Comsats University Islamabad (Cui), Wah Campus Electrical Engineering Department

COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD (CUI),
WAH CAMPUS
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTS (LAB)-EEE374
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Lab # Details
01 Measurement of errors and data statistics analysis.
02 Measurement of active, reactive and apparent power and power factor in single phase circuit using single
phase wattmeter.
03 Measurement of active, reactive and apparent power and power factor in single phase circuits using three
voltmeter method.
04 Measurement of active, reactive and apparent power and power factor in single phase circuits using three
ammeter method.
05 Testing of single phase Energy meter with the help of wattmeter.
06 LAB ASSESSMENT 1
07 Implementation of DC voltmeter using galvanometer.
08 Implementation of DC ammeter using galvanometer.
09 Implementation of DC ohmmeter using galvanometer.
10 Measurement of unknown resistance using wheat-stone bridge.
11 Measurement of unknown inductance using Maxwell bridge.
12 LAB ASSESSMENT 2
13 IC Temperature Sensor LM35
14 Temperature Sensor Platinum RTD resistance transducer
15 Air Pressure Transducer
16 FINAL LAB ASSESSMENT

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Experiment 1: Measurement of Errors and Data Statistics Analysis

1. Objective
 To get familiarize with the basic electronic measurement instruments.
 To develop understanding of multiple data values, their errors and statistical analysis.
2. Equipment:
1. Digital multimeter
2. Wattmeter
3. Kilowatt Hour Meter
4. Function Generator
5. Oscilloscope
6. Resistors: 05 samples of 02 values of same order
3. Introduction of Tools:
Moving Coil Instruments:
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil: Principle of Working
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force and tends
to move in the direction as per Fleming’s left hand rule.
Fleming left hand rule:
If the first and the second finger and the thumb of the left hand are held so that they are at right
angle to each other, then the thumb shows the direction of the force on the conductor, the first
finger points towards the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger shows the
direction of the current in the wire.
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Construction:
A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame (spindle) positioned between the poles of
a U shaped permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys like alnico.
The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and thus the coil is free to rotate. The current is fed
to the coil through spiral springs which are two in numbers. The coil which carries a current,
which is to be measured, moves in a strong magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet and
a pointer is attached to the spindle which shows the measured value.
Working:
When a current flow through the coil, it generates a magnetic field which is proportional to the
current in case of an ammeter. The deflecting torque is produced by the electromagnetic action
of the current in the coil and the magnetic field.
The controlling torque is provided by two phosphorous bronze flat coiled helical springs. These
springs serve as a flexible connection to the coil conductors.
Damping is caused by the eddy current set up in the aluminum coil which prevents the oscillation
of the coil.
Applications:
The PMMC has a variety of uses onboard ship. It can be used as:
Ammeter:
When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very small current range, the moving coil is
connected across a suitable low resistance shunt, so that only small part of the main current flows
through the coil.
The shunt consists of a number of thin plates made up of alloy metal, which is usually magnetic
and has a low temperature coefficient of resistance, fixed between two massive blocks of copper.
A resistor of same alloy is also placed in series with the coil to reduce errors due to temperature
variation.
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Voltmeter:
When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is connected in series with high resistance. Rest of
the function is same as above. The same moving coil can be used as an ammeter or voltmeter
with an interchange of above arrangement
Galvanometer:
Galvanometer is used to measure small value of current along with its direction and strength. It
is mainly used onboard to detect and compare different circuits in a system.
Ohm Meter:
The ohm meter is used to measure resistance of the electric circuit by applying a voltage to a
resistance with the help of battery. A galvanometer is used to determine the flow of current
through the resistance. The galvanometer scale is marked in ohms and as the resistance varies,
since the voltage is fixed, the current through the meter will also vary.
- The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C supply as the reversal of current produces
reversal of torque on the coil.
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1. Ammeter:
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric
currents are measured in amperes, hence the name. The word “ammeter” is commonly
misspelled or mispronounced as “amp meter” or “ammeter” by some.
Figure 1. Analog Voltmeter & Digital Ammeter.

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Figure 2. Ammeter Circuit Connection.
For the measurement of current through any circuit ammeter is connected in series (Why?). For
this purpose just break the circuit and connect one knob of the ammeter to the one broken end
and the second knob to the other broken end of the circuit as shown in the diagram below. The
reading can be obtained digitally by digital ammeter or manually by looking at the scale of analog
ammeter.
2. Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is and instrument used for measuring the electrical potential difference between
two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to
the voltage of the circuit. Digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog
to digital converter.
Figure 3. Analog Voltmeter & Digital Voltmeter.

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Figure 4. Voltmeter Circuit Connection.
For the measurement of voltage difference between any two points in a circuit voltmeter is
connected in parallel (Why?). For this purpose just connect one knob of the voltmeter to the one
point and the other knob to the second point on the circuit as shown in the diagram below. The
reading can be obtained digitally by digital voltmeter or manually by looking at the scale of analog
voltmeter.
3. Wattmeter:
Electric power is measured by means of a wattmeter. This instrument is of the electrodynamics

type. It consists of a pair of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the
potential coil. The fixed coils are made up of a few turns of a comparatively large conductor. The
potential coil consists of many turns of fine wire. It is mounted on a shaft, carried in jeweled
bearings, so that it may turn inside the stationary coils. The movable coil carries a needle which
moves over a suitably marked scale. Spiral coil springs hold the needle to a zero position.
Figure 5. Analog Wattmeter & Digital Wattmeter.

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Figure 6. Wattmeter Circuit Connection.
The current coil (stationary coil) of the wattmeter is connected in series with the circuit (load),
and the potential coil (movable coil) is connected across the line. When line current flows through
the current coil of a wattmeter, a field is set up around the coil. The strength of this field is
proportional to the line current and in phase with it. The potential coil of the wattmeter generally
has a high-resistance resistor connected in series with it. This is for the purpose of making the
potential-coil circuit of the meter as purely resistive as possible. As a result, current in the
potential circuit is practically in phase with line voltage. Therefore, when voltage is applied to the
potential circuit, current is proportional to and in phase with the line voltage.
The actuating force of a wattmeter comes from the field of its current coil and the field of its
potential coil. The force acting on the movable coil at any instant (tending to turn it) is
proportional to the instantaneous values of line current and voltage.
The wattmeter consists of two circuits, either of which will be damaged if too much current is
passed through them. This fact is to be especially emphasized in the case of wattmeter, because
the reading of the instrument does not serve to tell the user that the coils are being overheated.
If an ammeter or voltmeter is overloaded, the pointer will be indicating beyond the upper limit
of its scale. In the wattmeter, both the current and potential circuits may be carrying such an
overload that their insulation is burning, and yet the pointer may be only part way up the scale.
This is because the position of the pointer depends upon the power factor of the circuit as well
as upon the voltage and current. Thus, a low power-factor circuit will give a very low reading on
the wattmeter even when the current and potential circuits are loaded to the maximum safe
limit. This safe rating is generally given on the face of the instrument. A wattmeter is always
distinctly rated, not in watts but in volts and amperes.
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4. Kilo-Watt Hour Meter:
It is a device that measures the amount of electrical energy supplied to a residence or business.
These are customers of an electric company. The most common type is more properly known as
a (kilo) watt-hour meter or a joule meter. Utilities record the values measured by these meters
to generate an invoice for the electricity. They may also record other variables including the time
when the electricity was used.
Figure 7. A Kilo-Watt Hour Meter.

