of Physics Handbook.

A member of the Ameri·

·, Arr1erica~ Association of Physics Teachers,
. Sigma Xi, Si·gma Pi Sigma, and Pi Mu Epsilon,
.articlesto The Physical Review, Reviews of
. . the American Journ~l of Physics.

. ,.,.
Contents

Preface v
Introduction
2 The Origin of the Quantum Concept 4
3 Transmutation of Elements 23
4 The Existence of Atoms 37
5 The Atomic l\ucleus 55
6 Collisions of Electrons with Atoms 69
7 The Photoelectric Effect 76
8 Spatial Orientation of Atomic Magnets 88
9 Particle Properties of Light 97
10 "Vave Properties of Matter 105
Appendix A 135
Appendix B 137
Index 139

ix
1 Introduction

To the student of today, the term "modern" may seem a strange

one to apply to a group of experiments most of which were per-
formed before 1930. Nevertheless, this term, inadequate as it is,
has become the one conventionally used to designate one of the
two major historical divisions of physics. The "classical" period,
which began with Galileo and Newton and ended about 1900,
had seen the development of dynamics into an almost closed
branch of physics that served as an ideal for the other branches;
had seen, in little more than a single century's time, electromag-
netism grow from a set of parlor tricks to an elegant theoretical
structure that encompassed most of optics as well; and had seen
a similar transformation of the empirical arts of working with
heat into the science of thermodynamics. In sum, by the end of
the nineteenth century the physicist had a reasonably consistent
and coherent, and fairly complete, understanding of the facts
of the physical universe as he knew them. To be sure, there were
some flaws and gaps; but there seemed to be little reason to doubt
that these would be remedied by measuring "the next place of
decimals." 1
This confidence proYed to be misplaced. Beginning about 1895,
experimental research more and more produced findings which
were completely out of accord with the classical ideas. In some
cases only a fairly easy readjustment was enough. In others, a
radical alteration of ideas was necessary, and the situation can-
not be regarded as completely settled even today. The experi-
mental evidence actually, of course, consists of many individual
pieces, forming a structure much of whose strength arises from the
 2 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
interconnecting relations among the pieces. But it is possible,
for many of the most basic points, to single out individual works
of which it can be said, "This was the decisive result." The ex-
periments to be treated in the following chapters are of this sort.
In order to appreciate fully their significance and impact, we
must f1rst note some characteristic features of classical physics.
In the first place, its concepts had been, without exception, de-
veloped in the range of ordinary experience and extended as
needed . This is not surprising; it is natural human behavior to
. expect that regularities which hold under a fairly wide range of
conditions will continue to hold under all conditions. Thus it
would be futile to send a rocket to Mars carrying equipment with
which to photograph the surface of that pl ane t unless we were
reasonably confident that the equipment, and the rocket itself,
would behave near Mars in accordance with the same laws that
we have discovered on the surface of the earth. Similarly, we
have faith that an automobile designed five years ago in the
light of laws as they were known then will still operate properly
tomorrow .
But such extensions, or extrapolations, can be misleading.
For example, a famous law of. physics, discovered in 1662 by
Robert Boyle, states that the product of the volume of a par-
ticular qu antity of gas and the pressure it exerts on the walls
of its container is constant as long as the temperature remains
unchanged . any increase in one of the two quantities being
exactly compensated by a decrease in the other and vice versa.
lf the temperature is too low, however, or the pressure too high,
the law fails; the gas starts to condense, and there may be a sub-
stantial change of volume with no compensating change of pres-
sure. Such a failure of an extra pol ation is commonly linked with
the existence of laws or phenomena not envisioned in the original
relation sh ip. In our example, the failure of Boyle's law is related
to the fact that gases can condense to form liquids.
The second point of concern to our discussion has to do with
the classical picture of the constitution of matter. An attitude
that harked back to Aristotle admitted only two possibilities:
l\fatter could be continuous, in analogy to gelatin, or it could
have a di screte structure like a pile of rocks. Classical theory
INTRODUCTION 3
had developed according to the first alternative. To be sure, the
atomic hypothesis was well known; but even among chemists,
where its staunchest supporters might be expected to have been
found, there was strong and outspoken opposition. Apart from .
the beginnings of what is now known as kinetic theory, the
atomic concept had little role in classical physics. ·where it did
enter, it was a rudimentary version, with little or no concern
over possible structure to the atom. 2
This, then, is the background against which the work pre-
sented here is to be viewed. Some parts of the work will stand
clearly distinct from the background; others will appear to be
only parts of the background viewed in a new light. The uni-
fying feature of the work is that all the experiments to be de-
scribed deal with phenomena which, either in scale or in subtlety,
are beyond the range of our senses and therefore outside our
ordinary experience. The key to an appreciation of them may be
described, therefore, as a refusal to be restrained by "common
sense" outside of the realm where common sense has been de-
veloped.
FOOTSOTES
1It is ironic that this expression, apparently or iginally due to Lord Kelvin,
was given widesp read circulation through its use in the catalogue of th e Un i-
versity of Chicago by A. A. :O.Iichelson . whose own exper im e ntal work was to
provide th e basis for one of the two great revoluti ons of thought that marked
the first half of the twentieth century in physics.
'T here was little cause for such concern. After all. it was not until 1897 that
the el ec tron was discovercJ introducing the possibility of an internal structure
and subdivi sion of the atomm-the indivisible.:.

2 The Origin of the
Q.uantunz Concept
Two great conceptual structures have characterized the de-
velopment of physics during the first half of the twentieth cen-
tury: relativity and quantum theory. Of the two, the former is
generally regarded as being founded on a nineteenth century
experiment, the Michelson-Morley experiment ; the theory sprang,
so to speak, essentially complete from the mind of Albert Ein-
stein,1 and it will not be further treated in this work.
Quantum theory has a much more involved history, and in fact
most of the experiments trea ted in this book pertain to it. 1t has
come to be thought of primarily as' a theory of the structure of
atoms and aggregates of a toms. It is of considerably broader
significance, however; and it had its origin in an attempt to give
a complete description of the radiation from a small hole in the
wall of a furnace. For reasons that will be explained, such radia-
tion had been the subject of extensive theoretical studies. Some
general properties had been deduced, but the only explicit for-
mula rested on questionable assumptions. This chapter will de-
scribe the first experimental work that was both accurate enough
and extensive enough to test the formula. The formula pro,·ed
inadequ ate; the necessary modifi catio n of it contained a new con-
stant of nature, which became known as the "quantum of action."
In order to discuss these de\'elopments, it is necessary to intro-
duce an idealized object called a black body. It is to be reca ll ed
that when light strikes the surfa ce of an object, two effects occur:
4
THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 5
Some of the light is reflected from the surface, and some passes
through the surface into the body of the object. The latter por-
tion, in turn , undergoes at least one and possibly two further
processes: Some (or all) of it is absorbed; some may reach an-
other surface and pass out, or be tran smitted . \Ve see an object,
unless it is intrinsically luminous, only because it reflects some
light into our eyes. The less light an object reflects, the darker
it appears to be. If an object existed that absorbed all the light
that fell on it, it would reflect none, and would appear perfectly
black. 2 An object of this sort is called an ideal black body. No
such body exists. Nevertheless, it is quite possible-and useful-
to act as though it did, and to determine many of the properties
it would have; this sort of idealization is quite common in science,
and is especially valuable when, as will be seen to be true in the
present case, the ideal situation can be closely approximated
in reality.
Of course, the radiation that is absorbed by a black body carries
energy. The internal energy of the body would be increased and
the temperature of the body would rise indefinitely if there were
no mechanism by which the body di sposed of some energy. There
must be, in fact , a mechanism that is available even to a body
isolated in a vacuum, where conduction and convection are im-
possibl e. It is, simply, that the body radi a tes; in fact, not only a
per unit .. -
black body but any object left to itself in unchanging surround-
ings tends toward a state in which it radiates as much energy
time-as much power-as it absorbs.a
The wavelengths at which energy is radiated range continuously
over the spectrum, including not only the visible but also the
ultraviolet, the infrared, and all other portions. The way in which
the energy is distributed among the various wavelengths changes
with the temperature of the body, 4 as well as being dependent
on the material of the surface of the body. The measure of this
distribution in wa\·elength is called the spectral emittance, desig-
nated by E, and defined as follows : The spectral emittance at
wavelength ..\ is the energy associated with wavelengths around
..\ radiated per unit time, per unit surface area, per unit wave-
length. Thus, E, d..\ dS rlt is the energy in the wavelength range
between ..\ and ..\+d..\ radiated in time dt by an element of sur-
 6 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
face of area dS. The spectral emittance of a blach body, however,
does not depend on the properties of any particular substance,
and so has a sort of universal or absolute character. This is one
reason for interest in a black body. Because of its special impor-
tance, we will denote the spectral emittance of a black body by
a special symbol, e~:~
Let us consider (he steps that made blackbody radiation amen-
able to study. '"'e will consider a ~y-a region of space
bounded by material of any kind. Suppose the .:walls of the cavity
are maintained at a uniform temperature ' T. The cavity will
certainly contain some radiation, because the walls will radiate.
G. R. Kirchhoff, in introducing the concept of a black body in
I 860, proved that the radiation has the following significant
properties: Ri rst, it is isotropic (the same in any direction) and
hon~neous (the same at every point in the cavity), not only
over all but at any specified wavelength. Second, it is identical
with the radiation emitted by a black body, in the sense that the
inadiancy, the energy striking unit area per unit time, is equa l
to the energy emitted by unit area of a black body per unit time;
and this also is true at any wavelength as well as over all. The
isotropy and homogeneity are pro,'ed by establishing that other-
wise it would be possible to produce rer ~notion; thus,
for example, if the radiation were more intense at one point than
another, identical absorbers placed at the two points would
come to different temperatures, and could be used one as source
and the other as sink for a heat engine that would extract work
from the system without producing any other change.
To establish the equivalence between cavity radiation and
blackbody radiation , suppose that a black body at temperature
Tis placed in a cavity whose walls are also at temperature T. The
energy falling on unit area of the black body per unit wavelength
around A per unit time we will denote by R,; by definition of a
black body, it is all absorbed. The energy emitted per unit area
per unit wavelength per unit time is just e~. . These energies must
f&la ~, or else we would have spontaneous transfer of energy
between two objects at the same temperature (the possibility of an
imbalance at one wavelength being canceled by an opposite im-
THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 7
balance at another can be ruled out by arguments involving
auxi liary apparatus such as selective reflectors); in symbols,
R~. = ex.
As we shall see, the possibility of experimental measurement of e~.
rests essentially on this identity. '/
Next, suppose that a nonblack body at temperature Tis placed
in the cavity. The incident power per unit area per unit wave-
length is sti ll R,; but now not all of it is absorbed. The fraction
absorbed at wavelength A is called the absorptance and denoted
by a,; it may depend on the temperature as well as the material
of the surface. The power absorbed per unit area per unit wave-
length around A, then, is a,R,. On the other hand, the power
em itted per unit area per unit wavel ength around A is E,. Again
the two must balance, so that
or
E, / ax = Rx.
By virtue of the earlier result, we have
Ex / ax = ex:
The ratio between spectral emittance and absorptance at a given
wavelength and temperature is independent of the material
involved.
This relationship gives blackbody radiation an added sig-
nificance. 0. Lummer and £. Pringsheim, whose experimental
studies of blackbody radiation are to be described in this chapter,
put it as follows:
If one knows, therefore, th~ radiation of a black body as a funct ion
of temperature, then one thereby knows the laws of r~di ation for all
bod ies whose absorptive power is also given as a function of wavelength
and temperature. Experimentally, the re,·erse process is likely to be
stmpler, to explain the absorption A with the hel p of the knowledge
o f r' by the study of th e radiation of the body.
These considerations had already caused a fair amount of
atte ntion to be devoted to the problem of blackbody radiation
 8 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
by the end of the nineteeth century. Most of the efforts were
empirical deductions from observations on the spectral distri-
butions of radiation from real bodies. In 1896, F. Paschen, report-
ing on his own results of this type, cited some half-dozen earlier
works; Paschen's expression, E ~ = CA -ae -c/"AT, where T is the
absolute temperature and C, a, and c are constants determined
by the material, was one of the simplest. 5 The one empirical
result that has retained its validity and hence its usefulness is
one that was given in 1879 by ]. Stefan, stating that the total
emittance, the total power (including all wavelengths) radiated
per unit area, is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the radi a ting body.
Theoretical studies were not lacking. In 1884, Ludwig Boltz-
mann published two papers which together provided a proof that
Stefan's empirical relationship must hold for a black body. (As
a consequence, the relationship has become known as the Stefan-
Boltzmann law.) Nine years la ter, Willy Wien obtained two
equally important results. He noted that if a cavity were reduced
in volume, say by moving a piston, the energy per unit volume
of the radiation in the cavity would be increased-not only
because the energy already present was confined to a smaller
volume, but also because the radiation exerts pressure on the
piston, and work is done against that pressure in the act of
compress.i on. The energy density can also be increased by an
increase in the temperature of the cavity, and the second law of
thermodynamics relates the increases produced in the two ways.
The relationship must hold not only over all, but also for the
energy density associated with every infinitesimal range of wave-
lengths. But the moving walls produce a change in wavelength
of the reflected radi ation, by the Doppler effect; and so the
temperature change must also alter the wavelength distribution.
The quantitative consequences of this were twofold. First, if one
is to make comparisons of things dependent on wavelength at two
different temperatures, it is not proper to compare values at the
same wavelength. Instead, in working at temperature T', one
should use for comparison with a wavelength A at temperature T
a wavele ngth A' given by
A.'T' = 'AT. (2.1)
THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 9
Secondly, the spectral emittances for wavelengths correspond-
ing in this fashion vary with temperature according to the
relationship
ex / e>.- = P / T'". (2.2)
In particular, if e~ (for fixed absolute temperature T) has a
maximum value ex.mnx at some wavelength Am, then the values
of e,A,JHUX at various temperatures satisfy the relation
ex.max r-• = const., (2.2a)
while A.,, satisfies the relation
Am T = const. (2.1 a)
Equations (2.1) and (2 .2) are known as Wien's displacement
laws. Toge ther, although Wien did not note it, they imply that
the expression fore~ must be of the general form
(2.3)
ex = A.- "j(A.T),
or, equivalently,
ex= PF(A.T),
where F(AT) =(A.T)-5f(AT). The specific form of the function
f(A T) or F(A. T) is not determined by these arguments; merely
the fact that they depend on A. and T only through the product
AT. It is worth noting that the Stefan-Boltzmann law can be
derived from either of these expressions.
This was the most that could be established on the basis of
classical theory without the addition of more detailed hypotheses.
Wien, however, in a later paper (1896), went on to obtain an
expli cit form for ex by making explicit assumptions about the
process of radiation from a molecule. 6 His result was
(2.4)
consistent with Eq. (2.3) and in support of P aschen's empirical
expression. The result was not universaiiy accepted, however, as
some physicists questioned the validity of the assumptions needed.
One person who did accept it, and who even provided addi-
tional arguments to support it, was Max Planck. Planck had
been attracted to the problem of blackbody radiation by the
"absolute" character of the distribution law-its independence
 10 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
of the material of the cavity walls. He made use of this inde-
pendence in his work on the problem by taking as the walls an
assemblage of harmonic oscillators. His approach was always
through the thermodynamics of the assemblage, with particular
emphasis on the thermodynamic quantity called entropy.' The
precise definition of this quantity need not concern us here; the
essential point is that it is a measure of the disorder in a system,
and that the second law of thermodynamics, with which Planck
was thoroughly familiar, states that the natural tendency of an
isolated system is to change in such a way that its entropy in-
creases. The implication is that the state of equilibrium is the
state for which the entropy is a maximum; and it has already
been mentioned that for a cavity, the equilibrium state is char-
acterized by the cavity being filled with blackbody radiation.
Planck's task, therefore, was to calculate the entropy of his as-
semblage.
In his initial work, published in 1899, Planck was not familiar
with the "disorder" interpretation of entropy. He considered the
entropy of an individual oscillator, and sought to relate the
entropy to the energy U of the oscillator. He found that a basic
quantity was the curvature R o[ the graphS of this relationship,
and an erroneous assumption led him to conclude that
R = -a/U, (2 .5)
where a is a positive quantity that might depend on frequency.
The radiation law to which this led was just Eq. (2.4), with
a= Ajc.
One other theoretical attempt deserves mention, although it
actually postdated the experimental work. In 1900, Lord Rayleigh
approached the problem in the following way: A cavity can
vibrate-i.e., sustain standing waves--only at fixed frequencies
determined by its geometry, just as a string can vibrate only at
fixed frequencies determined by its length. The radiation in a
cavity must be composed of a superposition of the standing waves
possi ble for the cavity. It is possible to calculate the number of
different standing-wave modes with wavelength between A and
A+ rlA that can exist per unit volume in the cavity. (The symbol
dA here does not denote a true mathematical infinitesimal, but
THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 11
is used only to indicate that the range of wavelengths included
is small compared with its end points.) According to a famous
principle of classical statistical mechanics, the law of equipar-
tition of energy, each of these modes should have the same
average energy. namely an amount kT where T is the absolute
temperature and k is a universal constant. These considerations
lead to an expression for the energy per unit volume in the cavity
per unit wavelength range, and thence to an equation for the
spectral emittance,
(2.6)
This equation is consistent with Eq. (2.3). However, it has one
serious defect: It yields an infinite value for the total energy in
the cavity. 9 The infinite value is due to larger and larger contri-
butions from shorter and shorter wavelengths. Since short wave-
lengths are associated with ultraviolet radiation, the divergence
is often referred to as the "ultraviolet catastrophe." (In the light
of modern knowledge, a more appropriate name might be the
"gamma-ray catastrophe.")
In summary, the situation just before the turn of the century
was this : There was a form for e, given by classical theory, pre-
sumably reliable but unspecific. There was a specific form ob-
tained from additional hypotheses of uncertain validity, but
supported by thermodynamic arguments . And there were several
empirical approximations. It was natural that someone should
try to improve on matters.
The definitive experimental work, carried out by Lummer and
Pringsheim in Charlottenburg, Germany, used a method justified
by a slight modification of the discussion that gave the equiv-
alence between cavity radiation and blackbody radiation. Suppose
that in one wall of a cavity such as envi si oned in that discussi on,
there is a hole whose area is small compared with that of the
walls. Any radiation that falls on the hole from outside is almost
certain to pass into the cavity, there to be trapped by continual
rei1ection back and forth by the walls (with some absorption at
each reflection), so that the hole is in that respect a good ap-
proxim a tion to a black body 10-precisely the situation described
in the third paragraph of this chapter. 1\foreover, the radiation
 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
12
coming out of the hole will be a representative sample of the
radiation in the cavity, which has already been established as
equivalent to black-body radiation; a study of its properties there-
fore gives the properties of the latter. The procedure appears to
be simple in principle, but it required considerable care in its
execution.
The first step, reported in 1897, was to verify the Stefan-
Boltzmann law. Two cavities were used, a copper one for tem-
peratures up to 877°K and an iron one for temperatures from
799° K to 1561 °K. The copper cavity was immersed in a molten
mixture of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate; the tempera-
ture of the bath could be held constant to within one or two
degrees for as long as half an hour by control of the supply of
gas to the heating flame. The iron cavity was heated by means
FIG. 2.1 Diagram of the double-walled oven as used for heating the iron cavity.
of a special double-walled oven shown in Fig. 2.1, in which the
hot gases from the flame passed around the cavity inside the
inner wall of the oven, then between the two walls, and then
into the chimney flue. Temperatures up to 755 ° K were measured
THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 13
by means of mercury thermometers; higher temperatures, by a
thermocouple. .-,.
The radiant power was measured by means of a bolometer. In
this device, the radiation whose power is to be determined falls
on one of two blackened platinum wires and is absorbed, raising
the temperature of the wire and therefore its electrical resistance.
The increase in resistance is measured by comparison with the
resistance of the other wire.
Extensive precautions were taken to ensure that the energy
recorded came only from the cavity, and to correct for possible
variations in the fraction of radiation absorbed in the air along
the path from cavity to sensing element. In fact, the only dif-
ficulty that was not almost entirely overcome was that of achiev-
ing truly uniform temperatures in the iron cavity. The final
conclusion, based on observations over a range of temperature
whose extremes differed by a factor of four, was that the Stefan-
Boltzmann law is valid.
Lummer and Pringsheim then proceeded to a study of the more
speculative question of how the spectral emissivity varies with
wavelength at a given temperature. The results were reported in
a series of three papers in I 899 and 1900. Again the basic con-
cept was simple and the basic procedure straightforward, to
analyze the radiation with a prism spectrometer before measur-
ing the power, and only the several precautions and corrections
were complicated. Various cavities were used, at temperatures
from 85 to about 1800 ° K. The lower temperatures were achieved
by immersion in liquid air (85°K), boiling water (373 ° K), and
molten saltpeter (around 600°K, depending on exact compo-
sition). High temperatures, up to about l800°K, were obtained
by electrical heating.
At such temperatures, by far the largest fraction of the radi-
ation is in the infrared region of the spectrum; the range of
wavelengths studied was from about l micron to about 18 microns
(visible light covers the range of wavelengths from about 0.4
microns for violet to about 0.7 microns for red). A substantial
difficulty in this spectral region is that water vapor and carbon
dioxide, both normally present in the atmosphere, absorb
strongly near certain wavelengths, especially around 1.8, 2.7, and
 14 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 15

4.5 microns. In the earliest work, Lummer and Pringsheim

merely attempted to correct for this effect. Later, they enclosed 140

the spectrometer and bolometer in a container in which the air

was dried and chemically purged of carbon dioxide, so that the 130
necessary correction was greatly reduced. As in the work on the
Stefan-Boltzmann law, strict precautions were taken to ensure 120
that only the radiation of interest fell on the bolometer.
One method of presenting the results is simply as a curve show-
110
ing e" as a function of ,\ for various tern per a tures, as in Fig. 2.2
(from the second of the three articles). From such curves, Lum-
mer and Pringsheim determined both the wavelength A.,. at which 100

e" was maximum, and the maximum value e'-.m•" for testing
Eqs. (2.1 a) and (2.2a). It was simply a matter of seeing whether 90
the appropriate combinations of factors were indeed constants.
Already in their first report, they felt justified in making the 80
following statement:
70
It can therefore be regarded as pro\'en by this series of obsen·ations
that for the radiating body employed , the maximum euergy increases
with the fifth power of the absolute temperature. Also the equation 60
=
A.m T A can be considered prm·en, since the deviations of A from
the average value lie within the obser\'ational errors possible from the
determination of A., . 50

Act~ally, it is not entirely clear that Lummer and Pringsheim 40

regarded the displacement laws as in question, subject to proof
or disproof. They later stated, "The fulfilment of these three
30
laws" (the third being the Stefan-Boltzmann law) "is the conditio
sine qua non if one wishes to draw from the radiation measure-
ments any conclusion whatever about the form of the spectral 20

equation (energy curve) ." In other words, by this time at least

they regarded the equations as more reliable than their measure- 10
ments; in fact, they discarded one series of observations because
the maximum value of e" varied as 7";,·2 rather than as T 5 .11
'"' ien's formula for e>-., Eg. (2.4), though it was on somewhat
less firm ground, was essentially the only explicit one available,
FIG. 2.2 Comparison of lummer and Pringsheim's experimental data (plain crosses
and so Lummer and Pringsheim compared their results with it.
and solid curves) with Wien's formula (circled crosses and dashed curves). The
Figure 2.2 shows, in addition to the set of experimental plots, shaded areas show the absorption by water vapor and carbon dioxide in the air.
the curves represented by \Vien's formula for the values of T [Verhandl. Deut. physik. Ges. I, p. 217 (1899), Fig. 1.]
 16 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 17

used. The agreement between experiment and theory looks fair, of the line is proportional to c, and the intercept on the log ex
but Lummer and Pringsheim were not satisfied, and devised the axis can be used to compute C. The nature of the arguments
following more sensitive test: If one takes the lo<Tarithm
0
of both used to deduce \Vien's formula was such that the quantity c
sides of Eq. (2.4), 12 the result is should be a constant of nature, while C might vary from one
series of observations to another but should be constant through-
log ex = log( CA- 5) - (c / XT) log e,
out any one series.
which can be rewritten as In their earliest report, Lummer and Pringsheim presented
isochromats that appeared to be straight lines, as shown in Fig.
log ex = log(CX- 5) - [(c/ X) log e](1 / T).
2.3. The values of C and c, however, varied with wavelength.
This has the form y = a + bx, where y = log ex, a = log( C.\ -5), Th is was not as it shou ld have been according to Wien's formula,
b = -(cj.\) loge, and x = l j T. Thus \Vien's formula implies that but Lummer and Pringsheim were not sufficiently confident in
when log ex for a fixed ,\ is plotted against 1j T , the resulting their procedures to regard the test as conclusive. By the time
curve, called an isochmmat, should be a straight line; the slope of the second report, they were doubtful enough of the validity
of Eq. (2.4) that they looked for, and reported finding, curvature
in the isochromats (they did not show any isochromats in the
second report). They say, however, "Nevertheless, before we pass

9.0 ~9ti 1
1
judgment on the validity of the \Vien-Planck equation, we con-
sider it necessary to extend the studies over a larger temperature
~
3.3 2
' interval and wavelength range." l3 Finally, in the third report,

~· ti< to-...
3.71 the evidence had become unquestionable; the curvature in the
8.0 .J.0 isochromats was obvious (see Fig. 2.4). They firmly conclude that
6
~
~~
t---. ~r,; ~
the Wien-Planck law is invalid, and say, "Likewise, with it, the

