PRIMARY CEMENTING

ECI spends considerable time planning and developing cementing procedures to obtain successful primary cementing
jobs, but failures do occur that cost our operations considerable time and money. These failures can be due to loss of
returns during the pumping operation, inadequate centralization of the casing, high angle holes, channeling, etc. The
intent of this section is to discuss how these failures can occur, what equipment should be used, and what steps can be
taken in the field to improve these operations.

Planning

Many factors must be considered in primary cementing. A simple casing job can become very complex if it is not properly
thought out in advance. Simplicity is the keystone of planning. The simplest design will be the one that presents the
fewest problems in the field.

Selection of Cement

Selection of the type of cement is of prime importance to a successful cement job. Factors that must be considered are
bottom-hole temperature, depth to which casing is run, mud and cement densities required to prevent well control
problems, desired height of cement column behind casing, and the prospect of future acidizing or fracturing of the
producing formation.

The two most common types of cement used within ECIDO are API Class A and Class G. The American Petroleum
Institute (API) sets standards and tests which pertain to the specifications of these cements, but laboratory testing and
evaluating basic cement performance properties under downhole conditions is necessary for each job to assure cement
products meet these API specifications.

Cement Additives

Most cement jobs are performed with slurries containing some additives, additions that serve a variety of purposes from
acceleration to retardation. In general, it is best to keep cement slurries as simple as possible, which means the use of as
few additives as possible. This practice results in a minimum cost slurry since most additives are fairly expensive. The
following is a brief description of the most common additives used by ECIDO.

Retarders

A retarder is a material that when added to a cement slurry increases the thickening time. Most cement retarders are
organic materials and are added in very small quantities. The retarder must be properly blended into the entire volume of
cement to prevent "flash" set before the cement is in place.

A common retarder is calcium lignosulfonate, which can be used in all cements at temperatures less than 260°F. At higher
temperatures, this material can become an accelerator and reduce the thickening time, so an organic compound (such as
Halliburton's HR-12) is used that can retard cements up to about 500°F and still provide early compressive strengths.

Accelerators

Accelerators are frequently used in low temperature applications to accelerate the set time and reduce the thickening time.
By reducing this set time on the shallow surface and protective casings, significant rig time and money can be saved.
Calcium Chloride is the most common accelerator mixed with freshwater in percentages up to 2%. The use of seawater as
a mix water will also accelerate setting times. Because the primary purpose of accelerators is to reduce the thickening
times, care must be taken when using these products. Pumping operations must never be suspended, thus an alternate
method of displacing the cement slurry should always be available (rig pumps).

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Light Weight Additivities

Light weight additives are used for two reasons, to decrease slurry density and to decrease slurry cost. Density decreases
are very important in areas where lost circulation is a serious problem. The disadvantage of light weight additives is the
substantial reduction in compressive strength that occurs with the increased amounts of mix water.

Most commonly used within ECIDO is bentonite (gel) to reduce the density in the lead slurries pumped on the primary
cement job. The bentonite absorbs large quantities of water and allows a reduction in density, as well as lowering the
water loss of the slurry. Although bentonite can be added from 4% to 20%, the most common quantity used by ECIDO is
8% or 12% which results in a slurry density of 13.2 ppg or 12.6 ppg. Both slurries have very low compressive strengths.
This low strength is typically not a problem because the lead slurry acts to provide height to the cement column and
provide stability to the casing in the upper portion of the hole interval. A heavier tail slurry (Class G Neat) is pumped
behind the gel cement to firmly secure the casing to bottom and to provide the primary seal between the hole and casing
annulus.

Heavy Weight Additives

Additives which are used to increase the slurry density include barite, hematite, silica, and materials which allow a
reduction in the slurry mixing water requirements. The ideal cement weighting materials have a high specific gravity and
a low water requirement. The effect of heavy weight additives on slurry thickening time and compressive strength
requires complete laboratory testing for particular well conditions before these materials can be used.

Hematite (iron ore), commonly referred to as Hi-Dense, has been used by Exxon in the past. Because the water
requirements for this additive are very low, with the iron ore having a specific gravity of 5.02, hematite makes an excellent
heavy weight additive.