5. Function generator:
We can get different types of wave shapes from a function generator. A function generator has
a frequency range and we can get varying amplitude from its main output. We can verify its
frequency and wave shapes by applying its output to oscilloscope.
For using a function generator we plug its probe in any of the output jack. Select the required
frequency and amplitude from there select switches. Moreover different wave shapes are
available. The wave shape can be observed on the oscilloscope and can be easily adjusted.
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Figure 8. A Function Generator.
6. Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope (also known as a scope, CRO, DSO or, an O-scope) is a type of electronic test
instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a two-
dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences using the vertical or 'Y' axis,
plotted as a function of time, (horizontal or 'x' axis). Although an oscilloscope displays voltage on
its vertical axis, any other quantity that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed as well.
In most instances, oscilloscopes show events that repeat with either no change or change slowly.
Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, and telecommunications industry.
Oscilloscopes are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical signal. In
addition to the amplitude of the signal, an oscilloscope can show distortion, the time between
two events (such as pulse width, period, or rise time) and relative timing of two related signals.
Types of Oscilloscope:
1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

2. Digital Storage Oscilloscope
Figure 9. A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope & A Digital Storage Oscilloscope
7. Digital Multimeter (DMM):
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.
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Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—analog multimeters and digital multimeters
(often abbreviated DMM or DVOM).
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a
bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as
electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
Figure 10. A Digital Multimeter.

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3-(b). Introduction of Errors and Data Statistics
No electrical component or instrument is perfectly accurate; all have some error or inaccuracy.
It is important to understand how these errors are specified and how they combine to create
even greater errors in measurement systems. Although it is possible that in some cases errors
might almost completely cancel each other out, the worst case combination of errors must
always be assumed.
The errors can be broadly classified in two types: Random errors or Systematic errors. Errors of
unexplainable origin, like reading the meter incorrectly, are classified as random errors. While
errors due to faulty measurement systems used for measurements, are systematic errors.
3.1 Absolute and relative error
If a resistor is known to have a resistance of 500Ω with a possible error of ±50Ω, the ±50Ω is an
absolute error. This is because 50Ω is stated as an absolute quantity, not as a percentage of the
500Ω resistance. When the error is expressed as a percentage or as a fraction of the total
resistance, it becomes a relative error. Thus ±50Ω is ±10%, relative to 500Ω.
3.2 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, Tolerance and Significant Figures
Accuracy refers to how closely the measured value agrees with the true value of the parameter
being measured.
Precision means how exactly or sharply an instrument can be read. It is also defined as how
closely identically performed measurements agree with each other. The resolution of an
instrument is the smallest change in the measured value to which the instrument will respond.
Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to
be expected in some value.
The significant figures of a number are those digits that carry meaning contributing to its
precision.
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3.3 Statistical Analysis
a) Arithmetic Mean
When a number of measurements of a quantity are made and the measurements are not all
exactly equal, the best approximation to the actual is found by calculating the average value, or
arithmetic mean, of the results. For n measured values of x1, x2, x3, … , xn, the arithmetic mean is
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
𝑥̅ =
𝑛
b) Deviation
The difference between any one measured value and the arithmetic mean of a series of
measurements is termed the deviation. The deviations (d1, d2, d3 … dn) may be positive or
negative, and the algebraic sum of the deviations is always zero. The average deviation may be
calculated as the average of the absolute values of the deviations.
|𝑑1 | + |𝑑2 | + |𝑑3 | + ⋯ + | 𝑑𝑛 |

̅=
𝐷
𝑛
c) Standard Deviation and Probable error
The mean-squared value of the deviations can also be calculated by first squaring each deviation
value before determining the average. This gives the quantity known as the variance. Taking the
square root of the variance produces the root mean squared (rms) value, also termed the
standard deviation (σ).
𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + 𝑑32 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑛2

𝜎=√
𝑛
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 0.6745 𝜎
4. Procedure
1. Note down the specified (nominal) and measured values of supply and resistors.
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2. Connect the circuit according to the following diagram and power it up.
3. Five different values of each of the resistor can make a total of twenty-five (25)
combinations. While plugging in each of the combinations, note down Vout.
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5. Observations
Input Data
Sr No. Parameter Nominal Value Measured Value
1. Vin
a. a.
b. b.
2. R1 c. c.
d. d.
e. e.
a. a.
b. b.
3. R2 c. c.
d. d.
e. e.
Output Data
Sr No. Parameter Equation Value
1.
Vout – Nominal
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2.
Vout – Min
3.
Vout – Max
Sr No. Measured Value Deviation

Parameter
1. Vout – R1(a), R2(a)
2. Vout – R1(a), R2(b)
3. Vout – R1(a), R2(c)
4. Vout – R1(a), R2(d)
5. Vout – R1(a), R2(e)
6. Vout – R1(b), R2(a)
7. Vout – R1(b), R2(b)
8. Vout – R1(b), R2(c)
9. Vout – R1(b), R2(d)
10. Vout – R1(b), R2(e)
11. Vout – R1(c), R2(a)

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12. Vout – R1(c), R2(b)
13. Vout – R1(c), R2(c)
14. Vout – R1(c), R2(d)
15. Vout – R1(c), R2(e)
16. Vout – R1(d), R2(a)
17. Vout – R1(d), R2(b)
18. Vout – R1(d), R2(c)
19. Vout – R1(d), R2(d)
20. Vout – R1(d), R2(e)
21. Vout – R1(e), R2(a)
22. Vout – R1(e), R2(b)
23. Vout – R1(e), R2(c)
24. Vout – R1(e), R2(d)
25. Vout – R1(e), R2(e)
Analysis Data
Sr No. Parameter Value
1. Vout - Mean
2. Vout - Min
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3. Vout - Max
4. Deviation – Avg
5. Deviation – Std
6. Probable Error
Assignment
Complete the following and submit in next week: Plot the intensity distribution of Vout data
(found in the lab) in the form of line graph plotted against the obtained data values also plot
mean value of output voltage.
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Experiment No. 2: Measurement of active, reactive and apparent power and

power factor in single phase circuits using Wattmeter
Apparatus:
Power supply (AC)
Inductive load module
Resistive load module
Capacitive load module
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Wattmeter
Connecting safety cables
Theory
Power Factor:
Power factor is the percentage of electricity that is being used to do useful work. It is defined as the ratio
of ‘active or actual power’ used in the circuit measured in watts or kilowatts (W or KW), to the ‘apparent
power’ expressed in volt-amperes or kilo volt-amperes (VA or KVA).
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 (𝑊)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑆 (𝑉𝐴)
The apparent power also referred to as total power delivered by utility company has two components. 1)
‘Productive Power’ that powers the equipment and performs the useful work. It is measured in KW
(kilowatts) 2) ‘Reactive Power’ that generates magnetic fields to produce flux necessary for the operation
of induction devices (AC motors, transformer, inductive furnaces, ovens etc.). It is measured in KVAR
(kilovolt-Ampere-Reactance).
Reactive Power produces no productive work. An inductive motor with power applied and no load on its
shaft should draw almost nil productive power, since no output work is being accomplished until a load is
applied. The current associated with no-load motor readings is almost entirely "Reactive" Power. As a load
is applied to the shaft of the motor, the "Reactive" Power requirement will change only a small amount.
The ‘Productive Power’ is the power that is transferred from electrical energy to some other form of
energy (i.e. such as heat energy or mechanical energy). The apparent power is always in always in excess
of the productive power for inductive loads and is dependent on the type of machine in use. The working
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power (KW) and reactive power (KVAR) together make up apparent power, which is measured in kilovolt-
amperes (KVA). Graphically it can be represented as:
Figure 1: power triangle