7.0 r0
,. ___
N-~
-- ~, ~ ~~ ~ :-:::: ~
foundation is pulled out from under all those extensive con-
sequences that people have derived from the \Vien-Planck
5.?~ --- -~
.a
...
0
r---- r----.: ~ ~
~~~ -0 equation."
Stimulated by these results, and by similar results obtained by
-+
::T
I~ K ['.._ p -- --~~ ~ E::r-- ~
r-- his colleagues Rubens and Kurlbaum at Berlin, Planck attempted
6.0 c
3 ~ ~
to modify his own theoretical work. Just how he arrived at his
~ [',
........
-; ~;-----._ ~~
~
(/)
-; -; -;
a.
""'""'""' result, apart from the fact that it was by wholly empirical means,
II II
(!) ~ ~
II
-.- -"' N
II

0 ID ~ is not known; even Planck himself gave two different versions.

~
nl N (J.J
co -"'
::> (J) -"'0 ID -.J ~-; Jn his first presentation, he told of constructing
~-
5.0 .a
0 0
n;·
0
0'
0
0' 0
0'
co".
0'
~ 0 ··-
0'

"' "' "' (/\'"

""
"'

""
completely arbitrary expressions for the entropy. which, although
-
1/T-0.0007 0.0008 0.0009 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 more complicated than the \Vien expression, still appear to meet all the
21ogE=f(1/Tl requirements of thermodynamic and electromagnetic theory as satisfac-
torily a; that does.
FIG. 2.3 A set of isochromals from Lummer and Pringsheim's first report on black- Among the expressions so drawn up, one struck me especially as being
body radiation . [Verhandl. Deul . physik. Ges. I, p. 38 (1899), Fig. 2; lettering closest in simplicity to the \Vien expression and . . . tru ly desenring of
replaced for legibility.] being te~ted next after that.

18 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
In E= f(1/T)
1193°
1520°
1638°
1772°
FIG. 2.4 A set of isochromats from lummer and Pringsheim's third report.
[Verhandl. Deut. physik . Ges. 2, p . 170 (1900), Fig. I; lettering replaced for
legibility.]
In other words, he had chosen a sort of next approximation a fter
Eq. (2 .5), such as might be obtained from an expansion of ljR
in powers of U. Later, however, he told 14 of having tried what he
called "a luckily guessed interpolation formula" between Eq.
(2.5), known to be valid for small U, and a variation of R with
1j U 2 for large U. This latter form of variation was implied by
Rubens and Kurlbaum's finding that for large values of the
product >..T, ex varied approximately line arly with T. By what-
ever process, Planck was led to replace Eq. (2 .5) by
R = a / U({3 + U),
where a and f3 are constants. This gives a radiation law of the
form
(2.7)
------------------------a
THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 19
where b is an unspecified constant. The equation proved to fit
the experimental results very well. This result was presented
before the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft (German Physical
Society) in October 1900.
Planck was able to justify Eq. (2 .7) in December 1900, but only
after he had come to a more complete understanding of entropy.
Boltzmann had recognized as early as 1877 that the entropy of
a state is a measure of the probabi lity of the occurrence of that
state. The probability, in turn, can be found simply by counting
the number of different microscopic arrangements-in the pres-
ent case, the number of ways of assigning energies to the indi-
vidual oscillators-compatible with the given over-all state, and
by assuming that each microscopic arrangement is equally prob-
able. ln order for the counting process to be possible in the case
at hand, however, the energy cannot be a continuous variable
but must be parceled out in multiples of a basic unit e, so that
U = ne . \\'hen Planck put th ese concepts into his treatment, he
found that the entropy S depended on U and e only through the
combination U j e. \\lien's displacement laws, on the other hand ,
implied that S = f(U jv), where v is the frequency of the oscil-
lator. Consequently, one must have e = hv: The energy of an
oscillator must be an integral multiple of a basic unit propor-
tional to the freq uen cy. The resulting radiation law was
8rrc 2/z
(2 .8)
where h is Planck's constant and k is another universal con-
stant, and cis the speed of light.
This approach had several striking features . Not only does
Eq. (2.8) fit the experiment<:! results very well. In addition, when
the wa\·el ength or temperature is small so th at the exponent of e
is large,l" it reduces to the Wien-Pianck law, Eq. (2.5); while
if >.. or T is large, the equation reduces to Rayleigh's law, Eq.
(2.6).IG Moreover, the use of the entropy concept enabled Planck
to deduce a value for what is now referred to as Avogadro's
number and thus also for the charge on the electron; again, the
values for these and other related quantities were in good agree-
ment with the values obtained from other methods.
 20 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
Oddly enough, however, it was not so much this agreement that
convinced Planck. The second work was prese nted, like the first,
before a meeting of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft; and
Planck made these comments: "\Vhen I had the honor several
weeks ago to direct your attention to a new formula . . . , I
based my opinion of the usefu ln ess of the formula . . . especially
on the simple structure . . . . " He went on to say that he now
intended to describe briefly how the formula could be deduced,
but cautioned the audience that, " I do not place any value on
the proof of necessity and of the easy practical applicability, but
only on the clarity and unequivoca l nature of the directions given
for the solution of the problem."
The beginnings of quantum theory, then, lay in an experiment
whose results could be understood only by the introduction of
an idea foreign to classical theory : that in some systems, energy
is not infinitely subdivisible, but is exchanged with the rest of
the universe only in discrete amounts, or quanta.
FO 0 Tl\' 0 T ES
'This figure of speech is meant to imply only that the en tire esse nti al con-
rent of the th eo r y wa s already present in Einstein's original art icl es. For a
treatment of the special theory, see Robert Katz, An Introduction to the
Special Theory of Rf'iati11ity, ~10\IEI'T U\t Book ;>;o. 9 (V an :\ostrand , 1964).
2
Actually, of course, we would not be able to see th e object at all-still
assuming that it was not luminous-but only a chunk of space from which
no light reached us.
" It must be emphasized th a t this is not the same as reflection. The char-
acteristics of reflected light are determined partly by the propert ies of the
reflecting body but also partly by those of rh e incident light. Only in very
special situations , holl'evcr, are the characteristics of radiation affected by
· those of incident light.
• This fact is reflected in common la nguage , where " red hot " and " white
hor" denote different. though Yague. temperat ures.
"The base of natural logarithms, 2.71828 . . . , is denoted in this book by
a r01nan e. This is not a universal practice , however, and the reader should
not he disturbed h y th e usc of a single ~ymhol fo r sen: ral meanings. Another
commonly used symbol for thi s numbe r is th e ita lic e, which has already
been used to d esignate spectral eminancc, and will he used Jarn in the book
as the symbol for th e charge on the electron.
0
In a sense, the US(' of rhc idea of molcculc:s carried th is work outside the
realm of truly classical physics; cf. C hap . I.
7
For a further discussion of the concept of entropv, sec \lark \\'. Zc
THE ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM CONCEPT 21
man sky. Te111peratures Ver)' Lou• and Ver)' High, MOMENTUM Book No. 6
(\'an :'\ostrand , 196~ ). Chap. 2.
• The cun·ature at any point on a smooth curve is defined as th e reciprocal
of the radius of the circle that most closely fits the curve at that point.
'It is interesting to note that this was not the first indication of failme of
the law of cquiparrition of energy. :\laxwell had noticed as early as ll(i9
rhat the Jaw was incapable of proYiding an adequate explanation of th e ratio
of the speci fie hea ts of a gas.
'"The closeness of the approximation in this case d epends on the fact that
incide nt radiation will fail to be ab sorbed into the ca\ity only if on e of its
first few encounters with th e wa lis is such as to re flect it out again. The likeli-
hood of that happening is determined by the microscopic geometry of the
walls and is independent of the wavelength of the radiation. In contrast, the
closeness with which a real black object such as a lump of carbon approxi-
mates an ideal black body is d e termined hy rh e probabi lity that the incident
radiation will be absorbed rather than reflected at its first and only encountn
with the surface of rhe object; this is dependent. on th e wavelength.
11
They stare that thi s may have been the result of a poor adju stment which
allowed the spectrometer to " look ar " part of the cool e r outer surface of the
ca\·ity as wdl as at th e interior.
"The read e r is reminded that the loga rithm of a number)' is th e number
a such that 10" =: y; that therefore 10' """ = )'; that if two numbers arc
equal , so are their logarithms; th a t log (xy) == log x + log)'; and that
log (x') = log ((I 0' "" Tl =log (I o· 10 ' ' ) =: s log X.
'"At this stage, their measurements extended only from 620 to J650 "K. and
from I to 6 microns in wavelc:ngth.
"In his 1\"obel lecture.
'·' In this case. unity can he neglected relative to th e exponential.
"This can be seen by making use of th e fact that e'::::: I + x " ·hen x
is small.
DIBUOCNAPJ-JY
All but one of the papers treated in this ch a pter are in German,
and only one seems to be available in translation. Consequently,
only papers of special significance are listed here.
The concept of a black body is introduced, a nd Kirchhoff's law
is proved, in G. R. Kirchhoff, Annalen der Physik 109, 275-
301 (I 860) [translation, by F. Guthrie: Philosophical Maga-
zine 20, 1- 21 (1860)].
Wien 's displacement laws [Eqs. (2.1) and (2 .2)] are deduced in
W. Wien, Annalen deT Physik 52, I 32- 165 (1894).
Planck's derivation of \Vien's distribution law, Eq. (2.4) , is given
in 1\1. Planck, Annalen der Ph ysik I, 69-122 (1900).
The experimental work with which this chapter is concerned is
 22 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
reported in 0. Lummer and E. Pringsheim, Verhand/ungen der
Deutsche Physikalisrhe Gesellsrhaft !, 23-41, 215- 235 (1899);
2, 163-180 (!900) .
P lanck's initial presentation of the correct distribution law is
giYen in l\J. Planck, T'erhand lun gcn dcr ])cutschc Ph ysi lwli-
sche Gesellschaft 2, 202-204 (1900); the deriYation of it on
thermodynamic grounds, in l\L Planck, ibid . 2, 237-245 (1900).
An extensive review of the history of these developments is giYen
in Max Jammer, The Conceptual Deve lopm en t of Quantum
Mechanics (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966), Sec. 1.2.
See also The Tl'orld of the Atom, Vol. I , pp. 462-501.
3 Transntutation of Elenzents
The atomic concept as it was known at the end of the nine-
teenth century was almost identical in its over-all form, if not
in detail, with what had been proposed nearly twenty-five centu-
ries before by the Greek philosopher Leucippus. The universe
consisted of em pty space and m a tter; matter was composed of
atoms . The number of indiYidu al atoms was extremely large-
infinite, according to the Roman author Titus Lucretius Carus,
whose book D e Rerum Natum, or On the Nature of Things, is
probably the outstanding early expositi on of Leucippus's ideas.
The number of different kinds of atoms, however, was finite, a nd
presumably not very large. The properties of a material object
were determined by those of the atoms of which it was composed.l
The a toms themselves were indestructible and immutable.
The interYening centuries had had their effects, of course. The
chemical concepts of element and compound had become well
estab li shed, and it had become accepted within the atomic fra me-
work that the sma ll est unit of a compound was a molecule that
would contain two or more atoms- that an agg-regate of identical
atoms formed an element. It was even recognized that some
changes cou ld be produ ced in atoms, electrom being attached or
detach ed in th e formation of ions ; bl1t such a change did not alter
the basic nature of the atom that underwent it. An atom of sulfur
did not become an ion of chlorin e, but of sulfur.
The phenomenon of radioacti\·ity, discoYered in 1896 by H enri
Becquerel, "·as to force drastic cha nges in this picture. For one
thing, it was to proYide the tool by which the atom itself would
be found to h a \·e a structure and to consist mostly of empty space.
23
 24 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
Even m_ore startling, it was to be exposed as the adjunct of a
change 111 the nat~:e of atoms, while at the same time providing
an extremely sensitive means of deducing that such a change had
occurred. The discovery of this second aspect by Ernest Ruther-
ford (later created Baron Rutherford of Nelson) and Frederick
Soddy, which would lead to Nobel prizes for both men, will be
described in this chapter.
. It mus~ be noted at the outset that this work was markedly
different m one respect from the others described in this book:
The research~rs had no conception of what they were looking for,
not even_ an 111khng of what to expect. All the other cases rep-
rese~t, 111 essence, measurements of well-defined quantities,
earned out against a background of previous experiment and
theory which naturally suggested the measurement and which
often indicated what the result should be. Here, in contrast the
investigators were groping, trying anything that looked as 'if it
might provide information. The published reports are strongly
~lavored by this attitude. Unfortunately, to attempt to reproduce
It here would unduly lengthen the book, and it has been neces-
sary to be more restricted in quoting, and to do more abridging
a_nd summarizing, than is required in other chapters. The essen-
tial aspects, however, are retained.
The . investigation was basically a study of the radioactive
properties of the element thorium. Becquerel's original discovery
had involved uranium; but subsequent work by the Curies had
revealed the existence of a number of other radioactive elements
associated mineralogically (and , it is now known, radiochemically)
with uranium. 2 In particular, the radioactive nature of thorium
was recognized about two years after Becquerel's discovery. Ruth-
erford, then at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge Uni-
versity, immediately took an interest in the new activity and its
comparison with uranium; as an incidental point in a long
article dealing with the radiations from uranium, written in 1898,
he remarked that thorium appeared variable as a source of
activity-in contrast to uranium, which was quite constant.
By the time that paper was published , in January, 1899, Ruth-
erford had become MacDonald Professor of Physics at McGill
University in l\Jontreal. There he undertook a thorough study
TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS 25
of the radiations from thorium. Soddy, a Demonstrator in
Chemistry, was his chief collaborator in this research. The results
were presented in a series of six papers: two in the Philosophical
Magazine, in January and February, 1900; two in the T1·ans-
actions of the Chemical Society, in 1902; and two more in the
Philosophical Magazine, also in 1902, the last two being strongly
repetitive of the preceding two. Soddy was coauthor of the last
four.
The investigation started with the curious variability of the
radiation. The first of the six papers reports the following obser-
vation : "The intensity of thorium radiation, when examined by
means of the electrical discharge produced, is found to be very
variable; and this inconstancy is due to slow currents of air pro-
duced in an open room. \\1 hen the apparatus is placed in a closed
vessel, to do away with air currents, the intensity is found to be
practically constant." It should be mentioned here that the
method of comparing intensities, which had been used in earlier
work and described in an earlier paper, was based on the fact that
the radioacti\e rays produced ionization in the air through which
they passed. What was actually measured was the rate at which
the ionization caused the discharge of what amounted to a
parallel-plate air capacitor. The plates were horizontal, one about
4 centimeters above the other; a layer of the radioactive material
was placed on the lower one. The plates were initially given a
difference of potential of about 100 volts; and the rate at which
the difference decreased, measured by means of a sensitive elec-
trometer, was regarded as proportional to the "intensity" of the
radiation.o
The next step was to study the absorption of the radiation.
A homogeneous radiat ion, passing through a medium that is not
compl etely opaque to it, can be expected to undergo absorption,
with the fraction that has been absorbed increasing exponentially
with the thickness of the medium that has been traversed. The
rate of increa~e depends partly on the absorber but also on the
radiation , and this method was already in common use to help
characterize radioactive radiations. In the case of thorium, how-
ever, with ordinary foolscap paper as absorber, the results were
peculiar in that they depended on whether the radiation came
 ----~---...~~~~~
26 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
from a "thin" layer-a sprinkling of fine powder-or a "thick"
layer. In the former case, the absorption followed the expected
exponential law fairly well, with the intensity reduced to 0.08
times its initial value by a thickness of 0.0081 centimeter of paper.
For a thick layer of radioactive material, however, 0.008 centi-
meter of paper reduced the intensity only by a factor of 0.74, and
addi tiona! paper had little effect.
Layers of different thicknesses also displayed a difference in
sensiti,·ity to air currents. "On directing a slight current of air
between the test plates, the rate of discharge due to a thick layer
of thorium oxide 4 is greatly diminished . . . . Under similar con-
ditions with uranium, the rate of leak is not significantly af-
fected." This last statement established that the effect is not the
result of the method and conditions of measurement, but is
really connected with the behavior of thorium. ""With a thin
layer of oxide, the diminution of the rate of leak is small; but
with a thick layer of oxide, the rate of leak may be reduced to
less than one-third of its previous value."
There follows a sentence, still referring to the thick layer, which
is especially significant: "If two thicknesses of foolscap paper are
placed over the thorium oxide, the resulting rate of leak between
the plates may be diminished to less than 2 \s of its value by a
slight continuous blast of air." It is to be recalled that paper
alone had little effect on the intensity of radiation from a thick
layer of oxide; but the additional action of a stream of air made
the radiations from thick and thin layers similar in their ab-
sorption by paper. · lhe decay of radioactivity; and it is quite possible that when
In summary, it appeared that the radiations from a thin layer
of oxide were normal, obeying the u sual absorption Jaw and not
affected by air currents. Those from a thick layer, on the other
hand , while they apparently included a small component of the
normal variety, were mostly of another variety, not absorbed in
the normal fashion and strongly affected by air currents. Ruther-
ford was led to the following deduction:
The phenomena exhibited by thorium com pounds receiYe a com·
piete exp lanat ion if we suppose that, in addition to the ordinary radi -
ation, a large number of radio ac ti ve particles are given out fr om the
mass of the active subs ta nce. This 'emanation' can pass through con-
............................................~~~~
TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS 27
siderable thickness of paper. The radioactive particles emitted by the
thorium compounds gradually diffuse through the gas in its neighbour-
hood and become centres of ionization throughout the gas. The fact
that the effect of air currents is only observed to a slight extent with
thin layers of thorium oxide is due to the preponderance, in th at case,
of the rate of leak due to the ordinary radiation over that due to the
emanation. \Vith a thick layer of thorium oxide, the rate of leak due
to the ordinary radiation is practically that due to a thin surface layer,
as the radiation can only penetrate a short distance through the salt.
On the other hand , the 'emanation' is able to diffuse from a distance
of several millimetres below the surface of the compound, and the
rate of leak due to it becomes much greater than that due to the
rad iat ion alone.
The explanation of the action of slight currents of air is clear on the
'emanation' theory . . . . Extremely minute motions of ai r, if con-
tinuous remO\·e manv of the radio active centres from between the
plates. : .. The eman'ation continues to ionize the gas in its neighbor-
hood for severa l minutes, so that the removal of the particles from
between the plates diminishes the rate of discharge between the plates.
In summary, the thorium was giving off some substance which
was itself able to produce ionization and which, if not a gas, was
at lea st in a form that could be transported by a stream of air.
The remainder of the first paper was concerned primarily with
the effect of yarious conditions on the production of the ema-
nation. Three additional properties of the emanation itself 'vere
deduced, however. One was that its own radioactivity decayed
exponentially with time, decreasing by a factor of f approxi-
mately every minute. This was one of the first demonstrations of
Rutherford submitted the paper, in September of 1899, he had
not learned of any other such work. 5 A second property, which
Rutherford quite naturally describes as "very remarkable," was
that "the positive ion produced in a gas by the emanation
possesses the power of producing radioactivity in all substances
on which it falls."
The third property was that the emanation was, or appeared
to be, truly a gas. "The emanation passes through a plug of
cotton-wool "·ithout any loss of its radioactive powers. It is
also unaffected by bubbling throu gh hot or cold water, weak or
strong sui ph uric acid. In this respect it acts like an ordinary gas.
 28 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
An ion, on the other hand, is not able to pass through a plug of
cotton-wool, or to bubble through water, without losing its
charge." Evidently Rutherford had entertained the thought that
the radioactivity might be the manifestation of some property
possessed by an ion produced by the thorium radiation.
The second paper of the series was devoted to the ''excited
radioactivity," the activity referred to in the second property
mentioned above. The essential results were that this exci ted
activity was, "in some >fay, due to the 'emanation', or to some-
thing that accompanies it, but is not cause_d by the direct action
of a radiation from thorium oxide"; that it also d ecayed, with a
half-life of a bout eleven hours; and that it involved the deposi-
tion of some material substance, though in extremely minute
quantities.
lt was in the third paper of the series, in which for the first time
Soddy was a collaborator, that the really crucial step was taken.
The investigators posed themseh·es a series of questions. Most of
these had to do with the production of the ema na tion; but one
was a more complete determination of the nature of the ema-
nation itself. Specifically, they wished "to see whether the emana-
tion possesses chemical properties which would identify it with
any known kind of matter." H ere Soddy's training as a chem ist
and his knowledge of contemporary developments in chemistry
were indispensable.
Presumably, the apparatus used for this part of the investigation
was essentially th e same as for the part dealing with production
of the emanation.
[Figure 3.1) shows the experimenta l arrangeme nt for comparing the
emanating power of substances. These are placed in the form of fine
powder in a shallow lead vessel inside the glass cylinder, C, 17 em. in
length and 3.25 em . in diameter, pro,id cd with indiaruhber corks.
A current of air from a large gas-bag, after passing through a tube
containing cotton wool to remove dust particles, bubbled through
sulphuric acid in the vessel, A . It then passed through a bulb contain-
ing tightly packed cotton wool to prevent any spray being carried over.
Th e emanation mix ed with air was carried from the vessel C through
a plug of cotton wool , JJ, which completely removed all the charged
carriers carried with the emana tion . The latter then passed into a long,
brass cyl ind er 75 em. in le ngth and 6 em. in diame ter. The cy linder in-
TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS
29
sulated on paraffin blocks was connected to one pole of a battery of small
lead accumulators,6 the other pole of which was connected to earth.
Three ele~trodes £, F, H , of equal length were placed along the axis
?£ the c~lmder, supported by brass rods passing through ebonite corks
m the Side of the cylinder. The current through the gas, due to the
presence of the emanation, was measured by means of a Kelvin quad-
rant electrometer of the '\Vhite pattern . 1 • • • An 1'nst 11a t'mg k·ev was
arranged so t.hat either of the electrodes£, F, H , or all of them tog~ther,
could be rap idly connected to one pair of quadrants of the electrometer
the other two being always connected to earth. '
From
Gasometer
Earth
c
A ------~
Earth ';
FIG. 3: 1 Ruth~rford and Soddy's apparatus for studying the emanation from
thonum. [Phd. Mag. 4, p. 569 (1902), Fig . 1; lettering replaced for legibility.]
\~'ith such an arrangement, using a battery of 50 volts potential,
t~p.Ical currents we~e of the order of a few times 10-11 ampere,
g.Ivmg scale deflectiOns of 100 divisions (size unspecified) in a
time of the ord~r o.f l ~ seconds. The current was proportional to
~he amount of wmz~twn produced in the brass cylinder, which
m tu:n wa.s p~oportwnal to the amount of emanation present.
~he m,·esttgat.wn of the J:roperties of the emanation proceeded
Simply by seemg what kmd of reaction it could be made to
undergo.
e ~he effect of. tem~erat u re was
first tri ed. The air containin, the
tl~anauon, obta~ned Ill th e u sual way by passage o,·er thoria , w;s led
rough the plaunum tube 8 heated electri ca lly to th e highest attainable
temperature, a nd al so throu gh th e tube cooled by so lid ca rb 1' 'd
and et her Tl · . on c roxr e
e . · 1e tu 1>e was .t hen filled wi th phninum bl ac k, and the
t mana twn pa.>sed thro ugh HI the cold , and with gradually increasi n
empcra tures, until the limit was rn ched Tl fl f 1 · g
w • · 1e e ect o t 1e Inten se heat
as to com·ert the platinum black completely into platinum sponge.
 30 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
In another experiment, the ema nation was passed through a layer of
red hot lead chromate in a glass tube. The current of air was replaced by
a current of hydrogen and the emanation sent through red hot mag-
nesium powder , and red hot palladium black, and, by using a current
of carbon dioxide, through red hot zinc dust. In every case, the ema-
nation passed without sensible change in the amount. If anything, a
slight increase occurred, owing to th e time taken for the gas current
to pass through the tubes when hot being slightly less than when cold,
the decay en 1·outc being consequently less. It will be noticed that the
only known gases capable of passing in unchanged amount through
all th e reagents employed are the recently discovered gases of the
argon family.
It shou ld be noted, in regard to the last sentence, th a t platinum
black and palladium black are widely used catalysts, and might
have been expected to enhance a possible combination of the
emanation with the oxygen of the air or with hydrogen, respec-
tively; lea d chromate is an oxidizing agent, and magnesium and
zinc are reducing agents. In sum, the array of agents used was
such that if the emanation were capable of any chemical rea ction,
it should have undergone at least one in the course of these
attempts.
Soddy, many years later, described the experiment and his and
Ruth erford's reactions in this way: 9
I simply inserted into the a ir-strea m , betwee n th e thorium compound
and the ionization chamber in success ion, a number of powerful chemi-
ca l reagents such as magnesium powder, platinum black, lead chromate,
a nd zinc dust at tempe ratu res up to white heat-one or other of which
would have absorbed every known gas before the discm·ery of a rgon.
The emanation passed through all of them completely un a b;orbed and
unaffec ted .
Eight years earlier this in a bility to absorb the gas would have con-
veyed no thing, eve n to a chem ist, but in 1900 I kn ew th a t it meant
that thorium was changing spontaneously into an <trgon gas.
. .. My mind was always occupied with transmutation. That is
natural ; I wa s a chemist. . . . Also at that time I had bee n working
on th e lectures on gas analysis which I had been as ked to gi'e in the
university. That was why, perhaps, when Rutherford showed me the
emanation which was not th orium , nor a lpha nor beta panicles, but
which could be blown about, I drew his attention to the fac t that
it would be a gas . . . .
I was, of course, tremendously e lated to ha,·e discoYered transmu-
TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS 31
tation-the goal of every chemist of every age . . . yet when th e time
came to im·estigate the phenomenon the whole thing seemed too
dnastatingly simple. The fact that this was in reality transmutation
flash ed through my brain and I could hardly believe what I knew to
be true.
. . . after interpreting the meaning of th e discovery which was that
the atom was quite definitely disintegrating spontaneously, I was over-
whelmed with something greater than joy-1 cannot very well express
it-a kind of exaltation, intermingled with a certain feeling of pride
that I had bee n chosen from all chemists of a ll ages to discover natural
tra n smu ta tion.
I remember quite well standing there tra nsfixed as though stunned
by the colossal import of the thing and blurting out-or so it seemed
at the time:
" Rutherford , this is transmutation: the thorium is disintegrating and
transmuting itself into an a rgon gas."
The words seemed to flash through me as if from some outside source.
Rutherford shouted to me, in his breezy manner, "For Mike's sake,
Soddy, don't call it tmnsmutat ion . They'll have our heads off as
alchemists. You know how they are."
After whi ch he went waltzing round the laboratory, his huge voice
booming "'Onward Christi:lll so-ho-hojers," which , as H. R . Robinson 1 0
declared, was more recognizable by the words than by the tune.
. .. I only want to show you how our brains were working, mine
on transmutation and gases, Rutherford's on thorium and alpha ray
emissions.
I realized that if the thorium emanation was tran smuting itself 11
into ano ther element-an argon gas-no doubt other elements were
undergoing a process of natural transmutation in much the same way.
This was the start of the disintegration theory of radioactive
sub>tances.
The im es tigators were not yet ready to announce their findings
in such blunt terms. For one thing, although they had carri ed out
a test desi gned to eliminate the possibility, they still considered
that " it may be that one of the inert constituents of the at-
mosphere is rend ered radioactiYe in the presence of thoria and so
constitutes the eman:1tion." 1\Iore to the point, probably, was the
fact that other experiments, directed at the question of what
might affect the emanating power of various thorium compounds,
had gi\·en extremely puzzling results.
In the first experiment , which we have so far not succeeded in
repea ting, by an accident in the conditions apparently, two fractions
 ------~~~~ ·we•te vrJrrrwac·re
32 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
were separated from thorium which differed in their emanating power
in the ratio of 200 to I. The active fraction diminished to nearly a
third of its original value in fourteen days sponta neously, whilst the
activity of the inactive fraction was, to a large exte nt, regenerated by
solution and reprecipitation.
. . . Attempts to r epeat this result have so far led to the production
o f two more or less completel y de-emanated 12 fractions, which, how-
ever, spontaneously increase in activity with time . . . .
These experiments involved preparing solutions of thorium
nitrate and precipitating the thorium, either as thorium car-
bonate, thorium hydroxide, or a combination; the precipitate was
removed from the liquid by filtering.
The production of preparations of such low emanating power led
naturally to an examination being made of the filtrates and washings
for radioactivity. It was foun d th at these possess, when concentrated,
both emanating power and radioactivity in considerahle amounts, al-
though from the nature of their production they should be chemically
free from thorium. The behavior is quite general. . . . It does not
matter [how the precipitation of the thorium was carried out]-the
thorium-free filtrate im·ari ab ly possessed emanating power, and when
evaporated to dryness exhibited straight-line radioacti,·ity13 also in
amounts very much greater than possessed by the same weight of thoria.
The results of a careful chemical investigation of the active filtrat es
.. . was to show that these contained no thorium, or at most only
a minute tra ce, but a nother subst ance in very apprecia ble quantities.
. . . It h as not yet been obtained in sufficiently large quantities for
an exhaustive chemica l examination, and it is impossible at present
to say what it may prove to be.
T he new subs tan ce was tentatively dubbed "thorium -X,"
and a series of experiments was begun to attempt to learn more
abou t it. By this time, Rutherford and Soddy h ad come to
recognize that emanating power was a poor measure of the
presence of the new substance, being 'ubject to considera ble alter-
ation, and had started to rely much more heavily on ordinary
radioactivity. "It has hee n shown th at it is difficult to follow, by
means of the value of the emilnating power, the progress of the
removal of the act ive material. \\' hen thi s was realized, attention
was directed to the straight line radioactivity, whi ch is generally
un afiected by these ch;mges of cond ition s and previous history
which produce such profound alteration in the former property."
TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS 33
Starting, then, with seventy grams of thorium nitrate, they
extracted from it about 0.023 gram of a salt of thorium-X which
was as inten sely active as 200 times as much ordinary thoria.
The "true" thorium that was left was reduced in activity to only
about a third of what it had been .
At this point, according to the n ext paper in the series, the
Christmas holidays intervened, and these preparations were al-
lowed to stand. 'Vhen the investigators returned "about three
weeks later it was found that the thorium hydroxide, which
originally possessed only about 36 percent of its normal activity,
had almost completely recm·ered the usual value. The active
residues, on the other hand, . . . h ad almost completely lost
their original ac tivity. " A more detailed st udy showed that the
activity of thorium-X decays exponenti ally with a h alf-life of
about 4 days, while the recovery of th e hydroxide followed an
im·erted ex pon ential curve. As Rutherford had shown in another
connection, th ese shapes o f the curves will be explained if two
processes are supposed to be taking place:
"(l) That the active constituent T hX is being produced at a
constant rate,
"(2) That the activity of the ThX decays geometri cally with
time."
The second of these points had already been established, and
it remained to confirm the first. This was done in a straight-
forward way.
If a period of 24 hours is allowed to e lapse between the successive
precipitations, the activity of the ThX formed during th at time corre-
sponds to abo ut 1; of the maximum acti\'ity of the total thorium em-
ployed. In three hours. th e acti,ity of th e amount produced is abo ut fo.
The rate of production of ThX worked out from these figures well
agrees with the form of th e curve obtained for the recovery of activity
of thorium if the latter is taken to express the contino us production
of ThX at a co n stant rate and dimimliion of the ac ti,·ity of the product
in geometrical progression with time.
Rutherford and Soddy already realized that it was thorium-X
and not thorium itself that produced emanation. The emanation,
in turn, was known to produce "excited" radioactivity. "This
process must be going on in the matter of the thorium compound
 34 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
itself, and . . . contributes an important quota to the total
radioactivity of the compound." The summary of the experi-
mental situation was this:
The constant radioactivity of thorium is maintained by the produc·
tion of [ThX] at a constant rate . . . . The ThX is undergoing a
further change, and one of the products is gaseous and in the radio-
active state constitutes the emanation produced by the thorium com-
pounds. The ThX further possesses the property of exciting radio-
activitY on surrounding inactive matter . . . [probably] the same as the
excited radioactivity produced by the thorium emanation, which has
been shown to be produced by ThX.
The crucial statements, however, were made in the last two
papers of the series. In the first of these, the authors say, "Since
_ .. radioactivity is at once an atomic phenomenon 14 and accom-
panied by chemical changes in which new types of matter are
being produced, these changes must be occurring within the atom,
and the radioactive elements must be undergoing spontaneous
transformation." l\Iore bluntly stated, their studies, groping and
stumbling as they had sometimes been, had convinced them that
radioactivity inevitably involves transmutation.
The final paper contains a suggestion which, while strictly
subordinate to the topic of this chapter, was even more far-
sighted:
Enough has been brought forward to make it clear that in the radio-
activity of thorium . . . we are witnessing the effect of a most com-
plex series of changes , each of which is accompanied by the continuous
production of a special kind of active matter. The complexity of the
phenomenon gives rise to an important question concerning the funda-
mental relation between the changes which occur and radioactivity.
So far it has been ass umed , as the simplest explanation, that the radio-
activity is preceded by chemical change . . . A slightly different view
is at least open to consideration, and is in some ways preferable. Radio-
activity may be an accompaniment of the change, the amount of the
former at any instant being proportional to the amount of the latter.
On this view the non-separab le radioactivities of thorium and uranium
would be caused by th e primary change in which ThX and UrX are
produced . The acti\ity of ThX would be cau sed by the secondary
change producing the emanation , the activity of the emanation by a
tertiary change in which the matter causing the excited activity is pro-
TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS 35
duced, the activity of the latter being derived from still further changes.
The law of the decay of the activity with time . . . in all cases but the
primary then appears as the expression of the simple law of chemical
change, in which one substance only alters at a rate proportional to the
amount remaining. In the primary change the amount remaining is
infinite ly great compared with the amount that alters in a short time,
and therefore the velocity of reaction is constant.
They admit that "further work . . . must be awaited before
the connexion . . . can be considered exactly determined." But
they had found the path that would lead Soddy, ten years later,
to be one of three men 15 independently deducing the laws of
radioactive change-natural transmutation- as they are accepted
today.
FOOT\'OTES
1 This is not to say that the properties of megascopic matter <l'ere those of
the compo nent atoms, nor even that atoms necessaril y had the same kinds
of properties as bulk matter, but only that one determined the other. A sour
taste, for example, might be the manifestation of needle-shaped atoms.
2
The story of this work , as well as other aspects of the ear ly hi story of
radioactivity, is sketched by Wilfred B. '11ann and S. B. Garfinkel, Radio·
activity and Its Measurement, .\10\IU.:TUM Book ::-.:o. 10 (Van ::-.:ostrand,
1966), Chaps. I and 2.
3
lt is now known that the rate of discharge depends on two properties,
not one: the number of radioactin· di si ntegrations per unit tim e, and the
energy carried hy each emitted particle. It was not until after the investi-
gations being d escribed, however, th:1t the rad iations were unmi stakab ly
shown to consist at least partl y of charged particles; and it was even later,
of course, that the quantitatiYe aspects of th eir interactions with the air were
establi shed. It can be seen that the electr ical method was quite reliable for
comparison of different samples of the same material, but could give quite
misleading results for compa ri son of din·ncnt sources.
• The thorium was studi ed in th e form of a compound, usually thorium
oxide (thoria) . prcsumablv chosen as being conveni ent to prepare and easy
to work with. In the descriptions, the terms "thorium." "oxide," and "thoria"
arc used alm ost interchan geab ly.
5
The f1rst recognition that radioacti,·ity decayed with time was achieved ·
by Elster and Ceitc l in 1899. \fost of the radioacti\·e substances that had
been isola ted and ide ntified at that time decayed so slowly that the change
would not ordinarilv be not iced.
6
T hi s is identical in chemica l arrangement and electrical action. though
not in phnical st ructu re, to sneral automobile storage batteries connec ted in
series.
7
The operation of thi s instrument is described in .-\ppendix A.
 36 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
8
This is the first mention of "the platinum tube," which must have been
placed in the flow train between th e cotton-wool plug D and the brass cy lin-
der. .
• Pioneer Resem·ch on the Atom: The Life Story of Frederick Soddy, by
Muriel Ho worth (New World Publications, London , 1958), pp. 82-84.
10
A student , a nd sub seq uently a colleague, of Rutherford's a few years after
the time of this work.
"Sic; compare the la ter quotation from th e last paper of th e series.
l.!l T hat is, deprived of the ability to produce ema nati on.
_
13
The "normal" kind, that was not carried away by the air stream.
"This. as th ey noted , was generally accep ted by all workers in the field.
15
T he other two were K. Fajans and A. S. Russell.
BIJJLJOGRAPHY
Ernest Rutherford, Philosophical Magazine 49, 1-14 and 161-192
(1900); E. Rutherford and Frederick Soddy, Transactions of the
Chemical Society 8I, 32 1-350 and 837-860 (1902), and Philo-
soph ica l Magazine 4, 370-396 and 569-585 (1902). The last two
papers are highly repetitive of the preceding two, but omit
some of the material. All six papers are reprinted in Sir James
Chadwick, ed., The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford of
Nelson (George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, 1962), Vol. I,
pp. 220-231, 232-259, 376-402 , 435-456, 472-494, and 495-508,
respectively; the fifth in the ser ies is excerpted in The World of
the Atom, Vol. I , pp. 451-461.
4 The Existence of Atonzs
Classical physics had no particular need for the concept of
atoms. The development of the concept was, of course, followed
and understood by physicists ; in some areas of physics it provided
at least a conYen ient terminology, and there were those who
accepted it wholeheartedly and used it. But at the end of the
nineteenth centurv there was no apparent compelling need to
believe in atoms; ;nd, as mentioned in Chapter I, there were a
number of scie ntists who did not-including some of the fore-
most chemists of the time, desp ite th e fact that much of the
evidence in favo r of the atomic hypot hesis was chemical.
The skeptics had their doubts cl eared away in 1908 and 1909
by a single piece of research, carried out by .Jean Perrin. His work,
reported in barest outline in a series of papers in the journ al
Comptes Rendus des Seances Hebdomadaires de l'Academie des
Sciences (Proceedings of the Weekly 1\feetings of the Academy ·of
Sciences), and in detail in the Annates de Chimie el de Physique, 1
showed conclusi,·ely that Bro\\'nian motion implied the existence
of molecules; ancl it included two distinct methods of determining
Avogadro's number, the number of molecules in one gram mole,
from the properties and behaYior of emulsions. In recogn ition of
this work, which is described in the present chapter, Perrin
received the Nobel prize for physics in 1926.
Brownian motion is the name applied to a phenomenon di s-
covered in 1827 by a botanist named Brown: that very small bits
of solid matter (such as pollen grains), when suspended in a fluid,
are in continual random motion. Perrin describes it this way:
" .. . every particle si tu ated in the liquid, instead of taking on,
37
 38
CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
according to its density, a regular movement of falling or rising;
is rather found animated by a completely irregular movement.
It comes and goes, it stops, it starts again, it rises, it sinks, it rises
again, without at all tending toward immobility." However,
according to Perrin, "The odd phenomenon discovered by Brown
did not attract much attention. Rather it was ignored for a long
time by most physicists, and it can be supposed that those who
had heard about it believed that it was analogous to the motion
of dust motes that we see dancing in a sunbeam under the action
of weak air currents caused by slight differences of temperature
or pressure."
It is significant that those who did study the phenomenon,
almost without exception, were drawn to the conclusion that it
was molecular in origin. Perrin quotes the explanation given by
one Father Carbonnelle in the late 1870's:
In the case of a surface of some extent, the collisions of the liquid
molecules, the cause of pressure, do not produce an agitation of the
suspended body, because their aggregate effect acts equally on the body
in all directions. But if the surface is smaller than the extent that can
provide compensation of the irregularities, there is no longer reason
to consider the mean pressure, one must take account of pressures that
are unequal and varying continually from point to point, which the law
of large numbers no longer reduces to uniformity, and whose resultant
is not zero, but changes constantly in magnitude and direction.
It is this changing force that gives rise to the erratic motion of
the particle. "Moreover," Father Carbonnelle continued, "the
inequalities become more and more apparent in proportion as
the body is imagined to be smaller, and consequently the oscilla-
tions at the same time become more and more Iiwly . . .. "This
aspect of the phenomenon will be discussed in more detail later
in the chapter.
As has already been mentioned, the atomic hypothesis was well
known in 1908, and had been for several decades. The quotation
in the preceding paragraph shows how earlier workers on the
phenomenon of Brownian motion had utilized the concept of
molecular motion to account for the phenomenon. Perrin felt
that the argument could be made equally well , and perhaps even
THE EXISTENCE OF ATOMS 39
more convincingly, the other way around: that the existence of
Brownian motion could be used to deduce the existence of mole-
cules. His line of reasoning was as follows:
\.Yhat is really strange and new in Brownian motion !s just t~at it
never stops. At first this seems in contradiction to our dady .expenence
with friction. If, for example, we pour a bucket of water mt? a tub,
it will seem proper to us that after a little while the motiOn first
possessed by the liquid mass has disappeared. Howev~r, let us analyze
how this apparent equilibrium is reached: All the particles of the wat~r
at first had their velocities approximately equal and parallel; tlus
arrangement is broken up as soon as some of the particles •. striking the
sides of the tub bounce off in different <hrectwns with changed
velocities, to be i:nmediately deflected anew by their collisions against
other parts of the liquid. Thus, some instants after the fall, all the ~arts
of the water are still in motion, but it is already necessary to consider
a rather sma ll part in order for the velocities of its different I:oints
to have approximately the same direction and the sari?e magmtude.
This is easily seen by mixing into the liquid some grams .of colored
powder that take on more and more irregular molions relative to each
other. ·
What we observe, therefore, as long as we can distinguish anyt 1Hng,
is not that the movement stops, but that it becomes more and more
disorderly , that it is distributed in a more and more irregular manner
among smaller and smaller parts.
Does this disordering proceed indefinitely?
To have some information for judging this, in any event to. follow
this disordering as far as possible, we must give up observmg. with the
naked eye and make use of a microscope, and for In~hcator grams, .U:ake
use of microscopic granules. Now, these are preCisely the condnwns
under which we ]:lerceive Brownian motion; we are, then, assured that
the coherence of movement, so evident on the ordinary scale of our ob-
servations, does not proceed indefinitely, and , on the microscopic scale,
we fJToue an eyui lilnium between coherence and decoherence . . . . And
there appears to be no way to anlid the followlllg conclusiOn:. . .
Since the dispersal of motion in a fluid does not pr~ceed mde~n1tely
and is limited bv a spontaneous reordering, the fact IS that fluids are
themseh·es comp~sed of grains, of molerules, which can incl~ed take ?n ,
relative to o ne another, all possible motions, but to th~ mtenor ?f which
no transfer of motion is possib le. 1f such molecules <hd not exist, tl:ere
would appear to be no way to have a limit on the disordering of motion.
These arguments seem impressi,e; but as always in p!1ysics,
they were of no Yalue unless they could be supported by CYJdence

40 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
of a quantitative sort. Perrin now addressed himself to the
problem of providing such evidence.
One of the consequences of the molecular theory is the law
relating the average kinetic energy TV of a gas molecule to the
pressure p and volume V of its container:
W = ~pV/n, (4.1)
where n is the number of molecules present in the container.
Now imagine a dilute solution separated from a body of pure
solvent by a semipermeable membrane, one which offers no
impedance to the passage of solvent molecules but which com-
pletely stops molecules of the solute. In such an arrangement,
there is a pressure exerted on the membrane, known as osmotic
pressure. Exactly the same line of reasoning that led to Eq. (4 .1)
can be applied to the molecules of the solute, with the result that
an equation of exactly the same form is found to relate the m ean
kinetic energy of the solute molecules to the osmotic pressure.
1\foreover, the Dutch chemist van't Hoff had found that experi-
mental values of osmotic pressure were just the same as the
pressures that would have been exerted by the respective solutes
If they had been gases of unchanged densities.2
In the case of gases, there is another relation between pressure
and-volume: the gas law,
pV = 1\"RT,
where T is the absolute temperature, N is the number of moles
of gas, and R is a universal constant. This equation together
with Eq. (-4.1) imply
W = ~(l\.R jn) T. (4.2)
The ratio of th e number n of molecules to th e number N of moles
is also a constant, Avogadro's number, denoted by l\' 0 . Equation
(4.2) is thus a statement that the mean kinetic energy of a gas
molecu!e depends only on the absolute temperature of the gas.
Accorclmg to the preceding paragraph, an exactly parallel state-
ment is true for the molecul es of solvent in a dilute solution.
This last statement is completely free of all reference to the
nature of either the solvent or the solute. If one considers a
solute "·hich is itself a liquid, ethyl alcohol for example, th en,
41
THE EXISTENCE OF ATOMS
according to Perrin, " . . . this indifference to the nature of the
molecules of the liquid in which it is moving makes it almost
impossible to beliew that it will not have the same energy if it
is in ethyl alcohol, that is, if it is one of the molecules of pure
ethyl alcohol." 3 Much more significant to the present discussion
is that there is no upper limit placed on the size of the solute
molecules, and there seems to be no obstacle to extending the
law to "a particle yet a little larger, itself formed of several
molecules, in one word 4 a grain of twwder." Apparently, then,
Eq. (4.2) , or more properly its equivalent form
(4.3)
W = HR / So)T,
applies also to particles observed in Brownian motion.
Let us return to Perrin's own description:
Suppose that it were possible to rea lize an emulsion of comple_tely
identica l graim. an emulsion of which I will say, for brevny, that It is
uniform. . . . .
Imagin e a uniform emulsion in equilib rium, which fills a verucal
cylinder of cross section s. T he state of the honzontal slab bounded by
the heights h and h + rlh would not be changed if it were entr~pped
between two pistons permeable to the molecules of water, but ~mper­
meable to the grains .. . . Each of these sem ipermeable p1st_ons IS sub-
jected, by the impacts of the grains that it stops. to an osmouc pressure.
If the emulsion is dilute , this pressure can be calcu lated by the sam_e
reasoning as for a gas or an ex tended solu tion . with the result that , 1f
at height h th ere are n grains per unit volume. th e osmotic press_ure :'
will be equal to Knll', if IV denotes the mean en ergy of the _grams; lt
will be R(n + r/n ) IV at height h + rlh. Now, the sla b of grams un~er
con sideration docs not sink: for this it is requisite that there be eqlllhb-
rium between the difterence of osmotic pressures, which acts upwards,
and the total weight of th e gr;tin~. diminished by the buoyant force
that they expe rieiKe, whi ch acts downwards. Thus, denoting by if the
volum e of each grain . .1 it s dcmity , and 5 that of the suspending liquid,
we see that"
- ~S J1'dn = li S dh !p (6 - o)g
or
dn
-~w - = c; (6 - o)gdh,
n
which , by an ob\·ious integration, gives risen to th e following relation
 ---~--~gM--~------------------------~
42
CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
between the concentrations n .. and n at two pomts
· whose difference
heights ish:
2 r11 ln -;;no o)gh,
3 = <P(t. -
a relation that can be ca lled the equation of distn"bution of the emul-
sion.
The point of the foregoing derivation is this: Equation (4.3)
expresses the mean energy of a suspended gra in in terms of the
absolute temperature and a quantity characteristic of the atomic-
molecular hypothesis, ~ ,·ogadro 's number. But the mean energy
cannot be measured chrectly; the motion of the particles is too
fast and too short-ranged to be followed. 1t is necessary to relate
the mean_energy to quanti_ties that ~ou ld be measured. Equation
(4.4) :xp1esses such a relauon, obunned without reference to th e
a tomic hypothesis. Perrin has th is to say:
In short, by wh atever path it be, we find ourselves led to think th at
~ 1le mean _e nergy of transb.ttion of a mo lec ul e is equa l to th at possessed
JY. the grains of an emulsion. lf then we find a method of calcu latin
tins g ranu lar energy 111 terms of measurable quantities, we sha ll have i~
~he same stroke a method of judging our theory. Once the experimen ts
are done, t~·o cases can 111 fact prese nt thern;eh es: Either the numbers
obta 11_1ed _will be substantially different from those that are g iven b
~I1e km euc arguments summ arized above , and, in this case, especi a ll ~
If th e numb~rs change wn h the grains studi ed, the credibility of th e
kmeuc th ~ones will be reduced , a nd the origin of the Brownian motion
will re~a m to be fo~nd; or th e numbers will be of th e order of magni-
tu de pre,chcted, and, In this case, not only do we h ave the right to regard
~he molecula~ theory of tills motion as e>tabli shed, but also we can seek
111 our expenments a method , perhaps precise this time, of knowin
molecul ar magllltudes.
~he stage_ was thus set for the experiment. The concept, o nce
~t gam, was simple: to determine the co ncen trations at two levels
111 an emulsion of particles of known size and density and at
kn~wn tem1:erature_- T he execution, however, was extremely
tedwus, as will be evident.
Th~ first step was to selec t a suitable mat erial to form the
emu lsiOn. Apparently there had been some earli er stud ies; all
that had been learn ed from them was that "a large number of
THE EXISTENCE OF ATOMS 43
111
colloidal solutions become clear in their upper portions when
they are left alone for several weeks or severa l months." Perrin
(4.4) himself had made "some attempts without result on these colloidal
solutions." Finally, "after some gropings," he had found it
possible to make m easurements on emulsions of gamboge, a yellow
resin used in water colors,i or of mastic, a resin used in making
varnish. Perrin does not specify the properties that he sought in
his emulsions, but one feature that he is careful to mention about
both gamboge and mastic is that the suspended particles are
spherical. This meant that once a uniform suspension had been
obtained, that is, one in which all the particles were the same
size, the volume 'f could be expressed in terms of the radius a,
as 'f = tr.a 3-provided, of course, that the radius could be
measured.
The suspensions as originally formed, s however, consisted of
particles of a variety of sizes, and it was necessary to "sort them
out" by size. This was done by a process that Perrin calls "frac-
tional centr ifuging." Here is his description of the techn ique :
The centrifuge tube is fdled to a given depth, I 0 ern for example,
with a pure emulsion ; the machine is set in motion at a fixed angular
speed, for example 30 re,·olutions per seco nd (wh ich gives, a t 15 em
from the ax is, a centrifugal force abo ut 500 times greater th an the
weight); the drive of th e machine is stopped after a fixed time, 60
minutes for example, and it is allowed to stop by itself, which must
take a few minutes; the tube is carefully withdrawn.
A fairly firm sed im en t, with a clearly defined surface, occupies the
bottom of this tube to a de pth usu all y negligible relative to the depth
of the liquid ; it contains all the grai ns th at have reached the bottom
g during th e centrifuging, pressed together much as the grains of sa nd
filling a sack might be.
Let us de no te by a 1 th e radius that a grain located at the surface of
the liquid at the start of th e centrifuging would have to have in order to
arrive at the bottom of th e tube just at "the moment when the centri-
fu ging sLOpped; every larger gra in will a fortiori h ave arrived in the
depos ited sed iment , b ut this sediment co nt a in s in addition many smaller
gra im , that had tim e to reach the bottom beca use they were found , at
the beginning, at lower le,·els in the em ul sion .
By means of a sip ho n, the liquid which is above the sed iment is
carefully decanted; the tube is refilled with distilled water up to the
original depth ; it is shaken with th e sedime nt, th e grains of which all
separa te, and the preceding operation is carried ou t again with the
 44 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
same angular spe,~ d and the same duration of centrifuging. All the
grains of r ad ius ;.;rea ter than a 1 will again haYe time to reach the
bottom. bm a small grain which preYiously was a ble to do so because
it was already close will not be able to this time if chance makes it
start ne a r th e surface. In short, the second sediment conta ins, like the
first, all the gra ins whose radi i exceed a 1 , and co mains m a ny fewer
smaller grains.
The supernata nt em ulsion is decan ted, already paler th an the fraction
deca nted first, a nd the same operations are repea ted until the liquid
that is found above the sediment at th e end of each centrifugi ng
becomes nea rl y clear water. Now thi s sediment contains all the gr ains
of the original emulsion whose rad ius exceeds a 1 and no others; all the
smaller grains have been elimina ted.
Let us repea t the same operations on the fin al sed iment, bu t with
a little shorter duration of centrifuging. Let us designate by a2 the
radius that a grain at th e su rface must ha\'e to reach the bottom of
the tube just a t the end of this ce ntrifu ging. The liquid that is found
a bo\' e the sediment ca n on ly contain gra ins o f a r adius less than a2 ;
according to its origin , it can only contai n gra in s of radius greater th a n
a 1 ; thu~ if a 1 is n ear a~ , this liquid is practically a unifoml emulsion
which needs only to be decanted .
I think it is needless to explain how one can in a n a nalogous fashion,
if it is so desired , ex tract from the o,·erlying frac tions a uniform
em ulsion of still smaller grains, or from the residu al sediment a
uniform emulsion of still large r grains.
As is so often th e case, the procedure appears simple and
straightforward in retrospect. It was cle arly ingenious, however,
and must h ave ueen very time-consuming-note that Perrin
gives no hint of h ow man y repeti tions were required for a com-
plete separation .
The density of the gra ins was determined by two m ethods. One
was simply to hea t the emulsion so as to e,·aporate the water; the
resin then m elts, but on coolin g solidifies again to a glassy
substance whose density can be d e termined by stand ard m ethods.
This procedure, however, implies the ass umption that the resin
has the same density in bulk form as it ha s in th e form of sus-
pended grains. Perrin th erefore used a second m ethod as a check.
He de termin ed th e m asses m of wa ter a nd m ' of emulsion needed
to fill the same container at the same temperature. He th en dried
the emulsion and meas ured th e m ass 1-' of resin that it contain ed.
If d is the d ens ity of water, the volum e of the container is m j d;
45
THE EXISTENCE OF ATOMS
the volume of the liquid origin ally in the emulsion is (m'- !-') j d;
the difference between these two numbers is then the volume
occupied by the resin in th e em ulsion , which di~· ided into its mass
1-' is its density. The two methods gave values 111 excellent agree-
ment. .
A fiat cylindrical vessel was now formed b y plac~ng o~ a micro-
scope slide a thin sheet of glass, usually O.l mm th1c~, w1t:1 a hole
through it.9 A drop of uniform emulsion was place.d 111 th1s vessel,
and a microscope cover-glass sealed over 1t wJth paraffin. or
varnish. \Vith evaporation thus prevented, a single preparatiOn
could be obsen ·ed during a period of as much as several weeks.
The whole was then placed on the s·t age of a microscope ; it was
necessary to take pains to see that the stage ':as _level, so that
motion of the body tube, and hence of th e obJecu ve, would ~e
accurately vertica l. The whole arrangement is shown schematic-
ally in Fig. 4. 1.
M icroscope
Objective
Cover Gloss
Emulsion
Microscope Slide
FIG. 4.1 Experimental arrangement for measuring the distribution of grains in an
emulsion . The drawing proper is from Perrin's work; the legend has been translated.
[Perrin, Oeuvres Scientifiques , p . 193, Fig. 21.]
The objective was chosen to give high ma gnification but to
have o nl y a ; m all depth of fi eld, of the order of a micron (the 0.1-
mm depth of th e con ta in er i> equal to 100 mi crons). It was pos-
 46 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
sible, then, to see clearly at one time only those grains in a very
thin horizontal slab of the emulsion. If the body tube were
raised or lowered, the grains in another slab would be seen, and
the vertical distance between the slices, which would correspond
to the difference in height h of Eq. (4.4), could be determined
from the scale on the micrometer movement of the microscope_IO
The next step was to determine the number of grains in a given
area-the field of view, say-at each of two levels. This was by
no means easy: " . . . it is not a matter of counting fixed objects,
and when, on putting one's eye to the microscope, one discerns
in the field some hundreds of grains that jiggle in every direction,
and moreover continually disappearing at the same time as other
grains appear, one is quickly convinced of the uselessness of any
efforts that could be made to know even roughly the average
number of grains present in the slice observed." This, of course, is
an exaggeration. One means immediately suggests itself, that of
photographing the layer and co untin g the clear images of grains.
Even if the em ulsion were so dilute that the number were small
and thus subject to relatively large fluctuations,ll the same layer
could be photographed again and again so as to obtain an
accurate average value. This method proved useful , but only
when the grains were more th an about ~ micron in diameter; for
smaller grains, the photographic image~ were not good. In such
cases anoth er scheme was used. In the focal plane of the micro-
scope ocular was placed a disk of opaque foil , pierced with a
small round hol e by means of a dissecting needle. This cut down
th e field of view to th e point where the number of particles could
be taken in at a glance, say during the illumination admitted by
a camera shutter. "Working in this way at regular intervals,
every I 5 seconds for exam pie, one obsen·es a series of numbers
whose mean valu e approaches more and more closely a limit which
defines the mean frequency of the gra in s, at the level stud ied, in
the little cylindrical layer on which the microscope is focused."
The same process repeated at a different level would give the
m ea n frequency in an equal volume, and "the ratio of the two
numbers gives the desired ratio of concentrations." It was neces-
sary, however, to take several thousand readings to achieve any
degree of precision.
THE EXISTENCE OF ATOMS 47
The remaining quantity was the radius of the grains. Here
again Perrin found more than one means of measurement, to
provide a check. The first made use of Stokes's law, governing
the fall of a sphere of radius a, of density t:., through a fluid of
density 8 and viscosity 1): The sphere acquires a limitin g velocity
called the terminal velocity, when the viscous drag of the fluid
just counterbalances the net downward force, weight minus buoy-
ancy; the terminal velocity satisfies the equation
67r1)aV = j-1ra 3 (t:. - o)g.
I£ an extremely tall vertical column of a uniform emulsion is
produced, then, as Perrin puts it, "One will be far enough from
the equilibrium distribution that the grains at the upper levels
will sink like the droplets of a cloud, practically without one's
needing to take into consideration the counter motion due to the
accumulation of grains at lower levels. The upper part of the
liquid thus becomes clear, and the extent of the clarified zone,
divided by the time elapsed since th e emulsion was left to itself,
gives the velocity of fall to which Stokes's law is applied." The
procedure, accordingly, was to seal a quantity of emulsion into a
capillary tube (the narrow tube eliminated motion due to con-
vection currents), install it vertically in a temperature bath, and
observe the dai ly descent of the top of the cloud of grains; for
such small grains, the terminal velocity would be reached in a
matter of seconds, but would be measured in millimeters per
day.
Perrin recognized that the application of Stokes's law to such
small grains might be questionable, 12 so he used two more direct
methods. One was to count the number of grains in a known
volume of sta ndardized emulsion-that is, emulsion in which the
concentration of emulsion by mass was known . It was not prac-
tical, of course, to count the granules actuall y in suspension; but
Perrin had "had occasion to notice that in a weakly acid medium
(for example 0.01 gram mole per liter) the grains of gamboge or
mastic collect on the glass walls that hold in the preparation."
It was not a matter of destroying the suspension, but only that the
grains st ick to the glass when they happen to strike it, so that after
several hours, all the grains originally present in one of his cells
 48 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS THE EXISTENCE OF ATOMS 49

would be fixed to the surfaces of the con tainer. MoreoYer, a "pro-

tective colloid" present in the natural latex of gamboge and
added to the emulsion kept the grains separate rather than in
partially coagulated globs. Finally, there was no sign ificant lateral
migration of the grains during the deposition process, so that
those originally in a given vertical column ended up, apart from
fluctuations, on the portions of the top and bottom plates that
marked the ends of the column. Simple counting1 3 then gave the
number of grains in a kn own Yolume of emulsion, from which
together with the mass per unit volume the size of each grain
could be calculated.
A third method, still more direct, was usable for grains more
than half a micron in diameter. In this case, it was found that
the grains tended to arrange themselves in fairly regular arrays,
within which cou ld be distinguished straight rows of three to five
grains. An example is shown in Fig. 4.2 . While the image of a
single grain was too much enlarged by diffraction to permit more
than a rough estimate of its diameter, the length of such a row
could be reasonably easily measured, either in direct view or on
a photograph, thus permitting a determination of the diameter of
a single grain.
The three methods gaye closely comparable results. Six emul-
sions ultimately served as the source of Perrin 's results; the values
obtained for the radii of five of the six, and one extra, are given
111 Table 4-l. Perrin notes that to achieve the one case of three-

TABLE 4-1. Radii of Grains in Six Emulsions, in .Microns

M ethod
Material Counting Stokes's law Rows
Gamboge 0.14 0.15
Gamboge 0.212 0.213
Gamboge 0.30 0.29 0.30
Gamboge 0.46 0.45 0.455
Gamboge 0.49 0.50
Mastic 0.52 0.54

figure accuracy, he had to count II 000 grains. FIG . 4 .2 A photograph of emulsion groins deposited on one surface of a container,
The emulsion of 0.14-micron particles gave poor results, for showing the approximately regular array which permilled measurement of
reasons which Perrin does not specify. T he resulting value of diameters . (Perrin, Oeuvres Scientifiques, facing p . 198, plate 1.]
 THE EXISTENCE OF ATOMS 51
50 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS

N 0 is given merely as "between" 5.0 x 10 23 and 8.0 x 10 2 ~ per

gram mole. Two series of measurements were made on emul sions 7
t~
~ v
of radius about 0.30 micron; one, probably the one whose radius f'., ~ ~ '\ ,.,.. r.-- \
I-<:!- I .L \
measurements are tabulated, gave N 0 = 7.5 X 1023 per gram mole,
[';

while the other, for which the radius is reported as 0.29 micron, ... \/ 1.1
fY ~,.....- \ ~
gave N 0 = 6.6 X 10 23 per gram mole. The 0.45-micron emulsion
gave N 0 = 7.2 x 10 23 per gram mole, while the 0.52-micron one
of mastic gave N 0= 7.0 X J02:l per gram mole. The total numbers ..v-- . I~
,{
.,
of grains counted in determining the concentration ratios for / v I )

; :J; ~ ~{;
these five were between 3000 and 7500. The series of which Perrin
was evidently proudest, however, was that on the 0.212-micron i\ 4'
emulsion. He counted at four levels for a total of 13 000 grains, \ ~ !--"'- II 1
'C ' \
and obtained the result N 0 = 7.05 X 10n per gram mole. I• r\ 1\
Considering the nature of the experiment and the difficulties
involved, the agreement among these various values is quite .,. 1....

~
A
\ / I
satisfactory. Perrin notes that they cover a fortyfold range of .\
..!_ 1\ v 1/
masses, a nearly fivefold range of difference in density between , 1/
~
grains and liquid, 14 and a thirtyfold range in rate of decrease of \ \ if \
I~ .-J_
concentration with increase in height. He concludes, already at
/ " -;
;. ,\.
this point, that "it is quite difficult to deny the objective reality
of molecules."
But he carried the matter still another step. It must not be
i ....
' 1? ....
~ :t....::
t' ,.- _:.

thought that a giYen particle in Brownian motion merely under-
goes an irregular motion around an equilibrium position. Rather,
it traces out an irregular, wildly wandering path. Figure 4.3
shows three examples. On each of the paths, the points are plotted
at interva ls of 30 seconds; the size of the divisions is not given,
but is of the order of one or a few microns. "One of these patterns
contains 50 consecutive positions of a single grain. It gives only
a very faint idea of the stupendous entanglement of the real
trajectory. If, in fact, one were to m ake the mark second by
second, each of the straight line segments would be replaced by
a polygonal path of 30 sides, relatively as complex as the pattern
here reproduced , and so on."
Einstein had ana lyzed thi s motion in a series of articles
published in 1905 and 1906.15 Hi s analysis centered on the net
displacement of a particle during an interval T, that is, the dis-
tance from its position at the start o f the interval to its position
,, v
I i /
-·
I v:
FIG. 4.3 Three . examples of the paths of particles in Brownian motion. [Perrin.
Oeuvres Scientifiques, p. 218, Fig. 25.]
at the encl. As is evident from Fig. 4.3, this quantity docs not h:ne
a single Yalue, but many values. Each value is, of course, a vector
quantity, for which the component along some specified directio n
can be found. \Vhat Einstein calculated was the average of th e
squares of th e Yalu es of such a component. If this quantity is d e-
noted by (x 2 ) , then for a spherica l particle of radius a Htspende\.'.
in a liquid of viscosity ry, the value is
(4.3
where, as before, R is the gas constant, Tis th e absolute temper.c-
ture, and N 0 is Avogadro's number.
 52 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
In fact, at least three earlier studies had dealt with this aspect
of Brownian motion; and all three, two of which were carried out
after Einstein's work, appeared to be in contradiction with those
results. Nevertheless, there were sufficient grounds for doubting
the validity of the earlier works that P errin and a student of his,
n amed Ch audesaigues, were thoroughly willing to try again.
\Vorking with "grains of exactly known diameter which I knew
how to prepare, " Chaudesaigues "registered the position of a
grain with the camera lu cicl a, 1G from h alf-m inute to half-mi nute,
he began agai n with another grai n, and so on . . . . There was
th en nothing more but to see whether the va lue given . .. by
Einstein's elptation . . . agrees, within the limi ts of error of the
ex p erim en t, with the value already determined ."
As a preliminary check, Ch a ud esa igues studi ed some grains of
gamboge only indif[erently identical. The results were enco ur-
aging, so a 1110re careful effort was made. T he 0.212-micron
emu lsion already discussed was used. Each of 100 grains was fo l-
lowed for four 30-second intervals, 50 graim at each of t\1"0 values
for the viscosity of the liq uid. T h e first group of 50 gave
N .. = 7.3 X 10 ~:~ per gra m mole, the second gave N 0 = 6.8 x 10 2 3
per gram mole. For a third gro up of 50 grains the viscosity was
in creased a bout fivefold by adding sugar; the mean displacement
was reduced in the th eoretica ll y predicted ratio, a nd the resulting
\·alue for l\'0 was 5.6 X HV1 per gram mole.
Finally, three series of measurements were made, in collabora-
tion with o ne J\1. Dabrowski, on emu lsio ns of mastic. The values
for N., , in units of 10 2 :1 p er gram mole, were 6.45, 7.15, and 7.7.
T he overall value obtained by this method was taken to be
7.15 X 10 2:1 per gram mole, in quite reasonable agreement \rith
the va lu e determined from the distribution law.
Perrin devotes th e List portion of his paper to a rev iew of other
methods of estimatin g N 0 (includin g a rat her wrprising one, due
to Lord Rayleigh , imolving the intensity of the blue light from
the sky), a nd not es tha t all of th em lea d to results comparalJ le
with his own. H e then gi, es this summary:
I bclieYe it is impos,i iJi e for an int el lec t free of prejudice to refl ec t
o n th e ext reme 'ari et y of phenomena that ronYerge in this way toward
THE EXISTENCE OF ATOMS 53
the same result , without feeling a very strong effect; and I thi nk that
from now on it will be difficult to defend by rational arguments an
attitude h ost il e to the molecular hypothesis, which breaks through all
conYictions one after another, a nd to wh ich one must gra nt at le ast as
much credence as to th e principles of e nerge tics.17 Th ere is certainly
no question of contrastin g these two great disciplines with one another,
and the union o f .-\ tomi stics and Energe tics will g lorify their double
triumph .
FOOTNOTES
'.-\11 C]UOta ti ons in th e present chapter art' from thi s paper. The paper was
of suc h significance that tran slat ion s into Engli sh and German were published
in 1910, the former being made by F rederick Soddy (see bibliography).
2
.-\II of the foregoi ng analysis may have bee n clu e to van "t Hoff also: Perrin
is, a t times, careless abou t m aking clear h ow m uch of the background was
dra11·n from the work of others. Simil arly. the succeeding argum ents ma y haYc
been genera ll y known.
3
This is a far more d rastic <':\tens ion than it may appear at a cas u al
glance. It ign ores the fact that the original deduction dcpcndl'cl on a dis-
tinction hctln'en so h -c nt and solute.
• A sin gle French \\·ore!. jJOussihe, is translated "grai n of p01,·dn."
• Th e ld t-ha nd side is th e difference between th e two osmotic pressures,
multipli ed by the area on which eac h ac ts; the right-hand side is the differ-
ence of two terms each of which is a number of part icles per unit volume
tim es the Yolum e s dli of th e slab , gi1·ing th e total number of particles. times
the Yol um e of each particle, tim es a density , times th e acceleration clu e to
gradty, and is therefore th e d ifferen ce bc·tween the tot al weight o f the
particles and the to ta l bum·ant force on them.
G This step mu st be taken on faith by readers who have not srudi ed ca lculus.
The notation " In " in Eq. (-1.4) represents th e logar ithm to th e base e =
2.7182 ... , called ··natural logarithm." :\ote tha t for a ny x, there hold s x =
e'"' = (10'"• •) ' "' = 10 '"" • 1 " ' = 10' 0 • ' , so tha t logx = loge lnx . Conversely,
lnx =In 10 logx.
'Perrin 11·as che mi st enough to be concerned OYer the chemical nature o f
th e sub stances in,·oh·cd . For example. he es tab li shed that th e yellow substance
which was suspended in the case of gaii Jboge, and whi ch com titut ed abo ut
HO'·;, hv 11·eig ht of the raw mat erial. was a pparentlY a p ure chem ica l comp <1111HI
rather than a mi~tnre. th at it wa s an acid (which he named eull ir acid . from
the French word for gamboge, gunune -guiiC). and that it l1ad a molecular
weight in the neighbo rhood of 540.
' Conmwn h . lw ex tractin g the raw latex 11·ith alcohol and d ilut ing th e re-
su lting so lut ion 11·ith water.
"\uch sheets are co nnn erc iall v a,·a il ahlc for usc in Jll ak ing blood co11nts.
'''A correc ti on fac tor of {, allowing for the fact that what was bein g
llJ cas urcd was an ajJjJar;-n/ d epth of water. had 10 be applied if an imme rsion
ohjectin: IH"re not u sed; Perrin, howen-r. u sual!\ mcd th e immersion ob-
jcctil·e.
 54 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
11 If a single counting o f a quantity subject to random fluctuation gives the

result n, the probable error of this result , which is roughly equal to the
mean fluctuation, is yin; the relative probable error is thus 1/yn. which may
be fairly large if n is only modera tely large. For examp le, if th e relati,·e
error is to be I %. n must be 10 000.
1.ll A few years later, Millikan was to di scover that Stokes's Jaw does indeed

require modification when the diameter of the sph ere becomes comparable
with the average distance between molecul es of the fluid. In liquids. h oweYer,
5 The Atontic Arucleus
this situation does not arise for visib le, eve n microscopically Yisible , grains.
13 In actuality, th e positions of th e grains were recorded on tracing paper by

means of a camera Iucida , an instrument which ca u ses a virtual image to a p·

pear as if projected on a plane surface, such as a ground glass. so that a
tracing can be made; in addition, the fluctuations. mentioned were taken
account of by a,·eraging counts made on sewral vertical col umn s in a single
cell, the column s being defined by squa re grills ruled on the mi croscope slide.
"For ga mboge, th e difference in den sity was in th e range 0.2 to 0.3 gram In 1911, the atomic hypothesis was on firm grou nd as a con-
per cubic centi1i1eter, while for ma st ic it was onh 0.063 gram per cubic centi- sequence of Perrin's \rork. True, the experiments of Rutherford
meter. and Soddy had robbed the atom of its immutability; but radio-
15 This work, and st udi es of the specific heat of solids, were at least as influ -

ential in the award of the :'\obcl prize to Einst ein as was his work on relatiYit\·. activity was a rather spec ial phenomenon. Neither study, how-
"' The function of the camera Iu cida was d escribed in footnote 13 . e,·er, had revealed anything about the structure of the atom. Of
17 The opponents of th e atomic hvpothesis, led by th e chemist Ostwald,
th at, little was knO\m. It \\·as genera lly accepted that "corpuscles"
championed a doctrine that they called Energetics.
-\\·hat we nm,- know as electro ns-plaved some role in the
structure ; but what that role was remained unknown , except
niJJL/OCJL-JPHY that it was certa inl y related to the spectrum of light emitted by
th e atom.
This entire chapter is based on J Perrin, Annales de Chimie et
At least three diflerent suggestions h ad been p ut forward ,
de Physique 18, 1-114 (1909), reprinted in J Perrin, (Euvres
however. The earl iest (1902) \\·as due to Lord Kelvin, but was
Scientifiques (Service des Publications du Centre National de
champ ion ed principally by Sir J. J. Thomson and has become
la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 1950), pp. 171-239. This im-
known as the Thomson atom; Thomson published an ex tensive
portant work was translated into both English and German.
paper on it in 1904 and continued to \\·ork " ·ith it for several
The English translation is by Frederick Soddy, Brown ian
years. The model regard, th e positive charge and the mass of
Movement and Molecular Reality (Taylor and Francis,
the atom as being distribut ed uniformly throughout the atom,
London, 1910), and is excerpted in The World of the Atom,
presumably in a sphere "·hose diameter "·ould be of the order
pp. 628-640.
of I angstrom (JO -b centimeter). Electrons were thought of as
being embedded in this sph ere like raisins in a pudding; in con-
seque n ce, the model is frequent ly referred to as the "plum
pudding" atom . Thomson studied possible eq uilibrium arra nge-
ments of the electron s in th e atom, and noted that there could
be expected a sort of periodicity of atomic properties th at was
at least qualitatively simil ar to wh a t "·as obsen-ed.
The second was put forth by a professor at the Uni\'ersity of
Kicl, Philipp Lenard , who concei,·ed it as a result of his work on
55
 56 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS 57
cathode rays (work which earned him a Nobel prize) and pub-
Th~ decisive d:velopment came about as the result of a study of
lished it in October 1903. He noted, first, that his work led to the
a-particle scattenng. carried out by Hans Geiger, a postdoctoral
conclusion that "the dift"erent atoms of all materials are con-
fellow, and Ernest Marsden, an undergraduate student, under
structed of constituents of one kind in different numbers." These
Rutherford 's direction at the UniYersity of Manchester. They
constituents he called "dynamids." He concluded from the near-
found that a particles are defl ec ted through large angles with a
transparency of thin foils to cathode rays that the volume of the
probability too high to be explained except on the assumption
dynamids was only a tiny fraction--of order I 0-12--of the
that the atom contains a very small, massive core, the nucleus.
volume of the whole atom (which he, too, correctly estimated to
This chapter describes their work.
be of the order of a few times 10-s centimeter in linear dimen-
The problem of a-particle scattering had attracted Rutherford's
sion); and he suggested that the dynamid might consist of an
attention as early as 1906, while he was still at McGill University.
intimate association of an electron and a positive body much
He noted that while a beJm of a particles collimated by mean s of
more massive than the electron. However, he made no attempt
apertures and traveling in air would produce a sharp-edged spot
to treat the dynamics of his model, and it was comparatively
on a photographic plate, th e spot would be blurred if a sheet of
neglected (much to Lenard's embitterment).
mica _only 20 microns thick were interposed in the path. The
The third model was the work of a Japanese, H. Nagaoka.l
blurnng corresponded to a deflection of roughly 2 degrees for
The full account was presented to the Physico-Mathematical
some of the particles. From considerations of the strenoth and
Society of Japan and published in its Proceedings; but a sort of
extent of a magnetic field that would be needed to produce "' the
"extended abstract" was published in the British journal Nature
same deflection, Rutherford deduced that the a particle must
in early 1904 . The essential idea was that of a massive positive
have experienced, while traversing the mica, an electric field of
charge, with electrons spaced at regular intervals on a ring around
the order of 100 million volts per centimeter. "Such a result," he
it. The basic analysis of such a system had been carried out by
concluded, "brings out clearly the fact that the atoms of matter
Maxwell for the case of Saturn's rings; Nagaoka found that the
must be the seat of very intense electrical forces."
reptilsion between electrons, as contrasted with the attraction
His attention was drawn to the problem again at Manchester in
(gravitation) between the particles of Saturn's rings, did not alter
1908, in the course of another study. He commended it to Geiger,
the results. Nagaoka proposed that the small oscillations of the
who made a semiquantitative study reported in 1908. The ap-
electrons about their equilibrium positions would give rise to
paratus used is shown in Fig. 5.1.
optical radiation, and he achieved qualitative, and partially
quantitative, agreement with the observed features of optical
spectra. He also suggested that a large enough disturbance would
disrupt the atom, with the electrons flying off as beta particles - - - 114 em - - - - . - 5 4 em---+

r·······t-····::J~
and the positive charge fo rmi ng alpha particles. The model was
promptly criticized on the grounds that it was highly unstable
if it was electrically neutral. Nagaoka replied that his model was
not intended to represent the entire structure of the atom, and
so was not to be restricted to neutrality; he did not mention ,
however, what effects might be expected to result from the
presence of the remaining electrons. His model, also, appears to
FIG. 5.1 Geiger's apparatus for studying a -particle scattering. [Proc. Roy. Soc.
have undergone littl e further development.
(london) A81, p . 174 (1908), Fig. 1; some lettering replaced for legibility.)
 58 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS 59
The main part consists of a glass tube nearly 2 metres in length note the time with a stopwatch." \Vhatever the mechanics, the
and of about 4 em. diameter. The a-particles from a strong but small method was obviously both tedious and demanding of an ex-
source placed at R passed through a narrow slit S and produced an treme degree of concentration.
image of this slit on a phosphorescent screen Z, which was cemented to
the end of the glass tube. The breadth of the slit was 0.9 mm ., and the
Geiger's results were presented in the form of the curves shown
breadth of geometrical image on the screen was about 2 mm., depending in Fig. 5.2.
upon the dimensions and distance of the source. The numbers of
scintillations at different points of the screen were counted directly by A
means of a suitable microscope M, of 50 times magnification . The
area of the screen which could be seen through the microscope was
about I mm.~ The number of scintillations counted varied between two
or three a minute and about 80 per minute . . . . The microscope was
mounted on a slide PP so that the scintillations produced at nrying ....."
distances from the centre of the beam could be observed. The actual
position of the microscope was read on a millimetre scale fixed to the
"'
. t:::
i§
slide. ..
'-
~

The scintillation method, which here replaced the cruder pho- ~"'
·~
"'t.,
tographic image of the earlier work and which was the detection ~
system used in all the studies discussed in the remainder of this 0
.....
()
chapter, calls for some comment. The fact that zinc sulfide scintil-
lates when struck by a particles had been known for some time;
.,"... 8
E:
for example, Rutherford had mentioned it in a book on radio- "'
<::
activity published in 1904. Apparently the first person to adopt
the phenomenon as a tool for research was an investigator in
Berlin, Erich Regener, who reported his study in 1908. He noted
that the method required careful choice of parameters of the
microscope lenses to achieve maximum illumination from each
a particle; that it is advisable to have the scintillating screen
dimly illuminated by an ordinary lamp to provide a means for
keeping the eye focused on the screen; and, most importantly, 10 -1 2 0 z 6 8 IOmm
Distance from Centre
that before counting could begin, the eye must be dark-adapted
by the observer's sitting for at least five minutes in a completely FIG. 5.2 Geiger's curves of a-particle scattering. [Proc. Roy. Soc. (london) ABl,
darkened room. Rutherford and Geiger noted, in addition, that p . 176 (1908), Fig. 2.]
it is difficult to count for periods of more than about two minutes
because the eye becomes fatigued. Regener states that "The The curve A shows the distribution of the scintillations in a charcoal
vacuum. 2 . . . The second curve B shO\vs the effect if the slit is covered
counting of the flashes was done with a Morse apparatus [pre-
with one gold leaf.3 The area over which the scintillations were
sumably some sort of electromagnet device that made a mark observed was much broader and the difference in the distribution could
when a key was depressed] and a stopwatch"; Rutherford and easily be noticed with the naked eye . . . . The third curve C shows
Geiger say, "It was usual to count 100 scintillations and to the effect of two gold leaves together.
 60 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
It will be noted that Geiger's data extended only to deflections
of some I 0 millimeters in a distance of 54 centimeters, corre-
sponding to angles of only a degree or so. Even so, the number
of counts had dropped markedly; very few particles were scattered
through angles larger than that.
Rutherford, in a lecture nearly thirty years later, told the next
step in the story this way: 4 "One day Geiger came to me and said,
'Don't you think that young Marsden, whom I am training in
radioactive methods, ought to begin a small research?' Now I had
thought that too, so I said, 'Why not let him see if any a-particles
can be scattered through a large angle?' I may tell you in con-
fidence that I did not believe they would be, since we knew that
the a-particle was a very fast massive particle, with a great deal
of energy, and you could show that if the scattering was due to
the accumulated effect of a number of small scatterings the chance
of an a-particle's being scattered backwards was very small."
Geiger and Marsden's results, reported in June 1909, revealed a
startlingly large amount of large-angle scattering. Though more
quantitative than Geiger's earlier results, they were still com-
paratively crude.
. . . as radiating source, radium C, deposited on a plate of small
dimensions, was used. The arrangement, which is sketched in Fig. 3
[here reproduced as Fig. 5.3), was such that the a-particles from the
plate A fell upon the platinum reHector R , of about I square centimetre
A therefore could not undergo a very large deflection in a single
%W«0/~ s
FIG. 5.3 Geiger and Marsden's early arrangement for measuring a-particle scatter-
ing. [Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A82, p. 499 (1909). Fig. 3.]
THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS 61
area, at an average· angle of 90°. The reHected particles were counted
on different points of the screenS . . . .
The amount of radium C deposited on the plate was determined by
its )'-ray acti\·ity. Assuming that 3.4 x l 010 particles are expelled per
second from an amount of RaC equivalent to I gramme Ra,5 the
number of a-panicles expelled per second from the active plate was
determined . The number falling on the platinum reflector was then
easily calculated from its known distance and area. To find the whole
number of reflected particles, it was assumed that they were distributed
uniformly round a half sphere with the middle of the reflector as
centre.
Three different determinations showed that of the incident a-particles
about l in 8000 was reflected, under the described conditions.
In the lecture already referred to, 6 Rutherford described his
reaction to learning of this result:
.. . I remember . . . Geiger coming to me in great excitement and
sa ying, "\Ve have been able to get some of the a-panicles coming
backwards . . . .' It was quite the most incredible event that has ever
happened to me in my life.7 It was almost as incredible as if you fired
a 15- inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.
On consideration I realized that this scattering backwards must be the
result of a single collision, and when I made calculations I saw that it
was impossible to get anything of that order of magnitude unless you
took a system in wh ich the greater part of the mass of the atom was
concentrated in a minute nucleus. It was then that I had the idea of an
atom with a minute massive centre carrying a charge. a
Rutherford evidently recognized that according to the Thomson
model of the atom, the incident particle would not experience
a very large force as the result of a collision with an atom, and
collision . Rather, a large deviation would have to be the cumula-
tive effect of a number of successive small deflections. But al-
though an a particle would have a large chance of being multiply
scattered in passing through matter composed of Thomson atoms,
it is very unlikely that the many deflections would be all in the
same direction. A large net deflection, therefore, was extremely
unlikely.
Apparently, though he was not much of a mathematician nor
theorist, Rutherford also recognized that if the positive charge
 62 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS 63
were concentrated in a very small region, the large Coulomb force
required to make such a large defl ect ion possible in a single col-
lision could be experienced; at the same time , while the likeli-
hood of collision taking place was much reduced, the likelihood
of multiple scattering (at lea st in a thin foil) was much more so.
He worked out the details (published in 1911 ), 9 and found that
the likelihood of an a particle being deflected through an angle fJ
in passing through a foil of thickness tis proportional tot csc 4 (-!fJ).
For the Thomson model, on the other hand, the variation with
foil thickness is as t 112 and the angle dependence is domina ted
by a factor exp( - (f2jfJ 0 , 2 ), where fJ,". is the average angle of de-
flection-of the order of a degree or so. The differences were
susceptible to experimental test, but the experiment had to be
much more precise than the preceding work had been. Ruther-
ford 's paper concluded 1vith the statement, "Experiments in this
direction are already in progress by Geiger and Marsden."
The results were published in 1913. The apparatus was de-
signed to meet the condition that "to obtain measurable effects
an intense pencil of a-panicles is required." As shown in Fig. 5.4, it FIG. 5.4 Geiger and Marsden's later apparatus for measuring the angular vari-
ation of a -particle scattering. [Phil. Mag. 25, p . 607 (1913) , Fig. 1.]
. . . mainly consisted of a strong· cylindrical metal box B , which con-
tained the source of a particles R , th e scatter ing foil F , and a microscope screen S . . . . Obsen·a tions were taken in various experiments for
M to which th e zinc-sulphide screen S was rigidly attached. The box angles of cleflexwn from 5 ° to 150 °. \Vh en measuring th e sca ttering
was fas ten ed clown to a graduated circular platform A , which could be through large angles th e zinc-sulphide sc reen hac! to be turned very
rotated by means of a conical airtight joint C. By rotating the pl a tform near to the so urce, and th e {3 and -y rays produced a considerable
the box and microscope mov ed with it , whilst the scattering foil and lummescence on it , thu;, making countings of the scintillati ons difficult.
radiating so urce remained in position, being attached to the tube T , The effect of th e {1 ray; was reduced as far as possible by a lead box
which was fast e ned to the standard L. The box B was closed by the shown shaded in th e diagram . The amount of lead was however
ground-glass plate P, and could be exhausted through the tube T. limited by considerations of the space taken up by it, and co;1sequentl;
The source of a particles . . . consisted of a small thin-walled glass obscn auons could not l) r made for angles of deflexion between 150°
tube about I mm. in diameter, containi ng a large quantity of well and 180 °. . . .
purifier! radium emanation. The a particles emitted by the emanation E,·cn when 110 scatte ring- foil was used a few scintillations were always
and its actiYe deposit could pass thro ugh th e g lass without much r ed uc- obscn·ec! on th e screen. They were ob,·iously clue to scattered radiation
tion in range. For these experiments th e inhomogeneity of the from the walls of th e ,·essel and from the edge of the diaphragm limiting
;ource. clu e to the differe nt a panicl es from the emanation , Ra A and the bea m. The effect was reduced as far as possible . . . . The number of
Ra C, docs not interfere with the a pplication of the law of scattering stray a panicles was determined for different positions of the microscope
with angle as deduced from the theory, as eac h gro up of a particles is by remonng the scattering foil so tha t the necessary corrections could
scattered according to the same law. be applied with certainty.
By means of a diaphragm placed at D , a pe ncil of a particles was
directed normally on to the scattering foil F. By rotating the micro:.cope The customary procedure was as follows: \Vhile the source was
the a particles scattered in clifierem direct ions cou ld be observed on the fresh and strong, a set of meas urements was made at large angles,
 64 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
at which the scattering was relatively least frequent, on each of
several foils of different materials. "After a few days had elapsed"
and the source had decayed somewhat, "the measurements for the
smaller angles were repeated" to confirm the correction for decay
"and the range of angles extended. Proceeding in this way the
whole range of angles was investigated in the course of a few
weeks."
The principal results are reproduced in Table 5-l, representing
THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS 65
In Cols. IV and VI th e ratios of the numbers of scintillations to
l / sin 4 cp/2 [sic] are entered. It will be seen that in both sets th e values
are approximately constant. The deviations are somewh at systematic,
th e ratio increasing with decreasing angle. However, any slight asymme-
try in the appa ratus and other causes would affect the results in a
systematic way so that .. . the deYiations from constancy of the ratio
are probably well within the experimental error. The experiments,
therefore, prove that the number of a particles scattered in a definite
direction varies as cosec4cpj2 .

TABLE 5-1. Variation of Scattering with Angle

The test of the dependence on thickness required a somewhat
different apparatus, shown in Fig. 5.5.
II III IV v VI
Angle of SILVER GOLD
delle xi on, Number of Number of
scintillations, N scintillations, N
"'
(deg) sin' <P/ 2 N sin' <P/ 2 N sin' <P/ 2

150 1.15 22.2 19.3 33.1 28.8

135 1.38 27.4 19.8 43.0 31.2
120 1.79 33.0 18.4 51.9 29.0
105 2.53 47.3 18.7 69.5 27.5
75 7.25 136 18.8 211 29.1
60 16.0 320 20.0 477 29.8
45 46.6 989 21.2 1435 30.8
37.5 . 93.7 1760 18.8 3300 35. 3
30 223 5260 23.6 7800 35.0
22.5 690 20300 29.4 27300 39.6
15 3445 105400 30.6 132000 38.4

30 223 5.3 0.024 3.1 0.014

22.5 690 16.6 0.024 8.4 0.012
15 3445 93.0 0.027 48.2 0.0 14
10 17330 508 0.029 200 0.0115
7.5 54650 1710 0.031 607 0.011
5 276300 3320 0.012
FIG. 5.5 Geiger and Marsden's apparatus for measuring the thickness dependence
of a-particle scattering. [Phil. Mag. 25, p . 612 (1913), Fig . 3.]
two series of measurements on silver foils of equal thickness, and
two on gold foils of unequal thicknesses. It consists essentially of a source o f a radiation R, a diaphragm D,
a scattering foil F, and a zi nc-sulphide screen Z on which the scattered
. . . Col. I gives th e values of the angles cp between the direction "part icles were obsen·ed. The main part of the apparatus was enclosed
of the beam and the direction in which the scattered a particles were in a cylindrical brass ring A , the end' of which were planed so that they
counted. Col. II gives the values of l j sin'cp/ 2. In Cols. III and V the could be closed airt ight by the two glass plates B a nd C. The depth of
numbers of scintillations are entered which were observed for the the ring was 3.5 em., and its internal and external diameters 5.5 and
silver and gold respectively. Corrections arc made for the decay of the 7.5 em. respectively. Two holes were drilled through the glass plate
~mana tion , for the natural effect, and for change of diaphrilgm . . .. B, one in the centre and the other 1.65 em. excentric. The source of
 66 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
radiation R was placed directly against a sheet of mica which was
waxed over and closed the opening£ . . . .
By means of the diaphragm D a narrow pencil of a particles could
be directed on to the scattering foil. The different foils were attached
to the disk. S and coYered fi"e of six holes drilled through it at eq ual
dis tances from the centre. The uncovered opening was used to deter-
mine the natural effect. The disk could be fitted on to the rod P,
which was fasten ed to th e gro und -glass joint 1\1 so that it co uld be
rotated and the different foils brought in front of the diaphragm. The
scattered a particles were obserYed by means of a microscope on the
zinc-sulphide screen Z fixed inside the glass plate.
"fhe preparation of the source required rather more elabora te
care th an for the other part, as the inhomogeneity that was of no
significance there would have been intolerable here. It was found
possible to prepare a source consisting of a mixture of Ra A and
Ra C. The former decayed away in about 20 minutes after prepa-
ration, leav ing essentia lly pure Ra C; this was the actual source
and was usable for about another hour, after which small amounts
of emanation remaining from the mode of preparation interfered.
The resu lting short interval s of usefulness limited the number
of counts that could be obtained with each foil and hence the
accuracy.
Another difficulty was that the ··natural effect," the background
of scat"tering from the rest of the apparatus, was so strong that
in some cases it obscured the effect being measured. T his was
overcome by interposing a screen in such a position as to block
particles scattered by the edges of the diaphragm from reaching
the screen .
Measurements were made on gold, tin, silver, copper, and
aluminum. The results were plotted as numbers of scintillations
per minute, corrected for varia ti on of strength of the source with
time, versus foil thickness. "For all the m e tals examined the
points lie on straight lines which pass throu gh the origin. The
experiments th ere fore prove that for small thicknesses of matter
th e scattering is proportional to the thickn ess."
Rutherford's theory also predicted that the scattering of a p ar-
ticles of different velocities would be im-crsely proportional to the
fourth power o f the velocity. Geiger a nd ;\·l arsden tested this part
of the theory also, and found it to be correct. Thus, they con-
THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS 67
eluded, "we have completely verified the theory given by Prof.
Rutherford." The nuclear atom was established as a reality.
FOOT.\ ' OTES
1
The average Occidental may be startled to find that the Japanese were
tak ing a significan t part in th e scientific developments of the early 1900's.
The fact is that beginning in 1868, the govern ment of Japan bad strongly
encouraged the grow th of science and th e participation of Japanese in re-
search.
2
That is. a ,·acuum in whi ch the pressure is reduced by adsorption of gas
on charcoal (o ften in a cold trap) , to the order of IO-' millimeter of mercury
( IO-' a tmosphere).
"Thickness not given. Standard gold leaf is between 4 and 5 millionths of an
in ch thi ck.
• Background to Modem Science, edited by Joseph Need ham and Walter
Pagel (Cambr idge University Press, London, 1938), pp. 68- 69.
• This number had been determined earlier by Rutherford and Geiger. It
had been that study that stimulat ed the further work on a · p~rticle sca ttering.
• See footnote 4.
7
This remark whets th e reader 's curiosity as to Ruth er ford's reac tion to
the discoYery of transmutation (C hap. 3).
·' Ho"· mu ch Rutherford wa s influcnu·d by :\':1gaoka"s ''"o rk. to which his
bears some obvious resemblances, is impossible to determin e. H e certainly
knew of it-his paper on th e details of the thcory contains a reference to
it ; and it is qui te possible that he had d iscussed it with Nagaoka when the
latter Yisited 1\fa nchester in 1910.
'Curiously, the word "nucleus" docs not appear in thi s paper. Nor is th ere
a ny explicit mention of th e assumption th a t th e mass of th e :Hom is concen·
tratcd along with the charge, though this is implicit in th e dynamical con-
siderations.
nJ !i I.J 0 C fl A f>l-J Y
The Thomson atom is treated in .J. ]. Thomson, Philosophical
Magazine 7, 237-265 (1904); the Nagaoka model is ske tched in
H. Nagaoka, Nature 69, 392-393 (190,1). The latter reference is
included because of its possible influence on Rutherford's
work.
The preliminary experimental work is reported in H. Geiger,
Pmceedings of tl1 e Royal Society of London, Series A 81, 174-
177 (1908); H. Geiger a nd E. i\Jarsden, ibid. 82, 495-499 (1909).
The latter is excerpted in The World of the Atom, pp. 696-700
The theoretical work was published by E. Rutherford, PhilC'-
 68 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
sophical Magazine 21, 669-688 (191 1). It is reprinted in Sir
James Chadwick, ed., The Collerted Papers of Lord Rutherford
of N elson (George A llen and Unwin Ltd., London, 1963), Vol.
2, pp. 238-254, and is excerpted in The World of the Atom,
pp. 707-722. 6 Collisions of Electrons
The definitive experime ntal work is presented in H. Geiger and
E. Marsden, Philosophicall\Iagazin e 25, 604-623 (1913), and is
excerpted in The World of the Atom, pp. 722-733 .
zvith Atonzs
.
dZ>~t
~ I'
-"~~+
()I
I •• ~fiN ~dh ,· } The properties of atoms continued to be investigated with in-
II I
terest. Among other things, it was known that if sufficient energy

L1 ~Jw,t I'. V\a );~. ·. is supplied to an atom, one (or more) electron may be knocked
loose from the atomic structure, changing the a tom into an ion.

), ~ Q\j\ (JL,
·when the energy is supplied by striking the atom with an ex-
ternally produced electron, it is measured in terms of the poten-
tial difference through which the electron has been accelerated.
The value of this potential difference necessary to produce ioniza-
tion is called the i.Qnization potential, and is of significance in
its own right in connection with the understanding of phenomena
of electrical discharge in gases. Consequently, a n umber of deter-
minations of ionization potentials had been made, for various
gases, in the early years of this century. They were mostly in-
direct, however, d ependent on uncertain hypotheses, and the
values obtained for a given substance by different workers might
differ widely.
Among the investigators in this area were James Franck and
Gusta\· Hertz. \Vorking at th e University of Berlin. they measured
what they thought to be the ioniziltion potentials of several ele-
ments. It later became clear that they had not actually measured
an ionization potential; rather, thei-r work, for \Vh ich they won
the l\'obel prize in 1925, revealed th at there was a minimum
amount of energy that could be absorbed by a given variety-;;£
atom, and that this minimum energy was related to the optical
spectrum of the element.
69
 70 CRUC IA L EXPER IMENTS IN MODERN PH YS ICS COLLISIONS OF ELECTRON$ WIT H ATOMS 71

Th:i<· it titi.tl mu i1ud \1-,I· ll! prudun- electron;, ]) , mean .-. uf a G

iw:;tc,' Cd:IIIIl'IIt : .ILcclt'J :ttv thcn1 tllJ()ttgh :t !lle:I ;,\li cd. \<II i.tblc
N
po tntu .. l diflercli u J nL>i ntaincd IJt:t\\·ee n tr:c fibment and :1
t~.rid; ;tJJ;_i dc,·elt·J ;rtt: t! :cn1 ag;tin b: :llhHllc~. l e\ Tr-..t ' pott:nt i:d
diii :'IU! ll'. il 1' i()! 11:1' ten \O]t, _QTe .;:Cr ti L! !! f" . liCt\<Cen ti ll' Qlid
: : 1 :~~ :j ~..ull<.:tl(); :.d,!.t::: In tl1c ~p:l<..l' bcn\-<..'C!I ;.~l id .tnd t.olicctor f D
t~ l:..__ el ct l!O l i" ~. ~ o ~ ~L. ~ ~,.tl1~id·,· \·;ith ~~b Jl011l~ . - r~ l,_'\ (Ul!l d }l,)I l tlidtl
:I •': ci;·ctni t'>t:;ncL·, l L.tl!I lite «Jllectol. bec:tthe of tile , e,·" ·,d po-
t:_;n i:t! t! i!l c tT ll(t_.} i tn ·. c \Tl (the argun1e11t r~n ) . if:· ,,·e1 c ~;-rc;L.. t'1
til:ill t ;:•.· H.d ll L. Ii ioll J> C>L ll t i:tl. the einu-ons \1·:1\dd io nit: e ,ume
:t:ulll, L) (ui ,,i,nt: t "L' (!c Uri( field 11·otlld ar ,e ieratc th e .l2?' it iYe
-- --- -------- -- - --- ---- --
..2.~!.P> lO \\' a lt..Llb t: < ull ·__ c;_c ? ,\-Lich ,\·otdd t!H 'L ·:· e :..!.-i"tel :·: c:uTt J"Jt. FIG . 6 . i Elec tr 0 de o rronge men t f o • Franc k and H er t z' s me r:- surern en H of P'Z StJmed

1·1 ~ -- · \~ t!Lll u! LI!C IOLi;, t io n pcJtcnti;l !. then ~ \•: , :.~. the '.;due- oi 1· ionization pot en tiols [ Vf:'rh ondl Devt. physik. Ge s. 16 , p 45 Q {1Cf l 4) . J:is 1.]

io1 I<!Iic!J cttJrCJlt iJe:-;. •1, tcJ fk>\1' U• tl1e LOll c'C tu l· . B1 thi;, m e thod.
r! ,llllK ;;nd H ell/ mc:: , ur;.:ci \rk•t :t pllt::Ired to b e 'ion iz:tcion po: collide 11·it:1 _!.(:I.., :tlOlll.'. i11 the :Jrccl cr:ctin .~~- legion. l~t:l it :t-,- ·,.-:t,
tt•tt: i:d .' lu r :1 hz!lt -dotcn ;;::,c>. . • ;,umcd that :1 r ulli-.iutl i>•.'l\ICC'll .tl' clct tJ ill I .l!ltl :1 11 ;qo: ;; \1·mtld.,.,
1 a " Ion ~ ~~·~ ti1c k i lll'Iil Clll'l~.' :ll tllc c ic( t lon I" i(· ... -.. tiL t! ;
T Lu : ilt'( ' ll[lO!l \l':t' to l'-''' :t Jl !l lJ)O,Cd concl;uio :, or ,:IC inl!il;l - h( · cL ht l(

; H>l! p u t•:nti:iJ , \\ i: 11 :,t•J!J iic r:11lii fo , t il i, purpo;,,· tilt\ ' :n1tCd the ioJ:i JJt lo JI cnet~ \ ·; ;tnd i :1 ,!JJ t·L,.., ti( culli:,in ! l \\ 11i1 ;111 :t i.OJJ:.

to n l:I ke mc: l'lllTl1l('lll' Oil n Jc t::lli c ::toms. 11·itich h:n·c rU.:ti vcly
Lt1ge radii. The \ fe l t tlt:: L m :cint :1ini n g their a pp ar;~ n' ' at the
higher tcmpcrat ure;, n eeded to p r o duce metal , ·z:por, " ·o:Jl ct
cause error>-prcsunL' ])]\, th e c u rrcn ts t hey \'.-or k ed 11·i th were
;,o ;,m all th:1t tl tc decrea'c: in t l1e resista n ce o( the gla;,s cn \ ·elope ,
produ ced by tlic· i1tcrea:::e in tempera t ure , 1rould gi l'e r ise to
str:ty current ~ large enough to mask the desir e d effec t. Accord-
i ng ly, t hey de,·i ~ecl a n ev; form of appa r atus. shown i n fi g . G.l.
The gr id X, imtead oi bein g fair l; clo~e (5 mm ; t o t he filamen t ,
11·a, m :tdc a bout ·l em :t\l':t Y: t!tc collector pl:tte G \',·as placed onh
I o r ~nun from the grid. imteacl of some :2.:J em . Th e p o tential
bct\1·ec n fib1nem a nd grid 11 a'> Yari a blc , and such as to accelera te
t he e lect 1om, as b e for e; the pote mi :tl b e tw een grid and collector
1r: t' a g:ti n d ecele r at ing. but ll 0\1' sm all a n d con ~ tant .
The opera tion o f t i1c ap p aratm 11·as d escribed by Franck and
1- Iertz in the r eport o n their w o r k, publish e d in 191-J: " .-\s long
:ts th e an:cleratin g pote mi a l is less than the d ecelerating. th e cur-
the: (' CCliOll lo.-.e-. :t ll t ~· li"ii.>i c· lr:t( tion of it> enercr,~ :llld tltm I
ca n '>till o\erC<?lllC tl1c o).!L~~,ing cOca uf t~ con d p rne nti:tl
:1ncl r eac h th e col lecwr . Tilt' :t,,um pt io11 inl'oh cd 11·ill be di'>Cll'>~ecr
Ia tef. bu t it ::.een-1e d r ea'>Ot Ja hk in tl1e li gh t of tliC earlie t e xper i- '"
ments. The au:ottnt goc'> on:
I~
:\t 1hi > point . the electro!" , ,·il l und ergo in eh'>t ic col!i,io m in rhe
nei gh l,orh ood of the g-ri d and th ereby ionize. Since th e ~· the m ;,e ln'' and
,'
i~
th e elc ctrom >CI free by io ni 1a ti o11 tr;JH'r'>C onh :1 \'CJ'\' ;,mall p ott'n t ia l
until then· pa-;>agc t hrough th e grid. they P"'' th ro ugh it \\·ithout an
:tpprl'CiaiJ!e ,-eloc itY :!lld ~re in ctp:!blc o l nitinin g agai n st t he retarding
field. Th e g:Ii1a n o meter ClliT('!l ! ,., ilL thet elorc . d.Q2J' to zrro as soo n
:11> th e acceler:uiu g potenti :· l ha, become g r c ~ t er than the ion izat ion
)
pot e n t ial.
Tbi -. impli e s a ;,eco n d ;,;_,umption: tl1 at th e pro!J:thilit y of a
collision b e in g in e la sti c, if the e lectron e n e rgY i' large e nou g h
for tha t to be p o;,:, i blc . is n ot 1ery 'Ina !! colllpared to unit y. Th is
as~ umption . also , ~ee m e d to b e borne out b Y th e ea rlier \\'Or k .

rem [to the w ll ec to r ] i~ null . Then it 11·iJI incre a~e. until the ac- Fra n c k an d H e ru co ntinue :
ce lera tin g potcmi:d kt~ become eq ual to th e ioniza tion poten t ial. "
1f one in crc <"es t he accel er a tin g po tr·nti :d fu rther . th e point a t wh ich