Silica

In holes having bottom hole temperatures exceeding 240° F, silica should be added to overcome the tendency of cement to
lose it's compression strength and increase in permeability in high BHT's. This is commonly called strength retrogression,
and the addition of 35% silica flour or sand can prevent this from occurring. The specific gravity of silica flour is 2.63.

Salt

Sodium Chloride (salt) in concentrations less than 18% by weight of water acts as an accelerator on the thickening time of
cements. Concentrations higher than 18% increase this thickening time, but additions of large amounts of salt will
decrease the compressive strength of the slurry. Salts are most commonly used for cementing through salt sections to
improve the bond between the cement and the salt formation. It is also used in cement where an oil base mud is used that
contains a high chloride in the water phase of the fluid.

Fluid Loss Additives

A fluid loss additive is used to reduce the flow of water from the slurry into the formation (very permeable or drawndown
sands), and to keep it pumpable in small annular tolerances. Within ECIDO, the use of a fluid loss additive is common in
older, land wells where drawn down sands are very prevalent. Offshore, they are primarily used when liners are set to
keep the slurry mobile and to prevent bridging from occurring during pumping operations.

The need for this type additive will depend on the formations permeability the cement is covering and whether the
operation being performed is a primary or a squeeze job. The Drilling Engineer will specify to the cementing company a
minimum fluid loss requirement, who will then recommend a percentage of additive needed to meet this criteria.

In the past, bentonite was used as a fluid loss additive, but recently, polymers of different types have begun being used
depending on the application. Being a long chain polymer, fluid loss additives are costly to use and in some instances
may double the cost of the slurry. It is available in both dry and liquid forms, the latter being predominately used in our

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off shore operations.

Dispersants

Dispersants, commonly referred to as friction reducers, are used to alter the rheological properties of the cement slurry.
Usually, they are added to make the slurry thinner and easier to mix and pump, thereby making it easier to induce
turbulent flow. Dispersants are typically added to the higher density slurries (tail slurry) to make them more pumpable
and to increase their thickening time. It also helps ensure a more uniform distribution of additives thoughout the slurry.

Lost Circulation Materials

Due to the increased hydrostatic pressure imposed on the wellbore by the cement, lost circulation is a common problem,
particularly in deeper water locations where the formations lack significant integrity. Various lost circulation materials
can be added to the cement slurry to help minimize this problem. Cement companies offer a variety of materials that can
be added to the slurries, with gilsonite and cellophane flakes being the two most common. Mica, walnut hulls, and kwik-
seal (a blend of wood chips, ground nut shells, cellophanes, and other fibrous material) can also be used. The addition of
these materials should be even and continuous as the slurry is being mixed to prevent plugging of the float equipment
when the cement is displaced.

Percent Additive

When determining the amount of additive to use in a slurry (with the exception of salt), they are defined "by weight of
cement", commonly called BWC. The pounds of additive is calculated by: lbs
additive
% Additive = ----------------- X 100 sacks
lbs cement/sack

The result will be how many pounds of additive per one hundred sacks of cement to be pumped.

Addition of Additives

As mentioned, additives can be purchased as dry powders for preblending with the bulk cement prior to being delivered,
or as a liquid for addition to the mix water. It should be noted that it is illegal to dump excess preblend bulk cement in
both state and federal offshore waters. Because disposal costs of this excess is so high, additives should be ordered
separately and blended at the job site.

Since the additive is only a small percentage of the weight of the cement blend, it is sometimes difficult to obtain a uniform
mixture. To overcome this problem, most cementing companies now offer a liquid additive system that is computer
controlled that very accurately dispenses these additives into the slurry as it is being mixed. This is the preferred method
and should be used both on land and offshore locations if additives of this type are to be used. If the use of dry additives
is necessary, the additives should be blended in a tank containing the entire mix water volume, such as a reserve or
prehydration tank. It is also important that the cement's density be mixed as consistent as possible to prevent the slurry
from presetting if too heavy and dry or extend thickening time if too light and wet.

