to the sign convention is vitally important
in such analyses.
Mathematical methods require use of internally consistent sign conventions within the analysis,
but these conventions are not necessarily the same in different methods of analysis. The designer
must be wary of what these signs represent in the analysis in relation to the signs being followed
in his design process. The best precaution to avoid blunders is to try and understand the overall
deformations of the structure and the deflected shapes of the members obtained in the analysis
and compare the same with individual's own perceptions.
A.2.4.5 Further Developments in Methods of analysis
Classical methods of static and dynamic analysis have developed over large number of years.
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IRC:SP:I05-2015
stochastic analysis.
Use of Impact Factor to increase the static value of traffic load to produce equivalent dynamic
loading of vehicles travelling at high speed is the well known example. Also use of static wind
pressure steadily applied on the structure in place of real life dynamically applied time-varying
wind pressures for bridges which are not dynamically sensitive to wind loading, is also common.
A.2.4.6.5 Seismic Effects
The Indian Standards are using simplified static inertial loads to calculate dynamic effects of
Design Basis Earthquake, (DBE). Static 'Equivalent Forces' based on ground acceleration and
natural period of vibration of the structure are used together with static linear elastic analysis in
place of dynamic non linear analysis by reducing inertial forces by response reduction factor.
A.3 Modern Methods of Analysis
A.3.t General
It may be understood that the theory of elasticity does not properly predict the behaviour of
reinforced concrete structures near their ultimate state of strength. This is due to the prominent
non linear behaviour of concrete in compression, effects of cracking and plasticity of steel.
New methods are developed in the last 60 years or so, based on the knowledge about the plastic
behaviour of materials and resulting ductility of structural elements. These methods require more
complex mathematical methods of analysis. However, their application in practice is simplified
by tools like design charts and computerised algorithms.
The different types of analyses are classified as per the constitutive laws of materials used in the
analysis and whether the equilibrium of the structure is evaluated based on the original geometry
of the structure (first order analysis) or based on the deformed geometry (second order analysis I.
Variously used idealised constitutive laws for stress-strain and moment curvature relations for
uniaxial relationships are shown in Fig A.4. This usage has led to the following self-descriptive
definitions:
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
deformed structure.
Structural analysis, performed on the initial geometry, that takes account of the non-linear
deformation properties of materials
This type includes different types of non-linearity such as a continuously varying stress-
strain relation, bi-linear stress-strain relation with elastic branch followed by second
linear branch with strain hardening or having perfect plasticity (e.g. reinforcing and
prestressing steels). These are shown in Fig.A.4.
Structural analysis, performed on the geometry of the deformed structure that takes
account of the non-linear deformation properties of materials as listed in type (4) above.
In the ultimate state of some of the materials (e.g. steel) the contribution of elastic phase
to the total deformations is small and can be neglected for simplifying the calculated
response in the analysis as shown in Fig.A.4. This method is not applicable for concrete
structures.
The present trend in bridge design is to use different types of analyses for calculating different
types of responses for different design situations (load combinations), even for the same bridge
elements. For example, while overall analysis of an element is elastic, the sectional design is
based on elasto-plastic methods. The use of various methods is described in Table A.I Design
Situations and Types of Analyses.
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IRC:SP: 105-2015
This method is used for the overall analysis of the bridge structure. It consists of determining, in
a structure, a consistent set of either internal forces and moments or stresses that are in
equilibrium with a particular defined set of actions on the structure. The internal sets of forces
depend on geometrical, structural and material properties. One of the commonly used
applications is box girder superstructure, where the box cross section may be treated as a line
member.
Results of global analysis are valid in all parts of structure, except in local zones such as points
of application of concentrated loads including support reactions, areas of discontinuity like
openings in structural members and joints / connections of members at locations other than
geometrically smooth transitions where sharp changes in the flow of stresses are involved. The
Saint- V enant' s Principle described earlier assures that the effects of these disturbances in the
structure are strictly local and limited in their extent. The stresses at some distance away from
these disturbances get back to the original state without vitiating the global analysis.
This principle allows considering equilibrium of a small pali of the structure considering the
equilibrium of a free body containing the disturbance, but having its boundaries sufficiently
away at locations where the original stress distribution is as by the global analysis. In hand
analysis this distance is taken as the depth of the element. A generalised method of analysis for
such cases is to use the computerised analysis. Alternatively, other types of local analyses based
on non-elastic methods or those using theorems of plastic analysis like strut and tie method are
used where the normal elastic methods become unusable. One of the examples of such local
analysis is idealisation of box girder superstructure into a transverse slice of unit width for load
effects in the transverse direction.