Th e ba,i -, for th i' st:ne m e nt is a s fo llo w s: Th e e lectron, could thr clectrom un de rgo intl :"tic coll i-;iom m ow~ " inward from the grid.
 72 CRUCIAl EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
COLLISIONS OF ElECTRONS WITH ATOMS 73
T h, ele ctro n' p t t:,e n t :tfter the in eb;ti c coll i>i ons. th erefo re. p ass o n
350
titc ,q,·
to the grid through :t fHltc n ti:tl ,,·h iclt j, l·qu al 10 the dilfc rc nce
i,t l h <.' t ' Jt t lt t dt i.t·it· r.tft l l~ p utC Jll i.d .tnd the i u nrt . lll ull ptHt.' l tl i .tl . \ :-
..,Oolt :1..., !hi~ d i !!t' I C IIC t· IJ:i, IJt'tonH· -~Tc :r tt'l t lutr the con . . t. t i Jt rt' t, trd in g
Jllllt ltli.JllJt'l\\"t't'l! .\ · .ti lt ! ( , , e!cti! O l h (.I l l .t:..!_. l l ll i!;O.t g·; ti ll' { t!ll H ' I. Jrdill£!:

fi(. !d .tnd tht· ~.th : tnnnH 'tt ·r Ct ll ll'I1 I .t~ . ti n ~roh'- ..l.., i rHc ! he nu tn ht l of
el t·( ltllll-., j, Jl t<. t (';(-..cd iJ\ tiit- !S"'I OJIJ/:IllO ! !. rt ;tc :ualh e;r(nr..., l.tr~cr t h; tll
ti lt' tl l'' l till!(' . Jl oiH' I tr . ;,, il ll· d(ll'kr:Hing j)OICilli,tJ iJe(Olll('' tq u:d
tu tll·tu· till iun ;J,tt tott po tl'J;ti.t!. tilt· clcct rot " un de rg o tn e l.t,ti c
w ll i, iom :1 ,t'lo JHI time it t the ttc- igh ho rltood o f th e g-r id . :-. ince tlH' \
titct c lll I' "'' .t!! tilc tr ,.1 \l' J.g\ . a nd till· nc1d 1 ]'rocl uced c ieet ro m lik c11· i>e
!t.l\{' ttn :tppH·( t.t hk 1elocit Y. 11o tn on: eien ro n' ca n r u rt :tc:;:ti n\1 the

n ·t:t rd ing it,·ld. ' l ltt t>. ct'> , oo tt :1, the :.t cctle ra tin g pot ent ial i, greatet
tltat t 11,·icc 1i1t io JtiJatio n ;>o tr mi :t! . li tt: g:th-:1 nomet tr curr e n t :Jf(:t in
dt<>)' 'J lu /(' l'u . ,')JJI (l' t ite l :l !Tl(' p Jtt ll O!llCTIUI I l l' jH::tt l ibelf l':tCh ti lll t: th e
:tu elcr:tting po tc· tJ ti.t! i, cqu .t! to a n in tq:;ral multiple"! the in ni1. a tion
potc·n ti ,t!. 1\T >lt ot tl d t:\ ] Jl'Ct :1 ( urn· lu 1 in g- m.tx im :t o f in crc:t>ing l t7t' .
;dt o'Jl' ·''· p:tution 1' c-qu<~l to th e io tJiJ :uion pnte llli:d .

Jtht <> tHh t lll'~' l'' ,,·e r e oh Lt itt ccl : :1 11 ec-. ~tin p l e h re p r odu cC'd in
! · 1 .~. (i.:! .
'I il e lll :t.xi nLt tUltt cd o ut to be quit e >il: trp-- t he tT pon
g i\'l'-> :1 feelin g tlt:tt th ey "· e re ~knpe r than rhc :1utho1 ' had
d a re d to expc ct- :m cl Fran ck :tn d H ertz i1npl y a conf-id e nc e that
th ei r re \l dt ~ ar e a ccurat e to (1.1 w>lt a s co mp:tre d \1ith th e 1-\olr
Ju ttran of tile old e r met h od . The 1 alu e olJta in e d for th e ioniza-
tio tl po tc nt i:tl o( rncrcurv was -1.~) \·olt,. As a com pari '> Oll " ·ith the
oidcr method . t il n rcmcasu r ed th e \~du e for helium and found
t hat the two m e tl10cb gave \' Cry satisfactor y J greem c nt.
0 5 10 15
Su ch accuracy exceeded anytl1ing pre ,·iou sly obtained . and
Vol ts
e !J :t blecl Franck a n cl Hertl tu make :1 quamitatiiT tc' t of :t
tll eore tic:tl ]'ropu>:t! that h:td been put forth ,e\·cral tim e s: that FIG . 6.2 Plot of collector current versus accelerating potential , show ing the equal
til e ioniz:t ti o n ene rg ' should he' equ :tl to Planck ·, con stan t h spacing of the maxima. (Note : Several effects combine to cause the spacing between
maximo to b e slightly different from the position of the f~rst maximum.) [ Verhandl.
tin1 es the freqtter!Cv of one of tile "prope r motions' ] of th e elec-
Devt. physik . Ges . !6, p. 462 (1914 ), Fig. 3 ; retouched for adequate reproducib ility.]
trons. They fe lt it Il.tll lra l to c home a frequency that \,·a~ ven
s tr o ngh a!Jsor l>e d by m c rcun v:tpo r . that correspo n din g to ;;
IJility with th e sa m e apparatth, :.h the " ·avel e ngth 25% .\lies well
w;t\elcngtlt o f 2'JJ(i A. Tile po tent ial ittclicated b; the them·)
i nto til e ultra\·iolet. while the glass e m ·e lope of their tube was
wa ., 1.8·1 \ Olts. in excelle nt agreement \,·ith th e m ea~ure d \·al u e
OJ>aque to ultra \·iole t light. C:omequ e ntly, t~Je y bu ilt a _ne:'· tube
r\~ stage, p e rhaps o ut of the wr y excelle n ce of th e agree.
out of qu a rt? . which is tran s parent to ultraviOlet l! g ht. rh!s tube
menr , doubts beg:tn to arise . Th e pos, ib ili ty presen tee! itself tha.,..
was much s impler than the o t hers, in\'oh·ing merely a p latinum
the e lectro n s 15_!~ t their ~<;.!.!_£ rgt..!.wt in io nizing the ':!:~_s: ury-afte Y"
fi lament to provide clcctrom, a platinum grid toward whi c h
all , in thi s m e thod ionization had not been directly observed-
the electrons co uld be :tccel e rated ancl on which th e y were col-
but in excit in g r:Jdiation. They co uld not check thi s ne,,· t<!J '\<-
lected, and a pool of me1 c ur) to proYidc Ya po r in th e intervening
 74 CRU CIA L EX PERI M ENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS CO LLI SION S OF ElECTR O NS WI TH ATO MS 75

'V' (l · r ile "itllk ;;;:liJ ,,·; ;, ht•:ttl'd ttl .thou ! I ;,0 ' C: h1 mc:t ll '> of .t ~Lt\T g.tllH_· d t ' llilll'-! 11 Cl l l 'l '._!\ {( 1 C' :\j >l'l !(' Jltt' 'dll ll : 111 t'!llOl ll HC l l\\.Ht·

~.h ~Hlrlll' !. , tiH i ,11;\ J.ld ];t linn ~!\l"ll o!J tl ~ Hl1 tflt ' \ ,i }JOI \ \ . ;t..., d 11 rin:.; Il!t 'l ! ll .t\1'1 itu ll! !ti:!ltll'lll to :.;1 id .. I J! d "'<>II ' l llt· d:tt;!
.t! L!h/l'\[ IJ1 lll C.Il l' ,,· .Ill tJi!J.I\ tuk t ' i>Cll l' l>~l: l pft. ,j)u\\· th ~ t l i]H.' ll' j-., ,! ll1illi1lllllll .l ll l\ l U i d \), \\ ·!iJ C! l !ht· llliLTlLJ\

l'!lt' l' D U Jt., 1\ Tl< ' lillll'\\ it. tt ' li ''il l j,lll .~. \ \ it CII lite· )illllllti :tJ }){'- ('J1CI ,:_;I td li !l' ;J IUlll ( ,Iii i> l' ( il:ttl:.;L·d--.till! il l tit :tl 'l.il\ill t' ll:. lllll l'<\
[IITl'l l f:l.tll lCill :1!1< ; :.;r id \1' :1\ [e,, t;Ltll ·!. 11 IUlh. 1\ (1 Lldi. tt i<Jil 1\' :i ' OJ! li' j)\ tJ: t' t'\.j)t'l ll!! C ! ll , 1J l .H t-.. . i-.. fou:Jt! t itc i.ti\t:ll <d C '\.ti ,i-

unittcci ll\ ti lt' m v:·, ::11 '''!JOl \\ .hctt tilt· po tcnti:tl \\·,,, ~n:.tt el !J()l .i!fJ]) j)(IJ!l ( ' \: llClit ' l \ t ( tl ]] till' <•ltfl l l:tl\ '(.I l l ( ) J] t )J{' (lJtlJil , !)\

tlu lt 1.'1 1ult'. t i:l n:tl< 11n L ltli .ltnl. "' c:-:pe< ted. ·1 lt c .\ l trpt t>l l l,!..; , t.!!c ul t"..:j •viit· n c.c . ti i ' jilT il'tt!l .ttn·p t .. i,k i< >l .t <hll :t! liit:ti
l c:l! ll l'l' , , ·;:, th .t t . cin pitc t il t· Lit l tll:l t tile l ll l'I C Un 'Jll: l tr ll!ll 'lotl'Jl i I<> Jt :tl l' <!Ut:IC[ (' II\lil !l'r'O//i /
'/1!!('\ , .1' .Ill :t!Olll dot·<,; :1

CO!l !:ll lh llt.l lll lin t·, \\·l!lht' \ l':tld t· n ~tlh lO ITC'> !JOi ld It> j>O!t'l l!i :tl,
Jn, tit:111 ·J.~I l o ]t-. Ill ! ]udinc; \Ulllt· ('\Ci t ll !OI'l' i!l tC il 'C t it :tll til:t!
:tt :::,:> t> .- \. t ite l.tP t::! ,,. :t , the unh l ine em itted . '\ enT t iH: Jb,.
"-..
F1:111 d . :ttt d !lett/ l •. >ll< ludn! tit.: I in »U ll lC <o lJi, io th. t ile Cll c'l',l;l
,t? ~-t'f , 1 •
tl t:tt t.Jt· cte< 11un h .(t: :tcqltt r ed. il Ltrge e nou gh. ,,.;, , tU rl\ e rted
1 · • ·
1
\ , in tu r.tdt:t t iun . lite ' tem.ti ttcd CO ll l'l ll tcd th <ll in other c ul li ~ i o it'
L t l t i1e ,;t JII C c n c J'!\ . t he cne r '!; ,,·:" u ,cd to io n i7e t he :t tolll .
L(·t th ll< J\,. :tb:tndui l til l puilt! ul 1 iu,· of Fr:mr k :t : td !len;.
. 1:1~! l' \.. . lll JI I! (.' tl~t·-.,l t!!J.llth:u l i'- i: 1 tl!l' l:.~ln o f Ltl CJ k tJo\·: tL'dgc. Jl
Ft.iil< k .t t l(~ f !c1 11 :.·d tH:c ll .11Jk w ,,.ut k ll·irr;-nt t:rcu n (or :t il
. t!k :t! i llll' i. tJ1 i tt t ile ftJ '>l :tpp:tt :l tlh :t ' w e] I :1 ;, tltc \C CO!l d . t he 1
11·ou i d lt: tl L' tll l' t :t ]Kt ul i:tt ntco tbi '> ICJH:y : For :tn ; of t!J e,e ;, ub-
't :tn <e, . t h e t\\·o m eti1uc.h \\'o tdd lt:ti'C giY ell dillcre n t re~ ult , ,
:t!t h uug h t ilt·; g: t-l l' ide n t ica l t e, ul h for hcliunJ :. n d ,,·o tdd !t:tn·
d o n e 'o fo r .t n ; ui tilt' ;, u l;s ta n ce , t h a t lt:td bee n st u di ed in th e
fit 't :t p p:tr:ttth. Tlt t' 1c:t;,on i' th a t in IH> ca ;,e 11·as an io ni ; a t ion
j)( Jt e tll i:t! :t cut :tlil' n Jc .t> ured. J 11 c1·e n case, t h e io ni za t ion p o te nt ia l
i-. h igher tit:t ll t he , ·,,J u e nt e a ;, ured })1 Ft:m ck a mi H eru in t!Ji-,
,,·u1 k. T he in cr e a;, e , in co ll cc ted c urrcnt ,,-hilh Fra n c k and H crt;
;; ,crii>ed w p o,i t i,·e iu tto h:td :1 m uc h d iHcre n t o ri gi n . The atom '
or nt olcc uk ' ,,·e r e b e ing n ised to a itighe r energ l' sta te ill' t h e
incid e itt e lcctru tt.'> a n d ,,·ere e n titli n g r:tdi: Jt iot t. :t ttd tlt c r ad i:ttio n
,,-:~ , pro dttcin g p ltu tue iu tJ o n ' from t ill' co llector pb te . Th e r:tdi :t·
ti()n em itted IJy n 1ercu rl' , and 1he r :tdt: lt io n th a t wo u ld ha n : bee n
c n tit ted b; :tn :t!L t!t JJlL' t:il , cou ld n ut h :11'C: prod u ced th i:, dlcct. 4
\\.ltat. t h e n , d o t h e 111 e: t> tt red 1 :du e, m ea n ~ .It i; tru e th :1t ,,·h e n
t h e cu rre n t to th e co llector d ro p >. it is a sig n :.t l t h :i! th t: elect ron s
ha\ e ga in ed jt h t e n ou g h e n e rgl' to lo-,e m o st of it in wh at mu st
h e ;m in e l:t ; ti c co! Ji , io n with an aton1. o n e t lu t :ti ter' t he infl' rn ol
b e h a1 io r of t he a tot n. \\' h e n it drop> a ; cco n d t im(', th e e lectron s
pc n d u lutlt nr ;, ,!J Ctl ill'd \tl i i E~ ' (>till'' illllll l di :Ji c h h i llli !l t!. :t !Hl
olilcr liiOJ l' ll>lllj> l il.lted e:>..llll iJlc, could i!l' cJ!t·d. !\ tit ti1c 1 ' 1! ''1,~ '\
of :t il l \l iCit ., \ ;-l elll Ci ll IJc <it:tll ,~l'd IJ1 : ill :tlili t r:tl'l ;t!l1011JH ..\ p·
p:tl'l'lll f:, , t ilt' '.t lll e i., /lU I { I Il l' O f :til :t tlllll iC \ \ ct Ctll. !1 C.lll c:-:i't
un ]\ in cc :tain \l:t tc' ll'ilil cc l t:.t in. di,true l'IK r g; l :t luc>. l t> \t:t!C'
c: 11l <il:tt lgL' utt!l lrom otl t' , ,t t lt c-,c· to :t ll othcr . :t tlll .., o Jh C ! W l ~ )
C: lll ci~:tngc o11 h l11 ltTI.ti ll di!>ti ttl'l :tm ott ltts. T IJ i, i' 11le Jc-,-,o n
oi' lilt' h.t! li K-l it:ll/ t'X} n·t i!i ll'il! . . \ ltd l'll'll :t' till' l''.J>l'lilll l' llh
1\('Jt i J Clll~ ,lone. '\tel' J', c,iJ : "'" t:tl-.ing t!;t, itle .1 :1s () til' of tl:e
iJ:"ic p mwi. ttc' ot t \1- iti<l: to llll ild !Jj, t i1con o f t ile :t tu lll , quite
u n:t\\':tn· ti t: :! It i-. 1:tdi( :tl p1 " JlO'>: t! 11'.1'- b e ing 1 u ifted .
/- ()( J'J'.\'( JT ! :S
1 ·rh c rcadvt j -. I tnl i ndcd th .lt c oJ ! i-. iCin ~ arc d a ~:-.ed tt .. l'Ltstic or in cl:J'-t ic
a"ord inf!: to " h:t t bt·(nmt·s o l til e initi :tl kineti c ctHTgy. Jf it rema in> as
kim·til energY o f th e 11\'0 u>l li di ng bod ies . th o11gh pe rh a p s sh a red diff er ent ly,
ti ll' t o lli siOtJ is t'la'l it . Jf som l' of it" :thsorhcd '·' ' a s IP a .lt cr t he i n te rn a l state ,.~ '
u! on e f l( th<- cull id tng hodi c-. . llt cn the co ll i'1i UIJ j.., ine lastic.
2 T hc 1cad er C II J \ t.:1ih that il ;t hq(l\ of !lt d"'" ,H . iHJt i a l h af J t'~L i.., q r u ( k
h\ a !,och td 11L l' ' m. and if t ilt' to lli "' io n i\ cJa ... ti c the infi dcnt hod\· } o~..,v ... a
fr aclio n u f it, t·nr rgy which i' at nH" l ·1uL,l j{,\/ + >11 1": 11'iwn 111 << .\/, this
[,act io n is H 'l' \ n c~ rh 4))) j,\1 .
:: l~ ltt c r ili( d ] \C-tl u<.. in t hi ~ :!I r all ge m l' nt :t ctu;.tl h tll l ll ' (J tl t 10 IH' ~n t nc, ,· h :n
h::-.s !ha n ·1 (' \ o l t, l wC ;) ll '>l' II H' cl c(! JOJJ <.. : ll lt~H h· h:l\ c "OIIW t 'll l T h': \d H'n t i l<:)
;trc produu ·tl il\ til e fdamcll f .
' Fo r a full lil'l ,iJ ,c u,,i on Ic;tl l iiJg to 1h i' poinl . see Ch a p . 7.
! ! ! nf / ( )( ; ]( . JJ>ff )'
J Fra n ck :t tl! ! G . I l ert L, T'n lw n rllun ge 11 dc r lJ c ul srlu' n p f,ys i-
lio!ilr l' r'>l C !'.l(·l/.\ rl/(/ f / Hi, ·I:J i - 1G 7 (11Jl -l ) [tra n slat io n : The
Jl ' orl d o j tltr' A i om, \ 'o l. I , pp. 7i 0- i 78].

7 T!tt PluJtoc! crf,.ir E.ffr·rt
\\ 't~ h.l\t' '-CCil in C: h: i]H er :! til:n tl1e quantum concept ,,·as
o1 iginalh intmdut cd ·" :111 ;"pet t of th e heil;n·ior of r :~cl i : ttin g
ostill.tu'l' r:1tilcr tiLill ol tl1 c r:1tl ia tion it self. Jt \\';ts n a tural ,
IHJ\IT \ l'l . to !eel t! J:it 'Ill h k·h:l\ i•>r might impn"'' ihelf at lca't
parti;ilh on ti1-: radi:~tion . TI IC qtl:i!l! ll !ll <<>tHl')Jt lur! c:-;iqed
onh fl\t' 'l .l!'' "hen .\ II>C'It Fith!Cill -,ei;nlli])(>ll thi, l"'"ibilit\ as
:ttl (''ij >l.i tl:lt ioiJ lor tl1c pcnlii.1i' clkct' o! r:1di :1tion i11 til e ph ot o-
eknri c cflt·n. It 11·: ,., not tmtil lCJl -l, lto\1-e \'Cr. that a thorough,
lOn\ · incin~ tc't o l Ftthtcin·s ide;,, " ''t' repuned.
TIH' photudcct rit cfkct ,,.;,, d i'>< uYered Ia tc in t l1 c 11 i n ctecn th
ccntt tn. and by 1{11 -l l1 ;td b ee n studied b irl v cx tcmi 1cly. The
IJasic pllc;wn1e n ;, ''ere kno11·n: A beam of li ghL striking the
surface of :1 mct;tl li!Jerat cs cll:ctr o n s from th e metaL prcJ\·idect
its frcquen <) i-. grcttcr t!J;,n <t critical Y:IIue depc nd cm on the
kind ol mct:tl. T he lil>ct:ttcd clc(trom emerge with 'o m e kin etic
cncr g;. the :m 1o ttt1t (If "·l1i( h itt<rc:t-,es " ·itlt incre a; ing- frequ en cy
ul the light :tnording to :1 rcLitionsl,ip \\'ltose form h:td noL been
CXJ>eriment:dh c'it: ,IJJi ,lt<:d 11ith <cll :tinty in !<1!4. lf th e clcuro m
arc collect ed :1t anntl1cr clccttodc and m;Icle to con; titute a
current. til t· JJ J:tg nitu de of the current is proportional to the
intcn-.itl of the .'>lintuhtin .<. : lig-ht. Th e entire proccs;, i' Yirtu ally
tn stantancutb .
. \hno>t c1·cr; :''!JCU of the photoelectric eflect appears as a
failure of cxtra pol:tti o n . The p!, cnom cnon ,,·as discoYcred a nd
some of its propen ies e> tabli ..,hccl, includin g at leas t cr ud e recog-
nition of criticil frcquu1ci e-,, before the electron \\·:ts discovered;
httt tl1cre \\'as n ot hing in da>sic;d th eory. deali ng as it did with
76
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 77
«llltintl.t. tlt.tl \\'Utlid iLIH' ,ug;_:c,tt·d '>lith <t p1on·"· Fn·11 gi\Til
it'> n .i -,tCiltl ·'' :1 11 cmp1: 1c.d Lit 1. tile otll1 plopcrt\ t i1:1t cPtilcl Ill'
1c:hoii:dJh cullt:l illcd \\'!thin tile <LI,,ic:d tr:llllC\,·o rk \\;t'> tilt·
d q )l'l ld ('I!( ,. I d til (. jJ IIlli \)( I: I I l' !II "II I ill II g i>t i il l Cl h II\ . ( )j l((. Ih '.
CkCtiOII '·'·'' di \(0\l'H:d. It \\,1' j><>">IiJ k It> l'll\1 , 10 11 :111 iiii t'I .!CliO!l
l>CI\H'•-' 11 du ll\l !b Ill t!It• IIIC!.d :111d t!it_· c·Jtctrit l! l'ld Ol ti:c JigiJI
\\-;!\C. hut tl!i, 011h llL!dc l!Lill CI' \\Ul''>l'. ' ] ill· O!Ih Il1Clil :ll1i'>Ill
ti;;It u•ulc! he rc:I'>OIL!hh t: Ill·i,ionccl i>' ,,·hicii an c:lctt i on \\'!Htld
IH_· C'-:lL!CtL'\! froll! til t: !l! Ct.Ii \\' .1 ' till UII_C!;h a l'l',Ol1:11JCC ill \l'!!iCh
tl1c frcqtlcllt\ of t he li ght ll Litcilcd :1 nat tt!.tl I!C<JUUJC\ of ,-iiJ r:t-
tion oi th e clect rotl. Tili>. hoii'C \'l:r, \\'C>ttld lead to pl1otoelll j,, ion
onh for di,crc te frcqiiCIH ic,_ <•r :tt m o<; t hirh \\Tll-clefincd. i-.o-
htni IJ:111d, uf fr CCj!I(' IJ(iC\, LIIillT t li :lll tillllU <_JJO ut a Culltillt! Oih
r:111gc: <tll d it ,,·cn d d n ot c:-;pbin tilt' <k pcnd t: II Cl' of tl1e clcrtn>ll
cncrg; on frc quenC\'. Th e tiiiiC d cpe 1Icl e11 CC i, :1 11 e\ en l!lo rc
ell :t'>tit :dh 't:trtli ng 1c,tdt. T he :'''tilllj>t inn ul :1 re,ott: tiH c procc''
for tile · tl.ltl'>kt o f ('tlt·tg\ litJtil till' li g l:t t" t ile t·lntnn! implic,
tild t the clu tiUJI ,,·ill :1inurh :d l tl1c et1t1g1 i11 1 idl·nt o n an arc:t
one ,,-;1\cl<::ll'!th squ:trc . C:om p uLtt ion <, nn thi , iJ ; hi ~ lead to ti lt
condu ~ ion tktt for :t he;mt of \ ' C I \ lo " · intcn;,it\. hut •;till ,u ffi cicnt
for t he p hutoe lc ctr ic dlcct to· be <::t'>ily c:) h ~cr ,-eel, ;m clcc rron
'HJ! tld take abo ut 500 \'('(/)'.\ tCJ ac utmtd :tte e n ergy cq1 tal to tk1t
OlJ'>Cl'\'Cd.
Ei n <>tcin ·' proposed ex pLt 11:1 t ion of the p h enome n o n ,,·a' based
on a radi c:tl exten siotl of Plan ck \ original qu :mturn hypothes is
Th :ll ll\pothe, is . it "·i ll be n·< .di ed. ,,-;;, that th e cncrg' of an
<h<ill:ttor 11·a , <jll<tllli;cd: ll\ inlj;li c:lt ion. th e cnng; r;tdi atcd into
th e clcc t1 onLig·t1C ti c field IJ\ tl1c (he i!Lttor \H>tdd :tbu be quan-
ti n·d. Eim tt'i n ;uggested tli :1t ~ucll a ' 'l l!nHllc " of c n e rg~ main -
uined its unit1· in tl lf' pnHc" of ;,h -,OJpt ion :t ho. spccifit:dh in
iu. ahso t ption bY an electron in a 111 etal. Tilt' tOil'-t·q ut'll <C' " '" ' :1
;imple eqtJ ;,ti on rebting the kin c t ic c n crg\ F 1• of tl1c photoe-lec-
trons a nd t ile frcque111 y ,. of t ile >timul:iting 1 .~diation:
(7 ' 1)
where h is Planck 's c:onst:I IH and ., is a con >tant characteristic of
the metal from wl1ich the electrons \\'CH' ejected.
Einstein· , proposal led Rohcri :\ . \Iillibn . of the RYerson
 76 CRUCiAL E XPERIMENT~ Jr-. MODERN PHYSI CS 79

:111 l'\. !l(' t';...]H.:'r i:J ~I' I J\~ \\'lLt l C \ ('' .. : 1 \lll~· :1!1 \ !JJ il! g : \I)(Hll hO\\ p l)
i' i .... : l '. {. ~· "\ l ' l'l j · -: l l' I 'I ! : i j 'I l I ... : \ k: l \( • ! : \ \;trJt'\ \ \1:: 01 \ ',l !Cllll' ' ~. ;JJ~ ' i i...!] ,i, ut c<p:.t t lO JJ ii ' \\ ,t"' :Jil \-

. ~\ . t ill l lt!, 11llJl~-. lll.t l l llllHII H .. : .!11. L,:t' l ll'r:d Jll ~ l ~ l lltlldt :i"' P l. tlHK·.,
~ (.'\ l"l t ~ i' .,, i ~ ;· f dl iu \-. ·,·.·t' ! : 1 t •. I t i1.: t ,I: ll•:t"'>t fi \ \. l ,f
"'; }\ ) \ \

,: •·· J;!\J•.: ;( l' IJ't· ,, .,_ ,., .!til :t r c :Jltu:tlh cont:l:IH.';.:

tltt C 'J H'l! : :~~ : d:tih \l'l l l!:d;: ,j•it, . .
-· l .! ! ) ' "· < ! 'I;:. l, ..• ,. .
; ·,.I""
l!s t'l j tl; t l\0 11 i l ;tH rigOlPl! " -J ;ll. ,t. t ei. tl!'>Jl>lll)h :trL· C!llUtHited
·I 11 1 ti lt ildl 11\\! llt! ~t"'-~l'll inn -
I)' !. ·1 lu: ~;ll' l t ' t ' \.!'-~ 1 :·- l u t::tl 1 C\.CJtJJ:~ l lL q Ut' lh\ 1· . ; :\)(l\c ;, Ct · lt. : lll

; !' . t·. t:: ' < r. .... ! I I'' \•.': Cli:ical \ :>JllL·. :t dd1n itch dctLT ini n.,i,k m:t\.J;num \d ocit' ol c:n1"H >t:
of U)rp tl"'' ( I C~.
\: : i ! ~ ! : l ! ·l . . ' )l f. 1 . t ( i ('; ' ; l f.. ~: ~ t (' ' l : l )
l l Lii 1inc:tJ JCLt tion i>c '\'.CC'II I ~u:d '
ti"ll·Jr: p . ;, 1
-

I 1• \"• ,i
•·i. Tll: ti d i. cl:· or 1ilc- , Jc ,;;c C>f l iJc r, li lt C i' IJLime ri c:dh· equal w /, ,..
·.!~· ~~ li ;Jt'i. J!' ill'.· ) ( ; l; ._, .. \ ~ 1~_: (; i.!l) t ;!; ! ()l! ~ J(i! i :!1~ J r~ ;· t~ l !l 1 ( , i c>IJ t( ) Tlt :t! .tt tilL· u itic :.J lrt·ll lll' ll( \ '· :tt winch r· = P. = h ·,, . i .e .. th:!l r
lJir Jl lt cJ c t lJ! o l the I r! ;( ~· ;t \.1 '- J, tll( ' lo"· ~· q ir cqt l C n c~ :n
1· l i! i: on
\\· t ;~ cl: th t.· liHl . tl i11 qll('"'t l (J! (,!I I he p )H Jlt) t'ICCt li C !lh ,l C!i\ l' .
:l. · r iLt ~ !Itt ' ( U l lt. ll.. t }· .\l. }::. iJC~\\('t'l l :ti1Y l \\ 1) (<l! ldllCt (Jr " j .., gi\t:f1
., , I !. ~ ~
.!

•rt • '. •;i; !· :ti \ !· {J

1
1 c! , 11' 1.: ;1, 1 Il l' <) ! \ I 1' l1ri 11~i IlL:. f<~'-\' ;i! ( l 1} !•.
IJ ' lite c-qtt.t ti on
II' ~ !i
< 1 1( ) ~ 1 • ) \ •: \ I 1 1' ) \. . ~ ,\potll' '- 1 ~ c) [ :r 11 t · '('H Jl!J;r~• ;; ! IJt il~ 1 1 (ll .\I
'• ' '\: 1 0 1w 1); pn 111!, t'\.<cpt thf.· f'J'.!. l1.1d Lccn lf''-1<1: (' \(· ! t ro t1<2hh
I ;, ,, . , 1. { .~; h 'i.: ,l ;:
'ilt'"'t
,,1Jt. n lJ ll" lt'i lJ i !L!(k !Jj . , p1:·d ictio1 : .t r1d tl H· (or r ecr n e . . , of tl: i . . (Jne h;:\
nll.;~!.t , ; , l ~:,·~llt!. l l~ l ~.:! L :: lu . . "l:.t~~l· ""F;'~l ~. , C1 !, :r
t' : c ..... JLil!.t i i!..., i l>
JUcltth· !,u· Jt \iQorot" i" rlc ni ed iJ,· R, tm,:tucr ·-' ' l f'~:<r d' th e fou rrh
\ i l) J, ;I l~ l l i \.. UI ~ ".. \' });j,, l~ l'!C <!ll) } !,~tgll :.' tt ; J iJ:i l l\.( '. 1
,,; : !II
l·htt: l :.111d C.citcl h ad iJ.Hkt d wnc ludcd :t> earh "' ' J P~ 1 l. fr om a stud Y
tJi l!i. !\ 1 11\ltl

.tl .... t c<H H: 1} ~ \,:l! 1. f:1c" J1• :ht f:t ( t' o! t il ·. tllOlOtl ~, hh c~t: d , J i ...,!rl'd of th e .t!l.. :tli nJ cuk t iLtl the mor e elcctro- p o'>it iq · th e metal th e
Lt<.t' of it:tt "llt.' I L' l t '. c. ·r ht· lr: !)n !hc => i" \\·; '" :q ' } J:tl"CI:tl~ Itt.l dt: ... o],·!; , m ,.Ilcr i' the , :due o l ,. :tt "·hich it i>clOJJH''> photo-,cnsit i\-c . a conclu-
("\.j>J. I JJ:!Iiu;r oi r)J} {' ~ ; [ tlH.. 11Hh ! l"C IJI :ttkai, Jc
],d , lti"''l ' it I Ul ll i:'t lH.·d ;J !t '; ld 1
,1 on ho w<'\tT ,,·hich l:ttcJ tT,e:t rcltc' o n ;he not~-.tlk: tlin e m e ta l>
J~:(!, iJJntl.~)\ ! !11 JJ'-',!1; !1 \ rt. '(.(' \ 1' ilr\l' "'tig:t !iOI I \. ?· f: .. t Jl: !i t !Jt· ('ll l'l_L!, : · \\'itlJ
,t:T ml'd for \ C:t J, to contr:td it:L
,.,-hid : . 111 c lL( \In i ; 1:- tl:io,\· : i uui or ; t n lcLJi 1,\ ul;r;,,·iolct light or l>u rin.~ t!.c tC JJ \ C:trs ,,Jticit h :i\C cl:tjbCd , ince Limtein '>Ct up hi s
,.-1:1 ' ' t' it, tiq w tllkll: o! tl: •· Jtl lt'lht l\ of lite ligltt wit ik i1 depe nd ' C:<J tl ,tt io t: tile ft fli1 of t he :thm e '"'cnio1" h :t' n cYE·r b een tested at ali ,
"I I j:, frcq u cJI C:. T il i' f. ttt :t!()Jtc \CT JW. Io dcm:ttlll 'omc mod in c:tt inn o f " ·l1ile 1he third :111 d fourth !ta n · JJ C\Cr been su bj ect ed to careful
cl:t,, ic:ti tlt eon· o ; . :t J :tt l\ r ;ttc. 11 11:" no t YCI bee n int er preted <'>dlCrimclllal tC '>l undn conditiO Jh ,,·hich wne C\·e tJ cla im ed to permit
S,tti ,i:tt: lOJ ih 11 1 tCTil h ol l i.t,\I C:tl tiw01) . of,:t n e:-. :tct ;11td ddlllitc :tmi\·c r. n m indec·d c : tJ the' h e '>0 ~uJ ,j eu td
\ \'!ti le tiJi, "' " t itc m.tin ii lll >t til e (Jl th lu'i ' of Limtcin \ :t\Stt mpti o n . ,,jtJ,. ,ut ,inlltlt:t lJ COth m t .l'>tt tent c nt s in \actto o f hutlt co nl:tct potcnti:lb
tiJi , :t " lll ll)' tl oll u ~.tl,)cd hin < :tt Ot ltt to prcdiu t li:tl th e m :::-.imum ,11 ,d pi~<JI<~ · jlO ltll t i:t b " in tl" · c: t'>l' of mcLth ,,·!Jich a rc '>c miti n : throug h-
l'ltCTg\ ,,f Cllli,,,i(I Ji ur
(llrjili'( In tiJ Jdl'i the inllttcttlC of li ght wou ld he
out :t lon g r:t ngc of oh <.CT\ :thlc freque n cie<> . l n m :1kin g tlti ' sta temen t
gc"n n cd h; the cqtt i! t iutl 1 :till""' utHin- r:tt iu ~ :tt :til the e:-.c c-ptlO JJ:ti]\· ftnc \\·o1k of Ri cha nl ,on

-~·" ';.. ~
tlt which i 1r i, tile c tt ngv al"oil >ed ;,, the electro n from tlt e li .~ht w:t\ C.
" ·it icit :tuo JdJtJg to l'l .t JJ C\.. C!lllliiiJwd jtl' t lite enng,· !J ,., /' i' the worl..
Jlctn, ;t n t" gt t tl ~t · eke \J ()Jt ott t o l t ltc me t. t! a Jtd ~ /Ill ' ~ i, til e cnc rg\
wi th ,,·hiclt it lean·, th e 'ttrLtcc. :111 Cttng-y e,·ick nth m c:t,t trcd ll\· the
IH(Jdttct ol ih charge,. J,y th e 1' . !>. (potcnti :tl d illcn·JHC' l against whiclt
i t i, jmt :ti Jk 111 dri1c ihc ll helo t<· iJc- JJ tg inottgilt to re'l.
:\t t lt t:· tim e :tl ,,·IJ idt it \\· a, mack th i' pr('( li u ion "'"'a' bold a ' til e
Jt,pothc"' " ·!ti c li s tt ggt:·S~ ccl i1. fo r :tl tli.tl time- there i\T n· ;1\:tiLtbit:'
= I ·r = l: l 1
- /1. ! I)
;tllll C. o mp tol t. ,,·Jw in (l)lt Jm OJJ " ·it L nl Chl o th e r o ho,e n crs in ter pre ted
th c: ir rc,ttlt-. i11 tn m s o f Ein,te iu \ equat iott. ln!l 1\·ho s:n,· t he >J .l; fllltc:tnc e
oi th:tt equ :tti o n much m ()rc clcarh than m ost of tl1eir p re d ecessor>
h .td don e . 1 :1111 much c:tlling :n tcntion to th e fall tl l:tt the ., lope
m e nti cn 1ed in (:l i :t nd tltc int e rcep t mentioned in (~ ) ca nn ot possibl Y
J,c: d et nmincd " ·ith a1w a pproa ch to certaintY unl ess the repon of
\\·a, c·- kngtlh open to st ud; i' larger thau it is in t h e Gl\C' of a ny s;ne
the :tlkali nJct: tl s, :tlld abo. in th e ca-,c of (4) unless simultaneom
mc .t,Ult nKIIh arc nude in ,·a cu o upon ph ow- potcntial s a nd contact
\1 !·
 80 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 81

\ ,tilt' !:1s t p:1Lt<:t.q>il ol tl 1c ton:~ oit l .'..' q ti(J t:ltio n implifs. t here '' ·1 he JTJt'.l'll lt' nH:' III of till' phowtu tTt·nt' :1111 1 phot op u tt· nt iab due tu
IJ.tt 1 IJccn t'. tlltc r :tttt'IIIJH' :;r nTif tc:ttton u! Fitbtci n, p r opu~al tiH· ,,· !tint iJ n , ll l i.tt ,.,
:>. J" Jt,. ,intui:.J JJ~' t ''" m t."II JT!IIt' Jll of tiH co nuu 1'. .\!. F. \ o f the
I n !'·trt ictti. tr. \ C!\ c.trdtd ,twlic, li:td iH't'tl Jt'po rted i n 1111:,: h'
\Uri :1( t· ,
\ J. J. JJ w_;IJc .' lltl!l ! C..tlllilliti~ t·. f . tt .~l:t l ttl. :t ll ti. :1, ll1C!lti0 11 t'd .
I' ' ( I \\ .tttti .\ I I C.t>li iJHn ll tl om Pr t n tc t o l i.
o! l iw ,;Jitit·c l p til.Ji,hcd 111 I CtJ :: , 011 -

tlllt! t·d t iLl! !l i t ' t."t' \\':1' stil l tlj>Cll

T k· \\'l'l \.. :tt t iH' l ·ninT, it' ol Cl tic1go ll :td h c~t lll in 190;",,
pre,llil l:lh h tll1il1Cdiatt'h up on pu l>lic:tl iull nf Einst e in ·, paper.
:t!Hl \ :I I iot ts "'i'l' t 1' ul t 'w \\'o l k !t ad IJet n r epo rt ed Ill the Yl';tr,
from l~l ()/ to 1 1 11~ . C.r:t dt~: d h . til t .'> <' <-:trlin r esult .,, :1 -. .\T i lli kan
pil i' lt .

n ·, t·: ti {'d tit{' nccc"i"· nl ql tt·,t ioning tiH· \ ;tlit!i t :· of :tl l r c:,ul t> on
p! '"'" l'otcll t i:tl, un it''·' t ill' c!iech of ' urLt t(' ftl m , :m: elilll i n :llcd eithe r
I" rcmm :tl "f ti lt: filnh or h " ., imult: tii CO II> me:t;,urement in ,.:, CliO o f
phcJ tf')!(JH ·tlli.d .... l!lll u .H d: Ht l. . \I 1. \ o r lJ: !1oth p !i)< L'du re . . ;11 oncc .
.\u n r t! iii;,:l' I lt:l\t' i 1titl:1tet! 111 Jlii(J ntt .1 so iiJ (' \\'!t .tl cl.tiJOr:ttt· ;,ctk
>imult :tll l'(Ji h m t·:t , IIJ CJ lll'lll'> o n photocltec" :1 1Hl contact E . .\1. F .'s in
\,I CU\1 ott fi lnt fre e ;,u rf:tce, .

Tltc in\ f' >ti g:1tio11 required :t rll lln her uf lllore or le>s C'labora t e
prectut io n >. so tri e of whi ch w ill be di~n~>,ul later . Th e most
iJother.,o m c . lto\\'C \Tr, was th e one m ent io n ed in the las ! quota ·
rion . titat o f e l itnin :ttin g th t eflec ts of ;urface films. Tlw obvio u s
soluti o n is to prT p<Jrc th e 'url:tces und er such condition ~ that
til e films arc prne nr e d frotrt iorming: :111 d . des p ite th e fo rmi - FIG . 7 .1 Diagram of one of the tubes used by Millikan in his study of the photo-
electric effect . / Ph y s . Rev . 7 , p . 3 62 (1916 ), fig . 2 ; some lette ring replac ed for
d :il; k nr cclt ani t.tl difficu lt ies in\ oln·cl. tl1i' was t ile course taken.
le gibi li ty .]

I n :til o f thi> pltotodecrr ic work at tht' R vt-r,on Laborato r y t he same
t;c ncr:tl m e thod h:h h ecn e mplm cd. Jt :lln ch·. the ;,ul»t a u cc;, to be
stu d ied o1 n t:l tt ipt da tet! ha'e bee n pl:tce t! in t he be st obtaina ltle
\ :t( ullrn o n an ('lnt mn ta gne ti c:d h co ntt cll lcd \\·heel aud all the n eede d
operation ;, !tan: b een performed bv m oYa ltl e electro m ag net;, p la ce d
tHil >id c. :\.' n ew oper:Jtions h:t,·e bee n r :dl cd fo r th e tubes lla\·e b y
degree ~ b ecom e m ore a nd more co mplicat ed until it h as b ecome n o t
inappropria te to describe the pre-,e nt experime nt a l arrangemen t as a
maclnn e ;, l10 p i n ,·a c u o. The operatio n s whi ch arc now n eede d in all
the tube s which are being used are:
I. The remo\'al in \acuo o f all surface film;, from all surfaces.
,\ di agratn of one of th e tubes a ppe<l r > i n Fi g. 7.1. The tlrree
c y lin dn~ ( :t r ried on th e \d1 cd ll ' are e1q fmm t!t c m etals to be
studi ed. T itt' ,,·heel itse lf ctn b e rot ated b y an e le ctrom agnet ,
not ;, Jtm,·tl. ~o as to brin g any of the n li n dcrs opposi tc any o f
the other pan~ of the ap par:ttus. ;.: is a rot ~tt i n g knife , which
can b e mo\ cd ba ck and forth al o n g th e a xis , and rotated , by the
action of t he e lect r omag net F on th e a rm a tur e ~ M a nd !11'. The
meta l to be studi ed is first brought oppmi t e th e kn ife, ·whi ch is
then achan< ed br e n ough to cu t a thin ;ha , ·ing ofl the face of
 82 CRUCIAl EXPERIMENT S IN MODERN PHYSICS THE PHOTOElECTRIC EFFECT 83
r ht· (' IJ IJ dcl. t ilt' l tit 1" I!l:t dt· 1)\ 1 oi. .tl il l.!2 tilt: ~llllt ·, \\"Ill( it , . . t ht:Ii o! plt\lh)l''t'( llt)ll" JJ!H..'J;l t..:d iJl) iJ! li!• (ldlc(llll~ t.·lt_'( l!od e j),
lt 'll. Jtlt't! .L '..!_.tl il. t l1t' 'l LI\'I Il ~ !.tlliJl~ ll\>,,., 1 iJt·lo\\ tll(: ,,-ll l't:l h·llc r e lt. llt '<!cd il~_,l:! I I ,th~ :~·it . . trn i l ' .n: · Jli ','"'C ll l. lh c : tpp .lll· n t (litil ,t!
it ]JcJ 1,.., (0 lt'll1 0\;. · :!!l\ ·;.•'.1\.!tl. t! 1)\ \~t'Il fJO lli tilt' IHilf~ ·r J!t lil'' i:
:tutdi t l~ j»>i< Jltt:ti \1 !:l .JcltLt!h k tile jHlll'llt i;tl .11 ,,·i; ilh th <
"ti l !.l (t' t ,Ji! {lie. II llt !.. . t l l ~I l ,! ... '. ( ' II ! l t ; t :! \. i) i ,j [ '· ~ . l ( \ l Ill t.' t ... t l l t -
lo n l.ttt!' illllt'lll 1:" 1 IJ,tl. t!Jt<"' tilL !J,tc k lc:t k :t~t. Ri <h: tnbotl
lJl t!!t \\'llldu\, tf .t li-: v!t·(tl~,,Jt.., j; .1nd
;; :;d Cn:llillt>tl lu(i t>tTll p:rrt :• td.tJ :-. <•>11'< roth oi tilt, prol;l em.
\Iilltk; tn .1\otclcd 1t. 1u1 ,dl bttt on t "' till· \\.: l\clen .2th ~ h e u ~ e d .
Elc{!Ju~tv, .\ .tild i) \\L'H' n1.:dl' <d t \lfi!Jt·;_ (.t!e!LJlh tlt',tl(d :--;;
),, ll'> it lg .1 tulk<t tn ,c: c·k clludc \\l tt!'>L' o\1'!1 piHJlOcif'uric rhru,IH>I d
;h ro ILt\t itll'lll lt .ti ((>i[];l( I lH>It 'Jlti :t h . ! lil' lll l\i.,tl]('ll1l'!ll (J\ til l' 11:1\clcr:~th 11·"' .'>hu rt er ti::tn rlt :t l of r ite in<ident ligln: he cor-
t(Jl il.U l l'llli \ \-,i " i>;J .., Cd (J Jl ti:~· !.HI tiLtt Ji 1:1C'!l' \'·.'t'lt_' :t p ult..'I Jti,li
r ertcd f"1 · i1 in the one H'!ll:tini l t!..! c1,c· . ..\noiltcr so urcE' of error
d J!ll'll'lllt', <l! \\ !\ c~tl' \ t'i 01 ! _~ I ll. ilt'l\\"{'Cii -, .tll d t he it iH ill . ;l
\'..t, lilt· Liu t h:t t j>ll'l·ioth in \c~ u .~:rror' h:td u ,~ d :1 \Cr~ sm:dl
t \

.
clt .tn••,-, e ill ti lt ,CIJ:tr :rr ion oi .\ :rml t ill' ,\Iinder ( IJ\ \IJJHling· rile
r. tn~c <>I w:ti'C!c n g'lih. none c x t e tHiin~ OHT :r r ;rngc eq u al to the
t l!I C,J d 'liJ!}>lllli!l:C.. ~ lliJ 0 11 tilt' '>l(liJ(Ulkl luJt .Jt! Clll'L' '> ll!l ll' (!J:tJ_[;C 'ltt:tllcr iin:it, ;,o that rllc- 11orker, 11-c r c forced to rn to de du ce
t" JJJO\ 't' ,·il ·r"l t!..!lt .. :Jl cicctl<>lJJC tl'J ;.otlJlUle·.l tn th tnL -flt th, \\ill'll
tile '>h:rpe of :t cunt· from :t \C!'\ , )J ol t portion of it. :\!illikan
.1 11 n;tcrn:tl putt Jiti.d ,,·;h :qJp linl 'u :" l•> giH· ll!J J!totiotJ of th Cd :t r:m gc ne:t rh fuu : rin1c;, til t [m,·et l imit. A th ir d '>Ottrce
clt :rrc;c. lilt· e xr e rn:rl pure:tti;d 111 11'1 he Jlhl t .J tHc:liil;! l ire (Ontact of error ,,·;t, light ul ,!ton 11 :11 cl e nc:t h \,·Jti ch reach ed t he sensi-
j>O l ('Ill i :ti. ti .. c .,ttrf.t(t' \,\ dill t~>t :d!('( rion i1 1 t l:t' JI IO it oclnom:tro:. Thi s
l tt \ lllilit ·, ()f lf !l' pi1 otuc 111 Jl'!ll' till'Jlhehh. ;; be am ul IIIOIJ!J· ptu bkm \'"' r·iitllJIJ.<tcd . 111 <. t'c' 11il ctc it ,,·;1, CtltJc.t!. h\ the
c!t t uJJ I,tri( lrgl:r l'1lltted t li l ouglt th e '' ind rn1· () and '>ll tick til e th C of lig!tt filter.': thtJ.di .. . ilm\T\Cl . rl tn \I 'C rt' not JJCt c'> qry .
'>tt r l.~ n iH.: in!..! , u.Hiied.
Til e pi1ul0elcc trom ,,·c1 e collected IJ~ the Th e current'> in t!tc criti c d r;rn ~e \I'(TC 1cn ;,m :tll. '>O th eY
douhlc nl i11 dn /! :m d C . \1 lti< l1 \1'C r t inotd:t tcd from c :tclt other 11-c rc nr ea,t tred (: r.' ,,.a, c om1non at t he rime ) :t'> c h arge 11:m sported
tthidc tlt c rub e hut. in t il e act.t t:tl Jn e:t\llreme n t s. electri ca ll y in :t gi \ en time- in r!Ji, c:t,e . ;)() '>ccond,- hy mean> of :1 quadr:rnt
lOll ill'( ltd Olltoide . e lecrronwr cr :·· Th e 1c ,ul rin:2; d:rta \1·ere pl o tted a :. c u ne'i of ph o tn -
( i11 c preca 11tion J.'> clisc tt '>'>ed in th e follcl\l·i ng quot:ttion from c urrent \·er., m putenr i:tl diffe r e n ce lot each of sew· ral ,,.;,yeJeng tl ts .
tile !>:rpe r: .-\ set ol ,w h c un e, j, silo \1'11 in Fig. 7.'.3.. The imcrcept of e:rch
( lJJ'\l' \1·itJ1 lhC )toriLOilt:tJ axis g i\ e<, r!J e \·a Ju e off ' for t ha t
Sin ce th e :tim \1·;" to te 't w ith th e utmo'J po,si !Jle accura cY th e ,}ope of
\';a\c:lengrh.
rile !til<' rottncut ttg flcquenr, · \1· i1 h th e m:rsimum P. D. it 11·as n ece.>,ary
ftht It> kno11 ,. 1\'itlt gr;·:11 jliT< i.1i0 11 ;u td .> eu•ttd to see that JJ!> t r:tc c of
lt ght ol itcqw: JJC\' gre a JC'J t h«ll tli;tJ !wing pl otted 4 got thro ugh th e >l it It \1·i!l lw seC JI tiLt! the maxirnum pul'>iiJ!e e rror itt loc ati ng any of
ol the 'l'l't t ro.l ((>pc . To t h i1 e nd :r . .. mercury lam p was u 1e d <~'> a the int e ru: pts i' ;,ay t\,·u lt ttltdrcdt lh of ;1 \Oit :Jtt d tl1aL the tota l r:rnge
snur<e . an d on lv such li ne> \\'Crc cho '>l' Jt lor th e :t' h :td 11 0 <0111· of \Olt; CO\Cred l>v the in tcrcc pl'i i1 more tl ::t JJ ~.5 . Ltcl> po int. therefore.
p.ttt>l>m ;rJ<Yhh t> tc o.11 the 1hort \\', ti c- length , ide L ig;l n fli tch to (I f ;, potCJtti:tl .ftcqtt(' JJCI t unc 1ho ttld iw \() t: <iCd w ith JJOl more than
cut <> til ,tr:tl ,!ton II':JIC·lengr!t li g ht we re :rho u<,cd. . ~inc<· the :t per cent C>f un cnt.tillt \ ' I ill' ft-cqtt c n lie; a rc. of cou r;e. known with
mea lttre mcn i w :tl to be mad e on th C' m :r:-;i mum P . D . and sin ce thi s g-rear preci;ion.
inn ea;cs with clurc;t,i ng wal e-length it w;" not o f great importance
that th e '>ou rcc he ol gr e:n ]>llrit~· 0 11 th e lollg wave-le ng th sid e. The n lu c;, of til e imcrcep t s w e r e th en p lo tte d \ ers us \l'il \'e-
length. ] li e plot obta in ed from til e curve;, of Fig. 7.'.! is ~ 110\l'll
;\lillik:tn a b o considere d a nd , as fa r ;1s poss ible, e li m in a t e d in Fi g . 7.3. " I t will h e seen th<t t t he ftrs t reHt!t i s to strikingly
erro r s whi ch ilad plagued o t her ,,·ork er<,. One wa~ "back l<:akagc" co n fi r m t he con clmion . . J'> lO tilt' cor r ect n ess of the pre -
 TH E PHO TOEL ECTR IC EFFEC T 85
CRUCIA L EXPER IMEN TS IN MODERN PHY SIC S
84

2
l
I

8 'J 90 11 () '•20
Freque ncy
A se t cf photocurrent curves for sod i um . Thes e curV"eS w er e used to
FIG . 7 .2
R 7 p 371 (1916 ), f ig . 5 ; lettering FIG . 7 .3 The plot of maximum energy , mea s ured as stopping potential difference,
provide dolo for the curv e in Fig . 7 .3 . {ph ys . ev . • ·
replaced for legibility .] versus frequency for sodium . The inset outlines the computation of Planck's co n·
slant h from the measured slope of the line . The dashed curve is discussed in the
tex t . [ Ph ys . Rev . 7, p . 373 11916 ), fig. 5 ; letrering replaced for ieg ibi lity.)
diet ed l in ear r chtion ,ll ip he t\\·een nu x imu nt P . D. an d ,., n ~
p o int 111 j-,-, in g th e lin e l> Y mor t :han abo ut a hundred th of a Yo lt .
If Eq. (/ .1) j;, d i1 ided b) 1' . th e r es ult ts be tween th e c m tttint; a n d collectin g elec t r odes was equ a l to t h e
mea sured. a ppli ed 1·o ltag-e m in w• til t con ta ct po te n tia J. r. Th e
I' = \it i e)v - (h 1 e) vo, Cttrn· of ac tu a l p ur en t ial d il le re n cc Yc rsu s ir eque n n. t h cr do r e.
a ;. tl :tig h t lin e " J 1o,t· , ]oJ>C i' h ! r·. T lt u, , {ro m ~ h e 111 e:t,u rc d ,!ope co u ld he ol>t.Ji it ed from tile " t :m .. c u n c ol Fi g . 7 '\ IJ \ ,h i fl i n g it
o{
· r' ·tg. -/ ..·•
· t 1le · 1.Jill' Ill · 1 ·1 ·\lillik '·m ·s· ow n ea di tr d c tc n_ 1ll. n :il ton
1 .ill u p ward h v ;111 alll ou nt equ a l to t h e contact e m l. Th e r es ultin g
'
of r· . h e co uld compute h . Th e r es ult " ·as J. :) J X
· C •f I 0- ..- · . Ill c o m · c ur ve i'> shmnt d as h ed in Fi g. 7.'\ . 1t i~ thi s c u n e whose int erce pt
pl c tc agr eu n c nr w ith th e va lu e ori g inal! ~ comput ed I>~ P ~a tH. 'k 11·iti1 t l1 c frcqtt Ctt n :1 x i ~ gi \'(·'> ,., .
{ro m tl 1c ton,t:tnh of tlt e hl ac kho dy r a dt a tt o n ~;t,,. , , \loHOI U , Th e ' econ d ni eth (Jd ma d e th e of a not her prnpe rt\ oft h e pho t o-
man 1· d e tnm in :tt io n s, 011 dill e r c nt surfa ce., ga \' e t h e same t t·~ult'> ' urre nt. If t h e imem tt1 a n d lrt (jll e m \ o f th e stin wb ti n g lig ht
to ,.,·ithin c xperim t ntalun cr rtaint y. :trc fixed , Jnd a 1ari a bl e p o te nti a l diff e re n ce appl ied so as to
Cr it ical fr eq ue n c ies w ere d c tcrmin t d in two way s: th e a gre~­ a ccele r a te th e electron s tow a r d th e collector r athe r th a n to sto p
ment b etween th e m 1,·01 dd b e a test o f the fo urt h p o int in :\I d lt- th e m , t h e coll ected c urr e nt a t first in creases with in crea sing
k.an \ list. lt will !Je r e ca lle d that the expe rim e ntal appa r atus \ Oltage bu t e vem u a ll y rea ch es :t limitin g y;Jlu e , the sa tura ti o n
·' .· . 1 tll '·tt :\1
WaS <,0 u e \ !SCC '
illik '·u 1 could measure th e con
.
t ac. t em f currt nt . For hxed trcqu e n cy. t h e sa tura t io n cu rre n t is dir ec tl y
b t rween th e ph o to se nsitiv e su ria ce :utd a <,urLt ce. tde nucal to proportion a l 10 the int e n sin . rll w s:tlll l:t ti on p er u n it int ensity,
t h; tl of th e collcc ti ng d ec tr u cle. Th e ac tu al p o tc illi al t!I tlc r e n cc therefore . i' S• H TI C ~ 0 1 1 o f l t1n ct iot1 n f th e !reque nc \ : t.hr ex::~ct
n at wc of th e iu n ct iun d e p en d\ o n rite natu r e of t he su rf ::~cc a t
ka >t tc> th e ext ent o f being ze r o lo r ire q ue n cie \ le ~ s th a n t h e
 86 CRUCIA l EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PH YS IC S
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
{Jiti(,'j !lt'<jUCJI(\ - ~ i:L !Jl{){{'tfll:i..'. t iH l1. ,\.. i , {1 1 l1lt:t'-ll1' l !!

1 t. 11\ ll \ { ·l 1 I it. i llt_ l tit ' tl [ J . ( ( i J. ! II t.Jl i. f -'' I I i l'. \ l l'- '. ;

:u~T·th('J \\· i:~- t:H. C drJ t' "~!llllldtn:.2 .... t! Ul.1iin1: !'''nl{li.ll):t : : i·
e~J\h ttl _o..,f'\Tl.!l \\-;t\'C'h:n~t!J-, ~~ ltl' ~ : .! t!L!till1J !dlOlO Ctl il!'l l~ j)!.

l in lt iJncn"it\ ,,·.:..., t i H 'P f dit!t l' d -~~·.nn ... : \\.t\ f'l(._ tl~-t~· · 1 !:1 ~~:.HJt.
:! t \\ 'll llh th (' t!ll\t ' ( J ( h '\ {.'-, t)1 • ' \\.t\l i:. .- 11 ~{ ~: ,J '\1' i" :i:(· \?l~ll.i 1 ·.... l \t

n~ tht.· tlll\l' . lt toui ~.: ll.l\C tllll !~·t 1

ntlt :n h{ .~ 'dCJ; l ~ !1hilu::.
/t'J\) bc1nv.- tll:: critit,:l !rC(jllCll {' ~tild -..: ,n 1c tOJht:tfi ! Jh) J: /(.': : ·

\;i!t:c .tl iine . 0) dl ~JJ!\ l (t t(· ttl }I :l\C ~\H. i1 .i. :-. h .ll jJ !h:..: ;1-.. tlH: CJi1iC. .~1 /(J(}F,\()'ft.\
:i ('qt:t' rH \ \ \·;1-.. p.h-..ct: tiL!: ti•f. ' :u < ltr;l! t' n :c: il..dl: ·~ ·1nc·nt nl I f ' t<'; i !i illll'[ li t' I V!'/. , I ' J ', • I ' '
' J' , }. . ' l II JlH\ { f " l ' ! It' \\ l! Oh " (IJII(I.J' ! of ,Ill <"ic(ll<rnJ;J!!fll ' IH \\:1\l "
-: -1'' \l·otdl : l': u1c unk.t,!l>k Fo:ttt!Lttvh !ii ! ' i': on· d n :,· '·' 1" ~.np · !t··'.' l.J! ·' ." el~·ctror.JJ:t!..:JJt.:tll tJi,tttJh~HJ< ( · h/JHh " ili !Jt.dh J~,~ '.!li~<·d \\·il l
t! t• ( .h:...' .
1 p:t.t.t .llll,!lld J J~(IJ(Jih.Jih l ~t'lipp lt · ,d(I(IIJ 1/Jt''-lilfatt·of \\;llcr
. \\he ll '''o dJI!vrcJH JJJc t.d -.. ~lit' cll'nricdh. ( OJJilcncd, citftr·J
! tL' ">t'{(JJH: n~c t hod \\ :!-.. :t !"'n . i1' pr~t(tic:.:. 1:.'""· . :~t 11r::tc !. . li t !:t. t.u 1 fJr thiot 1{rfl ·1n d ·u· · , . . IJ\ dircu f(lfl ·
!)t·n,·(T/l t fli.. JJ7 in' nrlrt·,' , l ll.:i l . ll(UJ! . ;1 di.!lt· l ('.ll< t· in ekctncal p u l< '!llial l':\.i-.,f"
11 1 '·i. J 1: 1 i1c C'\;11npit:" ,))n,,·!l 111 \I i Jli~· :1 n·, i :,q:(! e;:(!t ( ; 1· \ v··~; .. ' IUU fu .ill\ fH•It 'III J'IJ J•fl · · • 1 ·