Though this has not been a problem in the past, when using more than one additive, care should be taken that the
additives are compatible. Some additives can counteract the effect of other addditives. For example, salts such as sodium
chloride and calcium chloride will deactivate most fluid loss additives.

Primary Job Cement Requirements

Remedial cementing to correct a failure of the primary cement job will be costly and time consuming. In 1991, EXXON
spent $5.2M performing squeeze operations that were necessary after casing shoes and liner tops failed to test, or when
excessive amounts of hardened cement above the float collar had to be drilled. There are a variety of causes for these
problems, many of which can be avoided if the optimum equipment is used and the cement is mixed and displaced
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properly.

The following equipment type and operational procedures should be discussed by all personnel prior to each cementing
job being performed. This would include the Drilling Superintendents, Drilling Engineer, rig Cementing Engineer, plus
any additional support personnel that are a part of the operation (toolman, rig Toolpusher, Driller, etc.). A prejob meeting
should be held to discuss the pumping operation and any safety concerns that will, or might, develop while cementing or
displacement is in progress.

Cement Design

Although the design of the cement slurries is primarily developed by the Drilling Engineer, the field personnel should
review the type and quantity of additives to be used to ensure they can be easily blended into the slurry and pumped in
place within the specified thickening time. Improper addition and blending of these additives (either in dry or liquid
form) has led to many problems in the past that can be avoided by using the proper mixing equipment.

The amount of slurry to mix should be based on a caliper log if one is available. If not, carbide can be dropped and
circulated around the hole that can give a fairly accurate measure of the amount of washout the open hole may have.
Although the accuracy of this method will depend on the amount of "dead" mud in the hole, it is still a good indicator of
the hole volume.

Also an important factor that gets very little attention is the temperature of the mix water. In warm weather, water
temperature in excess of 100°F can result in a viscous slurry with a shorter pumping time. In cold weather, water less
than 60°F can retard the setting time of the cement.

Float Equipment

U-tubing (flowback) from failure of back pressure valves within the float shoe and float collar have resulted in major
expenditures in the past. The rig time spent drilling-out excessive cement above the float equipment and the risk of
having a joint back-off can be avoided by ensuring that the right type of equipment is used. Float shoes and collars are
designed for specific weight ranges and grades of casing and should be confirmed in the field. The size of the flow area
should be considered, and if pumping operations are to be continuous for several hours at 6 to 8 BPM, the type sealing
area for the float valve should be selected to withstand the abrasion from the mud and cement. The "ball within a catcher"
design of float valve has traditionally been used in ECIDO operations. However, if a large quantity of mud and cement
are to be pumped, it should NOT be used due to the erosion that can occur on the ball as it turns during circulation. Also,
a small amount of differential pressure (50 psi)must be provided to effectively seal the ball against the seat, and if any
erosion has occurred, the seal will be lost and the valve will leak.

An alternative that can solve this problem is the use of float equipment having spring load plunger valves, such as
GEMOCO's "Boss" or Halliburton's "Super Seal" Float Shoe or Collar. The hard, elastomer covering on the valves help
provide a fluid tight seal against the valve seat. The spring below the valve acts as a shock absorber and minimizes the
wear on the sealing area, as well as providing for a positive shut-off eliminating the need for a differential pressure seal.

In a wellbore that will have high differential pressures between the fluid within the casing and the cement column on the
outside (long strings, or if a portion of the casing is to be floated in), a second float collar should be used. Another
alternative is to use the double valve float equipment containing two float valves within a single casting. Regardless of
which equipment is to be used, a visual inspection (if possible) should be made of these floats prior to make-up in the
casing string. If a double box float collar is used, ensure that it has been made-up properly and not installed upside down.
If a failure occurs resulting in continuous mud flowback after the pressure has been bled-off, the casing string should be
pressured back-up and held for a minimum of four hours .

If a failure occurs in a liner job with a high annular TOC, the flowback should be monitored and allowed to equalize
while the running tool is removed from the liner hanger. The risk of having cement around this tool and being cemented
in place is too great to justify any WOC time.