Wattmeter:
Figure 2, shows the wattmeter connected in a single phase circuit. The current coil carries the load current
and the voltage coil carries the current proportional to and in phase with the voltage. The deflection of
wattmeter measures the average power.
Figure 2: single phase wattmeter

Real power measured by the wattmeter,
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Reactive power,
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
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Make the connections according to the following circuit on the available single phase trainer,
Vin (AC)
220VAC
P.C C.C
Step down TF
Observations:
Make the following observations from the wattmeter readings, and calculate the power factor from the
given formula.
Sr Load Real power, Reactive power, Q Apparent power, S PF=cos(ѳ) =
No. P(Watts) (VAr) (VA) P/S
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Notes:
Justify the power factors calculated in your readings.
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power factor in single phase circuits using 3-voltmeter method
Apparatus:
Power supply (AC)
Voltmeter
Theory:
We know that Wattmeters are used for measurement of power in inductance AC circuits, but in some
cases it is not possible to use wattmeters because of their incorrect readings or sometime wattmaters
may not available. So in such cases three voltmeters or three ammeter method is used for measurement
of power.
The three voltmeter is used in an inductive circuit to measure the value of the power factor. As seen on
Figure 1, one voltmeter is used to measure the voltage of the circuit (Vs), the second one measures the
voltage on the non-inductive resistance (VR) that is connected in the series with the load branch and the
third voltmeter is used to measure the voltage of the load (VL).
The power (P) consumed by the load can be determined as the product of the voltage and current of the
load (V3,I3) and the cosine of the phase angle between these two (the power factor).
The vector sum of VR and VL is, VS and since R is a pure resistor, the current I is perfectly in phase with
voltage VR, as summarized in the phasor diagram below:
Figure 1: Phasor diagram

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𝑃 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ѳ
𝑉𝑆 2 + 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2
𝑃=
2𝑅
Using the law of cosines, the power factor (cos ѳ) can be calculated.
(𝑉𝑆 2 − 𝑉𝑅2 − 𝑉𝐿2 )
cos ѳ =
(2 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝐿)
For optimal accuracy, the non-inductive resistance should be large enough so that the voltmeter (or
multimeter) can measure it with satisfactory accuracy, but not too large, otherwise the voltage available
to the load would be too small. Ideally, it should be close or equal to load impedance.
Figure 2: three voltmeter method

Where,
V1=Vsupply, V2= Voltage dropped across R, VR, V3= voltage dropped across inductive load, VL
Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.
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Observations:
Sr Series VS VR VL P cosѳ
No. Resistance
Notes:
Derive the equations for P and Power factor.
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power factor in single phase circuits using 3-ammeters method
Apparatus:
Power supply (AC)
Ammeter
Theory:
The three ammeter is also used in an inductive circuit to measure the value of the power factor,
independent of source frequency and waveforms. In this method, as seen on Figure 1, across the inductive
circuit load in which the power factor is to be determined, a non-inductive resistance is connected parallel
with the load branch. One ammeter is used to measure total current of the circuit, the second one
measures current going through the noninductive resistance and the third ammeter measures the current
of the load branch.
Current through the resistive branch (IR) is in phase with source voltage while the current of the load (It)
has its own phase, which will affect the power factor (cos ѳ). Total current (IS) is a vector sum of the other
two currents. Using the law of cosines, the power factor can be calculated.
(𝐼𝑆 2 − 𝐼𝑅 2 − 𝐼𝐿2 )
cos ѳ =
(2 𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝐿)
Simplifying, we get,
𝑅(𝐼𝑆 2 − 𝐼𝑅 2 − 𝐼𝐿2 )
𝑃=
2
Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1,
Where,
A1= ISupply, A2= current flowing through resistance R, A3= current flowing through R-L load.
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Figure1: Three ammeter method

Observations:
Sr. Parallel Resistance Load IS IR IL P cosѳ
No.
R||R L
R-R L
R L||L
R||R L||L
Notes:
Derive the equations for P and power factor.
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Experiment No. 05: Testing of single phase energy meter with the help of
wattmeter
Apparatus:
Single phase Power supply (AC)
Single phase energy meter
Voltmeter
Stop watch
Load
Theory:
An energy meter is an instrument used to measure electrical energy. It keeps a record of the total energy
consumed in a circuit during a particular period. It is an integrating type of instrument. Calibration involves
comparing the energy measured by an energy meter with a standard instrument. The standard chosen
here is a wattmeter. Since the wattmeter measures only the power, it has to be multiplied with time to
get the energy reading. The readings are then compared to find the error in the energy meter. Calibration
can be done either by direct loading or phantom loading. In direct loading both the current and pressure
coils are fed from the same supply at rated voltage. Energy meters of high rating when tested by direct
loading would involve large amount of power. Such meters are thus tested using phantom loading,
wherein the pressure coil is supplied from rated supply and current coil circuit from a separate low voltage
supply.
For testing of the energy meter, we are using 2 tests:
1. Speed test
2. Dial test
Speed Test:
In this a predetermined load is connected with the energy meter through a wattmeter as shown in fig 1.
The time is noted for given number of revolutions and energy shown by the meter is calculated by:
𝐾𝑤ℎ
𝐸1 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣 ∗
𝑟𝑒𝑣
Actual energy is calculated by,
𝐸2 = 𝑊 ∗ 𝑡/3600
Where, W is power shown by wattmeter and ‘t’ is time in seconds need to complete the given rev.
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Figure 1: energy meter

Percentage error is calculated by using the formula:
𝐸1 − 𝐸2
∗ 100
𝐸1
Dial Test:
In dial test we check either the dial of energy meter records the energy accurately or not. A predetermined
load is connected to the energy meter through wattmeter. The initial dial reading is noted and meter is
allowed to run for atleast ½ hour. After ½ hour dial final reading is obtained. The difference of dial readings
gives energy recorded by the meter i.e.,
𝐸1 = 𝑊 ∗ 𝑡/60
Where, t is in minutes.
Procedure:
i. Construct the circuit as shown in figure 2.
ii. Switch the input supply
iii. Count the time for 10 revolutions of disc with the help of stop watch.
iv. Calculate the percentage given by formula.
v. For dial test allow the meter to run atleast ½ hour and note down the initial and final dial
recordings.
vi. Calculate the consumed energy recorded by meter.
vii. Compare it with actual energy.
viii. Calculate the percentage error.
Figure 2 shows the connections of the energy meter with the wattmeter.
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Vin (AC)
220V
AC C.C
P.C
Step down TF
Figure 2: Connections for energy meter testing

Observations & Calculations
Speed Test
Sr. No Power Time for 10 Rev E1=No. of E2=W*t/3600 %age error,
rev/Kwh/rev (E2-
E1)/E1*100
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Dial Test
Sr. Initial reading Final reading E1 E2
No
Notes:
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Experiment No. 06: Implementation of DC Voltmeter using Galvanometer
Objective
To design and construct a DC Voltmeter from a normal galvanometer and then analyze the loading effect
of connecting a voltmeter on a simple circuit.
Apparatus
- Digital Multi Meter