""')'linl ll1i' dill. . - .1 . . ' t ' ' ' ' ' · " 1 '· 11 """ h(' C~lnll:dil
I ~ l .I . : : ! l : ! )• ' ( i IJ \ I • ! l ] .' I I ! (' t I ) : I ( J i l1 1l I j f!l t• :I i. . 1I ' ~ ! j ( . \. . l . ,,:(1/i; ·(· furo· (t'lll[ lt ';r'H,t '', ~ ~ ~ <·ll ~ dr/ l· of r ' l ll l:l rlutt·u·urr· tll u' ' ·'''lrr , ;, t f " l ( l -
'd t::ih.t:l , : (!!J.l t' , :-.ll/11 o! .JI! tlu ·. <·~l' ll~JI a ~!t-<.t th e flo\\ II! (li!Jt:lli ill lfH (JI<llif . . ! ... the
(.{)olld l ( ll!i/ " <11 () [ /ll(i ,! (ll)!ljl](·ft• ( l l Llli( \;JJJ ],J J<. ft J ., j
ulJ,, , I :litO !'h t;, tl :c long· \1·:\ll'·k!! ,' -;lil ~;ll!ll ,,,·!tii .i jJl t:--~:,;0:; {'\ ('l · (Oil/ J'l] JU (c l(l '-Ia I it eli · - ., I ·' · ( Ol ' · J{)\\ .
l'J1CL' !l('t\n.·cn 1\q, ('). lt(b ... II<. p.l!tHt li.nh It • rh c ;Htt l :!l pou ·ntial diflt·J -
.~lt':t l t'l tllilli l t lll _.\ '\t:lntil ck-.-,." lt c (<>l i ClLl.d t:.: -.,, 'thC ."Jt' :):r\tJ «!JO(c" Ill,,,, dectron 'uhc·· rl 11. -., I I . ,
COllllllt'lll i 11 the fin-] .. , I ' ' ' h I J<' J<h l' lOr I he·
l: tti()ll' -.ccm to lc:t1· no n>o!n \1·1i:1te\lT in: dotti)t th:1t tl:c ::c:· "• Tncih oth . .· d ·" nt r· n,~- o. !h e qunt :llion . '" wdl '" for o ne of t he
dlsuthcd la t(J foJ oc t C T!Jl i11Jil 0" <ri'i( tl t . .
ll!C Jll dcll1:tnded ll) Fin,t<:in·, cqt t:tt ioJJ IJc tiH'Vl' ' 'l(' tv.-r J n:c·;'•r •d ' · Th at j, poi , --I ., . " . , , '"lJlll'lln,·s .
'TI ·d llll la ' ll<j!lll ('(] "' '" 1'1 11 ' ' " phoiJJcleclric ClllTL'lli'
ll' rca (' I' shoul d r('(all iln J a I I . I .
u I d c l crlll in i 11 g ' " :1 '- t u a l h c" i ' l ' _- clnp tcr il " ·as ;ilrc:tdl· k , . . '> a lct " ' I )(· ·''·co nd p:;ragla ph of th i,
~ . · n o\\·J J t hat an innva'c in frl'qtl cn n pn d I .
i'l! c fdtl'! poi11 i mcmi<mn ! in .\!i lliL:t n , i;,poduct ion I It • 1 :tot flC:J ' c i n rlw cnt ·J"' ui
t ile t·rnJ I! ql clntlf 'll" . . . ' IJ(Cf ;In I ll-
( ();:n:rn '" lurt],<:r . C'><CJ>l tu Jll('!ltioll th:,L 11 1'>':1\ ,;:thLt(:or ih ,, \ n · .-\p pc·n di' ~-
6 .'1ec fOO lll Ol l' :!_ p . XX,
';t!id:ncd. 7
A th ermopil e is a "Hn 1 0 1 I 1H ..llllOCllupJc,, t Oll ncuc:d
.\lilli!..:ttl conclud e, l1i' p :'l>cr 11·ir h ll\(' p;i~t' .'> of di,cu.,;,ir:J: ol , . . · ,., P eke I riel! I
,l(f Ill (ortilliJJ<Hton and b l.~tkt · !Jnl '-I• .,s I .I I . .I .. , ~ ~o :ls to
. ' P .J >._,(IJ >Ill( I( Cfl t Lldi<HIOJJ.
tl:l'oric, of phot< tC11!i" ion. \ f o,l rd t l, is JI LI 1Cri:il kt- IJCC I! ni ::clc
oil,oic!c }),· btcl clnTiuplllCl tl\. T11·" port ton,. lwwcn~r. r<'I ll :till
Y:tlid :1nd \\':t rr:tnt qtlotat ion: li/ ill /()(' /( . 1/'1/)'
Th e re1 it·11· -1 1- 1 ·
' I ! ( t' lll ( ' lliJO ll l'd Ult l'""t> (-\() I
l'erh:tp' i t i' \!ill too c:1 rh to li'>'> Cri \l'itlt ahv; ltit e tOilftdCJ :u t!t c ]' . l ,-, ., ] "' - I ' 0 Il I d' ill I }'>
gc 11 tral and c:-;au 1·:didi11 ,,J 1ltc L i mtei11 e-quat ion. :\c,·enltck". i1 I tl.l _g'.lCitli Pluluwj;/ucrr/ .1/ rr,e.o:tllr' 21> , J()J 7- 10 ~ - 1 ( Jrll3).
muq he admitted li nt thl' prcocnl t:-;p crimc tlt '> coll ., l it tllC H .' l 1· muc!: \I il ltk.tn ) own II'Ork rs fJtriJ]j,},ed as R \ \f.ll ' k- r·
· - · , 1 1 an, Ir e Pln•.l'lml
.
l,r-!Icr jmtiflct ti on for <.uch :t n :1'>\Crtion th!! 11 kts here1ofore been IO IIIHL R'n•re;, • 7, .'i5.1- 3KK ( 191t1). ·
and if th at equation he of gcncr: !l l':tlicl it y. then it mu\1 ccrtainh be
rega rded a' one of the m os1 fundamcmal a nd f:tr r each in g of the
cquatiom of physics: for i t rnm t gmc m the tra mform :ttion of all
,J,ort-\1-,1\e-kngth clcc tro m:tgnctic e n e rgY illlo heat energy,
 SPATIAL ORIENTATION OF ATOMIC MAGNETS
89

l Iil l ll ,I~). i l i! I l 1 j l ' t i! { j 1t. · \ ('l 1 ~ • J

J' Ii" Il, ill'l~t · ·t 1ot· .: l

5j;atial (JritJdatioll \.

'illll . I ll ,tlllll : \\ ~Jf.lj " (l

•
Ill,!!-..'-"
•
111! '

! '{1'\"'l.'' ' till

li• n· u:\ 'l i'-,(C'!Hil;lc
Jll flf Jl'! ' lJL' tJ! :!
iP {l' ">[

lll,t '' 11t l;(

l' dL tt
tl l jJt>!t· .
.J!UJ l ~, ~illl:t ll.lJI/
1

\\11/. dljJllit: il lUlll L'il! l ilt' tl' il !O[-. ,! !' atH!,l l L!J
<•'• '

(!/. 11font ir _/l[a/.!.)ttf.r..· 1/ !( <il/l'llll/1 11. \ lll :tg lll't iC <iipoJ, . Ill ,I il(>lilllliioi!Ji 1/J.I ,g!J(:!i( ftc] tJ
(' \JWI iU J( t'' !Ill[ un h .1 !OllJ lll' lt't1 di 11 g [ll :tli<,:JJ it \-.i tJi !Itt ]i>l ../
d i! {'( I j (J lJ ()I I i I ' . fi -Id I .. ,. . J I .
• :, .. , . .- : l · JJ" "'o ·' Ol (t' ' ' lC"l' tll <tC:I tJt tH !c d epe :: d,
< l1 t .. c .Jn~k It< l\\T(,l the d:pok :tl!d thl' !.!Ltd:cJ tl o! ti ll' nt<J<,:netir
fJdd { , ()J hl' (jlll:lltll. :1 lll:.tlil td ,,,, ,, ,'J t(Jl•' -
·" . • .
)';t,'.l ll:_: li i!Ollgh ;:
11 01 11" 1ii<lllll lll:J_<.;·m-t it ftcld '' ill i.e <kill'<IL'd. I I tiw c 1ie nt ; tiol!
1 1
Holll \ tl1eon ol :ttolili< .'trw lttrc \1-:t, ]' tiiJii;ltul in :1 _,eric .-. of oi tl1.c :! l<llll ic JllZI"JJL'I' .~
rl·htin·
· •
t" •I• •· f ·I 1
·' 1< '• '' ll llll'' ll.IUl"l. :1, tl1 e
- · 1
JUJln' IJct\lt 'l' tt 1~1!:) :ltHI 11115 1 :!lid ll\ till- carh 111:.;0·, iLtd been <J.t,,,uJ idc:t' i:tdit:ttn l. ih v d ellecti lJI! ' c>l til e illdi 1·id u; Jl :t!Ollh
\1 J!j !J ,J\.( ' I .tltih t) JI tJil .~fit>lJI '" lli(' l. IJJ C'l.
~
,J !J ,· l, tt'•,t · l>c -.tlll 11·i!! In·
f. til h tiH>rtniglll' de,cl••J'l·d 1)\ rn:Jll\ \\"< >1 kc h , tJot:d>h .\1 n~tld
'J" t .td I ! · <l it 1! 1·' - ttt:,,., I · ·1 tl . ·
· · :.ttl<. !( ' .t!"""' llJ.I~ tl l't, , ,JI"J l i<· onh·
:-,unllll('l !t-ld. Un c o! it, !tl!J<LiJ IIettLtl 1''>.-.tuLttn \1-:h tl1.1 t ce1 t:tln
<hll:lmi<:tl qtl:llltiti c, rcL1ti 11g to periodic lliOtion co1tld not t:1ke ;t/ un ~ llTLti!l di:ution -, _ :h l"n!ictcd IJ\ tjlLtlllltl/ 1 tlt CIJn . th en
the: dc:tlu llt>ll'> \I· ill likt·,,-j,c /,(. IT'll ,·c·tecl t<l .I· 1l'\\ - \ ":1 1lie.\.
on :trl,itrar) ' :d ill'-'. hut only :1 -'el of cli.-.cretc nlttC:\ , intCf-,'T al > :t ll d

multiple;, ol Pl:ttH k." (011'-t:lllt h. Tl1i ' pootulate accoun ted ni ce h

tl:l' l>c:tn: "·ill lw ' J>li t illlo ~c,enl •
r,·•11-1'· T /II'· \\ --.1' \\' 11:11 ( )tto

lcJl the d i>c rc· t c: .en er<:;' ;t;l!e> cled ucecl from the ex peri men t of -~ t('I' JI h:td in :nind \\'ltett he IITOt c, i 11 : 1 p:q)(:'r puiJli'>hed in 1Ci:!l,
Fr:lllck :l!ld 1! uti de,crihed in ChJpter G-not only lor t heir _\. o\\·, '-'·!Jet her th e <jtl.tllt lll1J theoreti ca l or the cJ:t.,,in l co n-
qualit. 1ti1e cx i,tc11cc . but, in the case of tile hydro!.';e n atom , for CC]'11011 ,.-, \:llHl ca n h l· di ., tin g ui,h ed i>y tnc:tt h of :111 expvrin: e nt ,
tlteir yu:mtitatiiC l':iltte-' :1s \\·elL <otnpletl'l ) '-llll]Jle Ill pril!ciple. One n eed.-, only to .'>tuch tlt e
An tl'en more curious re~ult o t th e app li cation of tl11s rul e i-. ddlt·ctto n th:tt :t Le:t nJ of atom _, tlltcletgoc, in - a suit:tbl.y 111 .
!Jont(JgC n<: otJ' tn:t g n<·t i< ftelcl."
the eflc< t th:1t IJectme k lt0 \\'11 a> "spatial quantll<~ticm. " This
Juc; not impll' til<: qtt:ltttiz:ttion of '>j>JCe itself. but t :tther of 'j ht: ljiLIIJiit :lti\T :ll ,'-.:lll l1l'lll rtllh ;h fo]]o 11 ·, : : \!J Clc-t IJ"Oil ll10\i!J<>

pure ]\' ;,p: tti :d :t'-pt·ct, of tl1e hch:t,·ior of :t clyn:tmic:d s\'S tem. 1n ~ 1 Olll' of th e orl>ih <Jf 1\oltr's th co11 . witl1 <tll :tngt tl.t r ntont e ntu 1 ~~
p:trticuLtr, .'ttppusc that in e1·e ry :1tom of a particular element, L. h:t .'> a lll:_tglll'lic JJJOll! Clll ; \\ lti< II j, proportioH:d to? and :tlo n o
the <Olltjllcll tl'llt ol elctt t o n' lt:t' an angul:1r rnometJ llllll diflen:nt till' \.Il l!(· )JJl(' · .(111 Jll .1· t •llll (lJi ll.llllJJig
·. . ' "'
'L'\Cr;t/ C !Clli'Olh, lHJth tltc
from 1no. Tlt c rule ,ra te'> tltat \l·hut sttch an :11om i' in a :m g ul:tr Il!Oil lellt:t and th e m:t .l; ll c tic lltOllH'tJt , o f the ind 11 idual
llLt g netic fil'ld. the an _g ubr momentum \' tctor can mak e onh . I'CCt ot--ta 11 ' · ·,o t 11.1t
electrOih· •·Hid · t 1JC tut:il m:Jgn e n·c n1oment i-; re-
ce rtain \\'e!l-dcftned. cli~ct-c t e angles ,,·ith the direction o£ th e f,eJci . lated 111 tlt1;, sa m e \\'ay to tile t(Jt <il anguL 1r n 10 n 1e 11 tunL ) \Vh en th e
The angles permitted by the theory are those such that th e com- -+ '
IJOnent of the angubr momentum alon _g th e field is an integral :~~~::1 ' '., 1," '.1 nt:tgnctic .fielcl B, th e_ action of the field on th e mag-
multiiJlc (pmitil'(· or neg:ttil'e, but not Lero) of li j '.!.c ,,here h j, . · mcttt ptodll{ CS" torque 111 a clJrCCltOll p e rpcndicul:tr w
-+ ->
Plan ck's const ~1nt.~ The re:1son that thi .., re~ult wa-, reg:ucled a~ t!HI therefore 1 .) a n d 1:1, and ol m :tg nitucl e propottiona l tu
88
 CRUCIA L EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PH YSIC S SPATIAl OR IENTATION OF ATOMIC MAGNETS 91
90
-~

t: :t il t! ,, , 1 , :m d dq>t:IHlcll\ un the .tn~k lwt 1\lTII !', :tnd L Tli <.:

L·ilut. :ttcurdi 11 g to d.t" it.d thn;ll ll iL'. i, tl> C:tlhl' I . to jJH'Cl'"

.tiHJtll 1\ -1<> 11.1< l' ou! .1 t<J !I <' '' l1"''' .1'- i' i, :tlt> ll .:.' 1\ -1 \lc in··
quclll\ ,Ji j>IL'(l',,iull i ' i>1<>\Hllliu 1Ltl \tJ /!.t ill· i.ltlt>i l •l j>l'U]'<ll · lZ

tion:tl:t\ Jll\tlh in ~ onh the plt>Jil'ltic' oi the clcct l"l ! .tnd n:IUJJ.tl
iO ihl. illl,: ful :1 {J(.'\d u\ ]II · ~1111:, , JIH' l!l'l iod i' ~ ]() ''' 'l'lOild.
:'\"". ,I IJ>J!U'C t li:Jt tile !Jcid j, not 1111ilurm. lJut 111rin f1ont ]>oint
->
1" ]>•>Int . lk1 10tc 1,, iJl) ;,, ti ll' tiJ:tJlgc· 111 l\ pn unit di..,pLtct:·
ll ll'lll 111 tli l' .\ di 1ntion. :till! ,in1iL11h ior Y :111d :. 'l l1t: JI there
->
" ·i ll i>C' :1 Ill't lone f on til<· 11ton1. c>,11e n b1
->
,Ur(Jl) (JX ....,- ,U 1) 'iB (!)' + ,U,dB iJ: (8 1)
FIG . 8 .1 Shope of magnet poles to giv e, in the region just abo ve th e knife-edge,
....,
a large volue of ;,g ;. z Hl t he direct ion of B
Bcetll'l' uf th e prccc"ion. the <omponc nt' o f I' per pcndil uhr to
p, \.11'\ ,illll,<lid;Ji\;: ;1 lOl !lll lllll j>L I< tit (' i, tO ( \l()()'>(' the : IIXi'>
t11nc t j, till· '!"·ed <' ;tt ,,·h icl1 tlll' :11o1n rra1-c.:I, di,· id ed into th e
1\.
:tlo lt ,c>. ,o th:lt tl1 c \'I ll' i11g tOIIlj>O ll ellt S :t rc !' ..· and /',. ll Eq. (8 .1 ) length I ol till' m;tgnc.:t polt·,. T l1e ddknion. then. i:-
i' 11 \'C:I .1 .g('(! O\Tr :1 tilll c long colllp:tred ,,·it ll th e period of pre-
cc_:, ,j011. tlii -, ,illlt,oilhl \'ltr i:tt io lt m: tl.:.c> th e.: fir st t,,·o ten1l'. 11\'t' r:tgc .u, iiB I" (8 .2)
w JCr<J. :1n d thc.:re n· m :t i n~ o nly .\f (!: ' I ~

i'\m,· conoickr :m atom fo r \\'hi ch l , =

h ,' :l-:c. Th e n atcorcl ing
to th e 19 ~ l \'CJ .<, ion of qua nt urn theory. th e component L , of
->
-> ->
The :ltOill. th c.: rcfu re, i ~ :t tc:clerated in the direction of iJB / IIZ . L :dong H l:tn Olth i> e -:-_/, ~'"'- :lt lll I': <:tll b e only ==p . .\n in itial
· :\<>\\' im11 g inc a11 c.:l enromag11et id Hl:>e po lc.:s :lrL· sh:1ped ;" IJeant ul ;ttu llh :til haYing til e \dille \ C.:loci t \' \\'Otdcl then be split
:,llo \l·n in Fi g. R.l: th e: :t xi s is \ C.: rtic:t!. Cl ose to the knil c-cdge illlo t\I' O i J\ tl1 c lt ction of tl1 e lid (!. and there \\·o ul d be no part
a n d jmt :tbon.' it, th e fie ld B is '> tron gc q and th e di rect ion of o l th e beam undellected.
--> ...., The cla -,sic d ca<.,c 1' .: !,it lll on · rumj>lic:ttcd. Let u s \\Titc
iJB/ (1: 1, :tlo ng B . ,\n ;1tom of Ill a'' 1\l tra1eling :dotH~ p:n allel Eq . (K.:l) <~'>
tu the knife-edge :tlld jtt>t abo1·e it ,,·iJl experi e nce :111 <Heeler-
->
:nion 11 = !I'} ,j M = 1,, ' ()13 / il: 1
jM, 111 a direct ion ;dong or
-+ Cp. cos 8, (8.3)
(JB / IJ : ;md thus perpendicular to its initial m o tion . lf it >pends
-> ....,
a time t tr:tlersing th e field, it ,,·ill h<ti'C been deflected from its
wh ere G is the angle ben,·een p. and B. The classica l concept is
->
original p:!th bY an amount z = 1a1 = ~,, ,! uB j(J:
2
; r~ ;~\ 1 . The th a t (} ca n k 11·c ;ill po, ~i blc nlue,. so that cos () \\'ill range con-
 92 CRUCIAl EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS SPATIA l ORIENTATION OF ATOMIC MAGNET S 93
tilt!lt>ll'h ilo ll! -I ' " I . T it ,· ittiti:d I>C:Jll l i' !lu i ' jlli t hti!
·T
t.Jt tOJI :Jt hl <Ill ll. I!Ih :1 dh triht lt ii >!l , ,j I Clr >t tll f ' · T l1i, I!!IIJ ' <Ji ll
'J!It'.)( l. \\ it !i tilt' t''-t t·tll of >j>!l .J d l>t· i t t~ cqu. d to t he .I IJ !Ottll l It > ll1l! J! fl\t ' lli. lllll' i tJ II> <' ljli ,Jll l llll l l.i ' l . t•;u!t to! t ilt' !11·!1 'J 'Oh
il\ \\JtitlliJJt' ti\U (tl ll ljli >llt'llh J'il'ditt Cd II\ <jli :JII!tlll l llll' liLIIIiC, h \}>Jl ' ;Jd () iJl ' ' ll! ll'\\"/J:It. inlt t l!t' tl' Tll l . !l ll' ~H lll i' , tJil , 1 lJ Jl t lJ J'i/1 •:
\\ '()Jil t! ht• , ,.,l. ll .Ji l'l! .

I t i' ,till iH"' iiJk tl 1.11 t ill' t l:i "it. d ll''J ill \\l>t il d lllo k 'lil llt'- l .! J l / J~)! 1), /l'lll .tlltl a1; ~·~ ~-- () . :1 /( ' ! i )

ll'li.:t lik t· t ilt ljlt:tll lt l! Jl oi l<. i t till' itl lt'll'> ll \ ..l oti ,:_: titl' ' ]' rt·.t d Cl(' j j t '( I I ( )IJ l .Il l l t ., tl j! <l / ! j \ I I cII :I .t I J Jl J j I I! I! i \ C Jt I t j I\., j 11 I ! :t ·

)J. td ll!.l"illt :l ,It ti lt Ul ct ' ;J ilt! ,I lllillllll!l lll :I t tl! c l l'llt l'l. \\ .l' cL"'"'<.i! <.t ' L'. I)JJ til t· fJl l1L'l !t:t n d. tilt "-l ll ~lc uni ful !ll 'd lt.',J~ j ..
Clll '>ilO\\ t li .J t tili _, j, !Hll tilt' t:l,(', jl ltl\idcd 11·e :t"l\ll ll' t lLJt t ilt rcpl.J(Cd l 11 .1 'tlj>l'Ij><hit it>IJ oi .'ltt•:tJ.; , ,,·!Ju,t· it ' li~tlh l':lll \!,l' hun t
JIIUlllCJl t' .Ir <· tllliiiJrtnh di,trih tl lcd in dit t'l riun bcion: t h e~ entn lt'r ; ,: tt. tll t" It'!\ l:t t ,\!,t ': t!!t' <•.nniJi Jt:t tiuJ! J>lt>d itcn . 1 11/II X //Iill'li
tilt' ru :IQ JlL' tit held . T il t d i,tril>utit>ll ol in1emi 11 i., gi, c n b1 th e 01 i ttl l' ll, ii\ :1t t he <U !I C::. I t i, L' \ id c n t tii:tt t l1c d t'>linnir>t t ''·

Illtmber of :tlolll'> ]'l'l t111it dcflntion :tl :1 giH>Il dcfil't rion : the :" .Stcrt1 m :tint.titt cd. (_lc:tt (llt .
pnn cdttJT. tltc ! l'l<ltL·. h to f1 nd t ill' Jlt!Jll htT of a tom ' lo r h'li it!l I•
i' in :1 \!ll:tll r:Jil.C:L' r/'' :tho ut :t ~i 1 · e n 1:t!uc. :l!ld till' l<tltl l' \ uf
t ile ckfk<tion cuJll'] " 'itdin g II• t!Ji, ,;Inlc r:1 t1 gc. and Lik e the
1.1tio ul tltt' foltlll'I lo tl1 c l:JtllT. lt i, , ]I IJ\\·n in c:duti tt' tl!:tt
il : :tnt! '' :tn· tcl:It c d :1' in F q . (S.')). ,,·itll r, in r;llktth . tltcn
II !( ' 1 ;J JI ~C r/: c'i : te ll! c "J> II!!di J !~ Ut ;1 \ cJ \ .... nLt 11 1 :11 1 .~ t · r/ 11
o l ''

i., -~I\ l'll '' :

d2 = C11 sin 0 dO, ( 84 )

1rlticlt is th e clcnomi tl:t tor of ot1r ratio . Th e numerator ts oh-

tained from tltc Ltct tl1:1t if :t hrge number of ITC to r' I' arc
ori cn t('d rando;Jtl). their tips ;1rc c\i,tributcd uniform l y oYer a
sl'hcre of radi ti'i 11 : t il(' Ill ll1!bct whose ang le ,,·i tlt :t spec ifi ed
direction lie' in th e r:11tgc d!! :1rotmd (/ i-. tl1 e ntnnbcr ll'lwsc tips
lie in a b :111d ol ,,·idt h !' d li (t'ntl' tcd :1t <ol:ttitude" (! ('ef' Fig. H . ~ ) .
:1nd i, th cref(Jrc ]' I (JjlOJ tiona! t" ti ll' an·:1 of \tiel! a h:111d. That FIG . 8 .2 Band ol colatitude II on a sphere of radi u s p..
:1rca i., th e ciJct tm lctt'lllt' ol t!1c IJ:tnd . ~ ;;- 11 . tim e~ i ts "idth. I' d O,
pr()\idcd r/ 11 i' sttt:dl. Tlt c r;td itt'> 11 i' eq ual to sin O time' the Holl'e1e r . wltil c til t: cxpe rill!ent appear' 'imple in principle ,
radith 1, of the ' Jlltcn·. v > tll :1 t the :tt'l':t ol the h :llltl j , <.!..,rp. 2 .-in () r! FJ. it t111 n> out in pr:1c ticc to iw :lllo titC I m :lltt:r. To beg in \1·irh,
Tilth , tl1c nlllnbct of ~J tollh ,,·Jtme nt: tgnctic nwmetll'> m.tkc an the expt:t it1t e nt Jtttl\t IJC· c.1rr ied out in \' llll ttlm \o th at the lHc:am
->
angle ,,·itl t B i11 til l' r :tJ tge till :ll<>l!Jlll () i.- prop01tion:d to \inl)r/0. ,,·ill not be destro 1·ed by sc:tttcrin g front g;" ntolccule;. Con -
\\' hen thi s i> di1·id cd iJ, Eq . (H .·l ). tl1 e angt dar dependence <:ttHcls sidered in conjunction ll'itl1 the 'tate of Y:l CUtllll tech niqu e' :tt
out. T he re.'>ul t i~ t Ita t acco rdin g to cl a ..,,ical theory. the initial th e time, thi ; res u icted tlte pos.'> iul e len gth l of th e poles to a
few centimeters. lt i' pos.,ibl e to make !I of the order of ](P
>pot j, spread into a h :11ttl of uniform int e nsity.
->
Th e'c calcul:ttiolh. h o ,,·cyer. h:~1·e as,ttmed :1 beam im·oh·ing ga u..,,, and : iJHjii.: i of th e order of ](l ~ gams J>el ce mim etcr.
a single \'elocity. In auuality. the u<:':l nl is uutainccl b~ Y:t pori- The Yalu c of p. i' kno11·n in term' C>f !ttrHI:mH' Iltal constant;.
 94 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS SP ATIA L ORIEN TATIO N O F ATOMI C MAGNET S 95

·1 he comiJin:ltiull .\17 · ~ i' t\1·ire !l1c killctit ell cr!.;' of the :1tom; ol th· ]HJk pi etc' ,,.,,, t<>O tllil l It > 1> c ' j,j J>i l . . tn d l~: t d lll h v
tl1 e kiile ti < cnng1. in t lliJ J. i-. <ktci mim'd ll\ tl1t' 1:1por tcmper:J- d: n Kl 'l lcd ill ]•re<ipit.t t i<ln f>! Jt :J-<ent , ih n
lllrC'. 11·hiL h 111:11 he ol tilt· order o! ]O(lll' h . \\ '!Jell 't Jc!J llll lllbcJ;, ' l ilt ill'-1 l' \.pmtl )(' I' ll'JliOtitJ( l''i ill h e: s.:\. C ul.ttlt :llld SI Clll

:11T put intu tht· fonnuh. the dcllt•t tion t !ut r .111 lw vx pet tnl , ,! \ :

i- fou n d to IJL' ul the oJd CJ ol O.!ll 11111 1. Tl1 e C\.pcrinJC ll t 11·:1<

po"ihk. httt it \\C>ttld C\ idcntll lw :1 dclit.ttt· ollc.
\ \'h t·J: Stern su hnJittcd t it c p:q>tT n>llt:tilling tliv furc::ui11g
:m:J!, , i,. in Lit e .\ ug·w.t oi J £)~1. he and a co-\\'od,cl. \\ ':t!t!Jel
( ,erlach . "·e1c :drc:Hh occupied " ·it !J t :ll'l\ in g out the experime n t
- , \\ t) rtd~'-1
( '-}Hhl!Jt· -.. \it'ldvd .1 r(' ·-11]1 idcnticd i D :dl c ~" cnt i .tl po :J i!--
i llll r~ct \\t ' \ l'l. \\"11 11
! il l"> (()tnp lcit· "'lllli H'I!\ 1t Jnu.., t hr.· -..tid her e I h,tr
:1 JCli.tldt :idi th tJl lt'I JI Pl "-!H it "'llt.d l d!.tphr:lgll l' h\ optical n1 t':t lll\ i~
\CI\ dii!1utl t. ,o ilu 1 Jill' acJ,it'\t'II H'I't rd ,uch :t com pkt ch· '>\mm c tr ic
"'!''"lilt;1 , i1 : hg . :: :ltjlllHlutcd ·'' Fi !.: . i' ..'\j j, ~>~t Jl'h 11 1 p:1rt the re'ldt

at Fr:1nkfurt :m1 \Lli1J. <.cJJll:t n l: and IJ1 t l1C' middle uf :'\ mem ber ,f iur~ llli'>j>I:ICcmcnt of Oll l' tl i:,p i! Lt.Q \11 ll\ a few !JU JHlredt h> oi a
tiiC\ !t:~tl prelimi 11 :1n rc., ult,- tou preliminan. lJm,ncr. to per- 111tllt11 Jt! CI h .drc:1d y <:ll'llJgJ, tc>tlt .d.. c· .ti l l' '-l''''lii C f:1i!.
m it a d eci'l ion o n the m :1 i11 quc'.lion. T!Jc, proceed ed to llL tke
'omc inl]>IO\Clll('llb on the :tpp:~r:Jtll;, (a foot no te to t he third
p:t pn connne JJt' tlut " It ,,- ;,; JlCh<.il>lc fur the~e to be worked o u t
and tc, tcd 1>; joi 11 t cllort-. dmi t t .~ the Cl1ri;,tmas \'ac:t t ion '} a nd
_,uiJ JJi itt et! f1rm <o ncltbio Jh <>I I I .\ Lt rch ~ ~~~~-
Compared ,,ith J>IC!>ent -d :l\ ultral1igh-pre< i' ion tc<liJ tolog\ :tnd ''
IIJini :lluri;:ttio iJ. tilL· C'- ]>CI iJncnLtl arr;JJJ:.!,<'ll ie ltt j , not exccp-
t iuna l : b ut at tl!c ti n H· it ,,·;1, .1 <O ihitler;ti >k fc:tt. The !>t tb,t:tnce
11 '-ecl wa ~ 'li h er. " ·l1ic h ,,·;" \ apori;ed in an electr ically heated
oven a nd escape d th rough a cirCttl ar ope n ing of area 1 mm 2 . .-\t
a di sta n ce of ~ .5 cJJJ from t il e o\'C II .-' ,, a, a d iaph r agm cont:1inin g
a n a ppro xim ate ly ·c irr u Llr a pertu1 c of area 3 X 10 - :1 m m ~, i.e.,
r:tdim abo ut 0.0:1 llllll . .-\n o t l1cr :l .:l em beyon d thi s was a second
d i;tphragm , 1r hosc o penin g \\·:1s in th e form o f a sli t o f len gth
0.8 mm and " ·id th O.o:; to 0.0·1 m nt , o r ie n ted perpe nd icul ar to
the direc ti on of n. Su< h ti n ) dim em ion s were o i> v iou ~ ly neces- FIG . 8 .3 Splitting of a beam of silver atoms b y an inhomogeneous field . Each
sary to pl od ucc a beam ,,·hi ch ,,·o td d n ot be va:. tl y lar ger th an scole division is 1 ' 20 mm . [ Z. Phys. 9 , p . 350 t1 922 ), Fig . 3 . The reversal is a s in
t he amo unt by ,,·h ich it ,,·:ts de fl ec ted . Th e slit 11·as pl aced jmt the orig inal .]
at tl1 e a pex of o ne e nd o f th e kn i fc-e d ge p o le pi ece (see Fi g. 8. 1),
a ncl th e se t of ope nin g-, '' 't' so :tdju sted th a t th e bea m tr<tl·e lecl Tl1 e one c har:trter i'>l it common 10 a ll t !tree ex pos ures 11·a, th e
p .tra llc l to tl1e k n ife-ed ge. '! lie 111 :1g ne t po le> wer e :1 .5 em lo ng. clear :-c:pa r;1tio n of t he IJeam i11t u t 110 cu m po neJJ h . .-\ s the a u thor ;,
T he wh ole arra ngc111 ent 11·as hou:.ccl in a casi ng 11·h ose walb ,,·ere ptl t it. " The ' plitt ing uf th e a to llli c beam in th e m ag ne ti c f1cld
tl 1ick e no ug h so th a t pre-,s m c on th e m agn et po les, r es ultin g from g i1 ·e~ r i,e to tiro d i .~< r e t c IJC<lll h. T her e ar c no und efl ected a tom 'i

th e \' ac uum imid e th e d ta mber , would no t shift th e re la ti1 e de te u;JIJ!c.· · ,;

position of th e co n1pon enu,_ The '·exposm e tim e>" were e ight R e ference to th e preced ing d i~c u:. :. i o n sh o ws th at thi s r esult
ho u rs : e1·e n th en. th e de pos it o n a g las:. pl ate a t th e Ln e nd clcarh ronfirm;, til e qu an tum h ypo th esi ;, a ' o p posed to th e cl a~~ i -
 96 CRUCIAl EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS

cd 1Jeil: 1\'i(I J. 'lil t' tnminoln!.;\ ol tilt: tim e: w:~> u-, t'd h\ (,crb clJ
;11 ,d .'> 1n 11 · " \\ 'l' l,ciJq]t! in lltt''l' L':-..pcrim ent.:l rc,tdb tilt· dirt'< 1
c:-..pct i11 1e ni. d pruo i ol till' q:Ltlllil:l!io n ul direction in :1 tli:J!.: Jlt'ti<
held.'

/(1{)'/"\()'f'f\
• J a nH.·~ F 1 antk rl'ttr:nk.ui 111 J~ltll that hL· and l-I t t!! h.HI not_ h.!IOhl l o!
Boh 1 ·~ \\'olk \,iJ ik tltcir (l h l1 t'\jJtTllllL'll t-. ('- n : C:lup. tq ,., L'll' .C.Cllttg- on. htt!
th at ( '\C'Jl jf ~(JIIIt 'O IIl' !1;1<1 told litt' lll it l'"-l"Lt·d ti ll ' \ f>J(dJ.lld\ hutdd JH; ( iJ3\t·
1 ead it. -r hc prohkn 1 of J: tot n ic ~lt\icttlll' w ;t:-. H·~:t tchd a .. . . u ~rn: u; ( th:~:
an\Ulh ' <b:t ni n~ to h,i\C ... oi\{d u ,, ,1:-. likch t o lw :t cr:1ckpot .
'The theon also nDint:Jincd thai 1h c 1na~ mtud ~ of th e ang-ul ar "'onwnttll11
mu st b e an integ-ral mul!ipk of hi'2 rr. 'lub"·q ut·m dc ,·do pnH' lH' h:l\c· rc,cakd
th~ll hali*illtt'gr.d 1nulrip ks o f h · ~ rr an: aJ..;o allo\\·ed tor li 1c: lll~t£!'lll tll d t. ;11Hl
th ai ,, h,·n th e tll:l\!llllll d c i' :Ill llll<'g'rai tll tdtiplc of /; "lrr . the tt>mpn 11 cn1 ( :I ll
Jw ;no. lf the l:tttn fcaturl' h a d been kno\\·n in 19::?1. tlw experiment de -
~nihl'd in tl 1 i~ ci1apt er \\·otild not ha' e been rega rd ed as a -.rringe nt t< ·q
th e 1h co n , a' " ·ill IJ<· mad e ck:ll: fonunateh. th e c~pcrimentns hap p e ned 10
\\Ork \\i1i 1 :.1 11 t"1l'llH·J1! wh ich falls inr<• th l' h al f-intcgr~t! da~" - for ,,·iJid l the
/(":'<' {(qll!)fJJlt"llt h C'(lud n !. ,
:I"Tt 1t.· (olatittH it' of a poi n t on a ~ ph crc is th e angle tl ut a Ltlillh !fJ tll.H
p oim makes "·ith th e axi, o f the sphnc. It is 90 ' ntinus th e LJill>tdc . .
':\ote here th e itnpmtan ce of th e tlwo rc tical e rror accOid ll tg to whttl, '"'
supp<ht·dl\· cotdd 11 0 t be ze ro . If the p c"s ihilit; th at'" ' = 0 h ad b<TI1 all<>\\'t·d
for in tht: quantum ca<.t:, th e tJi,tinction i>Cl\lcen th e two cases " '<>tllcl b,· thai
of tht cc maxima with int cnTning tninima in th e 11uantum case < ·n pared
with a si11gk central n·taximun' in th t: classica l case. Co n,idnin g I'" ·J! Jctdt;
a nd th e un k nown scnsitiYitl of the exper iment. '>tern nught well •<' con-
dndcd that il \\'.lS n o t fc~"ibk. . frequenc> a, th e in cide nJ - it h:td to be, a::. it wa~ ju~t th e fre-
• Thi s distance !tad been onh 1 em in th e preliminarY work , hut was In -
creased so as to prt·,cn t the apertnt c from being plast ered mer either bY
molten s i lnT , plattcrcd out of the O\'Cll or In too rapid in cnt>tatiott bv dep-
osition fron t 1h c bean,
" In th e light (l f "'hsequ,·JJt dt·,·clopJJtt·nJ s (d. tootnot c 2). this is fou n d
to be a !otll!it<Ht <. 1 ,.,tdt. If '> tern and (,erlach had u sed sulfur, for cxantplc.
instead of .; ihcr . tl1e bealll ,,·ottlcl have been sp lit into fin · components in -
' tcad of th·o. and on e o! 1lt c fnt' \\'l HJl d lt>t\l' UJH k rgo ne no d e Ht·cti on. It is
intrigui11g to sp<·cn !:nc OJJ It o " · ·' '"h a result " ·oulcl haw h ecn interpre ted .
All three ot the papers discussed in this chapter are in German.
Thev are 0 . Stern , Zcit sclnift fiir Physik 7. 249- 253 (1921);
0. S~ern and \\'. G erlac h , Ibid. R, 110--'111 (1922), a nd 9, 349-
355 (1922) ..-\ translation of th <: las t is ,given in Thr lrorl d of
the A tom, Vol. 2, pp 9%-q39.
9
X Lt\\ 1\Trc id crlli fwd a , e icc ttolll:Jgtte t i< 1\'dH'::.lll l llJ::? . })\
lllC.tlh of difir:t ct ion cxpt't it tt enr, ' u .~gc,tcd h\ Yon Laue- and
of cut ini <Htl b1 Friedrich :t rH I !\.n ipping. Tltc lwlta\'i o r of cleuru-
lll:i g rwtt< 1\·a\ e, \\':h i\'cll undct,tood on tl1e b:1si, of 'dax,,·e ll' ::.
th eon . I n p;~r Li c uLJ r. it i\·; ,, :m e.t , l m: rttcr t" cn\·i ,,;tg<' :t m eclt:J-
tt i,tn il\ ,,Jti<lr til l'\ \\Tit' '<.llft·Jc·tl. ant! it \\d' :1 \tr:Ji.~· iltiorll':trd
p roced ru c to conlputc tiJL' qu :rntit.tti\c ic;rtllrh of tlt e ,c;Htering.
Tl w ttt CclLr ni.;nJ 1r;1, tlu1 t!te \ :1n· in g denr ic field of th e w:t\C'
Kottl d \et ti1e electro n::. in rit e ;,c:tttcrer into iorced \'ibration:
the elcnron; , in tun,, bec:tlbe Jir e> \\ 'CIT bein g accelerated, would
em it 1 ~td i :1tio n . Th e scattered ra d i:ttion \\'O tdd be of the same
quenCY of ,·ibrat ion of th e emi tting· elec tron ;. 1t would ha1·e all
rhe propert ies of tl1 e radiation emitt.ed b\ an osci llatiiw electric
dipole : ittt c mitv ' I rnnie!rt c: dh disrr iiJutnl around the li71e o f th e
electron·., motio11 :tnd. 111 :tJI\ plan e containin g th:tt lin e of
Jnotion. \ :tn in .~ :ts tiJ(' squa1 e of tl w sine o[ tl1e angle bet\\'ee n
th e lin e of lltution :1 n d tltc dire<tion o l propaga ti on: and polari-
zation propcrti e' t lr:tt :1re of 11n ,on cern in tir e prese nt disn~.~siott.
.\foreon-r . the fraction ol the itH iduJt energ ' tra n sferred int u
the ~cl tt ered radiation slw~tld be ind e pendent of th e frequ enc>.
Jn the ten Year::. follm,·ing l <) J:! . tl1i .~ theon m e t with steadih
in crea sing difhcultv. The first discrepancy wa:, that for x ravs o.f
\'Cry short ,,.<l ,el ength. or for y ra\ s, th e scattered intensi tv was
greater in th e forwar d direc tion (; hat is. th e same direct i~n as
the incident radiati o n ) th <J n in ti.Je iJack\\'arcL This feature r e-
cei\·ed. lor a tim e, a qu :rntitati\'C explan:ttion O\' ascribing to th e
97
 98 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS PARTICLE PROPERTIES OF liGHT 99
Clt'< !HJ!l ;1 >1/( ' {Ollljl:ILI]Ji l' ll> [)Jc· '. -1.1\ \1':1\CJcll~tlJ :IIlli :J>\UIIlill ~ ii J< it_it· n l bt·.t nJ ·rith l.·t-rHlin!.!_ of !he p; , ;); of tiH: qtt. tfltLin1 o! L Hl i;11 )( 111
tlut tilctc· ,u, in ttTlcJClltt ' hl't\\t'Cil il!t· l :l\:, >t,ltLCrnl !J, dillcrcnt lt "'dif! .., ll J ,I (/Ltlt!._:t" !! l il" l: l!lillt' Jllti :: ;_l _\ , .t t Olht'(lt:t' l l((" rlJt \(." )1•• - lJJ lP

p :1rt' ui t lw dn !lUlL_\, t Li!.l .Jtl llllltll.Jtnl. ilo,,n-LT . i t "··" il lli !Hl clccrrun hi ll Jt 'lud ,,·i :lt :t nt o l!H'JJ!t:J ll cqtLd ro tilt· ~/ 1 ; 111 ~.:e. 1n Ill<.>I~l·l·;1 ~ u 1· 1~
o f t fl·· .\ l;l\ ·1 ht · t'llt'l~\ li : :!lt :.,t.!llt' l.Cd Li\ \\jjj j,t' t'U! L d ! r 1 t Jl.t: JJ 1
ti1 :l! tile \ ;iluc tl i.Jl lll ti'l In· .J"i c; Jl n! i<l ! il: t· dLtlll CIC! n! tl 1c
t !h· IliCidcJlt Ll\ n; i t Jtt' ti !t· 'ktn~_ t rt t'Jlt' l:...'\ i.)i t) 1c lt' to il td, tl1c '-l ,Jt ! cri 11 ~
electro !! 1.11 :r-<l \\il l! tiJl· '' ·"dcnc;: l! oi !ill' II Hidt·nt L!di.ttioJ! - CJcll11l1! . :lllli '1!11((.' tiH -..( .l ((L')I_',~ l', i \ !lllj-..f i,t . .t (fl!ll1)k~t' l jlLi !J lllnl. till'
uh \ iou"~h ;1 111u .\ l u n": lll-'-Ltctol"\ -...ntL il lOJL In :tdditi~JJi .1 "til1 ircqt:t·!J<\ \\'di l)l' l C<.il!tl'd 1n t/11 · '.t1JJ (' LitH; .1 .... 1.., ;1;c L' l lt'; (.. \ ·1 hu.., ~~: 1
Ill())(' >('1 iuth dif-ht tlit\ Jud IIJ'!'l' :I JTci . l t \1: 1, ci j,lO\l'lt'd th:ll til e rlw qu.Jlltu : u th:.·ol\ \q ... iHlllio.! t' \. iJt\1 1i11 \\ ,1\t··ic n t.rtlt o! ti lt·· \C'lt'~·· Jt ·d
\t.lllcrcd J:Jdi :J tion \1'.1 ' dillclT !lt 111 IH'']Ilclln iJOlll !Ill' iJHJden l \. - ra\-.. (!l llt' .t.nc.lltT !lLtJl tit .. ! ui t,l: t ti 1Udent r:t\ '.

.-\nllll r H. ( .olll ptoll, in :1 p:q>c! pu h !i ,hed in I~~~ ~\. IL1d t hi-, 10

':11 :tiJUtll the _,i ttLit io n:
Sucl 1 :1 ciLJ!lgt' i11 "·:J\c·- lcngt ll i, d irccth cOllllltT to Th om,on ·_,
tiwon ul ,Cll tcring . for 1hi' dcm.1 11d , th:H rh c ;,cJitcring electrom ,
Lldiating ;1, thn do l>t:Cllh C' of th eir forced \ ihr:niom \\·h en tr:t\C'r,cd
IJ\ ;, prim:1n :\ -r:11. ,h:tll _g i"· ri\l· to r.J d i:ttiotl of t'X.tClh· t he 'amc
fll·qucn c" ;1, tiLlt ol the r: cdi:1tion l:dlin g lljlOll 1h c m . .'\<>r do<: _, :Ill\'
modifiCJtioJJ of 1h e thc·on ,111h :1' the hypothesi' of a Lirgc: c:lcurotJ
-., ugg·c')t .t ,,.; ,y out nf tl1c dif! J(t !ll\. T'hi~ Ltilurc n1:1ke> it :1ppear irll ·
ji!Oh.tiJlc tlu t ;1 .-. ati,f:tttor\ (·,pLi JI.ltion oi the \Ll!tl'rill .!:2.
Gi ll he ll':Jc.iled on the IJ:J >i' of the cLJ,:,i cal ck ctrodv tJ .Jlllic'.
Compton proposed. in,tead , to apply to tile dc~ c 1 iption of
sc:l tl cri ng the s:1m c qu:lllllllll con ccpt that had prmecl so usdul
in !Je:1tin~ till' .photoclrctri( effect (sre Ch:q>. 7). From thi s
b:1'i~ he deduced that se\'era l aspects of x -ray sctttering ,,·m1ld
yield re-,uh:, mr:1surably diflercnt from ,,·hat classical th eory
\\'ould predict; the most significant of thc., r is th e ,,-:11·elength
sl1 ift. id1i ch ha-, become kno,,·n :1<- the Compton effect. H e cited
<1:11:1 ,,-!Jich confm11cd hi-, thcoretic:il idc:1,. :mel. in th e case of the
Compton cfieCI, hc carricd Olll the experiment liinL,el!. Hi s ,,·ork
,,·on hin1 th c '\oiJel prite.
ConqHon exprcs-,ed the b:1sic ch:tllge in 'iC\\'point. and it "> con-
sequencb. :1s folio\\·-,:
.- \( cord ing- 10 the cla-,,ic:tl theon-. each X-LII' affect ' cn:n- clcctron
IL 11 in g c >tai J! i,iJcd tl! ,, l!:ll JJC\\o!k. C:olllpton proccrdcd to
IJuil d lljl< !ll it :t r.1tilu inlplc,>i'-t 'irtiCtl:n-. } ·ltc hnt , lt"iJ , an d
the o n e th:1: ultilll a tch prm c-d i (l !,l. the mo.,t inq>orLIJ;t. 11-:~.,
to ckri1-c ti H' rehtio!hliip
,\ = Au+ (2i: !i ii i Sl! l " ~0
/)('t\,·ce ll the incident \\:t\clcngtl! ,\,. . 111 c ~t:lttcrcd " ·:t,·clcn!!til ,\ ,
:1ncl JiJe sc:lltcri ng :11 1 ,~lc /J: / , '' PL!nck·, const:Jitt, 111 the nLh'> of
the ckctlon, :1 nd ( tilt ' ')'tTd o! li~il1. T he qualitatin: form of
o! X -r:1 ~-...
t lte r e l:lliothl iip is l c.t,oJLIIJ ie: ·1 ilc Ltr.t.:cr ill(' :-.caunin~ :lll ~lc-,
the .~1eatcr tile nJo!n cntt Jlll gi1e11 to tile electron: therefore ,th e
greater ib kinetic elH'J P,' . :llqtJirecl lrOJn tile incident photon,
and the gre:1ter tl1e reduction i11 photon frequency and th e in -
cre<t.'>e in \\;nclcngth. Tile clct:1ib follo\\' >imph frolll application
of th e laws of consen at ion of e nergy and momctiturn to the
scattering event, rem cm !Jeri ng til:1 t rel:J 1i \'isti c forms must be
used for the e n ergy :md lliomcntttm of the electron. One ot! 1er
featur e of th e equ:Jt ion should be not ed. Tile factor 2/i ; m e has
the \ :tlue 0.0 JH .\ . I t i-, tl1e :-.In: 1llne, , of thi '> quantity t'hat pre-
ventcd tile detection ol the eflcCI prior to the cliscovcn- and studY
of x ray:-.. . .
The rem:1indcr of 1 l1 e th eoret ical de1 elopmcnt \\'as somewhat
sJ1akicr . ( .ompto11 not ed tlt:11 " ·hen th e wa\elen.e;th shift \1·as re-
expres-,ecl in terms of frcquciH \ . it il:1d the s:1mc form a' the
expres<>ion ,e; i, en by cLt:-.sical theon. for thc ohift resultirw from ~

in the mattcr tr:JYer,ed. and th e 'Gittcring obsern:d is that due to the
combined efleo., of all the electron>. From the point of 'i c \,. of the
qu:1ntum thc.:ory. we may suppme that anv particular quantum of
:\ -r:l\'' is not sc:!ltcred h1· :tl l ilw electrons in th e radi:Jtor , but spends
all of it' energY upon some p:mirular elcctron. Thi, electron will in
turn scatter the ray in some definite direction. a1 an angle ll'ith the
scatter ing by an clcctr011 initialh nwuin[!. in the direction of
propagation, if thc nJocity of the electron \\'as properly related
to the incident freyuctlC\ . He then assumed that th e relatiYe
intensities scattered at different :mgles would also be gwen cor-
rectly by the classical theon· a pplied to that special case; and
 .a

CRUCIAl EXPERIMEN TS IN MODERN PHYSIC S PARTICLE PROPERTIE S OF LIGHT 10 1

100
on tile h:1;,i, u! the ·'"''mptitlll. llt· dcri1Td exprc,,ioth tor 'I C' \'t'l, il
qJJ :mtitic, th:1 t had lJccn 01 <<n lid lw Jne.t 'llrn l c:-..pnilll('llt:ilh. )(
0
J.n e\"CT\ c:1"' ,, J,t·Jt' .111 t·'J>t'lillll'Jlt:d <heck,,-;,, :1\ :til.,hk. t he CD
J< ·, u][, ag-Tec- d iJcttt ·l \\'lt lt C.tllllJlltlll·, tl1 cot\ ti1.1t 1 ,,,tit t! H '0
0 N
OJ
c.11 iict th eon . _j

.-\lJ tiJC'IC t:il< iil.itll lth . tl!>\ll'\('1. IT'Ill'd llj><>ll til t· llllt Cfl:llll IJ.h l' V1

of th e :1n :do n, dc,cl i hcd. I'll(' trt tci:d te' t ,,-,Hild oll\ iothh ill'
the "·:J\l'lett~~ h , hift. \\hitlt iullm,-cd ,olch frotn th e qu:tlltllll l
ptOf)(Tti e" o.f th e " r:1\;, . line. :1ga in. 'onw of C:onqllun\ 0\\' ll
ea 1 licr \\·or\... " ·:t ' rell'\ :tnt. H t· il:1d nw :t.,ur cJ th e ab,urption of
y r:ty'>. produced l)\' a n:tttn a lh r:tdi oacti \'l: -, u b;,t:t n te. :tftcr
'l<:tttc r ing at \ :ttioth angJc,. ho:n til e kno11·n Yari:tt ion of tile
:dlsorpti on ,,·i th \1":1\clength. he could th e n d etermi n e :t " ·.:1\C·
knoth uf t he ,t :lttned t :,di.ltiotl :11H l co m p:1re tt \\'itll t l1: 1t _g l\ell
!J, J,i, tl1eon . On<c .J((:li t •. th e :1g Jeu11ent \\:t'> ;,:tti~,l:tctor: .
. FYen mor~· qu:tnrit:ttin· l'\ ide lH C ,,-;,, doir:dJ lt- , :tn d Compton
t lle te!ore cttt it·d out :tnuthel n:pnimu t t , th e det.1ih of ,,-j, ic h
\\'Cle giYe iJ ill :1 ,C( olld p:l)>lT j!liiJJished siX lllOIJtit-, :lftCJ th e f11 'IL
FIG . 9 .1 Schematic diagram of Compton ' s opporotus lor measuring the shift in
The procedure ,,·:1'1, sim ]Jh . to make :t direct spu t n> ,~ op l_t
~ovele ngth o f scattered x rays . The eng le of scattering is th e a ngle between the
mea, tlr e me nt ol t he ,,.:1,·el c n gtlt of x r;':' a t ~elec te d :lllg ln . I ht> two segments of the beam meeting at R; the d iagram shows the case of 90 °.
" ·a,., don e b\ u -,c of tl1e f:tlt tll :tt :t min c r:d crY;,tal, s u ch :h c:tlci te, [ Phys . Rev . 22, p . 410 {1923 ), Fig . 1; lette ring re placed f or legibility.]
co n ;,ti ltlt es . a natura\, t!Jree-d imc nsi o n :tlh p e riodic a rr:t y, a nd
that \\·he n :1 1\':t\e i~ r dl c n ed ll\ such an arra\. interference e!! e c~> within an e xperim en ta l error of le> s t ha n one minute of arc. or
will ,.-jye ri se to '-Ironer m:t x im :; in th e reflected inten sity at an gles about 0.001 .\." H e desc ribe;, th e result' a-, follows:
~ n . J- •
that de p e nd on t he ~~· ay eic ngth. 2 T h e appa r attt;,, des tg n ed to be ~

hampered a , little a;, p os;, il>le IJ ) tlte low intcn,ity of th e scat tered
b ea m, is silo11·11 ,l he matit :ill y in Fi g . 9.1 . The t:trget o [ th e x -ra \
tube. which i, th e so urce of tlt e x r ays, i;. a t T; th e graphi te
scat te ring bl ock, :tt R , in lin e with slits 1 a nd 2. Th e position
of the tube cc>Ltld be ch:tnged ;,o a s ro ,·an t he scatte rtn g an g le
j 1 0111 which t: td iati on 1\·o ttld b e :1ccc:p ted ll\ the spectrometer.
The tube and the sc1ttcring IJl{)( k ,,·et e place d imid e a lead IJox
ro pre vent , tl :t\ r ad iation fr o m reachin g the d e tec tor . The x r ays
were d e tected by means of th e ioniz a tion th ey produ ced ll1 a
sui ta bl e chambe r.
Two se ts of rc,ults are :,lwwn in Fi g. 9.2. The two sets we re
ta ken using slits of different width s: Compton also states that in
the ri gh t-hand set. " tlt c se ttin gs w ere m ade 11·ith th e g r ca tet care.
It i' clea r from th t .'>C cun·e, tkll whf•tt :1 homogen eous x-ray is sca t-
tered by gr:tphitc it i, 'epara ted int o n,·o dist inct part s. one o f the
samL· w~' e-length :ts the prim an beam. a nd the other of in crta~ed
walc- len,e;th. Let m call tl;e~e 1h ~· lll(ldi(u ·d a nd th e unmodzfi rd i1ic~]
raY' respen i\ eh. In eac:1 utn·e the line Pi '> dr;n,·n tht o ugh the pea k of
the cur\T rep n :'>eming the priman lin e. and th e line T i'> drawn at th e
angle ;u which th e scatte red line sho uld :tppear . .
accord in g to th e lheon lte had propooecl. The agreement betKeen
theory a nd e xperime nt is unqu es tionabl e 4
In hi s conclusiom, Compto n ~ay s ,
Thi ' remarkab le agreement bet ween our formu las :llld the experiments
ca n leaYe but little doubt that the scattering of X -rays is a qu a ntum

UNIVERSI TY OF ' ::::OR ! >\ LIBRARY

\'!CT ;::; :~ , !\, B C.

'. l
r
 102 CRUCIAL EXPERIMEN TS IN MODE RN PHYSICS PARTICLE PROPERTIES OF liG HT 103
pll':llOlllC!loll. The '''l'nrhr' " of·' i:lrg c cknrnn ro t''<pi:li11 rhnc cflccr, left ltll.!(((JlJJncd l(lr tll l tlrt lt\!)"tiH·...,i, P! tlr ~ · i:Jl£.!· cl• <II Oil ln11n til: ·
".I<<OJdin .~h 'llJll'llliiuth. '"' .illrhr · <''-jll'lilllt' llh t1ll ).: .J.I\ '<.tl!Clill~ I<> '>l.tlld!HI]!t ! t •! !iw '-.(, Ii i\ l l ]i~ <ti '\ [ . !\'\ .l!Hl 1.1\' ] ! · t f t [{1]1_' tJH'Jt' [ -. ] J(J

"·liirJ, riJj, il'J'";hr'i' il:" i>CC' II :q>plinl :11t' IH>\\. 'Ct' II lO l>!' l' '-p iicdolc· j fl l ] ~t l :til\ ' llf iJHll 1 j.)j 1!1<. ll\f 'O liH.'\! ~ ,,j .l! ! cJ, ( j l , q , \\ It \ I \( di.tll\Cil'l 1'"

! roll! ti ~t· poi1rt ol 'it''' , d ti](' qu .t !lltllll tlll'Ol~ ,,-itho ur i ll!lo\ltJ<tJt':..' :lit' (llilt;l.I!'.Jidl \\"i:'J !IH \\,1\t'lt JJ!...;!l l t)l L , lld .\ l.f\'1
Ill'\\ h\]Hlthc,r·, o1 "' ' "'·' ''t' . ! 11 .l(ldill"ll. rite ptt,<"llt tlit ·<>n :t!«lllli!' I i l! )lit ' VI; ' i i!t OJ\ d( pcl!d . . " . . . . t ·Hti.!li' lljHJil t!H .......... tl !l lJl!illt· i!t.t! l ,H.. l.
..,; 1 ti,f HluJih lui tht· t ll.! llgc 111 \\,1\t ' lcn ,l !th dlw to "'(.ltltTIIl..,: . \\·hult \\,l ... (~(~! JtJ![ \ \ !J !(i; ! 'l {'li~'(JJ'd iJi t!Jt 'l .[Ji~ " )J) !:.:_ ' ( . i l ! ( ' ]-. .I { l l!Jlj d ( ' !( tjt !.t ] ilt/ J i:

! 1 ili\Ol\t""' , Ji,d t iJt h\ptl'!ll"\l"'l t il ~i ill(." (jll,llll.! o] l. id Lt !i PJl :Ill... H'(l"i \ t i:

:t~t
1

A fJOI !l dcfJJJJ it d Jlt'LIHi; ! ..... IIH! \(,ltll"l L"t ! ill cit!Jltl!t dJ!Cl!IOih. J /11
Molybdenum l'\.! ) :.: liiiHilt.l l . . up11otr (J! tll t' :!!ttt!\ iJldi<.tt<·, \t ' l \ cntl\JIHillt_! l\ th;ll .:
Molybdenum
Ka L1ne Ka L ine
l'.tdl.tl!Oi l qu. t lltlllll CllliL'\ \\"Jll: It d JJ C(!l.'d lll0l11t "Jl\lllll :' ;["' \\('!J ,['-.

Pflm ory Cill'l ,~\.

Pnmory

It j, ~ i .~ nilll:ttll tiLt! C:olllf>l< tl l·, tJ\1' 11 cxp!'l iment on thi-, cllcci

illlplil'd 'OIIIUIJing oi :t J >; IJ :lri!>:-., :;, C. tJlltp tull li!lll'L·Ji 11·;t'> ;t\\,II'L' .