Wiper Plugs

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As we know, the purpose of the wiper plugs is to segregate the cement from the mud in order to minimize cement
contamination. Both top and bottom wiper plugs should be used whenever possible, though only a top plug is typically
used when cementing conductor casing and liners. Also, when pumping cement slurries containing LCM or hematite, it is
suggested that the bottom plug not be used because the lost returns material or iron ore in the hematite could accumulate
on top of the diaphragm and prevent it from being broken.

Close attention should be given to the loading of the plugs in the correct order and direction. Please note that the colors of
these plugs vary from one company to another, so do not ASSUME that red is always the bottom plug with black being
the top .

Due to the problem of wiper plugs turning while drilling through them, Halliburton has developed a set of plugs that lock
together when bumped called the NR (Non-Rotation) Cementing Plug. These plugs have locking teeth on both the top and
bottom plug and within the box of the Super Seal II Float Collar which allow the system to lock together during drill-out.
These are available in all standard casing sizes.

When the NR plug is not used, a common method that can help prevent the plugs from turning is to follow the top plug
with 1 to 2 bbls of cement tail slurry (capacity of pump lines). But, this cement will be highly contaminated with the water
and mud placed behind it and may be ineffective.

Centralizers

Good cement placement is influenced by casing stand-off and pipe centralization. Centralizers should be placed on the
bottom four or five joints, across any pay zones, in the liner overlap section, and on the joint immediately below the
wellhead, the latter being to centralize the joint within the wellhead bowl for ease of hang-off. The straight bow spring
centralizer is the most common type used, but on long or high angle casing strings, a straight blade "turbolizer" is used for
centralization. These have deflector fins within the bow spring that help put the mud in turbulent flow at low pump
rates. Rigid blade centralizers should be considered when 100% stand-off between casing strings is needed (liner tops,
etc.).

In holes having large amounts of gumbo, the use of centralizers should be kept to the minimum needed. They can
become balled-up while running in the hole, which could create excessive drag and high surge pressures on bottom. The
maximum bow diameter of the centralizer should not exceed the hole size plus 1/4 inch.

Centralizer bow springs are manufactured from a special spring steel alloy that can be purchased with various restoring
forces. To use the most effective centralizer, it's application and this return force should be considered when the order is
placed.

Scratchers

If the casing is to be rotated and/or reciprocated prior to cementing, scratchers will be used and placed opposite intervals
where good cement bonding is needed. Scratchers will remove the filter cake from the side of the hole and improve the
cement bonding .

There are three types of scratchers commonly used, the finger type used if the casing is to be rotated, and the bristle and
cable types used when the string will be reciprocated. If the casing string is to be rotated and reciprocated, a combination
of these types will be used.

Operational Procedures

Prior to running the casing, the hole should be circulated at the maximum rate possible and the mud conditioned until it's
properties are optimum. A low PV, low YP, low 10 minute gel and a low water loss are all necessary to obtain a good
cement job. With the casing string run and on bottom, a number of steps can also be taken to improve the success of the
job.

Rotation and Reciprocation

As mentioned earlier, removal of the wall cake will improve the cement bonding between the casing and hole. Rotation
and reciprocation of the casing string to remove this cake has been done for many years and has proven that it is a
valuable tool when used in the right application .
Also, rotation helps with mud removal from all sides of the casing and helps prevent channeling by allowing the cement
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to flow around the pipe during rotation. The casing is typically rotated at 20 to 30 rpm and reciprocated over a length of
10 to 20 feet both during precirculation and cementing operations. Figure 1 illustrates the swivel and cementing head for
9-5/8" casing, but also available is a swivel and plug manifold for drill pipe when a liner is to be rotated and reciprocated.

Roto-Tek (a division of Fishing Tools, Inc.) has a complete line of various tonnage and size swivels for 2-7/8" thorough 16"
casing.

This method is not normally performed on wells having mud line suspension systems, subsea wellheads, on conductor
casing strings, liners and in some cases, high angle wells.

Water Spacers and Preflushes

There are a variety of different chemical washes, preflushes, and spacers available to help erode the mud filter cake ahead
of the cement slurry, but field experience has proven that water is overall the best fluid to use. Since water has a low
viscosity, turbulent flow is easy to obtain which will help break-up the gel structure of the mud. Most cement companies
offer chemical washes that claim to enhance this effect, but experimental results by EPRCO show that these chemicals are
not in contact with the mud filter cake long enough to take significant effect.