- DC Power Supply
- Bread Board
- Galvanometer
- Connecting Wires
- Resistors: as needed
1. Introduction
Galvanometer is an instrument used to indicate the presence, direction, or strength of a small electric
current. The typical galvanometer is a sensitive laboratory instrument used mainly to detect and compare
currents. It is used for DC measurements and is one of the earliest measuring instrument mechanisms.
1.1 Specifications of a Galvanometer
Galvanometers are specified with certain full scale deflection Ifsd (e.g. 1mA) and internal resistance Rg (e.g.
100Ω).
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1.2 Galvanometer as a Voltmeter
Galvanometers can be turned into voltmeters if they are connected with a suitably high series resistance.
The purpose of the series resistance is to limit the current through the meter and extend the range to
measure voltage.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑔 )
𝑉
𝑅𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
1.3 Galvanometer as a Multi range Voltmeter
The addition of a number of multipliers, together with a range switch, provides the instrument with a
workable number of voltage ranges. For a four-range voltmeter, we find the resistances as:
𝑉4
𝑅4 = − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑉3
𝑅3 = − 𝑅4 − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑉2
𝑅2 = − 𝑅4 − 𝑅3 − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑉1
𝑅1 = − 𝑅4 − 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
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1.4 Loading Effect
Each voltmeter has a certain input impedance. When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a
circuit component, the voltmeter circuit itself is in parallel with the circuit component. Total resistance
will decrease, so the voltage across component will also decrease. This is called voltmeter loading. The
resulting error is called a loading error. The voltmeter loading can be reduced by using a high sensitivity
voltmeter.
2. Procedure
i. First of all, find the parameters of galvanometer. Use DMM to find Rg and then connect the
galvanometer in series with a potentiometer and power supply. Change the value of
potentiometer (or the input supply) slowly until you get full deflection on the galvanometer.
Measure the input voltage and potentiometer resistance and put in the following equation to
find Ifsd.
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 =
𝑅𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑅𝑔
ii. For the ranges of 10V, 20V, 50V and 100V for given galvanometer, calculate and note down
multiplier resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4. Remember as the value of multiplier resistor increases,
less current flows through the galvanometer and therefore the range is increased.
iii. Using the closest values of the resistor, construct the voltmeter.
iv. Generate test voltages at about 80% of the ranges using suitable supply.
v. Take the readings using the constructed voltmeter and then with DMM for comparison.
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vi. Construct the above circuit. Take those values of R1 and R2 that are comparable to the
multiplier resistances. First measure using the DMM (which has higher input impedance) and
then measure using the constructed voltmeter. Record the values in the table.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑) − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑)

%𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∗ 100
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑)
3. Observations
Input Data
1. Vin
2. R1
3. R2
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Test Data
Sr No. Range – 4 Range - 3 Range - 2 Range – 1
1. V (Range)
2. V (Applied)
3. V (Read)
Output Data
Sr. No. Parameter Equation
1. Vout
2. Vout – Loaded
3. %age Error
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Load – Voltmeter
Sr No. Parameter Unloaded Load - DMM
(constructed)
1. Vout (Calc)
2. Vout (Read)
3. %age Error
Assignment
1. Design a voltmeter circuit having range of 0-18 V using galvanometer whose coil has a resistance
of 10 Ω and it shows full-scale deflection at a current of 3 mA.
2. With a coil resistance of 33 Ω and full-scale deflection current of 3 mA, what is the maximum
voltage that can be measured using this voltmeter?
Notes:
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Experiment No. 07: Implementation of DC Ammeter using Galvanometer
1. Objective
To design and construct a DC Ammeter and an Ohmmeter from a galvanometer. Design an ammeter
circuit having 1000xIfsd using galvanometer. Calculate is shunt resistance.
2. Apparatus Required
1. DMM
2. DC Power Supply
3. Bread Board
4. Galvanometer
5. Wires
6. Resistors: as needed
3. Introduction
Galvanometer is an instrument used to indicate the presence, direction, or strength of a small electric
current. The typical galvanometer is a sensitive laboratory instrument used mainly to detect and compare
currents. It is used for DC measurements and is one of the earliest measuring instrument mechanisms.
3.1 Specifications of a Galvanometer
Galvanometers are specified with certain full scale deflection Ifsd (e.g. 1mA) and internal resistance Rg (e.g.
100Ω).
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3.2 Ammeter
The galvanometer can also be made into an ammeter by placing it in parallel with a small resistance RS,
often called the shunt resistance, as shown in Figure. Since the shunt resistance is small, most of the
current passes through it, allowing an ammeter to measure currents much greater than those producing
a full-scale deflection of the galvanometer.
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ + 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 )𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑔
(𝐼 − 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 )𝑅𝑠 = 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅
(𝐼 − 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 ) 𝑔
3.3 Multi-Range Ammeter
The addition of a number of multipliers, together with a range switch, provides the instrument with a
workable number of voltage ranges. For a four-range voltmeter, we find the resistances as:
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𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅
(𝐼𝑐 − 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 ) 𝑔
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 = (𝑅 + 𝑅𝑐 )
(𝐼𝑏 − 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 ) 𝑔
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑅𝑎 = (𝑅 + 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐 )
(𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 ) 𝑔
5. Observations
Ammeter
Input Data
1. Ifsd
2. Rg
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Design Data
Sr No. Range - c Range - b Range - a
1. I (Range)
2. R (Calc)
3. R (Used)
Test Data
Sr No. Range - c Range - b Range - a
1. I (Range)
2. V (Applied)
3. R (Series)
4. I (Actual)
5. I (Read)
Assignment
Design an ammeter circuit having 1000xIfsd using galvanometer. Calculate is shunt resistance?
Notes:
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Experiment No. 08: Implementation of DC Ohmmeter using Galvanometer
1. Objective
To design and construct a DC Ohmmeter from a galvanometer.
2. Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an instrument used to measure resistance and check the continuity of electrical circuits
and component. This resistance reading is indicated through a meter movement. The ohmmeter must
then have an internal source of voltage to create the necessary current to operate the movement, and
also have appropriate ranging resistors to allow desired current to flow through the movement at any
given resistance. Two types of schemes are used to design an ohmmeter – series type and shunt type. The
series type of ohmmeter is used for measuring relatively high values of resistance, while the shunt type is
used for measuring low values of the resistance.
𝑅2 𝑅𝑔
𝑅ℎ = 𝑅1 +
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑔
𝑉𝑏
𝐼𝑇𝑂𝑇 = 2𝐼ℎ =
𝑅ℎ
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𝑅𝑔
𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝐼𝑇𝑂𝑇 − 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑅2 𝑅𝑔
𝑅1 = 𝑅ℎ −
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑔
4. Procedure
4. First of all, find the parameters of galvanometer. Use DMM to find Rg and then connect the
galvanometer in series with a potentiometer and power supply. Change the value of
potentiometer (or the input supply) slowly until you get full deflection on the galvanometer.
Measure the input voltage and potentiometer resistance and put in the following equation to find
Ifsd.
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 =
𝑅𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑅𝑔
5. For the ranges of 10*IFSD, 50*IFSD and 100*IFSD for given galvanometer, calculate and note down
shunt resistors Ra, Rb and Rc.
6. Using the closest values of the resistor, construct the ammeter.
7. Generate test currents at about 80% of the ranges using suitable supply and resistors.
8. Take the readings using the constructed ammeter and then with DMM for comparison.
9. Using the same galvanometer, now construct the Ohmmeter setting Vb = 2-5V with Rh = 2kΩ.
10. Find the values of R1 and R2 and use the closest commercial values.
11. Take the measurements with the constructed Ohmmeter at 0Ω, Rh and Infinity.
12. Also take values of resistances for which Im = 0.25 Ifsd and 0.75 Ifsd, you’ll observe that the scale of
an ohmmeter is nonlinear.
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4.1 Precautions
1. Always connect ammeter in series with the line to which the current to be measured.
2. Keep in mind the right polarity of the test leads.
3. For an unknown quantity, always select higher range to avoid damage of index of an analog
meter.
5. Observations
Ohmmeter
Input Data
1. Ifsd
2. Rg
3. Rh
4. Vb
Design Data
Sr No. Calculated Measured
1. R1
2. R2
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Test Data
Sr No. Measured Value
1. Rh
2. 0
3. Infinity
4 R (0.5*Ifsd)
5. R (0.25*Ifsd)
6. R (0.75Ifsd)
6. Assignment
Design an ohmmeter using Vb = 10-15V with Rh = 7kΩ.