70 TI H· <JI,t.il 'JlL'ttJ~>IlH'tL' t Jtll'.t.,llll'd :1 ,,;t\clikc J>IOJJL'I't\, th e 11:1\t'-

kn~II I , :llld IIIL';I,IIJU! it IJ; II J( ',I Ih ol .1 ( iJdLHtl'lhlir. iJJ\ \\·; 1\c]jkt·
8 by B Scatter ed by
at plil'II(JJIJUJoll. iJtt CJ il'lt ' Jilt ' . B :11 ti le cilni ul tl lt: ~J:ij'!ti tc '>Cittucr
Grap h1te or
45° ()II tilt' \,tltll' '"tiLt[ 1\;1\Tlikt · !JI<IJ>l'l I\' (Oltld IJl' tJJJdC'httJ() d t>Jih
111 tCillh ol ,, P.'' ti< kiii..v hci1.1\ i"l. l '' Conq ; tun . .. ·] he nt;tJtlll'l
lll 1\ili <lJ illlCJ!L' IL' Il!l ' Olllll' i' IIU! \l'l t!c: tJ Jn :Ill )
c;;,c, tile J>ltJlJlclll ol M:tltc J i11g '' ..,,, du,Cl) .illit'tl 11·itiJ tilo'e of
Jd knio n ;l!l d illl c rlcJTlll l' r h:t!;, >l urh ui t ilL' plolilclll n1 :1\ 'ery

Sc a ttere d pu '>' ii ) l; ;,ltui ;,o1nc li .~ ht lljJOJJ tilt: difh< rth qm·-, tiOil o[ t i1 c rcLt -
Sea ttered
at 90 ° a t 90° tion iJl'll\'l:t'JJ imerlcrc JJCC and ti1c · qu ;rnlltll t tllu >r ) ... Ti1i> ex-
pectation \\':1, n:n \1·cll horn e out . \ \ . itliin ](:'" tll<ill three y e ars ,
piJY>ili .' >h hc\(; l!l t o :t<rqJt t i1c idc:t th;tt l ig!Jt j, lll'ithcr truh ;;
\\';!\ ' !.: pili.:IlOlll CI1 UI I 11 01' truly .t 'trC; IIIl of p;trtitle-., i)llt a \Cpar;tt C
Cll tit\ WilO, C iJtlt ;i\ior !'> SUIIll'tlll!C'> \\':1\CJikc and >Olll t:l i!lll''>
p; 11 titldike .

HJ(J'f'.\'(J'/'F\
1
1L i~ 11(1! dt.<ll
\\ I JcL!wJ C.oJllpton '.. , dS~ t J111ption (If Jll PIJJlllllllll Ci.tll!l"d IH
;1 piHHon w <.~;, h1." owu 01 ort c tha t l1ad b een u:-.n1 llL"ICIJl". ·r hc plna:-.co log'
of fl1 , condu ... ion\ (~lT lJI<"l l ~ugge~h then in t "llhl.'l Gt:....... IIH· idl'a wa" <on
lrtJtc·"ial . I f it"'" lti, """ rontlii>ution. '"' ap p a rcnr h npclln! h is rcadt'l'>
7° 6°30' to be able ro d ctl lllt ' for th e lll,l'ht" th at rht· tnagll iiii dc ol the IIIO!llt'lllltlll
Gla nc i ng Angles from Calcit e carried '" a pi ll Hon o f Cll ngy F llll"l !Jc F i r. c i' Ill\· ' J'<'l'd of ligh t: '"'''IT
ccrt<Jillh, tllt·n · wcr" at least I\\u 111c-t hoch of ctc-dll crion ;llailablc 10 Illt' n t.
FIG . 9.2 Spectra of x rays scattered at various angles from g raphite . [Phys. Rev . '' J J,r· t:fk rt i' t·s.' l'lllialh id!' lltical ro tilt ' J>ludtHtioll <>fa spl'(tl'lllll ol ,i ,i i>k
22 , p . 411 (1923), Fig. 2 ; lettering replaced for legibilit y .] li ght hv a gr:H tng-: <HtiY son1c- d l' rails ;<t<' di lk'""' ·
"' llti, slip oculi s on!) in th t' si nglt: Sl' llt CIICt' in 1d1ich rhe rntn s a~t·
 104 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS

:ll i .~l lL\]1\ ill!J(l tiUlt'd. i ll -.I: b-..vqtll'lll :o.L'!ll t'!H t ' . ( .( llnptPJl ll ;o,('S iht· !Cilll:-. Wi!/t

1 ilt II !tl~it ,tJ l!i( . t:\1 11~ '

~I tJJt!J ~ 1 ,ltllh lni tP tl!t · <.d l1tlll :- 1Pil tiL .: tit.._ ll ll ~h:ltvd lin t rc :-.t llt t·d iHn !l
... ,.i!!t'llt~g !J, t lt\l ltll\" \,JtidJ \ \t ' Jl · l t ~ h th t l lPllgh hntltl<l in :tUllll' tl1.1t !lit
.1 :-:-U ttlpt lU!I' IJ J,Idt i ll till · dt 11\.!!ltll\ 1.d i; h 'hi t~ \ q·H· !h\1 •i))p\H.ti.J,

. 'H { 1\ Jt l! ll!'lt I

10
/11/U f()(;J: 11'/1}

.\ . 11. C.onq >to!L F lu· ?In ,i<ul J( (';•in t· ~ 1 ,
'''' 1(1' 1-- !J :: ( 1'1:.: :; ,_ T ltl''l' p.t j>l' I' <: JT l'Xll' I ]Jltd in F lu· 1\ "rnld
,,, till' .·li 'ili t, \ .o l. ~- 1'1'· '111 - ":.: ' 1. Cotltptun l:ttct g; 11 C :t j>Ct>O IJ .tl
Jccollcction oltill' Cl('lll' 111 . \ . 1! . C ompton, Amnirun]o11rnn/
u ( i'lt \'\ll I ~(). K 17- x:.:o ( l 11ti l \,
1:-i:\ - j()~ ( 1 '1 ~ 3) . ;tiid
J)\ tilt' L'lld of ] 1 1:.! J it !t ad 1Jt'COJ11 l' '.,!f'IJ<.T:tlh :tl ll' j>lCd tll ~t til e
IJ('h:t1·ior o! clcctr(ll!t:i '!, ll e tic 1ad i;tt1un h.td l>oth ' <nne ,,·:11clike
;t,jll'Cl' :111cl .'>OIIIl' p :t Jtick l ikc ;l,jJ lCl ' . . \t t l1:1 t point :t f-re n ch
g t :1d tLIIl' '>Llttlcnt. l .olli , de Bto.~ l ic. l'Xjll'l icnrnl :t fl.t,li ot geniu '.:
\ \ 'IJ\ ,J touldn't ti lt' ':n n e l!e tttt c ut lll:tt t n ~ "ipc( ihl.tlh. !te '.t tg-
gc'.itd . ti ll' l l'i:t ti(ltl,i tljh IJl'tiiTl'll thl' p;11ti c it"Jtk t' jliU lX'l Ill''
Clll'lg\ .tlld I!I(JJII('II[ll ll l. Oil ti ll Oil(- ]t.t lld. :tlld titC 1\.,t\'C]ikc
propett ic, 1\' ;llclcn g tll :111d lrcqu c lltl. 011 tile other , ~hu u ld be
t he -.aiJ Jl' lu1 tlLit Ln ;"tor t :ldi.tti u tl i T ltc rct'>Oll 1\'lt; t he \\':ti C
a-.pc <t lud n ot ptTI · iut~>l; IJcCt l n oted 11·;h the cxll c mc olll:tllness
of t he ,,.a, -c lc n g·tl h illlplicd lo t JJ tcgavO jJic n ~:t tt cr . .-\ onc-rnicro-
g r:mJ d tt '> l m ote, lor c, :ltllp lc . nt ul it! <.: :tt a sp eed of 0.1 mi llim e ter
p c:1 scco tHI." \\'Ou ld !I :11e ; 1 ,, . ;~ , ·ciengtl l ol on l; a l>out G X 10 - 1 1 A .
l t is n c< es ~,;tn to go to the atom ic '>c:tle of things to ;tch ic1·c 1 ·a ,·c-
lc ngt!t, uf t he s: lll tl' ot dcr o f lll agnit tHle :t'- Lit e d int c mio th ul t ltc
ohjcn i t'>c lf a n d till" ;l( t;tin :t tl\ h o p e o f ohct 1;tu ili tl. lk
B mglic ·, tl1 c., i, e x alll in c t ~ 1n>Ltl d 1101 . of cour~c. !t :11'C acce p ted
su ch :t ,,·ild idc :1 Ill it>c lf, a t1 d so he combi n ed it 11·i tl1 son tc
st u die~ in k in e ti c t hco n . Hut t he idct ,,.,t., o n e " ·!J r,.;c time had
lOl ii C. a n d it Ctllglll (>II Lt p idh .
\l catJ II'h ik , a t Be ll T ck photJ c L tl!oratoric:-.. t lten in ?\ c\\' York,
C. J D :11 i'>'<O il a nd l1i' cu- lwrk c r> II'C'tc d o in g ~o m e fa irly ro utine
wor k. \\' h a t happe 11 cd is bt> t tol d in t h e ope n ing par agr a phs of
a paper by D a \'i'>>Oil an d L. II. Germe r p u b]i , lt ed :J in 1 9 ~7 :

Th e in,·ts ti gat io n reported in thi s pa p e r wa;, begu n '" th e res ult o f

a n acci ck n t w lt itit o« urrl' d in t hi ., bbor:tton in Apri l 19:.>:,. ,\t th a t tim e

105
 CRUCIAL EXP ERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSIC S
106
\\ t'rl' (Otui n uin g :1n J I I \ C, ti~.ttion. fir :'l t reported i n l ~~~l. oi th t· di ., ui -
\\ ' t'
ill tt in tt-tt t-:t tt Qie ol ,-kctn> th 'c :tt tn l'll 1>; :1 ta rget o l onl in :tn \ J><>h -
tn, t:tll in1 t nitkc l ]Juring the tour<,e oi thi <. work :t liquid-.m IJOttk
t"sp lod cd .1t ,, tt tl l<' 1,-h,•n tll< · targ et wa ' "t a high tt'tll]> l'Llt tllC' : the
1-,;H'rintL' tt Ltl tttlw 1,·, ,, h rok c n. and the tdtgt' t lw :\1 ilY o'ttlill·d i" the
1 n;·u,!tim.: .:i 1. T i~t· o"de 1'·'' l'll'tt tt t.dl' n ·duLt ·d .t111l .t l:t 1e1 of the
t. tJgct l t'llH"cd '" ' 'lj >uril .t l ion . h u t onlY :tfter prolo ng ed hc:tt ing :tt
1. 1 t t<>lh i: igh tt'lllj>l'r:i!tt JT ' inltldt<>gC tt :tnd in \:truum .
\\-!l('ll t! 1e OlJ>CIIIIll'nh \\'('IT ( On t tll lle tl it Wl!S fOII IH} tlillt tht• d i,tri-
\1 ut iOII- ill -,lllgit- ol t he ,, ;,n nc d l'kctro n ' had been cumplct e h ch:tngt·d .
'>pc-ti lll l' Jt cun c- 1 c-,!tihiting t!ti-, :tlu: r:tti o Jt arc ,ho1,·11 in Fi g . l !rcpro -
dwcd _, ,F ig. 11\.1 1 · r lihe culYl"' arc :dl for :1 i.Jombanhng ]>Ott'JJt t:tl of
SC ATTE RI NG OF 7~ VOLT ElfCT RON5 F'ROM
A BLOCK OF NICK El ( MANY S M.ll l CRY5 T.ll5)
SCATHRING OF 75 VOLT ELEC TRONS FROM
~EVE RI>. L LARGE NI CK EL CRYSTAL 5
FIG . 10.1 Scattering curves fr om nickel b e fore and after the accident . [P hys . Rev .
30 , p . 706 ( 192 7). Fig . 1.]
7.1 1 olt,_ The e lcrtroJI IJ cam i' in cid e n t on th e ta rget from th e ri ght. a nd
th e int cmiti e-, of ,ca!leri ng in diff e rent direct io ns are propo rtiona l
to the , -ec tor' f ro111 t he p o i 11 t o f IJom b ard m e n t to th e cun·e s. Th e u ppcr
cun·es (for d ifferent angles of ill(i dc n cc) a r e ch aract e ri stic of th e target
p ri or to th e ;tc cid t: IJt. The;· an· of th e type de scnb ed 111 th e note 111
''Science " in Jfl:!l. and arc sim ilar to cun·e;, th at haY e been obta lll ed
fo r ni ckel in lou r o r li n · ot h e r e xp e rime nt,. The lowe r c urye-,-ohta im:d
WAVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER 107
a ftct the ;tuidt' IU - \,· e lt tl1<.: fit -..! Pi t ill'!! " cnt ttl Lc ui J ~tT \C d . l 'hi '
ll L tlk1 ·d .t!tCI.ttitl/1 itl tlle "l.lll<...TI !t ~ p.tlllTtl \\",t '\ tLt~..t ·d t n .1 l t'·( J"\ "!I.:l\i/ ~ 1
t ton uf the t.tn. ~t'! t ll.tt o ( ~urr cd dtt!J fl g th :. ' proinllgl'd ht,Jt i n~ Hc.f, n ,_
tlH . t<tidc i lt .tJ Hl iJ i prt ·\ i()it -. t '- Ptl illH' IJI ' \'> t ' h;u! hc t : t l ~ nn1lurdill~~
nl : tn' ,,n ;d l c n·,t. tl . . . ln1 1 it l t!•t · IV '- h . . uh . . cqu('nt t •l tilt· :1 (( td (' ll t ,,(· \\TH:
bo n durdi 11 :_:: illl h ; t l<' '' Ltr~e Oll t·-.. -I iJt· .\ ( iu .t! I lltn1hl'r w;p, 01 th l· o rd er
of It' ll.
l 1 \t ' l'lllt' d p!ol;,thll' ll tJJ'li !it t·..,, ! c -. u lJ-. lli;;r tilt illt t'lhJl \ 01 :o-.Ltttc ri nL:
fron1 .t .~ J J: glt· (J : ··d .d w utd~l C\. ltJ ill : . t Jll~ t rkt· d d c p L'J~tlC Jt( l ()IJ crY ... t.d
clirccli on . :1J1d we· ' ct ;Ji,.n:! :tt rJJJ CC p 1c· ru rin g- c-'pe rim e nh for an
imbt i ~. alion •>I thi ' dt·pt'Jt.ic JJCt \\ "c m mt admit ti1: t1 tlw r e<,u]!,
ohuin n! in tlt bc t·xpellm Cnt' lt :t\T pnn ·cd to he quit e at \:tri:-t Jt Ct·
,,·it h our t: ']>l'ttal io Jh. It , ce m t·d 10 Jh lik e h tli :tl '>lfO Jig l> c-:: rn' 11·ould
be lound i'>'ti in g fron1 the cr yq;d a lo n,g 11·llar m il\' be te rmed it'> tram-
p:t ren t di rect ion'>- th e t! in>ct ion' i1 1 1,·1i itlt ril e a tom'> i n th e l:tt1i ce :-tre
arra nged :do ng t he srn :tlk,t lJIIIll lH.:r of li ne' pe r unit area. Strong
beam '> a rt in deed fouJJ d i'>'ui JJ g fr<>m the cr\\t ai. bu t o n h · wh e n the
speed o f IJtnnl> a nlm e nt lib nc:tl OJtC 0 1 :t JJOtlt e r o f a serie '> of cr itica l
1 :tl 11 es. :t nd then in clire ui <ll h <jll ile ulll datt-cl to crY st:~l tra n spare n cy.
The m oq 'triking cl~: i r:tcteri\liL of th e'e iJC:I Ilb i'> :1 on e 10 one
corrc·spol ll!t' JI CC . j>IC,I.' Ilth i•> lw dt•,(JiiJu!. ,,!Ji<i' ill(' '> l ro JJgt,J of them
l>c:tr I<> the l.::i ll" l, c·:~ nh ti i.I\ 1\ottid ill· lo11n d i"lliJig from Jill' 'iilllll'
cr n1;tl if th e· ii Jc iclcm J, e,J m ,,·c1-c :1 bc:t JJJ of , . r:t;s . C:en:tin othe r '
:tppcar to he :mal ogucs . IH!I o l Lt m · \, cam<,. but of optical cliflra ctio n
l>ti lll h lrom p l<tl tC r dlt-Lti o n g r:ttin g,- IIIt· line'> of the-,e g rating' bein g
li ne' or ro11·s of .tJo m <. in t ilt· ' Ill face ol t!Jc: cn-5t a1. Bec:tme of th c;,c
simi la rit ie, l> e twee JJ th e 'Lttteri ng of elec tJom b y th e cr vstal and the
., C: tllnin .~ ol \\"ill c<. i)y t hree - :111d n co-dim e mion:tl g r:tling ' a dc-,cr iptio n
o ( t he o ccurrence a nd IJckn ior <>f th e el ectron d iffraction bea m > in te rm <,
of t he sca ttering of an equ i,alcnt \\';1\ e r:~diat i o n lJV th e atom> of th e
cr y, tal, and i!.'> >ui>-,cqu e n t in te r fcn: ncc . i' not on ly po >sible. Inn 1110'-t
'inq>k :t11 d II:I t lltJ l. T h i' i:11ohes th v :t,,nc i:uioJJ o f :1 1\":t\C -lc ng- tlJ ,,·ith
th l' intidt Jit c lcoron i> c:t Jn. a 11d thi , w:tl c- kngt li t ttrt h I>l lt tn l>e in ac-
rc:ptal,](' agrcl'melll 11·ith the ':ii11 C h 11/ i ' o f the undtd:11or; nw cktn ics.
Pl:tnck \ ;tLt io Jt co n, taJJ t d i1 id c-d 1!1 t ht· m o rn c·JJttJlll o f ti lt: electron .
I t i ~ \1·onll noti n g tlt: 1t tl1i ' p :l""-l!,e points up t\\·o tn :11·ks of an
outs t a nd111~ sci e nti st. J 11 th e lir.-.t pl:tce, ,,·lien D : t~ · i -,son and
Germer d isco ,·cred '>Oil lct h in g· sig nifi ca nt t h :tt til e \ \\'Cre not look-
ill g for: ' th e y qu ic kl y r ecog tti ted iLs >i g ni fJCili CC. In th e second
pla ce . th e y \\'Cre r c;1ch to a ccept rc >tdt s th at di d not con form
with expectations.' and to hunt lo r a proper correl:trion of t h e
result '>.
Th e e x p c rime n tal procedur e "'a>, :~ s usuaL ba sica ll y sim pic .
 108 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
Fkct 1orh tr on 1 :Ill electron -~- till st ru ck :1 nickel Lirget. C:t refull y
J!ICJ>:IJTd "> liLil t! l(' i>o!ll i>:IH it-d :ti'C:I \1';1., p :lrt Of .1 <,ing]c Cr\' ~.t : d.
~ - ~~:. ('C\]>U\('d ,llri.ltl' ,,-;,, .1 JlLilll' ilc:l\i]\ ]>Ujllil: lt t'd \\'i t h :llOlll>.
:111 d 11!,· in cident 1J,·:1m , tl utk ir p e tpc 11 dic uLJrh . T h" dcctJo lh
,, :1t 1c 1 l'd 11 1 .1 _,tJ Jt:Jhk 1.l ll ~t · ol d 1rcuio n ' \\'C IT cv l! et ted . a nd t he
J,•,u lting lillTl'nJ \1 ,1, lll t: t, tlll'ti :1, t!1,. cxpnimcnt:d colldi tJ On s
' 1
\\' {.'} t' \ :ll'lt'( !.
·1 l1c c"c nt i..I p :1 1h ol ti le :1pp:1r:t tu' a re ,l!o,,·n in Fi g . 1 0.~.
fiG . 10.2 Cross-sectional view of Davisson and Germer 's apparatus . The encl os ing
glass bulb is not shown . [Phys . Rev. 30, p . 708 (1927), Fig . 2 .]
Tile electron g un(; :1((cle r a tc:d and foClJ <;cd the el ec tron s emitted
1>1 th e fil:imcJJt F, to form :1 Il:IIT0\1- b ea m ,,·!Jicll ;, trud. the tar -
g~· t 1 . The co llc:cwr C w:ts" dotil>lc-w :dlcd box. ,,-itil an adjust-
:il>lc n .: t:trclin ,c; potcnti :d :1p pli ed i>e t,,·ee u the o uter :111d 11111 e r
l>oxe;, :-.o tl1:tt onl1 e !ec tron s tll :lt l1ad und ergo ne e;,;,enti:dl; no
lo:,s of energY rf:1 c ilcd the inn e 1 i>ox tu co nt rib ut e to the m ea~­
ured current. Th e oute r box. th e targ·et, and the la ~t e lectrode
(the outer s trucrure and th e l:Jq three di aphragms) of th e elec tron
rru n ,, ere h e ld at the same potential. ;,o that from g un to targe t
~o coll ector the eknro ns tr;,,·e led in an esse ntiall y zero electric
field.
The r:mge of directions from ,,·!Jich electrom were ac cepted
WAVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER
109
\\' :to defined Ill t he >11l :tlJ h<J lt·, 111 til t· lC>llcc tuJ lw :-.:e,_ Tl 1e col -
lectur 11·a-, 't i'>J>C' Ild ed 011 :1 11 :t :\i , ]>tT]>l'tldil uhr t" th e pl.tllt' u!
the fi g ur e :1 1H l p:t o'>in~ t i:roug h till' pt~int ,,-hfiT tht · in< id c n :
hl': n n 'tl ll <k tlw Lll','-! ct: tl1c Ulti Jc · .l]'J>·lJ:tJtt, cot!l, ! ;J!,u i>t' tiltc·d
:tiJUut th i, :1 :-.:i, '<' th.tt til(' : tn ~lc h c tllt't'll t ilt· in i r1.d dnT t tinn
:1 n d the (t CIIli:tl i din·u;•>ll •li .tn<·pt; tJ Hc t()tlid J,c \:t ried hom
SIO · !O :!0
Fen lt':t,on, ti 1:1t ,,·ill J, c nud e c lc:tr Lt tn. it 1\';t , de.'>irahle :tho
to ciL111ge tl1 e r cl:Jtilt· oriull :ttioit ol ti lL' uq..:·ct and th e ;,urreJ in ,g
phnc·. T lJi, ,,.a, :tccomp] i, !wd /,, :111 iiJ _~t ' JJi cH" :tn:J Jl<:;enJ e nt. T ltf
target \L l'> motmted 0 11 :1 , haft to ~~- hich 11·a;, ftxed :t toothed
,,·iJeel. :-\ plun ,g er (Pin F i~ IO.:? j " ·;1;, Lt ,t encd to a h e~"· ; p e nclu-
lulll whi ch,,·;" piYot ecl a l>utlt an :1'\io p erpcndicub r ro the phne
of th e f1g- ure. \\ 'he n t ilt' :tpp:tr:lttb " ·;1, tilt e d .,() that the col-
lector , -ie\\'ed t li e Llr.~ e t. t )J(· plun ger p.t,;,ed bet 11·een tll'o tee t II
of th e ll'hC"cl :1 nd L·ng·<~gcd ,,·it h :1 milled '>Irip of n1 c tal :nta ched
10 tilt' lJ :t nJe, >o tl 1:1t ti :,· \dJCL'l :t lld t:ll'c;ct ,,-lTt' locked to the
fram e. \\ 'h en the ll!IJc ,, , ~., rot:ttcd dtilk,,·-j _,e until tit e nuin axi;,
wa;, sli g htly bl:')ond the hori10 nLtl. t ilt· plun ge r d i;,e ngaged !rom
the m illed ~.t rip . Tl1 e s mpe n,ion of the pendu ltm1 \\·as it ;,clf free
to rotate abom th e axi ., ol th e ;,ha lt , ,o that by rotating· th e tt1b e
about its main axi s, tl1 c pendulum , plunge r , \\·hee l, and t arget
were rotated relati\·e to t he fr a m e and coll fc tor . Thi s gave a
r a nge of rotation of about :..!()to 30 cleNce;, T iltin rr the wb e still
furth e r pulled th e plung er out from " bet,~·een til·~ teeth of the
\rheel ; rot a ti o n of the tube ti1 e n a llowe d the plunger to b e moved
to a dillerent ope ning in the w!Jecl. 1n tl!i , \\'ay tl JC target could
be rotated through th e lull circl e . lh po,it ion " ·as indi ca te d by
me : m .~ of a sca le on thew heel.
Th e \dJOle arrange m e nt. about I" e in che;, long :tnd tw o inches
high. wa;, enc lo;ed in a g b ;,, buliJ and c:tre fulh e 1 ;lc ti a ted, in -
dudin g- repe ated bakin g to liberat e albo rhe d :.mel e ntrapped
gase;,. "I he fin a l prc!>-. ure ll' :t' estimated to bel() - o mrn of mercurv.
In order to under;,tand the r es u lt;,. ''Jt i<o impor ta nt," as Davi·,_
son a nd Germ e r put it. ' ' to have a dear ]Jicture of the arranrre-
m e nt of atoms prese nted to the incident beam by the cnstal.
b
Th e nicke l crystal i;, of th e face -ce mered cubic t) pe .:. This n~ ea ns
that th e atom, are arranged in an indefinite r e p e tition , in every
 CRUCIAL EXPERIM ENTS IN MO DERN PHYSICS WA VE PROPERTI ES O F MATTER 111

Th e :ttont ; ol t ill' l<>urth pi.rt:c· .ItT l,cJu"· tiHht' of tltc tt r't. 1 hl' ]ill('
joining dill 'l'to nd -i.JitT ii!OI\1 11i11J llJL' t lt !Tt' l lt'.l\l''l flnt · L\\tT .liOilh
:tre ; J itl~-dtl'CttJ<•II' r11 the cr,,t,d. :tn.l the li tH·, joi11illg it wi tit tl rt'
t hree JI(·,J·II< ',Jrt'\l ,ut l.ttt · .llulll' :lit ' t ilt ortlro~ ·•t t.d : lll\l :.. dirccti"th . 1:
\•·ill In· <<lll\t ' lli c t rl It> It kt lu !IJt· .Jiilll lllih of tilt·,(• l.ttJt·r dircct JOJJ' .h
: ltlt i; ·.Jiitllllt!h . I ill' :uttlltlih ,>! tltt : lltt:-dinrtto t h .1rc- :tb" thmt· o!
d1c thn· e Lttcr:d ~ 1i I : dt ! l ' (l l' llt--.. .u!d \\.t "h,dl dl'..,i;.:!ll ttt c tiH.·-..c ~h
- -------------
~,. __

B.a si c un it of t he p a tte rn of at om s i n a n ic k el cry stal.

FI G. 10.3

. r Ill \ jJL.lnc (for an exp lan a ti on of

k. l of kno\l·n as <~ '
j)\:litC ' . . . .. .
' IIH \ l . . I" Th e rchtion
l ' tt.JO I1 see . DjlCIH IX >J.
~ lll]J ol 'ucli .t pLme
I , • . .
t.tc no • · · · • ·. . . · r ·o 10.4. Th e choJCC
w the basic cn,tal 'tructure I > s!J0\\11 Jn _~.,.,. . . I I·
. .. . . hrst 1t 1" t 1e p .me
f I. I· nc \ \"t' made lor l\\·o IC.t,ons. ,
o t m P .t ' . . 1 ., . nd it is the pl ane
mmt h ca\'ily pop u l:ttecl \\·Jth ;t tom s, anc st.co ,
m m t readih deH:Inpcd IJ, etc hiJtg.
The ir c.Jiscu >>iou con tinue>:
. k. and in th i'i plan e
(T

1 .11 ,.~ rIl l '·]Jian e i, th e plane ol cIe.nse >t pac tt1 ,..,. . d .. d
' r . . . . • Ill 1 ook ing chrec t ly
(T. own" ,tr
th e atom<; haY e ;.~ tltan g uLll a t r.tn,.,c me . . . I ·' lt ••re ·ts Fi(T I 0.5)) FIG. 10 .4 A face centered cubi c structure , as of nicke l, " cu t" to expose a { 111 }
l · 1· , (hg (j 1rc: pro< uccu ' '· ,.,.
onto a cry,tal cu.' to t tt ' . p .tttc I l : I l , . the center; of alternate plane ; th e atoms in this plane o re numbere d "1." Also ind icate d are th e edges
l f th e ' CC011< p ,li\C JC 0 1
one seC'> I Je atOI!l' O . J . f th e third plane b elOW th e of the ne x t two succes sive { 1 11 } plan e s, numb e re d "2" an d "3 ," respectiv e ly .
triang;le-. o f th e fip,t plane. and t 1e atOll1'i o The numberin g co rres ponds to that used in Figure 10 .5.
cem~rs t)[ th e rem ai n in g tri:tngles.
 WAVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER 113
CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
112
1 . i<>nttioll ior tit<· ,llimut h' th.tt l>i,ect "exp cr itti C'IIt, ... ;Jn ordi it:. O to 11' i1ic !1 (lf tltc t hrcc· otl1rr qu: lt1tit ic'
: Ill ~..: tnmutl ' ' · \ \ ·,. tlt'l ' ( 1 c~ I"'( 1...1 \ t. t..:c"~·· ttl
..., ' . . "' ·dn·:1d "
nt c tlliJ c r, (1\ t 1lt \1\ 0 se . , \\':' ·' ' :1r ic d .
tilt· dd 1nil .tl ;tl t ~k' hctl,.l'l'll• ·" \-· < (. \ .
1

11 \ tl•n· will ht· rl' crrc • to ,~, T he l: tri:Jtlllll ,,·,: 11 a ; it ll ll il l 1, q11itc e :t'<ih dc,cl i l>l'd .
' ll" JIH·d. ' I !tet < ,Jtt· '-1 1'- --t H !l ;uunu t 1"' ·' l •
:I l 1\I ~- -'I I llll \ It 11 .....
ARRAN GEM EN T OF ATOM S AND \\ ' !t e n hnn i i > : Jtd!i l ~ po tc ·~: r i . d .1n d l.ii !t!l dc :ll t,l! k art' h"l'd "'td "'! >l or,
D':SIGNAT ION or AZ IMUTHS tion ' ' llt.H il' i11 .tlllltllt li ;1 \ .tr l.l ti \ln ,>f colkuo1 current j, alw." ' oi>·
'cnnl. an d 1111 , <"' """'' ;,J "· " ' t ilt · !l ntT· iold ·" n intctn IC:ljllired 1>; the
:i,i) sYmm c! n ol tilt · cr"l:d . ' l l>t· t tii'\C ' '''"'' in ~t·ner:d two ;,ct' of
,;: 'If , ma>.i nLt · - a ., ,., ,,j tlin ·t· 11 1 t lic : Ill ;.. a;iJnutl". "nd a ;,e t of three of
\ \ \ '-- ' I 0;
, \ ! I di llc:n·fi t iutctt ' i'' in tht · : ]!lll ' ·,lli m utit , . Thc,c· r tT \1' a11d uougil;, arc

1
I

'o .·
\,0· · - _- 0 /
5 · \
)\
Y'c:c::P
usualh II Cl t pn>t lOt lll lCd.

~· ~ .: (D\ / Q) \ / .-\lt ltou g !t c:-;c eptio th t<• t ltc h-.t ,c itt ('tl ce , omct int es occ ur n:cl. th e
' 8- 0-~ g-cnc r ;tl form o f th e dq;cnd c nc c o11 :l;intlltlt "·a-. muc h a.'> ex-
\ 3/' \
0 ~ . ~ \ I \..V f7\
< .
{-,\ ~ '0\ (';\ \ -- 1110 ) pected. Tl 1i' 'intplc , ptc ci i, t .t hlc i>c·ltal ior ,c;t nel y sC'Cll t> to ju s tify
\ 110 ; ~ - - / ' tl1 c chlJOr: tt c p r"' ·i, ion o l n; Ca ll' for rot;t tin~· t he t:1r g-c t. btl! tlt c
8-- 0 - 8 - ~ dct:Ji], of 111 c c!kch of othu 1 :n·i:ttioJ I'< depended \t loll.L>;h on
\ 3 . \ 3 ' \ 3/
/\ ;(?) \ l (z) \ ........... t he :11 it11t1 t It ( h '"( 'll.

,,,<'." G)-==-- 0 - - 0 l!tlj :1 IH' tt tth llltl'tc,til t .~ oi J.-e l\·:t ti om \\ '('!'(' oht:tined lJ; ftxing th e

' ftl l\00\

~ \a\ azin tt ll iLd oricnt:1 t ion at o n e o f the three p1 incip:tl dir ect ions,
r 100 }. : 110 }. (f ) : J I J : (>CC Fi g. 10. :"1). an d 11\ C: t'>lll'illg tlle SC:l tlc r ed
c ur rent :t'" tunc tion of IJo tnlJ: irlli n g ,·o!tagc !or e :tc !1 of a soie'>
of sc:11 tcri n g ;utglcs. ;\ p ort iu n of :t "<Ct of c un c' constrt tc t cd fro m
in nickel. [Phys . suc h cl:tu j, <,]tu\1'11 in Fi g . I (!.ti.
FIG . 10.5 Arrangement Of the atoms in a set of { 111 } planes
Rev . 30, p . 712 (1927), Fig . 6 .]
The ge ne r al tre n d o f a si ngle o ne o f tit c>e t UJTC: s is not sign ifi can t :l'i it is
. .· (n n l w mm c try o f the cryst~ l tha t if the dct e rmi 11ed in p;Jrt I> ) 1:> ri:11iun with 1oltagl' of th e b o mb ard in g
J t fo llow s !rom th l' ll Ig . ' · . . azi m uth as w e p ass current." Tlt c rcla ti1·c d i, p l. lct·mclll' ;ITJJoll g them . how C\lT. arc sig 11if
· , ·hi lll tS a de pe n oe nc c 011
int e n sit y o f scattenng e x .. , 11 1 }··lli rnuth ( fiO'' ). the sa m e ira nt. \\'c >(·c. fo t c""lllJ >I e . th :ll th e roL 1ti t u tle < u nc.s l01 i>omi>ard ·
, 1 · th to;; n e xt :H 1J.tc e nt 1 · .
in g potcnt i:J! , n ea r 5:J 1ol" are ch:tr:~c teri;cd i> y exu: p t ion:d intemities
fro m ;1 11t 11 l l·a 7.1ll1ll · . · .. le r 3 , we conttlllll" on
1 . 111' il it ed 1n th e ren~ t sc o n '
ckpc nd e ncc muo,t ' c ex .· , 1 }-ati mu th . D epe nd e n ce Oil a t co b ti iu d c ;;n gJe, n car ">0 °. T he utlti.>U:d a nd sig nil"ica n t fe at ure
(·,oo to th e n c:-;t fo llo" lllg 1100 re1e akd i> v the Ctln-c s i' t'i1 ihit cd :~gain in the- sn ol colatitude
t l t rou .gll . . f . . · 1 '> 13
:Himuth mw.t h e a n cl·e tl fu tHtwt •" p e tJO l - " . cu n-c> 0 11 the right in Fi g . Il l !t <i''od tll t'd h e re'" Fig . 10. / ). \\ 'c se c a
f ·· ·tblc s · t h e h om h :ntl· . c
:.lig ht l•ump :tt til l" in t he col:tti tu tk cu n e !or ·W 10lt s. and oiJsCTI'e
The sc tttercd c urr e nt tl e l' c n d> on oul \ .11 J,l (. ·· l ·Jell f) ' t\'l· sson th a t a.> the i>omb :tnl in g pot e ntial is in crc:"cd thi s hump d c,elo p s into
1o an () c \\ l ' ..
. . t th e ·tzi muth t l Je scattCI II "' .-. a stro11 g Sjltl r " ·h icli r ca cl1 e ' a max imu m de ,·e lopme n t :tt 54 YOits in
111!!;! CGUT~C II : . 11 ~h-e "col ;: titu dc" ) . ;ttll\ th e homlJa rc\in g p o t e ntial colatitude r,o o, th e n dccrea'c' in i mc nsit y and finally disa ppe ars at
'l n c ,et Jll Cl c a j · j [ l ectro n s a bout fifi yoJts ill cula titud t 40 ° .
' . l . . ·- 1 clifle r c n ce through ,,. ll C 1 t 1e e
-that IS, t 1c pot e n 1l <l . c\ .d 011 bom-
are acce le r a t e d in th~ e lec tro n gun. '1. \J e . e~~~~ise:;~o further A ;i mil:tr set o f sp ur ;, 111 the : JOO } azintuth a tta ins it s m ax i-
h ard in g cur r e nt IS a s nHpl e propor u on,t It ~ a . . ·' bl
SJ>eak . thr ee cltffe r e n t posst e 4.:1 ° ; a com pl e t e set
mum d cY cl o prn e nt :tt () ;) 1 0lt'> in co l:ttitu dc
intere'>t. Th e re arc then . so to .
 WAVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER 115
CRUCIA L EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
114
T !Ji, totdd ill' con ectL·d tor quitt' C:i'ih .. \n uth c r eilcct \\'; t, t he
f:trt tl t;t t \ll!ile l'\'tT\ ,pttr :tppc:tr cd in :tlillllltlt :ts a set o i three .
:ts d e nLt ll clcd h\ '\Jllllt l' ll'. tile "llllllctn ,,. ;~, not perlc<t. T h is
,,.;" luu n d to he ;t s<l ib.tilll' tu .1 ,Ji gl! t t1li\:lligllll1 l' llt. ;JIJ o ut Oll L
degre e. iJl'l\1-ce n t he :t'..i, ol tu ta ti o11 of tl te Ltrget :t n d th e n orm al
to il t<· cr"t: d pl:t tt t" \ .
.-\ tltird ellen i' tlt.tt u l .~· ;1, ;tcbor1,nl 011 t he target. This wa -,
studied I> \ _,trongh hntin g tlt e t: t r~c·t. ;tllo\\ing it to cool again .
an d tlte 11 tcpc:tting til(' olhcT\ .ttion:.. \l ost of the sp ur s " ·ere
ultim ;;te h llt;tck nHH h more inten-,c IJ) sc \-c ral repetition ;, of thi-,
procc;,,: others ,,·mild d is:tppeal and r c::1ppear , or di sappear e n-
tirel y. and \\' e le rega rded ;t<, du e to .<,c;t tterin ,!.; h\· th e adso rb ed gas.
The most sugges ti\ c :t,put of tltc plte lt ome n on \\·a s th e simi-
-'
0 lar it y. noted in th e f1b t qu()t:ttion. t o t ile Ltuc: b ea ms produced
u
wh en x r.t\s strike a trl,t:t l. :\ , D :n is-,o 11 and Cc:nner pu t it in

' ~~ 70° -~ 30 I~ 0
- - - - - - - ----r---
. i I I ''
,VOLTS _' ---~-- --l _ _ j _ _ ~~l ___ . ______ J '\
.35 40 "~ ~ !> 5 -.o ~5 70 75
BOMB~RD I NG POTE N TI~L

FIG. 10 .6 Curve s pf collector curr ent versu s bombarding potential f or various

scatt ering angles Azimuth : 111 ~ . [ Phys . Rev. 30 , p . 716 (1927) , Fig. 9 .]

of coL:nit u de curve s fo r tili-, a? imuth 1s siHn,·n on the left in

Fi<• . 10 .7 .
.--.Tili> met 11uc 1 , ,.;,, usc< J ·111 expoI ,~·,,"1 ,..,
tile ]JritH i]>;d ;tlinwt ils for "0
IJomh ;ndin o pu t<:!Jt i.d ' i n ti1C J:tn ge !ro111 l ::l to :150 \Olh. \ \ 'he n-
C\'CI there ~tppcared a k;tturc of tile sort ju;,t disrus'>cd , e:tller

tile d ;1 t ;1 \I'Crc us ed tu con~truct co Ltutu dc t un·es or th C\ Stl\ C t'~ 75

a'> " a guidl' tu , 0 Jt : tgc~coLt titttdc r a n gb requir in g spcct:tl ;,t u dy.
1 1
There• rcsu ltt'< 1 t 1Jlrt) . set> o f Sfll l 1··s·. (']'' '\'l' ll 1.11 t ile • 1ll r. :lll lllUtll.
t\\'che in til L [ 1(l0i ;11 i11 1ut h, ;t tHI seven in th e { 11_0} anmt nh .
There ar c seYcr:t! ellects til:tt in fl u ence the pos1UO!l o l a sp t n_~.
or alte r its intensi t y. O n e is til e Jan th at b eca u se t h e S]Htr t s
)res um ah h ";t tcat u re superposed o n th e simp le scattenng n1n·e FIG. 10.7 Scattering curv e s showing th e occurrence of two pronounced maxima .
l · · · f 1 ' fi 1 e exte n t 1w th e t:-
th e posit ion of its m:tximum I> a s1 ec to 'om . · . .. ~ , Right sid e: -: 11 az imuth ; left sid e: : 100 ; azimuth . Each curve is labeled with
11 th e bombarding potent ial in volt s. [Phys . Rev . 30, p . 716 (1927) , Fig . 10.]
\ari :llion " ·i th angle o t the background :tga in't \\'h Jch ll ap p e' '·
 116 CRUCIAl EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
tlw 1r 11 ot<.: in .\u r urr ·. " I I ti 1c ill< itlent dcctrnn IJC:Illr " ·c·rl' rf' -
pl.ttcd ll\ ;; 1Jt':lll1 oi mon(lcir rom:1ti c '-.; -r;I\' ol :1djtht:d1ll' \\:1\'l '-
kn!:!lir. \l'1\ ,1miJ. 11 plit'11011Wll:l 1\'0llltl. OJ (0111\C. he ()\),en'l'd.
.-\t ' :11'1icuhr \:ilii l'' {J! \\ ;1 \c-le11 " tl1 . 'l't' o! t h ree or o! 'ix dif-
11
lr:1tlion ilt':ll11' \\ouid t'!lll'1C:,c' !to1u 1lw inc iden t \ide o l tlr(' t:Ir-
!.!_et ... Till '' tht·11 jll <H.el'l k d tu :l,,mi.n e :-.-r.i\ ,, ;1\ c lcll!.; tll\ ,.,ith
1cn ot t1 1c tl11rtet'11 IJe:nll' till'\ l1;~d io111HI :11 1irat tim e. Tire'
go o n :
·1 hc'c n·"d" ;1rc ilic:hh '-ll!.!,~t.:,t i \C . ot tOLII' 'C' of th t· ide;,, unt!erhin g
th e ti 1con of '"'"c nH:ch:Illll,, a nd we n;nur ;tlly inquire if the \\' , J\l' ·
length or' tire X -r<t\ h ea 111 w h ich w e thth a,-,ociatc ,,·ith a be:tm of
t"it·:·ao 1 " i' i 11 Lin (he j , 111 ; o f L. de l\roglic Tile cornp.tr i,OJ l may he
m:1dc, ;1, it hap]>CII'. wi1hou t .hsum in g .t pMticubr. co rre,p<> nd e nu·
hct\,·ec·n X-LI\ :.nd clccno11 l>c :I n h . . . . The w;t\e -lcngtlh of a ll }'O'''IJle
' ·!'<!\ hc J !lh ·, ;ni ., [\ t h l' opt ic.d gr.11i n g formula 11\ =
d ,inn . " ·llt·Jc rl
·; , the di,LIIIlC h ct \\ n · rJ J{nc' ,,r .ro \\·'> of atoms in 1hc cnq;d - !II cse
line' h e i 1w normal t<J
.~
li l t · .ttinw''' )'lane ol the bt illll being CO II '-id n ed .
T Jw, ap pli n! the· ~1.1t i ng l<>l'llllll:t !o the dc <tlon IJC.tnt,, and
o btained "· ~1\ C lc ii gt!" tl1:1t gL' Il c'l' : dl ~ con elated 11·cll , ,·it!t tire
\:du e~ gi ,cn IJ' ck 1\ Jogl i(' ' Iehtioml1ip.
There is 110 rc:t>U II to 1cpeat tire an a l) si, fur a ll 30 of the set;, of
spurs lound in tl1e exper ir; Ient. .n or C\' Cll to t:thubte tl1 e Il' \ tdti ng
cor relat ion: hut i1 i.'> in :, tntni,·e to con:, id er one or t\HJ c t,es .
Th e first step is to cont p ute tir e grat in g spacin g d . which is
th e sp<tCin g be tw ee n row:, of :t toms in tire :, urfacc . .- \ -,cur be see n
fr om Fi g . IO.:l. tiri :. di sL1nce is different for differe n t zlllm utir s:
For tir e: Ill } ;111 d : !00 } :tlim utir , it is th e a l ti w cle o ! th e clcm en -
t:1n ni.mgle . whil e lul til e : 110 ~ it i, lt:dl th e side of tl1 L· elcme n -
ta r ; tri :m gk. \\'e ,,·ill collsider onl y the former c:I'> C'. Si n ce t h e
tri anglt is equil:tteral , it , :d titude d is 1\''3 tim es th e le n gth .I
ul on<· ,ide. Fi g u1 e 10.·1 -, !101,., th at .1, ill turn. i-, !Ial! tl1c d1a go nal
ul th e bee o l til e unit c ube: if the ed ge o f tire cube is o l le n gt h a,
th e n .I =a,!\ '~ an d d = u\3/ ~\ ·:T. Sub-,titution of th e 1:tlu e \l .:J l
A for II g i1'Cs rf = :.2 . 1:, .\.
Let u s now me tJri , 1:Ilu e in treating the two bea ms indicated in
Fi g . 10.7. Tire on e si!OII'It 011 the rig ht-hand sicle of th e fig m e has
its m:1ximum d e l'l::lopment at so c and :l·l \' Olt ~, lf we as~u me that
WAVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER II7
i t i, " il!,t ·onler ilt':lllJ. t he n 11 =-- I .t n d tl w gr:1ti tt g !onrwb gi\C'
:1 1,·:11Til'11gth ,\ =c ri>ill '' __ :.2. 1·, .\ .< ,j ",-,oc = :.2 . J:, ..\ >, 0 ./li(i :::.
l .G.-, .\. -I h i-; i-. tu he < • >n l p:~red l\ it!r t he ,·:du e obtained fro nt
de B!o(!!ic\ lonut1h ;\ ::- ;, Ill< ' . \1 itii ''' tl1e nt:t" ol tire eke tl'<>ll
and ;· it' \cluci t \ . -l lil' n ·lotit\ i' deter min ed ],, the :Icce lcJ:ttitH.;
jJOll'ill i.J! /' >U tiLt! ! >u;• c =. r·, .. \ ,· JH·rt· r' h t il<.: clurge uf tl1c
el<.:cttun . .\l ultiphin.!.!, t h i, equ:~tinn IJ\ '.!.111 g·i, e.., 11/c; ,c = ( m ; ·)" =
:2m T'1. ot m ;· = !'.!.111 r ·n~..., _ :I !J cl <k Brog lie· , for mul a beco m e:,
;\ = II ( '..!.111 r· f'J''. Pl:inc k·, con,t:tnt b /1 = (j_(j~ X J0 - ~ 7 erg
seco n d . the m:''" ol tht· electro n i, " ' = ~J .i I x J() - c'> gram. and
the< !t:trgc of tl1 e electron j, I '=· !.~() x 10 -· '" elcc rro, tati c unit:
fo r l! ~(> with tlt e,e uni ts. t il<> ;l(celer:1ti ng n>lt age must b e con-
,·ened w deetru:, ta t ic u n i1 , IJ' tt~e o f th e r c l:t tio n :, hip I 1olt =
J / HlO dec tro.,tatic uni t . :llld 1he 11:1\ clcngth i, the n gin·n i n
centi t;t etcts. Thm ;\ = [1di:.2 /, 10 c 7 ·('. !. x ~1 . 11 x J(l - '2~ X :i l X
U)!) X 10 - 1 " • . . ] ; :-\!lll) ''] em = !.()/ X I U- ' em= J. (i / .\. Th e
:t _g l <:Crn e n t i' quit(' ,,tti,l .t<ton . Sint il:1Fh. for t he G'1- 1olt beam
rc::r l1 ;1I g: ' m a xi!lltlli\ :tt l ! tl wg ratin :~ lon1Jtd.I gi,·e,,\ = l.l 'J .\.
\\'hik <It: Brogl ie\ iurnJtii:J gi' t'' ,\ = 1.5:.2 .\. ag: tin in rea>onablc
<~ grecmen t.
A << >lllpl e te :m :tly.,is, of cottr'>e, i-, rnttch more invoh ed . lf tlte
gratin g- ey u Zl tion 1\'ere tlt C' only fa< tor 10 UJ!hider . tlr erc would be
no expla n Z1 ti o11 o l th e Lt ct that the h e: mt ~ do not >in1pl y shift a>
th e ,·o lt age i'> 1a ried. bm gnH\' :1 n d di;,appe:tr. The bet of the
matter j, t ltat a cr~,L.d i' n ot ju st :1 two-d im e n sion ;d g ratin g but
a tltree-clime tJ>ion:ll a rrav . a nd acco unt rnu~ t be taken of p os>i ble
int erference bet11·ee n ,,·a n ·, rcllccted lr0111 su cccs; i,·e la yer s. This
was d on e in tir e article. Til e au t ho r' we1e 't ill un a bl e ro r e frain
fr om a;,;,o< iating a La11e he; tm with each ele rtron ;, pur , <1nd
ntakin g t heir comp:tr i'> o ll un tlti , iJa ,is , ;o th a t ther e art' quamita-
ti\'e fL11,., : lm t t il e 1t111<hlli (' Ill :tl 'otlct'J't w:t~ cle:1rh \':tlid .
At alm os t th e ;,am e 1imc . Sit C.eorge Tllolll'>Oll , ;on of Sir
.J. Tl1om,on of th e T ho nhon :~tom . \\·a-, performing a r e lat ed
experiment in England, tl'.. ing rrammi s;, ion of high -e nergy elec-
trons (sei"Cral kil c)\'(Jih) through meta l fo ils rather than refl ec-
tion of lol,·-energ\ clcctrom from :,i ng le cr ys ta h 7 The analysi s of
his exper im ent is con sid e rabl y more co mpli ca ted than that of the
Da\'isson-Germcr ex pe r i m e n t. but the result wa s an inde pend e nt
 118 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
tOII!iiiiLiliUll ui d·. J\ I ()'C!it··, )>lO)Jtht'(i lt'l.ltio ii, !J i!> bt ')\l'l'l'll \1- ,1\ l'-
il'll ,::_t i l ;11H! llH1l ll t' ll l \llll l(ll t · it. 'l {l l>l l '
'1 :lt'lt' \1 :!, \til ! t>l!t ' LJllt' -tltJI! III LII I, \tt'll'li. ll< >\\t' lt 'l I t \1' ;1'
i'""i i,Jt- It> l)('! it ·l t· !l!.tl t ilt ,, ,,n·!ikt· iw il .llllll 1('\l·: il l' <i lil t ltt' 't ·
l \. fJl ' l illl('lli' \\ -,1 -. JH..': tli i.! ~ lt l t lt: ( ! IIll i\ \\ -t >td d Ol l lt'l l!L l ll t' l di 'p l, t\
tilt· , ;l!lt t· l''' 'i•t'lttt<· J iw ·""''-''~' t.lllll' 111 Jli'iO. ,,i tut llt tu '> tt' lll
:111d l:i ' L<l-\tt>l i-..Ch t.' ,l. tiJ]i,! tt ,! tiL!I .!lO!Ih :111d illuit·t ttl(',,,\ "' !J;,ti
\1-;t ldikt· .I!IJ'I i>llt l''. \t !! l! t il t' \1,1\clt"llQliJ j.!l\t' ll h1 dt 1\lliQlil·· ,
1 ('LtllOth!ii!J.
]I! CO lli I :hl Ill !J.II i"OII :11 1t! ( •l'l Jil l'! . .'>ICI'll ;It](] lti, (''J]!c:tQII-C '
li:td <!l'i iiJcr:ttfh 't ·t u11t tt 1 t c~t cit- Bro c:l ic·, ill potln·-,j,_ !11 :1 p:I]!l'l
pul,]i-,itcd ili ] LJ :_:, ;_ 111 ,,·I! it II he illll'udtt cct! :1 1H l g·:J\ (' tl :e IJ:tt 1--.-
gTu i!IH I lur ,, 'l'ill'' td "ln1 l',tig:tl!Oih in Jllukcul:IJ b c :tlll ntrtll-
od,_" lie -,;~id.
\ f!l!t·-..JitJil rd !ht <_r ! t, !lt''l lllll(Lllll'Jlt.tl ,J~Jlilll ; l !l ((' i' !ll:lt <d
v,J,:,_-!I(t o! De Hl t J~ ll t \\ ,!\(' .... tll:H i". tile qtlC\tiO!l ol
llll >!CC1d:t1 1.1 \\. ill .l!l.t!Og\ \\ 11h hQ,ill Li\, _ \Li ll t'l ing· .!lid Ili lt'! icJ(' IItC:
cilc·u, :11e 10 J,c olhenul. l ' llfunu tJ :ttch. the ,,-;"eJ,- ,,g-tl" c;t!udatcd
:Juonli ng- 10 lk J\ro glt c c-1 en under 1li c nH"I Ll\ or:tbk cond i 1iolh
l ~:tJCiy come up to I A . :\ ctcrthtle>.,. tilL· })(>'>,ii>ilit,. for experiment 10
dcntoll'lr:nc -,uch d!ec t- lor muil'cular !,c.tnh :tppe:tr, not to IJt' ex -
cluded .
Th e "ll!O.'lt es'>Cil i ial p:.1rh " of a molcc ubr beam apparattb. as
de,criiJed in th e second p :tpcr of til e '>tries. ll'ritten in collabora-
tion 11·itil F . Kn:tun. "are the m ·e n :md the OH' ll opening. the
in1ag(' :qJcrture :tile! t il e d e tct ror scn:'t.:n.·· Fu1 the experiment' to
),c - di'>< u-.., cd here. th e 01-cn i, replaced b; a '>ou rce of g:t ., and tile
,creen O\' :tt!Otilcr tl pc of d e tector, but the e'>'>ential concept> arc
tl1e -,;m1r.
Froll! thr men opening. the molcnde, emer the ,-acuum in a wide
cone: there. if no collision tal-..h pl:t ce, the1· follow .'>lr:Iig!lt-line p<~tlis
(.tpan lr"111 the influ e nce of gr:l\ n y. whicl1 in our ime'>liga tiom is of
no impo rtance . . 1. Th e im :-tl?,t' apenu1e nm of! from th e broad
cone a narrO\\'. almo't p:trallel beam . .-\t the detect or surface th e mole-
cules of the r;l\· :1rc cundcmed.
Acconlin ,g to an unohjeCiion :tblc ray picturt.: the mol ec ular beams
prop :tg<~ I e exact!) like light ra1, in th e Gt'>ting of J shado\\'.
WAVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER 119
T lw1 .d "' Clltil cl iw 1(' /It-, 1cd . Jil l' li!.:li l r.!l '· !rom :1 ,l1Hlofi,
_,url:tu·
1\t- t:tti'< ' ri,v 111:1 " Il l lil t' ;>.tl ! t<!, · •lj'f'l\11 , i11 ti;c ,!t' lll>lllill:JIOI' ol
the <l{· H!n ~ i tt' t ' \..j Jl t "'l l Hl ll.tt h . l\cl c n ~ t ll . 11 "·~ t' dc . . ira hlc tn u~ e
tilt 1i :: !:tl'' ' f''''' ll1 it llll >lt-, ;lin _ lll d! ''C:t'JI .tilt \ llt-l !llnl. ru tC\1 it .
-I lie,, •ott! -! l)l> l lw dc·tnrc·d I" t/,t. tlllldt·Ih .tli lll l m crlt od _ It 11·:h
n ot unti l l'i:_: r, ril.tt :1 ' llit. tbk tic-In ti n l! l1lll l1"d \,· :1;, de , elo p ed
:J il t! tit-,( I JiJl'l !. .I'C .Jill i!l kl i.lllt 'l .111tl 'l llTI!.
T il(' princq'k of tilt · method j, i!J. tl 1hc k ·:.m ni nwit-c ule, s1rikh a
,111 i11 .11 1 o!hcn,-i,t ti<~,cd ch:lln l>cl . _-\, :< ll' 'td t. tht" pte"ure in tile
Ch:tl1lfH.: I' lll<.rc;hl'" l!J> to t/ 1(.' !J(lili ! \\· hcrl · jLI"'! :h lil l.l ( }l g·: l.., flO \\· ;-. (JUt Of
the ,Jit •ill!<> tilt' ' lillo tt!ldlli,l; tacuu nt j :" 1hc moltc td :,r lw:mt CJrric, in.
For .1 gi ll'!! t !unil>e r :111 d , !ir. till' tn tt\\-: ttrl litH\ ,,jJJ he J!lO ]JOl ·
til( ' J( ' ,d
tion:il to tit(' jill'"IIIT 111 Ill(' tlLI!IIl; c r. T lic >teadi-,Ltte prc"tlre.
\\l!t·thl'l lrn t lt n eill l t'. j, :1 di!l't r Jlll'.t.'lltt· "! t!1c· ita id t' IJI iiitc thit'. Kt l.llll'l
and .'Jl l'lll llll'.t,tll ul t !ti, p1 c·"urc ill ".1 i!()t-lt-ire nun omc tc r
aftel l'iraiii ."' T ltl'' -, ucc eedcd i11 in1pn!\ ill!.: t he .-,cmiti,·ir: of
tlii~ ')JJL' ol g:,u ,g c to tlt c poitlt tlt:Jt rl1e; could lii C JS!lrC pre"ures
of th e order oi 10 - .-. JtlillinJetcl llf ntct cu1 1 to a prcci~ion of a
tenth of : 1 pe rce nt.
E\'Cll then. th e lC'>lllt s l:Jlll C :1.-. :t wrt of ,eric;, of succc'>;,ivc
approxim;Itiolh. Th e ftr .-,t eflort,. d c., cril;ccl b1 l' rLtucr and Stern
in l 'l~lJ_ :Jttc n tptcd to ma!-..c tt>C of th e fact. 1r ~ ll l-:no1rn in optical
spcctro"ol" :1 11tl :ilrctd ; u'ed ,,·ith x Lll 'i. th :1t if li,glit j _., inLidcnt
on a ,g i:ttill~ :1 1 ;111 : IJJ _~ k fi !JOlll the I!Oilllal. the ci!cctil c ,pacing is
lc" ti1.111 the .tctu:tl I" :t Ltno1 cmft. lh ll'l' of _g r:Jii ll ,\!, incicl c i!CC' ,
'rhi cli m c:1m f! n c:1r LJtJ'. the elkcti1-c -,p;tcin\!, oi an ordinary
mecli:mi c tlh ruled _g1 :.t ing Cill IJL· liiad c of the orcler of ;m
ang\lroi!L .'-lutlt an cflct ti1c· 'P<~• 111g ,l,ould it:IIC ploclucccl d e-
ten:tl;k itt tcrten· Jlt C m :txin1:1 :ttulo ~o th ru l < i11ge~ i11 the optical
case. Tile :Jttcmpt, howt·,·n, \\';J, Ull\llcces, ful: ".-\ltliotlgh se1· er~d
tim e., liT l>clil'l-ccl tltar 11·e h :t d fotlllcl indica tioti-' of a m: 1xi mum,
we did not '>uccecd in est:tbli,hing- its certain existence. The
d iffi ntlt1 lies in the fact that if th e sc:lttt'ring- m:1ximum i;, located
too close to th e rcllectcd r a Y. tl1 e , ·c ry sm;tll but d e finite lack of
sh:1rpnc'' in the l:tttlT lll:tl-: c o, the nw:t .< ,uremcnt utH e rt:~in , \\·hereas