The amount of water spacer ahead of the cement can range from 5 bbls to 50 bbls depending on the need and annular
tolerances. The larger amount of water, the more reduction in hydrostatic head that will occur. In most cases, a 20 bbl
preflush (for example) will reduce the hydrostatic head very little (unless it is a liner being cemented in place), but in
heavier mud weights where the differential pressure between the drilling fluid and cement slurry is small, a 20 bbl column
in the annulus could cause flow if any productive sands were exposed. This differential pressure should be calculated
prior to the job and discussed with the person who designed the cement slurry if the potential for flow is present.

The amount of water spacer placed behind should be enough to provide adequate separation between the cement/top
wiper plug/and the displacement fluid.

Mixing the Slurry

The three most common used pieces of equipment for mixing the slurry on site are jet mixers, recirculating mixers, and
batch mixers. The recirculating mixer produces the highest quality uniform slurry and is the best option for primary
cement jobs. Batch mixers will also provide a high quality slurry, but are limited to small volumes for a special
applications.

Displacement

The most predominant cause of cement failure appears to be channels of gelled mud remaining in the annulus after the
cement is in place. Field studies have proven that the length of time cement moves past a point in the annulus in
turbulent flow is important. Therefore, once the cement is mixed and into the casing, it should be displaced at the
maximum rate possible. This rate will put the mud and spacer ahead of the cement in turbulent flow helping to remove
the gelled mud behind the casing, as well as increasing the displacement efficiency. The specific pump rate will depend on
annular tolerances, loss of returns potential, and mud weight.

In most cases, the mud in which the casing is run is used to displace the cement slurry. But, on long strings where the
differential is high and there is a possibility of the float valves leaking and U-tubing a substantial amount of slurry back
into the casing, a heavier displacement mud may be used to reduce this differential pressure .

Bumping Plugs

Every attempt possible should be made to bump the plug. The cementing unit or rig pumps should be calibrated prior to
the job to ensure accurate measurement. The displacement of the cement should be calculated by both the cementer and
Exxon supervisor, plus an additional volume added that equals 50% of the float joint capacity to determine the stopping
point. Do not overdisplace. Once the plug bumps, a predetermined amount of pressure (normally 500 to 1000 psi) above
the final pump pressure should be held on the casing string for several minutes before being bled to zero. If the floats fail
and the mud continues to flowback, the casing string should be repressurized and held until the compressive strength
stabilizes the fluid. .

Waiting On Cement

WOC time relates to the cement slurry design, the required time for placement, and well conditions. Industry generally
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considers a WOC time that provides a compressive strength of 500 psi to be sufficient for drilling-out and a compressive
strength of 2000 psi before perforating takes place. However, the cement's maximum compressive strength is needed
prior to performing a pressure integrity test on the casing shoe to leak-off.

Waiting on cement time can vary from area to area depending on local regulations, so it is important that the Drilling
Supervisor be aware of these rules prior to drilling-out.

Drilling-Out

After drilling the wiper plugs and float collar, if very little or no cement is found within the float joints, a Cement Bond
Log may need to be run prior to drilling the float shoe. This log will indicate whether there is cement in the annulus and a
bond has formed between the casing and formation. The lack of cement behind the casing will greatly increase the risk of
twisting off the float shoe joint if drilled without the necessary support. There-fore, if the float joints are void of cement,
an Operations Superintendent should be notified immediately and a decision made on whether or not a diagnostic log or
a casing shoe squeeze should be performed prior to drilling out the float shoe .

Special Design Considerations

The following are considerations associated with special problems encountered.

Cementing Large Diameter Casing

The use of large structural (30") and conductor (20") casing require special consideration during the cementing operation.
In the design and placement of large diameter pipe, the burst, tensile strength, and collapse pressures must be considered.