Sr No. Value of Rh from DMM Measured Value from designed ohmmeter
1.
Notes:
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Experiment No. 9: Measurement of Unknown Resistance using

Wheatstone bridge
Objective
To Measure Resistance using Wheatstone bridge.
Equipment Required
1. Wheatstone bridge
2. Fixed Resistance 10MΩ, 1MΩ, 100KΩ, 10KΩ, 1KΩ, 100Ω & 10Ω
3. Potentiometer 10KΩ
4. Variable DC power supply: 0 - +15v / 500mA
5. 2mm banana patch cords
Bridge Fundamentals
Measurement of unknown electronic passive components like resistance, capacitance and inductance is
possible using various bridge circuits. Bridge in basic form consists of four resistance or impedance arms
in a close loop. Two junctions out of four are connected to DC current or AC source and remaining two
junctions are connected to a null detector (A bridge circuit compares unknown components to standard
known value component) zero reading of null detector indicates bridge balance condition when energized
by DC or AC source. Thus calibration or any other characteristics of null detector device does not affect.
Also it should be appreciated that is a bridge training equipments and not a test and measurement
instrument. Therefore there is no point in specifying range of the instrument/bridge. We base our
readings/observations regarding working of bridge on a typical sample/component. And that is all in the
scope of this trainer.
Measurement accuracy of any bridge circuit:
Measurement accuracy is totally dependent on accuracy of standard components used for comparison in
bridge circuit and their calibration. Different bridge circuits are used to measure resistant, capacitance
and inductance.
A Wheatstone’s bridge is used to measure medium range resistance (few ohms to Mega Ohms), a Kelvin’s
bridge is used to measure resistance of the order of few milliohms to few ohms. Wheatstone bridge is not
capable to measure small resistance because of internal wire and contact resistances.), a Maxwell’s
bridge is used to measure inductance, a Hay’s bridge is modified version of Maxwell’s bridge, and an
Owen’s bridge is used to measure inductance in terms of capacitance. An Anderson’s bridge is used to
measure inductance and its resistance. For capacitance measurements DC Sauty’s bridge, Schering Bridge
can be used.
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For reactive components like capacitance and inductance, bridge are excited with AC signal instead of DC.
NULL DETECTOR should be a device or instruments that can sense small AC signal. Hence null detector
may be head phone, vibration galvanometer, tunable amplifier AC mill voltmeter or a CRO. Head phones
are sensitive to 200 Hz to 4 KHz; vibration galvanometers are used at low frequencies. Tune-able amplifier
may be used in the range of 10Hz to 100 KHz, for higher frequencies AC mill voltmeter or CRO may be
used.
To use CRO, we need DUAL CHANNEL with MONO, ADD, and INVERT facility to determine potential
difference between two opposite arms with a view to achieve balance. You cannot use just one channel
of CRO as detector as usually it shares common ground with that of function generator, therefore shorting
part of bridge. Of course do not forget to keep same volt/cm (attenuator) setting on both channel for ADD
INVERT facility to work correctly, typically 50mV/cm, seek balance condition by observing on the same
range. The balance condition can be defined as minimum voltage below one big division on the selected
range of CRO. You can also use regular stereophony Ear plug (typically available in market for use in market
for use in Walkman/CD based music players) in place of CRO for AC Bridge. As the balance is achieved the
sound intensity will drop. You need to train your ears a few times for habit of using earphone plug.
Balancing of a bridge circuit;
Step I:
Identify 4 impedance one in each arm. This 4-arm impedance construction is called a bridge.
Step II:
Balancing of bridge
a) Observe VIN connections & Vo output terminals.

b) Vo = VA - VB - 0 … (1)
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This is bridge balance condition
Assuming that current drawn by measuring device (CRO in this case) is eligible than
VA = VIN Z2 / (Z1+Z2)
VB= VIN Z4 / (Z3+Z4)
Vo = VA-VB
= VIN [Z2 / (Z1 + Z2) - Z4 / (Z3+Z4)]
Now to achieve bridge balance you need to adjust the values of 4 impedance such that
Z2 / (Z1+Z2) = Z4 / (Z3 +Z4) … (2)
c) Hence adjust /set / select proper values of the impedances to archive above equality.
Step III:
Typically your unit will specify values of 3 arms while the 4th arm will be unknown component. Hence
properly selecting other three arms, you can archive balance and therefore determine the value of the
unknown following above equation no. 2.
Step IV:
For AC bridges you should look for sine wave minimized in amplitude as the zero condition. A true Zero
condition is that whenever one of the settable arm impedance is varied in either direction away from zero
position the Vo output should increase.
This is an important criterion for distinguishing a false zero position from correct bridge or zero position.
Wheatstone’s bridge
A Wheatstone’s bridge is a measuring instrument invented by Samuel Hunter Christie In 1833 and
improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. It is used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown components.
Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer except that in potentiometer circuits the meter used
is a sensitive galvanometer. In other words it is an electrical circuit for the precise comparison of
resistances.
The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical bridge circuit used to measure resistance. It consists of a common
source of electrical current (such as a battery) and a galvanometer that connects two parallel branches,
containing four resistors, three of which are known. One parallel branch contains one known resistance
and an unknown (R4 in the above example); the other parallel branch contains resistors of known
resistance. In order to determine the resistance of the unknown resistor, the resistances of the other
three are adjusted and balanced until the current passing through the galvanometer decreases to zero.
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Fig 1: Wheatstone’s Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is well suited also for the measurement of small changes of a resistance and,
therefore, is also suitable to measure the resistance change in a strain gauge. It is commonly known that
the strain gauge transforms strain applied to it into a proportional change of resistance. It is widely used
across industry even today.
Fig 2: Basic Wheatstone’s bridge
A basic Wheatstone bridge circuit contains four resistances, a constant voltage input, and a voltage gage,
as illustrated below.
For a given voltage input Vin the currents flowing through ABC and ADC depend on the resistances, i.e.
Vin = VABC= V ADC
I ABC (R1 + R2) = IADC (R4 +R3)
The voltage drops from A to B and from A to D are given by,

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𝑉𝑖𝑛
VAB = IABC R1= 𝑅1+𝑅2 R1
𝑉𝑖𝑛
VAD = IADC R4 = 𝑅4+𝑅3 R4
The voltage gage reading Vg can then be obtained from,

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Vg= VAB – VAD = 𝑅1+𝑅2 R1 – 𝑅4 +𝑅3 R4
𝑅1𝑅3−𝑅2𝑅4
= Vin
(𝑅1+𝑅2)(𝑅4+𝑅3)
Now suppose that all resistances can change during the measurement. The corresponding change in
voltage reading will be,
(𝑅1+ ∆𝑅1)(𝑅3+ ∆𝑅3)−(𝑅2+ ∆𝑅2)(𝑅4+∆𝑅4)