 120 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
WAVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER
121
il rile '> <.tttcli lt !.! nl.t:-.iJJlttlll i, J,,<:ttcd '"'' L1r lt<>Jtt th e rcllettcd
1.1\. it ' llltt'll'itl ht'lllllll'\ tun 'l!t;dl :\c'\t'llitt·k" . ti ll' lt''tdh
\\Tlt' c li <ut l l.t~!ll .~: :'\u t o 11 h ''·'" tlHTl· till' '\tiggt: "dinn nl :1 d itir:u -

IJO !i lll.t:-.illtlllll. :t' IIO !t·d 1!1 lilt !<Jil'!_!Uill.~ (jll<l\;Jtltl\<. illti tiw
lt'i]('(liOll (()('fit(i('!ll f J L'l!t:l t lllll .~l.tt! ll ~" \\T1l' ll' t'd\ \",11\l'{! \\·iti t

·'"~.It-o! ll ttick tllt' :tnti l\tl! t g,,, tClllj!l'l .tl liiL' t.ll! d iH' ! Ilt' 'f't·ed
.1 11 d ,,·;1\l'k ll gtil• ill till' \\;1\ til.tt II" U!tld lw <.::-.!'l'CtCc) itOIII ;,
11-;,,·c likt· hcil;l\ 111 t .
.-\ no1dt 11 '!h . ''"die, II"C lc undt'li.tkt·ll t hi n ~;, cn:-t.tl l: tt ti <c
'"'l'
·'' .1 g;,ttllli-; - .. _..,itl CL' the· l.ttti((· ttJthLtllt 111 t ill'> h 111 oJdt'l oi

lll :t.'! lltttJclc :t tc·,,· tim e.' 10- ' ct·ntintc·tcr . 1\' C co ul d 11ork :tt larger
;IJ I'!lt'> ol inc ick JHC 1' (_-, t<l r, · ). ll'iJid t ii"Olll t ilt· c:-;perirnCilLll
lit·llpoinJ Jll l'. l\lt :tJ J illljJI"IJ\t'IJtt 'Jt l. .- \ di: tg r;tnl ol 11lc· app; tr: ttti'>
i, _,IH ll,·n i11 1-i .~ - !O.K.() i, t!tc "<l\ t' JJ · ,J it. 111 11 Itic !1 ga, 11·;,, !eel
riliOtl!_!ll l ilt' tuhc r: : /! 1 C() tl] d IJt ' c:i lllcr ;, l>cll · :~r IC,,l'J. for cooling
rile· _g·; ,, l " l iq11id-.tir tclltl'na tu rc. or;, ilt': tt l' l . T ile in1:q.:c ,Jit i'
t! t'lhltnl !l\ .·I n i11 tilt· pL111 \ ic11 .. -1 '' in 1ilc .-.ide 1 il'11· A.. 1, tl 1c
tl\'>i:t!. A f Jilt' dct c tt<ll" ,]it. :tnd H , th e Jt thc lOIJJit'ctin g the
dctl'nor ( h: tm bcr to t ltc ntc ;l'>ttJ i11g nt;tnolne tct. Th e po,ition' of 1
t!tc· clctc·ctur :tnd the en 'tal r01dd lw set b y rn e; m s ol th e br a~ '
,Jip joint , .\ 1 :tnt! 'i~ , JC~peui\ cl\. ll'lt idt ,,·ere a cct JJdtcl; coaxial
''ith ilt eiJ conn1ion :1:-.i, hing in tl1 c ,urfacc of the cn sud .
Th e re,u lh were r:tt hn cJi,;tppointing: in p: tnicttbr. th e hope d-
for dillr;l( ti on patter n ~ >till cotil d not IJe dcfl!liteh· C!-.ta iJiishecl. r/1J I
~
~ F

/~
,_- ~? 1:
L .,
'\cl-crthdl'-''· in ;dl mc·:l'>ure mcnt ' there ap pca rt'd the r cma rkai,J c re-
>tlll that fm ' m ;dl anglt'' t ht· ref lec tion"' '" ilc11er t he hi.ghn the tem- I"II L-
pcratur<.: of 1i1t· raY. ;IIHI iltereiore Jh e ;mall et th e " ·:1\e lenglil of th e
conc spondi11g d e l\rogl ic w;11e . 1-"o t Ln·gcr :tngle-, of incidence (30 °)
til e rnr:r,c j , true .
.- \ part fr<Jnt ri te Ltct th.11 ' uclt a ,lt~ rp ref lenion i' not to l w under- FIG . 10.8 Fi rst version of th e apparatus use d by Knauer and Stern for studying the
.,IOod on Jill' g-n JlltHI' of the c l;"'i cal rlt eorv and can nnlv !)(' inttr- scatterong of molecular beam s by a crystal . fl . Phy sik 53 , p . 783 (1929) , Fig . 2.]
flleted hy n ·1ou r 'c 10 rite w:l\·e rulute of tll t' l> e: tm of molecul es, abo
the abo1e-dcsc ri lJcd IJeh :11 ior ol the reflcCii o n codlJC ie nt is only to be tion "ith I. Estermann, together " ·ith whom he publi;hecl
uud er>toud 011 thc ground-, of th e ,, -;1\ e theory.
ro_nclusn e re;,u lts in 19 30. Apparentll one of th e most prod u cti Ye
thmgs h e h ad done in th e meantim e was to st udy much more
But Stern was IJOt to be clet crrecl by the la ck of complete
t ho rou _gh h the t heory o f diffract ion by a two-d imension a l g r a ting
En:n th o ugh " \lr. hn :tUer , to my great rcgTet, lor t he
:-.ttcc es~ .
such a-, I.'> rea li zed bY a crYs ta l s urf:tce (as contrasted with the one-
sake of hi-, ow n ;,tudi e' wi shed to di.-,cont in uc th e collaboration
d~lnemion :tl charac ter of a nd ecl gTa tin .~ ), for the first maj or topi c
i11 th e t'C>carcJ,," lt c c:tn ied on. first alone :tnt! the-n in colhbor:1-
dl;c u s't=-d Ill t he J<J .~(I paper is ho11· th e propert ies o f l attice
 WAVE PROPERTIES O F MATTER 123
CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSI CS
122
jll'l j>llld tlltl .tt Ill the :t>.h. ' " !lt.tl !Ill !lilt' diiCCIIOih u l JIICidcttCt·
dillt.tClt<lll ;lc ••' tiJJ I l nt tl w intoll< lthtl(' JJ;tt JJtt ' oi t ile c;tr]ll' J
:tnd -'Lttt<:tt!l g ll"l'll' ll " ' llh 'tt ' 'u•· llll ':t.s u rtd . . \ furtltel tt lod ift-
n ·>~ Ilh .
cui u tt , ,: ti ll' ct ,,t,tl lHddc1 "·'' t:t,ttl ·· tu jJL'l lll it adp t,t lltL'llt of
tilt· Ltlt<.:i ""!H._'<. l. l : \\,,..., . . uc !· lll.tl 111 :t ddltl u! J, tht~ ;~noh
.~
of
· r ltt' thl' Ul' ..., JJU\\., tll. !t loJ ' liH· ;trt.!ll!,!Ctnt·nt i>' hl Lllltl
u .... c:!
.11 1d .)tt' l t! 1 till'l~ ,hollill .q>pt'.tl -.(. lt l• " llll ~ "!Jt.. tll:l th::t lot tl 1c c:...l'tLtC1l
de Htn L!,iH' \ \;t\l'kll ,!..: IL tl l.t~l.' ,Ii i ,til}..!.h' d! .tl1UU\ :--:, ti > () wi !!l ti::._ Jt·
lie( tt d J.t\ ;J Jl d lir · : d i llt"l f hi:.ltlll .thntl' l (J! :_: · ' ll! t!1c !Jc :t ll\ pl.lltt ·
i 11 1i1i' c o lll l<.'(lit)IJ ,,-~. nte;tll l1\ tile "iJL'; tlll p L tlll '" tht· p \:l t l(' th:1i i . . d~
tC'rlll it wd l>1 ti ll· i>C:Illl dillll"'" :11:<! tlw lu11g t'd g c· ol t he rc(! ;I JI;_!l<.
ft>rm cd I" tit(' ern'' _,cnion of th e lw: tm . ·1 ill' i>c.tJJI in tltc "
>tud i<'' \('j j <>II till' (1"\,t;.J ,_,II!Ltl'." 111 >l ith :t \\",!\ tiJ :t l t ill' l011g l'd~ (' ,.j
t lih rnt : t n~k "·" j>.l t.,lk l 1o the· tn,t:d 'url.ilL'. Su c!t ttt :J, i!ll .>
1111'-'l. " ·i1il l ilt· "l'!':ll:lll" dtlll< "JI ,iOth \hl'tl. ILl\l' :il\0 g< Hil 'll i11 !0 th e
drtcn<>J. T lt t• til con iut:iln inn>lic, tlt:tt fo r ·' sm:tll rot a ri on of rhc
cn,t:tl rltr s.tid ,t:t ; teri ttg m :tx t;tl:l ll1<> H' p :t rtialh o u t ol the 1Jt':t m
plan e . T he th ron imj>lic-> in :~ddition th:i! lor l:trgct :t n glc, o f
incide n ce t!Ji, dlcn is lc'' sc1c n:. Titi' : ~>'>llll1jltiot t in n ttcdi :tt el y
t·-.. phir" the rcm:trk:d>lc n ·,t tl t o f kn auer a nd Stnn . In oJller
IP \liHh !hC"-C \C:dl( 'li ll:...'_ '-~JlC<tJ:! dill'Cth. til t' :tp p :tr.tt U-.. w:h rcl)uilt ill

:.utlt '' "" ·'~ tlt:~t tilt· ilt". illl It II Ol! t ill < 1 ~"·,; .. ,·dgcl,.t,l' ...

l-"i gt ttC !0 ()is :t dt:tgr:t tll ul t ill' t nod if tcd :q>p:tr:tll t'>. T he c"c nti:tl
di iJcn•n tCs 1\"C l'C

tlt:it th e <rn t:d " "'" tJO\\" ltl'ld ltori7Cntt :tlh· in t!> e cn,t;tl lw ldt't.
"h e re:" c:~tli c r it ,,. ,,., it ht: tllc d ll 'l"ti c.t!h· . , and til e IJ C llll w:t' :t<-
<Cmlingh in< li>tl'd at :111 imi de ne e angle of 11 F· . . . Til t: dt ·tt·c tor
w a,., tilted :>t :til cqu :tl angle . l>u t o tlt c n,·i,t t e tain c d its ar ratJg-emct1 1
such th :tt it ' :txi '> of rota tion no"· " "' " pnpc mlicul :tr to the Cl '"'Lt! sur-
face, ,,·hill' lwlot l' it Llv in t it <· cnsLtl ,.,mf:tcc .
FIG . 10 .9 lat er version of the apparatus for studying the scattering of molecular
Th e tt :ttut·c o l tlt c n ·,ttl>s is t\i,pLt~cd in F ig. ! 0.10. ,, it lt the- beams . ;z . Physik 6!, p . 98 (1930i, Fig . 7 . )

run e l :tiJc!cd " 111 " b e in g ti lt' fir st o nt· oh t :t in cd 11· it h til e JW\1
incidctt cc cut tld 1 e:ttlt·J,
. l> c ' :tt·t·c
. ·t·l t I11 ottg I 1 scn:: r :t ] t 1cgrc>e,: this
:trr:mgetn e nt . " Tit e; cl dt ttit c h sho11· th e expe cted :- t :ltt cri n g
p e rmitt e d :1 cun , id c t:tl>h mot e t·xte thil c sea rch to lw mad e . In
lll :txilll :t ·· T he :dJ,eJH c of tn :t xint :t 111 C:ttl ,,. 1\' 11·:ts :tl " ' itt :tC< <>r d
Lt c t , " Fo r e ach position o f tl tt· d c t cc toJ w e look e d lot tlt c ' most
,,·ith tltcor;. Ho\\T i e r , "Th e slt ilt o f tiH· ~c:tttc r in g lll <tx int :t ,,it lt
1 lan>r:thle tilt,' th <tt i, , tlt c tilt lor , ,·hiclt til e inte mit y of th e
t et tljJl'J": tturc to be expected :tllutd ing t o tlt c d e !Jrog li e formttla "
>c:t tt c rc d beam r eac h ed it s nt:txintttnL
j, in til e propel dit-ct tiun . but sulJ , t :t nti : tll~ too ;,m:tll. ' '
b,t e rma nn and Ster n carried th e \l·ork with rocbalt just
Thi;, fLt11·, in tllllt. w:t s trace d to in ad e qu:Hc :tdjmLtbilit y of
cnoug·lt I urtltcr to conYince tlt c msc!Yc.s tlt:tl tlt c impro1-cd :t p -
th e· ;~pp:tr:ttth. For o n e thing. tltc str uc tttrc supporting til e "o n·n '"
p :tr:ttu ;, w:t' J>Crntitting ge nuine and a cc urat e m e asure m e nts of
w as chan g in g its dim c tJ>i ons ,,itlt tentpcr;tt u re . l\Jorc import:tnt.
diflr:tction frolll a t\l"t!-d im c nsion :tl gT atin g . ":\le ~111whilc ." tlt e y
it \1":1> fo und that ,omctimc.s the c:r)st:tl s ur face \1':-ts not truly
 124 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYS ICS WAVE PROPE RTIES OF MATTE • 125

t D til;, :trl '''llll l l.tt tiL·,! 11 1 I ,t !J!, Iii- ! ·1 !w ;~~. lt'l'tlll'lli "~ c n c l: tl h
~ o oc! p:!!lltl!l.llh illll'l t ,ltfl:C j, !itt· Lui tli.il til t' t1t.l '\ illlttlJt f.d i '
:ti tit < '.tlitt' !>t!\l l lllt ! !<:; l ;,l ; !l : d . tl :! 'ill ·'' l o: iJ\dJO~l'll (IJ.df
li l< ' 11 1.1 "' t_ Ii / ll' j I lll J I .f t .., ,-...; !!

}Jp \ ' \t·i . . 1 \ \ ' l t' lil :I[Ji ~,;:.._ \!,llHlll J,q i.!l~l· dll ~k· ...,, ((Jl} V ...,J >Uildi ll ~~
r, .1 ~ '' ·"l'k t t~tlt, ]> ;,rt ot t!ti, '"' " :t,cti h.d)ic I<• th e n:ttt trt· oi
v ti· '\ j >(Tl lli('I J [ ;tJ :ll J .l ! l :_:. t'lll('l\ 1, 1\ i I(' } (' I >\ "i ()] t:ngc :mgln . I Ill'

I ~._, I
I

~fi
I

lY
I
r I
J

::
..
..
) r
1J
~
~~--------------------------~--~~ em
II/ lie. 300 °·~ J
J ::j"
'l
Orehung0°
XYl/1
ZJO'I( A ~
- z
em
-1.5

z. 15 TO s s 10 z.
FIG . 10 .10 Scatteri n g of He and H. on roc~solt . All curves except IV are taken -10
with the crystal so oriented that th e plane of incidence, or a plane p e rpendicular
to it, contains only atoms of a single species; curve IV is taken with the crystal
11
rotated in its own plane through 45 (Drehung means rototion "), so that th e atoms
in the plane of incidence are sodium and chlorine alternately . [Z . Physik 61 , p . 99
-s
( 1930), Fig . 8 .) ...... j ....
t
...
wr it e. " wr l1:td found tlt:tt ~~ ttdies w ith the LiF lattice r esult in -ZLJ - 10' 0 10"
' J zoo
a much ,i tnp ler a nd clc:ltT r picture,'' sin ce " \Vc obtai ned su l>-
stamial]y be tter reflection , sltarper beams and more intense FIG. 10.11 Scattering of H, on lith iu m fluoride . The arrows show t he posotoons of
the maximo calculated on the basis that all the molecules have a >ing le velocity ,
nt ax ima : . . . "The re n1 a ind cr of th e wo rk was acco rdinglY don e
that at which the Ma x w ell d istribution for the appropriate temperature has its
with li thi um fluoride. max imum . [ Z. Physik 61, p . 107 (1930), Fig. 16.]
 126 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS WAVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER 127

' j \I 'll 111 - 1 ( orn.f'llllt!ll ,_f f),Jr,,,' ! /'t'J and Ca/rulal:'d l'tlSil!" ''' ., ' \[ ;·\ ..• 1:01 the nlc cil:tni c. tl ll10ilotfJlo t n.ltl/. ! t i on tilt l!t·lnll!l l Jc:tlll \\,! ... 't'f: :
1 1 li.: r<~. l ir .~cuttn~j ,,1-,.., 1.11. •. \ daptcd tro 1n I . 1.:- . tcr!lu:,: dnouf..:h d "'\~.!( ' l !J c~i l\\P !lhl i !! ltl \\ lt ct ;, ll'.t 1~ OJJ 11 ' \,ttt ll..' ,t,k. 1• •·
dlH i ( J. .'"'l ttTI1 . / . / 'rr ,u, til. tJS \ 1\)31)' .f ..tbk -+ . !:It ill _~~ r.tpid !\ · r !~ t td• l lht·lt \\ l! ··~· :, l1.td .: d t ~ ~ ~! ~-' lt ' l i '! ~~ ~ lll i .!It·! ' \ t ' }:

'~t i l l tlll :\l.il. I .r. ;: . 1! tf lt 1:: 11 .1

L I)C, tllo n o f nt.l:\.iltitl:: ~ tl t... :.l! t1 l,lt!i ,j -, ,(\\ t ~~~-- (l] i ;]l 1{!: :! j i_ l 11 11!1 .:J~t! (!t_ft!! . :\ _ Illlll 'I; ~
! I'! ll! )f' !".! t ll 1: ' ;dec j()IJl ill·._i \\lt('! J-.. '\{'! \..' ]\'1' til '] li.!l{\! ll'!,fll\1. {p ()]\t' ,i l !Ot/!t~- '\I) ti!.!l l,'\:,t(Tj\

' "- 1\\i) (()J)('I.,!HJJI\JlJ ]_: "1 ] ]\-.. '-l illl•: l,tJ\t' llhh (}\l''l "t \! ' ' ' '- iJl' .tlJJ p.it !! i i\!!lL:

p:n.ll ~ t i :!: ( :i\.J-.. tll ! t JLt l hJ I;. i l tlt'- il li lt' \\ h t'l l'- llllllt.d \t: l \ ..,ln\'.. h
! 11
~ 1 i ~
nt vit. cult ·\ ul .:J! \ clo c!lJc .... (o uJ , : p,~..,, !i J J\Ht_~ !! ,t l h.l tl·c l, c;Jn l ,, .. t.., Jncrch
1'>'. 14'
\\·e:d,t' Jl t·d ll i tLt l.ttJ() hl 11: \\ !t l ti: ) hill! "cp.tLttin tl '· i·o 1 \OllH_.\,· l~.t t
12 11
K -~
Ll;..,tcr lot.ttiOJ i of th e tooth<·l! wt tt·c J.., rht· ,fO \\·(-r ntokr u lc . . that h:Hl

il '-
l ~Ul l(' t!lrOU:.!, !J Oll·-. J..:.ip ll ! t h< In -..t \ ·:ilt·t I <.U\l Jd lJ() JO tlp: tr J('; tdl t lle
12 <Otrc-..pn11diJ !~ ~;'!' 111 till ... t·tond \dlt'L:l. F n1 ..,til! Lhtvr ro L t l! Ofl. d JJ'l v·::t'
~ ~~"' ll ti lt' C.l'-(. I•H ti ll' "JlC I ·du.· ! IIlOitttdc-... !1 t :l IlO\ \ tht· ,Jo\\er JI H ) IC<lll t·,

( O U] d gt:t ti ! lUl !QfJ lilt' l it\.! i()!h l \'.lll~ -.,J j! i l l t hl' '(' ( OI!d ! OO liH·d Wi i Cl !
' '), ole o f til L· cn '> t.tl -,u1 hct· 'i lltu n in:tt cd· h \ th e nwlc< u Ltl i>l':trn
T IJL' f:t,tcr ti1c " heel' r(li,ttcd. t il(' ~tt'. lt t:r a]"' '':" the :, p('cd of tile
<a n no l o n ~n IJL· -,celt lro1 11 t!t e tl c tL·c tut ." ~ \ not It er ]>.tll \1:1' Jllni('( u /n t iLt! 1\'Cl t' 'elc <lv d '" 1/ 1" ' '· " · l i ,,·c de n ote 1, ,. v t lt c· n umlw r
dtt e 111 di'>]'l'l,i u lt: -J h e ,,·: 1\cle ng tlh in :1 gi\CJJ r :ill .l!.C r/,\ a re ol !til th :JJLl 111 1il lllllt' '· :!!;d J, -. tltt' lllll ll iJL·t ' ";,Iii'. t hc 11 1 7·: i . . tht·
, pn::td o \ CI :1 n tt gc d/J of >C:tt tcr in g :t ng lc-, t!t:tt in c rc:t , C> ,,· ith till lt' ill \\ '}Jil iJ ti lt· !Ol>thcd \\'IHTJ , Jtil .111(\·d ill Oi!t' ,Jji. 1I 1\'l' tiC:_: lee' 1 )l ,.
\ \ ' r r!t JI nf tflt· ...,]; ' till !l 1 11 1j '. Jl lrdt' ( ·J](' . ., \\It!: \TJ O( it\ 7 gl't
ill CJ<.,,iw~ ;r '" tl!.tt :11 l.tr~ c J :tngJc, . 1 ' 'J J.ti lcJ lr:t< 1iut1 "l ;lie (.tl) t/ 1)11\l:_:'
t h(' IIC'l io /] IJ\IIIic_: ,jj 1 tio ,il l .t kt· ,,;:11h· llt:il lllllt ! (Jr C O\CJ i n~ t l:c
, <.tliC in l J, , · :~t lt i' itl ll' l t L'J' ll'li h 1 tlt L· de tn tul Hu t tiiL''l' ll,·u
:-.c p:n ;, tion di ,t. II ICL i lo (' l\\t' Ci l till' ' " '" ,,·!Jeeh. T il th i . ., de tt l rni ned
dkt l'> <ottt! Ji llcd , ti ll di , l nu t ,ce1n to lw c llOllg lt to cx pl. ti n til e "'" ,,,,. cqtt:l tio n I ,., = I o:. : =
/: J>. ! 11 <> ur c;,, ,. \1"l' !t.ld I = ~l l ( Ill
di,ncp:tiH 1. f., tcrn t:tntl :111d S te rn ' ''g·ge'> [(·d. th er e fore . tk tt there ('cp:t LII ion hc t\\·e cn [; ,cin ,t; \lll f. ,cc s 'l .O cn1. plu s 0. I em thi ckne,s of
ntig!Jt he ,omc re:J! dlcct depcndcnr on til e ll':t\elctlgth nf the tltc ,,·h eel ). := -1 0~ t he rcf ote ·, · l:!i i.'>J> l l l l sec =
mol ecule'>. :tnd louketl lo 111·:trd LO experiment' 11·itl1 bea m, of a
sin gle 1 e loc ity, or at lc:bt a n:trrOII' r:mgc of ,- c]oc it ie~ in pi:tce The resulting monurl:rom:nic 1Je:tnt 1\'ih :lll:thLed by ~cat~ ering
of th e full \l:tx11·e ll tli,tt ibution. froll! ;: cry;, ta l of litltitt:n fluoride . mu ch :t'> in tl tt pre \ious work.
Such expt rimenr;.. 11 erc d e'icr iiJ cd in :1 report ptt!Jlish ed in 1931, .-\ diagr:tm of th e :tpp:tratm is -,),m,·n in fi g . 10. 1:? . Th e nozzle
for "'''icil E-.tenn:ttlll :tnd Stern were joi ned by R. F r i>ch. T11·o of the o1et1 is :Jt O r: th e be:m1 i' dciin ed IJI a cl J;mncl- <; h a pcd
m et hoch we re u;,ed to product :1 monoc ln01na ti c be:11n. On e ILlS , ]it , , _Th e t(Jot ltc d l,·ltce h :ttl· ,eu t u !ge 1,·i,c :tt Z , :tnd 7,> wit!;
<t do uh le-.'>C:tttcrin g procC'>'>. in 1\'IJiciJ tlw ftr .,t s< atte rin ){ di :, persed titc :txlc ,-1 C:ll'l ied in b:tll Gc.t J in g' :tnd Li '> ten ed by a fif'xibl e
tlt e beam :tccotdi n g to ycJocity . :1nd a -,l it selenccl a n:u row coupling to : 1 ' ecuncl :t:-.lc 1\'ltic h P"''ed thrott g lt :111 oil seal i n the
range of the di , per'>cd i>e:m t for '>C ittering by a seco n d cn stal. ,·:tClltll11 hou sin g and c: trricd tht· dt il' c pu llc' T h e detecto t , A (
' I he :tpp:tJ:ttu' ll' <ts tt ne,,: trih >OI1l t' ll'lr :tt more elabora te tha n :n1d Af/< 11·crc nJ :td f' i11 lllill itt .!.; l l'tLtn g ub1 , lot' itl a IJr:t.'>'> pl:lte
ln·lore . a 11d t ltc :tll<thsi ., quit e :: IJi t more comp lic:tted; 'o thi s th: tt had b ee n g1ound phn e, a n d then co\' e rin~ th e '> lots 1\'ith
nJct),od 1\ ill no t be di'>eti"ed further exce pt to st:tte th a t til e g·l;" ' p Lttes. Tile b e;tring lo1 til e axi s by 1\·hiclt th e cry>tal ,,·as
rc-,ults were cottt plct el) :t'> ex pected . rotat ed 11':1'> :tl'o m ill ed inw lit e pl:t tl'. ens u ri n g copla n arit ) o f
The second method 1\':tS much more direc t, a mer b :mic<tl the axi, a nd th e det ector ,. A IJit nf g:tdge tn ena bl ed th e crvst:tl
"niOt Jocltroni :Jti za tion .'' (:\ foot note in th e original report com - to be cli; phced out of t he beam . \\·ltich then fell d ircct ll' on t he
mettt ~ th a t ".\lr. E\l<:nnatJtl on account uf a trip to :'\.m eri ca " ·as compema ti o n det ector .1[1:.
no longer aiJk to p:trt ici p:tt e in 1he f111 a l tneasurf'mC' JllS. ") Tlte ftrst '> tep 11·:t> to tC'>t t!t c :tction of tht· ,-l'locitl' ,e]e(tor
 128 CRUCIAl EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS WAVE PROPERTIE S OF MATTER 12 9

, _ /:, · ll'lli ~l =- l:..':..'t " <lli '( '<. · :ill Lttl•tJ tl.'lll'l iJl·in l: ctllttl.tt« !
ft o lll til(' tlc!_!ll't' t>l Jt· ,JdtLil llll , ,l,j ]li 't !lJUJI ;IIll i lilt' dti1Jl: li, IOil'
ol t !w 1dl('d' .
. \ Jj \\,1' !H I'.\ : C.tt!\ ld l t!lt ' .l l ttl.d ll l l ' . l:,.t !l ('liiCfH"'.. till' dtiCIIJIJi\. 1

tiutl ,,: !It(' " .tl tl'Jl·d ill it I till! I !ill! .,1 ;1 ll •.:k I<!! \ .llluli'
lhJ I\ ·'' .•

\ , tlt!t ' n! IOL t t in n ~ll " ;·r·cd ·I i:\· 'llr\c-.. <iht:tincd ~l!t , )Hn, i ·
!,!\\

i11 IT,:. Iii I ! ·r i1c iuJ>, 111 \t' i' lo: :1 J('ltd tJtiot l' f' t'r 'l'con, J. ,j,,~-,
cnot tgit Il1:1t p1:" ti<.J ii \ .ill llll dl'< ul (·, <oul< l P·''' tli ru uc:i1 tl ::

¥0~
r.
JO;-
I

Jml "~
l_, Z,
I )J
10 20 JO 10 JO 50
(a ) ( b)

FIG . 10. 12 Schematic diagram of the " mechanical monochromator " (veloc ity se-
lector ) and associated scattering crystal and spectrometer of Estermann , frisch , and
Stern . ( Z. Phy sik 73, p . 358 (1931 ). Fig . 11 .]
II\ nte:tstrring th e int c Jt ,il\ o l tl1 e direct bea m as a fun ctio n o f
>pt'ed of rutatiun o l th e ,,- hee b . ;\n o rdin g to th e kin e ti c tl1eon o f
,g a ..,es, tl1c result <, )JOuld h :tl t' bee n a; sl10wn in fi g. J O. l ~l(a) .
I 11\lud. it sl10wed ;m i n iti ;tl rise :111d th e n a d ecn: a ~e . a> in F ig.
IIJ . l :l( h). Thi s IJeh :J\·ior \Lt s du,· to :1 mioad ju stm c nt of t he slits
.11 <Jnd .1.• stl(h tb :Jt th e hc: tm ,,·as uot traq:iing e:-.a ctl y p ara ll el
tu the a~l e . l':tn ol tl1i s could be corrected. but it ,,·a s not po~'lib le
to alhi cvc ex:tn adjustm ent. ·' \Vc contented ourscl\'es ,,·ith this
dq~rec of accur;1cy of adju'im ent and compe nsated for thi s error
iJy calcul:J tin g th e 1·elocit \ ;• of th e mol ecules from th e form ula
FIG . 10. 13 (a ) Ideal curve of Intensity of the dir e ct beam through the velocity se-
lector as a function of rotational speed '' · (b ) Actually measured intensity of the
direct beam as a function of selector spe e d. I Z. Physik 73, p . 359 (1931 ), Figs.
12 and 13 . ]
, ]it'. :111d '>il o,,·, j u'l tl, c di \lriiH ili n iJ of '> ]><'<·<!, C''\ ])('cted fr om
kin e tic theo r y, t l1e \l:i :-.1n: ll <ihtr illllt io n . l11 tlw n c:-; t cunc.
.~Oil H' of tl1c slo wer nll>l eu tl eo :11 e !; locked o J! , a n d tl1e diqri iJLn io n
i;, lOITCspomlin g h <, IJii tt·d l u hi g hl'r '>jlCC<h. stJ J. tl lcr d t· Hro,t_; l ic
\\':t\ elc n g th s, and 'dll; tiic J \Lt t tl'J in g :t rt g lc ... . Th e 1emainin g cun e.s
sho w th e sca tt ering ut r H ·s tak c· tt " ·i1h lti g iler roLttion al speed s, thus
with mon o cltrom a tiza tio n . .-\ s c.a n be seen. th e sca tt e rin g maximum
approa ches steadih· close r to th e re He u ed be am for incre;;sing rot a tion a l
speed , as the d e Brog li e ,,.,t, ele ng t h l>ecom e., >hon e r , tlt c fa.,t e r ato m'
o11c lak e.s.
!· rom the rotati o n a l speed v. th e Ye loc itv was calculat ed a cco rd ing to
th e formula 11 =
I ~~li •· em i,cc and fro m th a t. a( cordin g to the dt·
 130 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENT S IN MOD ERN PHYSIC S WAV E PROPERTIES O F MATTE R 13 1

th ~t! i". !I I tl1e \Llu l i !\ :I llt'l\~ :; ,cJt·uc~ t till Lt ,; .ttOl!l'l i ..,I ! Or! \\' ,t\ClC n Q"tlJ-.. ,
:tn: hl'.t\ 11\ O\l' l . ! i>lllhLt JJ t

z! 1-.J\ h I"- , JJU\\' l l Il!Pl t' l''\pl 1~ !!h !l l 1' 1 .~ il l. !.~.l. 1 h l' '-~llli d Cllr\ t'

:-,ho''"' 1 l ~l O\ LT;til \l.t\.\\ l'i i ll:...,ll ~~, Ul!Ol1. i: onl ,,- jl i l ! 1 !ht' \ c l tlc lt \

~ clct to! !Jd"'L" tillh U it· 't ... .:_ Jl l v nl dchnt·d i,'. th l' upj>tT ~tnd
lo,,,.1 \clotit\ !in ti!, Jl' !Jic, t !llu l IJ\ titt ' H't'i it.tl lin n. h om ti:r
j

Kun e H ' I \_;~ 23

o.sit \~~i'-..., 7J

fr ~
}\ urve lfi
iI \_____/ 1 ~r

Kan e 17

t 100

1\urY C IH tT !JO FIG . 10.15

2 4

Natur e
mechanical velocity selecto r
of
6

the
8

" cut''
10 12

taken
14
v (10 4 em /s ec)

fr om th e
16

Maxwell
Th e so lid curv e re presents the distribution funct ion
18 20 22

distribution by
24

o' l (v ), with th e prop e rt y that l (v )dv g ives t he fraction of th e molecules in the beam

FIG . 10.14 Row curves of scattered inten sity versus scotlering angle for several
having speeds b e tween v and v + d v. Th e vertical {dashed } ltnes ind icat e the
manner in which the ve locity selector "cuts" the distribution.
volues of rotational speed of the velocity selector, given in revolutions per sec.ond
by the numbers on the right . [ Z. Physik 73, p . 362 (1931), Fig . 15 .]
rn c:1 nin g ol th e d i.<. triiJttti o n c urn:. i t l o llo\\·s that 'u ch a segm ent
B rog li e rc:l a ti o mhip . th e corre;, p ond itt g· w;n ele ngth ).. = =
h / rnr• (80 .5/
co ntains many more m o lecul e., ,,·it h ' peed s n ca r th e upper limit
x J(J -·' em . T he ;,ta t tc ri nc: :tn gk ctlc ul atcd fro m t!J i, wa,·elc n gth . .
1• ) than n ca r tl1 c lo\\'Cr.
i' d esig na te d hy a n a rrow. The m ca,u red m axim a all lie a t ;,om ewh at
too ;,li o n w :tn~·' · T ha t i' to he expt:ctcd, since for th e r otationa l speed , \\' t lt :t \C :tnord itt l\lv corrcued [tlte lowes t fou r curYc' of f ig. 10. 14 ]
mc d we hn d our'cl"e' on th e it iUCa ., ing side of th e :'llaxwd l cune, IJy till· ntclitod tlt :t t \IT di1 id cd l .tth ordina te ,,dllt' "" tht: ordina te ,·:t! ut
 "'

132 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS WAV E PROPERTIES OF MATTER 133

curre>polJ<ii n g to the '-.Jmc· :th,ci-,,:, of th e li OlllllO liO CilrmnJ t itcd i1op for oJH' rtJJJ. 1 1.11 1 lor the ot il,· r. 1<>1 .111 :1\t' J,JP <: ,,J j:--;_q·, Til e
cunc· ol Fi.~ 111 . 1·1' . tillh ' " t<l 'J'l':tk reducill g to cqu.tl ill cidc ll t in rcdtJllioll to cqtu lJnci dvr t t Jlll t' JhJ I \ ~- " ' :1 ,iJiit ul 11.-, . w 1:-:. i ·· .
1\'li'J I\ cd .til l\ :ll ciu n:lih. h>i tilt· (llr\ t'' '" oht.lll lCd Ft !.!. !ll . l 1i COIIl''] Hl!J d ing l ll ,! ,,;1\Tkll~ l li t>! !!tillll ' J(i 'C !oi . '1 ilc· !()l:liiOILI]
the n~:t:, inJ.t lit· 1\' l ilt l ll t ile :ttcur." ' ol t il t· !llt'." llrtlll l' llt :11 t!1e c:~lcu
:-.pt('d <J! J:rJ.:-: rt'\t)ltlt! O lh j>('! "\ t \ l lll d .~:t\t' ,\ \L' l <h ll \ Pi J . fJ.'~\
!.11nl }'"''tir'"' ·
]p:.llll\t't. <•lrll''JlOIItiJ JJ g to ,I 1\'.ill 'k ll !!,"lll n! O.ttllj ·.· 11 1- ' t!ll .
Ti w d i"' l'!': ll:t\ "I lllu-iliJI<i, "' l'l lt· }'Crtl' l li 1\';t, 1\'l'ii h · it iJin till'
~..... e:-. p c riln t·nt;d ttll <C'Il.ll lll l ,,j t illt' tu 11"'' !"·1 n ·n t. ;u HI tilL de

~/ j 7J
Brogl ie IJ,potill''i' 11·:h <] li:JlltiUii l t h \ T rill ed . T it, >tt l< l''>l ul
opci:ltioii "' till' cxpnit iH' llt. ol cuulol' . i1 :Jd 1 er ifJed till' qll:tlit :1Ii\ C
a ' pcct,.
:\pp:tr c nth. then. JJLJt 1cr h :1' ":J\Tiikc prol' c ni c' wh ich c:Jn he
Kurvel(ja
mack ol>., l'll';tiJh· ill pr<l pt·: t J,o it t ul p.tl anic:tt:rs. F or :1 tJJll l' . n ot
81
'UI'}'l i'lingJ y. tiJi, :111d t]l(.' :lll :tl o ,gu il'' i!l:kll·ior or Ji~lJt \1'CI ('
rcg:llllc-d :1 .'> p :tr :Jdoxic:l l. C I:ttlu:J!h·. i1011l'IC'r. :lcccpt:JJICC !1:1'
gJ0\\' 11 lor tir e fullo11·illg itlll't jill'I: Jtio n: '\ eithC I tile <Lts-;ic:tl

/~
Kurn· Ji a cont cpt of "p:11t it k" 11or t il:!! of 11·: 11 t' c:tn lw torrect!l
100 extJ :'l'"L!t t· d t•1 til(' tl' :t!JJJ rd til t· I< ' J\ 'n~:dl. R:1 t!Ju. tl1cH· i, :t
thir d l' Jllit ; ft,J 11·hil ll \\ 'C IL11 c 11u -, i11 gk n :tm c, ,, il ilh :Jets ill
some 11 :11 ., likl' a cl:r,,it :d p:11 tide aJJ(I ill '>Oll ie 11:1;' like :t cJa~,icai
w an: . lt i'> this "q ufl " u l 1rltil It tile unin ·r;,c: i~ mad e.
Kurve !Ha

F(J(JT.\(J T/ :S

FIG . 10.16 lowest four curves of Fig . 10.14 reduced to equal incident intensities .
[ Z. Physik 73, p . 363 (1931 ). Fig . 16.)
Tlic >kq>c' ol the ctti H ' ' ,ho,,· that the p<hilion, ol the nuxiJll :l
can be dctcn l!inul Ltirh· ;tccuratl'ly for high ')JC:Cch of J(Jtation .
The se sp eeds. n to r con· t, bring the se lected int c rYal n ca r ti1c
m:1ximum ul th e :\L!x 11-ell distribution. "Since in tlti , reg ion
al-,o th e concct ion ju s t cli~nl'.scd is small, a mea;.urem c nt wa'
CJITied o ut at 1:\:).3 IT i o luti o lh p e r sec o nd 11·ith spe<i :tl c :m.:.
111 order to t es t th e d e Brog li e rel:ni omhip ,\= It ' 1m· a b o
numcri c dly :1s cx:tcth a; jJOSs il>le." t\ -leasurements 1\'ere nud e 011
two separate da1s 11·ith dificrent c ry s tal s; 111 ea ch
refl e ct ed ra1 :1nd the maxima on both sides of it ,,·ere m e:!S ur ed.
The maxima were fotmd to be synnnctrically located abo ut th e
reflected r:t) to 11·ithin 0. F: the rill\' m axim um ang le w a-, IFL'I 0
1
1 hl'.\1' Jc!aJionships \\'Ould lead l " a "'"'T '"locir' greater than thai of
li ght. h;n ing no clt- ar colllH'< tion wiJh rhc >peed of the pin<· o t m a 11 c1. Th e
so!uJion 10 rhi s difiludty is Jo a'>SUll lt' that the ma lt t'l corrcsponth no! 10 a
sin gle 1o\f· hut to a p;rtltlp ol w :1q·s. Til< ' indi' idu :<l "·a,.,., u an·I ,,·ith a
vclutil~ grl':ll cl !han tlt,ll ol light : hut tltt · gnnq•. alld "iil 1 ir rlw l'nc rg'
an d nloi!Jcntutn . I J ;J \ l'ls a 1 thl' "'l 'ccU l,f tlw tll a ltt· t
" Thi s i' "'"ghh tltc 'i'<Td of titt· 1ip ul !he minul l' hand on a clock ahout
four to ll\ l' in< lt es in dialllt 'll' J.
" :\ p1di 111i nan attolllll "'"' puhli,hcd iu ihl' llriti,h journal .\'awn· cat -
licr in tlw \c ;n
" ·\ }Jl ' I'Sflll fO \\"!JOJII thi '- IJ~IJ' f ' C J1" j, "-Ct id !l1 SlHn,· ' {T('lldijnfy ' J' tH • word is
dcnn:d from a srorv h1 li llian· \\ 'a!pol ,. "Th e ., hltT l'rincc ·s of :--nl'ndip."
in " ·hi ch l i>C prinu·s of lht' tirk h:nl 1lti' tra 11.
•T he se<tl! c Jing "·as anua ll\ tuck" '"'!. :Ill<! prt" '>cnr '""~' .. fa 1· o~.> gi,·in g tlw
suppl t· mt·Jlls o f th ese angles. \\'c arc lniJm,·in g th l' tcrmillologv of t he origin al
case, the art id e.
'' lr prmc ct impracticable J. o m f·asmc " lHI hold constant th e bombarding-
current i!,c lf. \\ .ha l was kepi consJ:tJJ! "'"' t he current to onc of thl' ekctrodcs
of rhc .-Icctron gu n : ln11 t!ti ' still pennillt'd thl' bombarding tu rn·nt to ,-at\
SOllJewhat as Jh e overall acn·k rating ,·oltage w :1' ch"ngl'd .
 134 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS
'oil L n'\<:...: t i t -1~ '..:. i \~1 1 'illltt ll l lt" I C,!J tlg lt ( t l\kll!O i l' ;t!HH!l fll, \\Ol"k
(, /' I liPI11·q •iJ i l.'.r (,;r , { u! r J I!U i (J / JJ /i\ \/(' ~9. ('-.~) {! ~ lt)l}. ''.( T :th(_) C. J• .
l l!P : : t ,~l! l i ' ·\ '~ '' ·1 '· :!0 . '\n :) . --~-· 1 1:1()~ ; \dtvH· hi" \\(Il k :tlhl t! t~tt of
J ).:\ l ' "l l J .t! t · C t!l! l ~! .1ll dt"lil ' ' t·d J!i lllc lill llt''\1 of :ill P\tl.!ll ! ti,ltl!\ ot liH ·
\ t ! : )t t p' •d 1 /;r t it l l Ii

" I l it l't! . ll' ! Hll i\ ! ~ , ! ; I " 1 li r I < :

·~~'!ll.il h iH .t! \\! \\ l it ' (kjltltt1' ill Ltt ';.> jU l l tll! tl H· );!!;.

.i ' l'\t' ;t\\ ,} \ II\ lh 'li1J"Otllldtll~ t.:d' . : tll•! ht ' !!{ t (ill !h t

i •1, ' "-~' 1' nt 1 ht· Ltt tt · t

., _'._;,it II, 1 ,, \, \.1 \ lt''t. ! : t i t lilt :ttlgk t l! l!H itltTilt l'- (O!l\t Ill lOll-

.d i \ I~!• ,l'-i! lt d l l i d. 1: t' 'lll i .H t ' . l. tl f tt l :h:!il IHl !ll !Itt· li t H ' !ILJ] .!"it j._ in op t it.-.. .
lr 1 l!:t (:, l1111•.:....: k : ( ·L J!lun .\ =-: i t .~~ , ; th e dcn o lrli n;Jt(l! c.rn lw '\ ritH'll ;1. ....
• !!!.::· \!. 1'\\\c ~ ] cli . . [JIIJUtilnl ll li l\1 11"! )iH JIJ,! ! dt· t!lCr):.;\ 1.,
fll t lj l i l ! l l t lll,! l t l • !, 1. "l ' t!1 .t : .\ 11 ; •• , :....- i1 (Cm T ~: wht. ·Jc 1" :1 lilll"Ltl lt. ·1 lrlh
.\ l'l'l~IJJ:-.: .\
: 111 i!J( J!';r -.. c 111 tc : tl fh 'LJ!ll J t · t ( lf tilt O\"t'll) -..h o ul d prodtl(l" :t dc (Jc; t~t' 111
\'.;]\( it"ll!..!tll
' ' l'.· !/l t f • l l ) !I \J l.! dt!l\n. J i:J Jp! lt!Hdt ' [0 . \\·iJjfll _,j ill\\' th ,tt ,j llllll t.tl] t' (/lhh .\ n clcc trum ucr i-, :ttl i n<>Jnl lllC !lt lor mea-.urin g porenti;tl cl if-
t\\q !j : ]JJ!g_ \ !!t it lllj H t.: [t l l i :Jlld !i d i \J IL.~ tilt ' t ll.t " " ,}l(l[J!d k, t \l' tilt· \\;\\('icllglll
fcn·tl ce, \1-i thotll dr:111 111g ,jgllific:lllt current\. The CjlL!dr:Jnt
l l! l( j I. I I 1.~ 1 'i ~
clu trun1 c tcr u1J1,i,h "' :1 11! CLd "pillho'-:" di1·ici ecl into four
(jlt :1 dnnh ll\ llll':lth ol r;1di:d cub. :1' in Fig. A. l ..\ li,gllt metal
I : III C. ti t 'lgiLIIU i J)\ f . Ill til(' ftgtll(' I' \li');C!l(Jc-d i ll ;, iJo; iiC>Ili:il

i " " l i ( • l'l tile! t"']lll ii11CIIt j, 1l'!'()J ted 111 C. J. D:11 i<><.O!I
li e [l,t\ pl.tlll' '' itl1i! : t i lt' pil!I H>'- i1\ n H':1 1" (>i :t tor,ion fiber. 11-lticl t :t b o

and L !! C c m tCJ. '1'/u· !'in 1/ro/ H r·, in, • :w, /0'1- 710 ( I <j~/) cart ic ., :1 light m inor. Til(' ,- ;llll' j, f1 <'l' to rot:ile :liJUIIt :1 1·enic:d
See abo T lt c ll' rnltl of litr· .-llum. \'oL" pp . 1157- 1 11::' :11Hl :txis, :ltlll ih :1n g ubr po,ition un l;c tnn,ut cd h\ :1 IJc:u n of l ight
JI I I ! I r.:, reflected irom tile tnirror.
· 1 llollhot l ·., ,,ork. i, p1 C'l'll t ul in (;_ 1' . Tl1om.,on. Prorcerling' of The qtt adr:~nh :1re dec trictll) co nn cctul in p:1irs. p:ti r A con-
l!tr· lln y o/ Suci( ·t·, of / .onr/nn, Sn i1'.1 A 117 , GOO - GO~I. Sec also
Tlu l l .or/ <1 nf lit e A lout, \'uL ::', pp. 11:1/- ll -J-1.
The cs:-.cnti:tl paper:, froll! S tern\ grotq> arc F . Knauer and 0.
Stnn . lr·it ,rfniit (ii ; Pln•,i/i 53, / ()() :11Hl 170 ( J{j~~l ; : I. Estcr-
ll1:1 t tn :~Jtd 0. S!<TII. ihid. Gl. rJ.5-l25 ( J<J 30): I Estcr mann, R.
FJi,c!J, :1 1Hl ()_Stem. lilitl. 73 , ~H8-%:1 ( lfJ3 1). These :1re papers
.' \ <"- 10. li. 10. :tnd IS ol the scric-; !llCiltioned on p. 11 8: :dl
;rrc in ( ;<TllL III.

FIG. A. l Diagram of the work ing parts of a quadrant electrometer.

135
 136 CR UC IAL EXPER IMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS

\!\[I ll~ oi (jlLilli.tlll\ I .tlld :; .llld p: tll n o f lj ll:lt h,tllh :.' .llld I.
·r, , li'< ' l ite ilhl' lllll l'll !. tl!l' \ ;!Il l' 1\ clLil' ,~Cd lo \Olll e () lO\('ll
!" 'tl'llt i.t! . .1 11 d tilt jJti!CIIii: tl diikll-lttc to l1c tll C:h ttrcd j, ;~ pplicd
l•t' IIITt·11 li te p.t!l· <li tjl l. tcit. lltb : the · \,Jilt' tltel l t.tkt·, tqt :111 :t ng ul.tr
Jlit'lti<>ll t!Lt t j, <llll' lll l! lll'tl lJ\ tilt· j!Oll'llti .tl \ ilt\O h ed :tlld t!J('
-..il!illl ' "l' Plt !l l" "' t h!Jlll-., l (J!I liiH ' l .

·r il,- !lhttlllttt·n! c.1t1 ;,J,<, lw u"·,l !•' tt tc:t,ttt <' 1c1' \ltt.tll t u1 rc lll'
tJ\ tiLtht l l '~ the· (J ! t i:<' i.H 1 tiut tilt· t!urgtn~ ur d i,c ll:tq.~i ttg uf :1
t:tp.u:t.ttHt' t l!:tn ~, - , tltv pote nti: i! dilit'l'Clltl' :ttl't>'>' it. Su ch 11 'e
1u' m:tdc i" t':tl j , ,, , ,rkct' it t nLtll\ it cld -. T il(' t:tp:1cita lH C j,
c ,,,·ttt i:tlh Jlhl tlt.tt ui t!:<_· qtt :tdr:ttlb tl tc nt-;e ln :_,_ T he pair, of
qu:tdr:m_t, .tlT iltit i.t!h coll ll Ccted together. o n e pan· bei ng
pen n:illl'tlth t ollllt ucd to g roun d ("c:trt lt. " in H1 iti>ll u 'ag-e) . and
1l1e o th('l t" t ilt· ct trrc tll -<u lkt ting dcctlodc. T lt(' co nn ecti on
iJeli•Tcll tlt c q tJ.tdr :tllt p:ti r, is titen ope tl ('t l. :llld th e ct trrc nt
ch:ttgc' the c t p.tt iutHc. cita n;.!.i ng th e pOlc nti :tl diflerencc bet\\Ten
the q u:t d l :ttl! p:til, :tn d t ittt.'> < :ttt,in~ til t' 1 :111 C 10 tur n :1 1 <t r: tt c
,,!tttit ], (,IJJ!JI<>:-.ii!Ltt l' h 1 ptopoliitJ tt.tl to t!it Cllll CI It.
·1 itt' <jll:t dr:tt lt ,.Jl'( 11 tJIII t'IC'J j, 1101•· r:t rch tt,cd , a, electronic
de,·icc-, lt:1H' bee n c!t- n ·l"ped tha t do :to ,,-e l l o r i>ett e r ,,·ith ]('~,
trouble.
. \PPI.'dll~ B
.\ l .\ 1!-l! l! ·/1 . _\()'J'.-/ 110 .\ ! O J: U <lST:/ 1.\
T o u ndcr ,t;tnd the ntt m cric:tl n ot: lli o n mecl in '-pecifli n g
pl:tn c:, :11Hi dire ction:- in a c1 ,,l: t! , 1 im ag in e a ~c t of '"or din a tes
\\'ith their o ri gin at one corner of th e ha >ic cell a nd rite axe>
:t!o ng the cell ed geo. (For '>mne t ype, of cn sta b. th e ax e., \\'ill not
IJe rnutualh p crpc ndintl :tr. .-\ bo . for '>O lll (' L)')JC> o f cr;sr al s, the
elw in : of ,,lti ch ax is l ie:, ;tl o n g \\l1ich cell edge i' signiftc:tnt an cl
a i':nti c ul:tr o ne i, \l :JtHLtrd . Fo r a c u bic cn >ta l. n e itli er of theoc
fc:ttllr('' :q>)J(':tr> .) :\11 1 pl:ttl <' of :ttonh in ti l(' cry,t: tl intersec ts
c: t<lt <txi -, :1 1d1tdc 11 1111tlwr of tt'll cd ~c k tlg tl h flo111 th e o ri gi n.
:111ti :tn y p:nti <u Ltr <Jilt' cd tl1c pl :tl lt'.'> \\'t lltld h e <o mpkt e h
>puificd IJ' ti1 c three tlltmiJ(' J'- ol <ell e-dge le ng t h-. g i1ing tlte
int n<C'pt'>. ll oll c n :t. :tli !'l:tnc ' p:tl :tllcl to eac h oth e r :tr t eqtti,·a-
k nt, :tt l<! it i' ]'lcf e t.t l>ic to th(' :t '><' ! of nu tni Jer'> ,,·hit h \\'ill be
the " tnl c for :tll pl.tn n of :1 p :t r:tl lc l f:t ntil ) . Su ch :1 set j, ohtai 1ted
by t:tkin g tltc rcc ipro< ,t! , ol rite sel jmt d es< r ibcd . an d mu ltipl y-
in g tlt cm iJ, tlt e sm all c' t Ltitor th: tt will g i1 c three integen. For
e xample. :1 pl:tn(' tlt:t t int cr,ccts the x ax i> two unit'> from the
origin , th ey :t~ i ' tltret· uni t;,. and th e;: axi , one unit wendel g i1-c
the ;,(:[ of t-ee iproc:d'> 1. -!,. I ; rnulti]Jli cation by six gi \'es th e
137
 138 CRUCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS

indices {326}. If one index is zero, the planes of the family are
parallel to the corresponding axis; thus, the { 110} planes are paral-
lel to the z ax is, and the {010} planes are parallel to the xz plane.
Finally, a line is specified by the indices of the family of planes
to which it is perpendicular. Index
FOOTl\'OTE Entries followed by "n" refer to footnotes; by "b," to bibliography.
Further details and additional references are giYcn by Elizabeth A.
1

Wood, Crystals and Light, \!O~ t ENTUM Book ;-.:o. 5 (Van ~oSlJ· and, 1964),
Chap. 3. :'l.ngu lar momentum, atomic, 88 ff.,
96n.
:\tomic concept , a tomi c hypothesis
(scf' also ,\ f o lecula r hyp ot he-
sis). 3, ~3. 37, 38, 55
oppo'i tion to , 37, 54 n.
:h oga dro\ number. 19. 37, 40, 42,
SO, 51
Collisions, ioni zing, 70
Compton, Arthur H. , 8, 83, 98 ff.
Contact emf, co ntact pote ntial clif-
fer e nc~ 79, 82, 87n.
Crysta l lattice, 107, 120; 137, 138
of ni ckel, 110 ff.
Curie, ~larie and Pierre, 24

Da\ isson. C. J., 105 ff.

Ikcq uerel. Hemi , 23
d e Broglie , Louis, 105. 116
BLi ck bod y. d e fined , 4
de Broglie wavelength, 105, 107,
Blackbody radiation (sa Ca\'ity
117 ' 120, 122, 129, 130, 132,
radiati o n)
134n.
Bohr, ~ iels. 75, 88, 96n.
de Broglie Wa\'es, 118, 120 ff.
Boltzmann , Ludwig, 8, 19
D en sit y of emulsion grains, 44
Brownian motion, 37 ff. , 50
Diffraction of e lec trom agnetic
wav es, 97 , 100, 107
C a\it y radi a tion
Dispersion, 126
absolute character, 6
Dynamic!, 56
eyui\·alcnce to blackbod y radia-
tion , 6
Ra yle igh's law , 11, 19 Einstein , Albert, 54n.
tempera ture d ependence, classi- Brownian motion, 50
ca l, 9 photoelectric effect, 76 ff., 86, 87
\\'i cn's spectral fun ction , 9, 14, relati\·ity th eory, 4, 20n .
19 El ec tron
C:Ltssical physics charge , 19, 84
co ntinuum nature, 3. 37 c.onstituent of atoms, 3n., 23, 55,
dynam ics, 1 S6, 69, 72
electromagnet ism, 1, 78 , 97 in m e tals (photoeffect) , 77
th ermodynamics, 1 sca!lcring of e lectromagnetic ra-
Colli , ions, clas ti c and inelastic, diation, 97 ff.
71 ff. Emanation , 25 ff., 62, 66
139
 140
Energy values of atom, discrete
character, 75
Estermann, I., 121 ff.
Extrapolation , 2
failures, 2, 75, 76, 89, 97
Fractional ce ntrifuging, 43
Franck, ] ames, 69 ff. , 96n.
Frisch, R., 126 ff.
Gas law, 40
Geiger, Hans, 57 ff.
Gerl ach, Walther, 94 ff.
Germer, L. H ., I OS ff.
Grating diffraction, I 00, I 07, 116,
II 9 ff.
Grating, multidimensional, 117,
121 ff.
Hertz, Gustav, 69 ff.
Hughes, .'\rthur L., 80
Ionization (see also under Radio-
activity)
Ionization energy, 72
Ionization potential (see also Io-
nization e nergy), 69 ff.
Inte rfere nce of waves, 103, 107,
117, 118
Kelvin , Lord, 3n. , 55
Kinetic theory (see also l\1 olec ul a r
theory), 3, I 05, 128
Kirchh off, G. R ., 6, 2lb
Knauer, F., 118 ff.
Laue beams in x-ray scattering,
107, 115, 117
Laue, Max von, 97
Le nard, Philipp, 55
Lummer, 0., 7 ff.
"Machine shop in vacuo," 80
Magnetic moments o f a toms. 89
l\1 arsden, Ernest, 57 ff.
INDEX INDEX
141
J\1 ax well distribution of molecular Radius Stefan-Boltzman law, 8, 12, 14
speeds, 126, 129 ff. a toms, 55, 56, 70 Stern, Otto, 89 ff., 118 ff.
~Iaxwell, J ames C., 2Jn ., 56 emulsion grains, 47
~Iaxwell's theory (electrom agnet- R ay leigh . Lord, 10, 52 Thomson, Sir George, 117, 134n.,
ism), 97 R ege ner, Erich, 58 135b
~lichelson, A. A., 3n. , 4
Richardson, 0. '"'·· 80, 83 Thomson, Sir ]. ]., 55, 98, I 17
~I illikan, Robert A., 54n ., 77 ff., 84 Rutherford , Ernest, Baron, 24 ff., Thomson model of atom, 55, 61,
J\-folec ular beams, I I 8 ff. 55, 57 ff. 62, 67b
1\!olecular hypothesis, 53
Transmutation (see under Radio-
l\fo lec ular th eory, 40, 42
activity)
Saturation photocurrent, 85
Nagaoka, H., 56, 67n., 67b Scattering U I traviolet catastrophe, 11
a particles. 57 ff.
Optical spectra, 55, 69
Osmotic pressure, 40, 41 electromagnetic radi a tion , 97 ff. Wien, Willy, 8, 2 I b
electrons by solids, l 06 Wien's displacement li! WS (see also
Paschen, F., 8 Soddy, Frederick, 24 ff. , 53n., 54b under Cavity radiation ), 9, 14,
Perrin , ] ean, 37 ff. Sommerfeld, A.rnold , 88 19, 2Jb
Photoelectric effect, 74
critical frequency, 76, 79, 84 ff.
Photon (see Quamum of radia-
tion)
Planck 's constant (see also " Quan-
tum of action"), I 9, 72, 77, 84,
87, 88, 99, 107, 117
Precession , of atomic angular mo-
mentum, 90
Pringsheim , E., 7 ff.
"Quantum of action," 4
Quantum of radiation , 76, 77 , 78,
87, 98 , I 03n.
Quantization
angular mom e ntum, 88, 96n.
energy, I 9, 75, 77, 87 , 88
Radiation , excita tion by collisions,
72 ff.
Radioacti\·ity
absorption meas urements, 25
decay, 27, 28. 33, 35n., 64, 66
"excited," 27, 28, 33, 34
ionization m easurement, 25, 29,
35n .
scintill a tion met hod, 58
transmutation , 30, 34 , 3.'> , 55