In global FEM analysis the local disturbances can be included as a part of global geometry with
refined finite element mesh surrounding the disturbance to yield distribution of rapidly changing
local stresses as a part of global analysis. Similarly, in the case of box girder superstructure
results of global analysis and local (transverse direction) analysis are algebraically added to get
the total design forces.
254
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IRC:SP: 105-20 15
Furthermore, computers are also being used to make design choices in addition to analysing the
structure. However, indiscriminate use of automated procedures, both for analysis and design has
a few major flaws, including amongst others;
(1) Creation of false sense of accuracy. Since the computer can calculate with equal
accuracy solutions based on correct models as well as those based on the unrealistic
models, the accuracy of solution depends on the use of correct model.
(2) It is not possible to improve the characteristics and behaviour of basic element (liner
or multi dimensional) to take into account more refined properties of the same than
the constitutive relations built-in in the programme.
(3) The mechanical use of software to obtain black- box solutions is not conducive for
imbibing in the designers a physical feel of the behaviour of structures and structural
materials, unless special efforts are taken to understand the same.
(4) In the computerised analysis large amount of data is required to be prepared as input
data and the mistakes are difficult to detect.
(5) The process of carrying analysis is totally programme-driven and mechanical. The
results are arrived at without the computer having any intelligent understanding of
what it is doing and why. Whether the results look reliable or appear to be not- so-
right in an engineering sense is to be judged by the user.
All this is known, but in spite of the difficulties and risks, computerised analysis is a very useful
tool, if properly deployed and properly interpreted. The most important care to be taken in the
analysis is the totally correct use of the signs in input data and the correct interpretation of the
output. Since these sign conventions are programme - specific it is essential for the user to
become fully familiar with the same before starting their use. This is specially required for using
programmes originally developed for primary use in mechanical engineering applications for the
civil engineering applications. Usually these are very advanced programmes and through
familiarity with the methods, limitations as well as sign conventions is a pre requisite.
A.S.3 Use of Finite Element Methods
The above discussion is especially true for using techniques of 'Finite Element Methods',
(FEM). The assembly of finite elements should be examined visually or plotted as a hard copy
for all structures to insure correct assembly of the elements. However, it should be remembered
that the apparently identical looking twin- image shown by the assembly of Finite Elements does
not correctly represent all properties and all behaviours of the structure of whose mathematical
model it represents. The validity and accuracy of any output is decided by the properties of the
finite element (i.e. shape functions) used and their suitability to represent the primary and
secondary structural behaviour. For example, a 3-D solid element using compatibility of
256
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lRC:SP:I05-2015
cable of the suspension bridges can only be analysed based on its deflected shape. The stiffening
girders carrying load may be designed on the basis of the theory of small deflections, but the
overall stability under localised live loads also has to be based on the large deflections.
The cables of cable-stayed bridges and the cables of extra-dosed bridges belong to an
intermediate category depending on their geometry and length. However, at least for the
construction stage analysis they have to be treated as highly flexible elements.
The lRC: 112 on its own does not cover all design requirements of such elements. However, the
Code can be used for such designs in combination with the help from specialised literature
and/or international codes.
IRC: 112 has covered prestressing in six sections. The global effects of prestressing on structures
including its time dependent variations are covered in Section: 7 'Analysis'; the design
properties are covered in Section: 6 'Material Properties and their Design Values'; the local
effects, such as spalling and bursting behind anchorages and the technological aspects are
covered in Section: 13 'Prestressing Systems'; Sections: IS and 16 cover detailing and Section:
18 covers 'Materials, Quality Controls and Workmanship'.
Although various methods of considering prestressing in the analysis and design have been used
in the past, the Code requires in Clause 7.9.2 that:
"General
(1) Prestressing is considered as an action and its effect should be included in the
forces / moments and applied to the structure.
(2) Prestressingforce is time-dependent. Its magnitude also varies from the intended
value due to technological reasons. Both the effects should be considered in
selection ofdesign prestressingforce.
In view of the above, discussion in this Chapter is restricted to the evaluation of 'Prestressing
Action' as a load due to prestressing. The appropriate methods of analyses are to be used for
obtaining the action effects.
Historically, prestressing was developed 111 era of the 'working load / allowable stress'
philosophy of design. Its target was to increase the capacity of concrete members to carry tensile
258
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