Vg + ∆ Vg = (𝑅1+ ∆𝑅1+𝑅2+ ∆𝑅2) (𝑅4+ ∆𝑅4+𝑅3+ ∆𝑅3)
Vin
Balanced Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
If the bridge is initially balanced, the initial voltage reading Vg should be zero. This yields the following
relationship between the four resistances.
𝑅1𝑅3−𝑅2𝑅4
Vg = Vin =0
(𝑅1+𝑅2)(𝑅4+𝑅3)
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑙
R1R3 =R2R4 or = =
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑟
We can use this result to simplify the previous equation that includes the changes in the resistances.
Doing so results in the solution for the change in Vg,
𝑟 ∆𝑅1 ∆𝑅2 ∆𝑅3 ∆𝑅4

∆Vg = (l+𝑟)2 [ 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
+ 𝑅3
− 𝑅4 ](1 + 𝜂) Vin
Where 𝜂 is defined by,

1
𝜂= 1+𝑟
1+∆𝑅1 ∆𝑅4 ∆𝑅2 ∆𝑅3
+ +⥾ [ + ]
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅2 𝑅3
Moreover, when the resistance changes are small (< 5 %), the second order term h is approximately zero
and can be ignored. We then have,
𝑟 ∆𝑅1 ∆𝑅2 ∆𝑅3 ∆𝑅4

∆Vg ≈ (1+𝑟)2 [ 𝑅1
− 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 − 𝑅4 ] Vin
Which is the basic equation governing the Wheatstone bridge voltage in strain measurement. The
𝑟
coefficient (l+r)2
is called the circuit efficiency.
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Equal –Resistance Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
In practice, one often uses the same resistance value for all four resistors, R1=R2=R3=R4=R. Noting that
r=1 in this case, the change in voltage can be further simplified to,
∆𝑅1− ∆𝑅2+∆𝑅3− ∆𝑅4
∆Vg ≈ 4𝑅
Vin
By thoughtfully selecting the target and reference resistances, the Wheatstone bridge circuit can amplify
small changes in resistance and /or compensate for changes in temperature.
Experiment
The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit for the precise comparison of resistances. This bridge is an
accurate & popular method for resistance measurement.
Wheatstone bridge is four resistance (R1, R2, R3, and R4) arms close circuit. Bridge is applied with a DC
source between two opposite junctions i.e. between junction A & B & a detector is connected between
other junctions C & D . Detector can be either a moving coil meter or center zero galvanometer or even a
CRO.
Bridge balance equation is as follows:
I1R1=I2R2
For Zero Detector, Current following conditions should be satisfied.
I1=I3=E/(R1 +R3)
I2=I4=E/(R2 + R4)
hus, R4 can be calculated as
R4=R2R3/R1
In practice, Wheatstone’s bridge uses at least one resistance which can be variable so that it will permit
balancing. Unknown resistance (resistance to be measured) is normally connected in place of R4.
Procedure
NOTE: R1 + R3 = PT1, R2 = PT2
1. Construct the Wheatstone bridge shown in figure 2. Use resistor values R1 = 1 kΩ , R2 = 10 kΩ ,

and R3 = 10 kΩ Use a decade resistance box for R4 and a DC power supply adjusted to 5 volts.
2. Measure the value of an "unknown" resistance supplied 1 kΩ ≤ Rx ≤ 10 kΩ .
3. In adjusting Rb using the decade resistance box, start with the coarsest scale and work toward the
finest scale, while monitoring v12 with the DMM.
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4. Calculate the unknown resistance.
5. Next, perform one (or both, if time permits) of the following exercises (your choice):
6. Measure the resistance of a photo-resistor under various lighting conditions.
7. Measure the resistance of ten different 1 kΩ resistors and plot their values in terms of percent deviation
from the nominal value.
8. Now select resistance R2 by selecting PT2 to get minimum reading on meter connected as detector
meter. (This is the balance condition of the bridge)
9. To calculate value of Rx read the value of R3 from dial potentiometer and calculate value of
R1 = 10KΩ - R3
10. Now Calculate
Rx = (R2xR3) / R1
Where, R2 so selected resistance through selector switch.
11. Confirm the calculated value of unknown resistance by measuring on multi meter available in
laboratory.
Conclusion & Observation
Value of unknown resistance measured & calculated using Wheatstone’s bridge matches with the reading
obtained by using the multi-meter.
Type(Value set) % error

Rx. R4/Rx (Measured -
No. Vs R1 R2 R3
(measured) Calculated calculated)/me
PT1 PT2 PT1 asured
1
5
Notes:
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Experiment No. 10: Measurement of Unknown Inductance using

Maxwell bridge
Objective
To Measure Inductance using Maxwell’s bridge.
Equipment Required
1. Potentiometer of 1KΩ
2. 10K Ω potentiometer is a helical 10 turn pot mounted with dial for easy measurement
3. Fixed Resistance 100KΩ,10KΩ,1KΩ,100Ω & 10Ω available through selector Switch
4. Fixed Capacitance of 100µf , 10µf, 1µf, 100kpf, 10kpf, 1kpf & 100pf through selector Switch
Bridge Fundamentals
Measurement of unknown electronic passive components like resistance, capacitance and inductance is
possible using various bridge circuits. Bridge in basic form consists of four resistance or impedance arms
in a close loop. Two junctions out of four are connected to DC current or AC source and remaining two
junctions are connected to a null detector (A bridge circuit compares unknown components to standard
known value component) zero reading of null detector indicates bridge balance condition when energized
by DC or AC source. Thus calibration or any other characteristics of null detector device does not affect.
Also it should be appreciated that is a bridge training equipments and not a test and measurement
instrument. Therefore there is no point in specifying range of the instrument/bridge. We base our
readings/observations regarding working of bridge on a typical sample/component. And that is all in the
scope of this trainer.
Measurement accuracy of any bridge circuit:
Measurement accuracy is totally dependent on accuracy of standard components used for comparison in
bridge circuit and their calibration. Different bridge circuits are used to measure resistant, capacitance and
inductance.
A Wheatstone’s bridge is used to measure medium range resistance (few ohms to Mega Ohms), a Kelvin’s
bridge is used to measure resistance of the order of few milliohms to few ohms. Wheatstone bridge is not
capable to measure small resistance because of internal wire and contact resistances.), a Maxwell’s bridge
is used to measure inductance, a Hay’s bridge is modified version of Maxwell’s bridge, and an Owen’s
bridge is used to measure inductance in terms of capacitance. An Anderson’s bridge is used to measure
inductance and its resistance. For capacitance measurements DC Sauty’s bridge, Schering Bridge can be
used.
For reactive components like capacitance and inductance, bridge are excited with AC signal instead of DC.
NULL DETECTOR should be a device or instruments that can sense small AC signal. Hence null detector
WAH CAMPUS
may be head phone, vibration galvanometer, tunable amplifier AC mill voltmeter or a CRO. Head phones
are sensitive to 200 Hz to 4 KHz; vibration galvanometers are used at low frequencies. Tune-able amplifier
may be used in the range of 10Hz to 100 KHz, for higher frequencies AC mill voltmeter or CRO may be
used.
To use CRO, we need DUAL CHANNEL with MONO, ADD, and INVERT facility to determine potential
difference between two opposite arms with a view to achieve balance. You cannot use just one channel of
CRO as detector as usually it shares common ground with that of function generator, therefore shorting part
of bridge. Of course do not forget to keep same volt/cm (attenuator) setting on both channel for ADD
INVERT facility to work correctly, typically 50mV/cm, seek balance condition by observing on the same
range. The balance condition can be defined as minimum voltage below one big division on the selected
range of CRO. You can also use regular stereophony Ear plug (typically available in market for use in
market for use in Walkman/CD based music players) in place of CRO for AC Bridge. As the balance is
achieved the sound intensity will drop. You need to train your ears a few times for habit of using earphone
plug.
Balancing of a bridge circuit;
Step I:
Identify 4 impedance one in each arm. This 4-arm impedance construction is called a bridge.
Step II:
Balancing of bridge
c) Observe VIN connections & Vo output terminals.

d) Vo = VA - VB - 0 … (1)
This is bridge balance condition

Assuming that current drawn by measuring device (CRO in this case) is eligible than
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VA = VIN Z2 / (Z1+Z2)
VB= VIN Z4 / (Z3+Z4)
Vo = VA-VB
= VIN [Z2 / (Z1 + Z2) - Z4 / (Z3+Z4)]
Now to achieve bridge balance you need to adjust the values of 4 impedance such that
Z2 / (Z1+Z2) = Z4 / (Z3 +Z4) … (2)
c) Hence adjust /set / select proper values of the impedances to archive above equality.
Step III:
Typically your unit will specify values of 3 arms while the 4 th arm will be unknown component. Hence
properly selecting other three arms, you can archive balance and therefore determine the value of the
unknown following above equation no. 2.
Step IV:
For AC bridges you should look for sine wave minimized in amplitude as the zero condition. A true Zero
condition is that whenever one of the settable arm impedance is varied in either direction away from zero
position the Vo output should increase.
This is an important criterion for distinguishing a false zero position from correct bridge or zero position.
Maxwell’s Bridge
This ingenious bridge circuit is known as the Maxwell-Wien bridge (sometimes known plainly as the
Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated resistance and
capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of similar
precision, and so the use of a simple “symmetrical” inductance bridge is not always practical. Because the
phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each other, capacitive impedance can balance
out inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge, as in Maxwell Bridge.
Another advantage of using a Maxwell Bridge to measure inductance rather than a symmetrical inductance
bridge is the elimination of measurement error that occurs due to mutual inductance between two inductors
as is the case in symmetrical inductance bridge. Magnetic fields can be difficult to shield, and even a small
amount of coupling between coils in a bridge can introduce substantial errors in certain conditions. With
no second inductor to react with in the Maxwell Bridge, this problem is eliminated.
Unlike the plain Wien Bridge, the balance of the Maxwell- Wien Bridge is independent of source frequency,
and in some cases this bridge can be made to balance in presence of mixed frequencies from the AC voltage
source, the limiting factor being the inductor’s stability over a wide frequency range.
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With reference to the figure 2, in a typical application R1 and R4 are known fixed entities, and R2 and C2 is
known variable entities. R2 and C2 are adjusted until the bridge is balanced.
R3 and L3 can then be calculated based on the values of the other components:
𝑅1.𝑅4
R3 =
𝑅2
L3= R1.R4.C2
To avoid the difficulties associated with determining the precise value of a variable capacitance, sometimes
a fixed-value capacitor will be installed and more than one resistor will be made variable.
The additional complexity of using a Maxwell bridge over simpler bridge types is warranted in
circumstances where either the mutual inductance between the load and the known bridge entities. Or stray
electromagnetic interference, distorts the measurement results. The capacitive reactance in the bridge will
exactly oppose the inductive reactance of the load when the bridge is balanced, allowing the load’s
resistance and reactance to be reliably determined.
Theory:
Maxwell Bridge is used to measure unknown inductance (in Henrys) in terms of a known capacitor. Bridge
Balance equation is
Z1Zx = Z2Z3
Where,
Z2 = R2
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Z3 = R3
Zx = Rx + Lx
= Rx +jω Lx,
Z1 = R1 in parallel with C1
Hence, admittance Y1 = 1/Z1

Therefore, Y1 = (1/R1) +jω C1
Hence unknown inductance is calculated by
Lx = C1R2R3
Rx = R2R3/R1
Q = ωC1R1
Maxwell’s bridge is used for coil/inductance of Q values within 1-10. Measurements are independent of
AC source frequency. This is typically used to measure primary inductance of power transformer. Typically
it will have inductance value of 5 to 25 Henrys depending on VA rating.
Fixed capacitor may cause difficulties in reactance balancing. Hence variable capacitor may be used instead
of R2 & R3 (variable). The bridge can measure inductance in the range 1- 1000H.
Procedure:
a) C1= CT1, R1 = PT2, R2 = PT3 & R3= PT1

b) Function Generator is connected to the Maxwell’s Bridge i.e. SINE output of 1 KHz / 3Vp-p is
supplied to M1 and GND to M10 internally.
1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit

2. Connect Unknown External Inductance (Lx), whose value is to be determined, between M12 &
M13 posts of the Bridge. As the measuring range of this bridge is 1-1000 H you are required to
measure inductance greater than 1H (e.g. transformer primary)
3. Connect dual trace CRO as detector with CH1 to M7 and M14 to Ch2 of CRO.
4. Now select R2 for easy measurement of VLx (Voltage between M12 & M13)
5. Set CRO in Mono Add invert mode (CHII inverted)you will get display of difference signal
between VLx & VR3 (voltage between M8 & M9)
Note: Typically keep both channels of CRO at 50mV/cm 1K and observe balance conditions on same
range
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6. Coarse Adjustment: Select R2 and C1 to get minimum signal on CRO.
7. Now fine adjust R3 to get minimum amplitude signal on CRO
8. This is the balance condition of bridge.
9. Note down the value of R1, R2 R3 & C1 .(values of C1 ,R1 ,R2 & R3 can be read from dials)
Lx = C1R2R3
Rx = R2R3/R1
10. You may confirm value of Lx on digital LCR meter available in laboratory. Repeat the above
procedure for different inductances.
Observations:
V/Cm Type(Value set) Calculated % error

No. Lx. Vs
CRO R1 R2 R3 R4 C1 C2
Notes:
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Experiment No. 11: IC Temperature Sensor (LM 35)
Objective: Characteristics of IC Temperature Sensor (LM 35)

Equipment Required:
1. Temperature Transducer Trainer IT-5929 with power supply cord
2. 2mm connecting leads
3. Digital Multi Meter
4. Stopwatch
Connection diagram:
Figure
Theory
IC Temperature Sensor
This is an integrated circuit containing 16 transistors, 9 resistors and 2 capacitors contained in a
transistor type package.
The device reference number is LM35 and it provides an output voltage of 10mV/°C.
Measurements of the output voltage therefore indicate the temperature directly in degrees
Centigrade (°C). For example, at a temperature of 20 degrees Centigrade the output voltage will
be 200mV.
The circuit arrangement provided with IC temperature sensor on IT-5929 unit is shown in figure
1.1.
The output from external LM35 can be used as an indication of the ambient temperature outside
the heated enclosure, and that from the INT. socket in fig 1.2, indicates the temperature within
the heated enclosure.
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Procedure:
1. Connect just the digital multi-meter as voltmeter between O/P socket of IC temperature
sensor. See Figure 1.2.
2. Switch ‘On’ the Power Supply and note the output voltage, this (X100) representing the
ambient temperature in K. (Record the value in table below).
3. Connect +12 supplies to the heater input socket and take the voltage reading every minute.
Note : °C = (°K - 273.)
4. Switch ‘Off’ Power Supply and disconnect heater element supply (+12V). This exercise
illustrates the characteristics of the LM 35 transducer, indicates the maximum temperature rise
possible using the heater supplied at +12V, and also gives you an idea of the time scale required
for the unit to reach stable condition.
This experiment illustrates the characteristics of the LM35 transducer, indicates the maximum
temperature rise possible using the heater supplied at 12V, and also gives you an idea of time
scale required for the unit to reach stable conditions.
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Observation Table:
Table 1.1
Temperature vs Voltage relationship
Notes:
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Experiment No. 12: Temperature Sensor Platinum RTD resistance

transducer
Objective: Study and verify Characteristics of Platinum RTD
Equipment Required:
1. Temperature Transducer Trainer IT-5929 with power supply cord
4. Stopwatch
Theory:
The platinum RTD (resistance temperature dependent) transducer
The construction of platinum RTD transducer is shown in figure, 2.1, consisting of a thin film of
platinum deposited on a ceramic substrate and having gold contact plates at each end that make
contact with the film.
The platinum film is trimmed with a laser beam to cut a spiral for a resistance of 100Ω at 0°C.
The resistance of the film increases as the temperature increases. It has a positive temperature
coefficient (p.t.c).
The increase in temperature is linear, the relationship between resistance change and
temperature rise being 0.385Ω/°C.
Where,
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 + 0.385 ∗ 𝑡
Rt= resistance at temperature t°C
R0= resistance at 0°C (= 100Ω)
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Normally the unit would be connected to a DC supply via a series resistor and the voltage
developed across the transducer is measured. The current flow through the transducer will then
cause some self heating, the temperature rise due to this being of the order of 0.005°C/mW
dissipated in the transducer.
The very simple electrical circuit arrangement of the IT-5929 unit is shown in fig 2.2.
The white dot signifies that this is p.t.c., not n.t.c.,(negative temp. coefficient.) type of resistor
which would have black dot.
In the practical exercise you will connect the platinum RTD in series with the high resistance to a
DC supply and measure the voltage drop across it. Due to the small variation of resistance, the
current change will be negligible and the voltage drop across the transducer will be directly
proportional to its resistance.
Experimental Setup:
Refer to the following diagram to configure the setup for this experiment figure 2.3.
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Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.3.
a. The Socket 'C' of Slide Potentiometer to +5V.
b. The Socket B of Slide Potentiometer to output of Platinum RTD.
c. Connect digital multi-meter as voltmeter on 200 mV or 2V DC range in between
output of Platinum RTD & ground.
2. Set the 10K slider resistance midway.
3. Switch ‘on’ the instrument, check the output of IC temperature sensor for ambient
temperature by temporarily connecting DMM on 20V DC range (refer to chart given at the
end of experiment 1) and find out the resistance in ohms for this particular temperature.
4. Say for example ambient is 20°C then platinum RTD reading as per chart (see in
5. the end of Experiment. 2) is 108.
6. Switch ‘On’ Power Supply adjust the slider control of the 10K Ohm resistance to the voltage
drop across the platinum RTD is 108 mV (0.108V) as indicated by digital multi-meter. This
calibrates the platinum RTD for an ambient temperature of 20°C since the resistance at 20°C
will be 108 ohms. Note that the voltage reading across the RTD in mV is the same as the RTD
resistance in ohms, since current flowing must be 0.108/108 = 1 mA
7. Connect the +12V supply to Heater Element input and note the values of the voltage across
the RTD with the voltmeter to its 200mV or 2V range, (this representing the RTD resistance)
and the output voltage from the IC temperature sensor with the voltmeter set to its 20V
range (this representing the temperature of the RTD) after each minute given in below table.
8. Switch ‘Off’ the Power Supply and disconnect Heater element supply (+12)
9. Convert RTD temperature into °C & add in above table.
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10. Plot the graph of RTD resistance in ohms against temperature in °C. It should resemble the
one given below in the resistance vs temperature table.
Observations:
RTD temperature °C
Notes:
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Experiment No. 13: Air Pressure Transducer

Objective: Study and verify Characteristics of an air pressure transducer
Equipment Required:
1. Air Pressure Transducer Trainer IT-5929 with power supply cord
Theory:
Air Pressure Transducer:
Fig. 2.1, shows the electric circuit arrangement of the IT-5929 pressure unit. The device consists
of an outer plastic case which is open to atmosphere via single port. Within this case is an inner
container from which the all- air pressure has been evacuated and a strain guage wheatstone
bridge circuit is fixed on the surface.
The all-pressure in the outer container will produce an output from the bridge and variation of
the pressure will produce a variation of this output.
The transducer output can be calibrated and may be called an absolute pressure transducer.
Experimental setup:
Refer to the following diagram to configure setup for the experiment.
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Procedure:
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Observations:
Input voltage of the Pump Output Voltage of the Amplifier #1

3V
4V
5V
6V
Notes:
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COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD (CUI),

01 Measurement of errors and data statistics analysis.

05 Testing of single phase Energy meter with the help of wattmeter.

07 Implementation of DC voltmeter using galvanometer.

08 Implementation of DC ammeter using galvanometer.

09 Implementation of DC ohmmeter using galvanometer.

10 Measurement of unknown resistance using wheat-stone bridge.

11 Measurement of unknown inductance using Maxwell bridge.

13 IC Temperature Sensor LM35

14 Temperature Sensor Platinum RTD resistance transducer

15 Air Pressure Transducer

16 FINAL LAB ASSESSMENT

Experiment 1: Measurement of Errors and Data Statistics Analysis

Figure 1. Analog Voltmeter & Digital Ammeter.

Figure 2. Ammeter Circuit Connection.

Figure 3. Analog Voltmeter & Digital Voltmeter.

Figure 4. Voltmeter Circuit Connection.

Electric power is measured by means of a wattmeter. This instrument is of the electrodynamics

Figure 5. Analog Wattmeter & Digital Wattmeter.

Figure 6. Wattmeter Circuit Connection.

Figure 7. A Kilo-Watt Hour Meter.

1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Figure 9. A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope & A Digital Storage Oscilloscope

7. Digital Multimeter (DMM):

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic

Figure 10. A Digital Multimeter.

3.1 Absolute and relative error

3.2 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, Tolerance and Significant Figures

|𝑑1 | + |𝑑2 | + |𝑑3 | + ⋯ + | 𝑑𝑛 |

c) Standard Deviation and Probable error

𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + 𝑑32 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑛2

𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 0.6745 𝜎

Sr No. Parameter Nominal Value Measured Value

Sr No. Parameter Equation Value

Sr No. Measured Value Deviation

1. Vout – R1(a), R2(a)

2. Vout – R1(a), R2(b)

3. Vout – R1(a), R2(c)

4. Vout – R1(a), R2(d)

5. Vout – R1(a), R2(e)

6. Vout – R1(b), R2(a)

7. Vout – R1(b), R2(b)

8. Vout – R1(b), R2(c)

9. Vout – R1(b), R2(d)

10. Vout – R1(b), R2(e)

11. Vout – R1(c), R2(a)

12. Vout – R1(c), R2(b)

13. Vout – R1(c), R2(c)

14. Vout – R1(c), R2(d)

15. Vout – R1(c), R2(e)

16. Vout – R1(d), R2(a)

17. Vout – R1(d), R2(b)

18. Vout – R1(d), R2(c)

19. Vout – R1(d), R2(d)

20. Vout – R1(d), R2(e)

21. Vout – R1(e), R2(a)

22. Vout – R1(e), R2(b)

23. Vout – R1(e), R2(c)

24. Vout – R1(e), R2(d)

25. Vout – R1(e), R2(e)

Sr No. Parameter Value

Experiment No. 2: Measurement of active, reactive and apparent power and

Figure 1: power triangle