Buoyancy may be a problem when large casing is cemented. When pumping is begun, the pipe may try to pump-out of
the hole if the pressure exceeds a certain level. This will occur when the pump or hydrostatic pressure acting on the
cementing swedge area provides a force exceeding the buoyed weight of the casing. Flotation may also be a problem if
the weight of the casing and fluid inside the pipe does not exceed the buoyancy provided by the annular column of
cement. If flotation does become a problem, the pipe can usually be worked into place by raising and lowering it during
pumping. Before being jetted into place, this was a common occurrence in offshore exploration wells when 30" was run
and cemented in 36"+ diameter holes. On wells having surface stacks, the landing joint of this larger pipe can be chained
down in some instances to hold it in place until the cement is pumped.

The use of an inner string of drill pipe stung into the shoe is another method that can be used to eliminate buoyancy
problems. Displacement with a heavier mud will also help prevent flotation from occurring.

Multiple-Stage Cementing

Multi-stage cementing is typically done when very long strings of casing are run and the same slurry is placed at selected
intervals . Advantages of multiple stage cementing are:

• Entire length of pipe can be cemented

• Cementing can be done selectively across certain formations

• Pump pressure is reduced

• Hydrostatic head pressure exerted by the cement column is reduced

• Reduces channeling

• Minimizes loss of cement slurry to drawn down formations

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 • Reduces potential for annular gas flow

Multi-Stage Cementing (Continued)

There are a number of multi-stage cementing tools (commonly referred to as DV Tools) on the market, each operating
slightly different depending on the application and the customers confidence of the operating mechanisms. All of these
tools utilize a sliding sleeve that will open and close flow ports allowing for circulation of mud and second stage cement
jobs at higher intervals. Today, 90% of the tools used consist of a sliding sleeve that is opened by dropping a plug that
lands in a seat within the DV tool. Pressure is applied to the casing string which hydraulically shifts an inner sleeve
opening the flow ports. The second stage cement job is then mixed and displaced through these ports until the wiper plug
bumps. Pressure is again applied to the casing against this wiper plug which shifts an outer sleeve closing the flow ports
(see operating schematic).

For high angle holes, the possibility exists that the plug may hang-up or stop falling and not reach the DV tool. In this
event, hydraulically actuated tools are available (Halliburton's ES Cementer) that do not use an operating plug, although a
plug is used as a back-up method of shifting the sleeve. Although these are not currently available in all casing sizes, they
are available in the most common casing strings ECIDO runs. These are shorter in length (4') and less expensive.

Also on the market is a DV tool that shift it's sleeve open and closed with drill pipe, but this will consume a great deal of
rig time and would be used only in special applications (tapered casing strings, running of wireline tools through the drill
pipe to lower sections, etc.).

Cementing Deviated Wellbores

Cementing directional holes is difficult because all of the problems associated with a conventional cementing operation
are usually magnified. Even with optimum centralizer spacing, the casing will probably be off center in many parts of the
hole. Also, if a centralizer is located opposite a fairly soft formation, the bow springs will probably be buried.

With casing to one side of the hole, there will be less resistance to flow on the upper side. Thus, the cement will follow this
path of least resistance creating channels of mud in the lower portion of the hole, the result being poor cement bonding
and less support for the casing.

To achieve the stand-off necessary for a good cement job, additional centralizers should be used around the shoe, across
the pay zones, and through the deviated portion of the hole. Also, the use of a stiffer grade spring steel bow will prevent
it's collapse on the low side of the hole, or perhaps a centralizer that has six blades rather than four can provide the
needed stand-off. In some instances, the use of rigid centralizers will also help give the needed stand-off in high angle
holes. Additional centralizers will not only aid in the mud displacement, but also help prevent any differential sticking
problems. But, too many centralizers over one interval can make the string too rigid and create excessive drag preventing
the casing from getting to bottom .

These issues need to be discussed with the Drilling Engineer in advance of the casing job so that the correct type(s) of
centralizers can be ordered .

Thixotropic Cements

A thixotropic fluid is one that is thin when mixed and pumped, but gels quickly into a rigid state when pumping stops.
Thixotropic cements are primarily used to squeeze off lost circulation zones, and prevent annular fluid or gas migration,
but ECIDO has used them in the past on primary cement jobs. The thixotropic properties are usually achieved by adding
gypsum to the cement. When used, the slurry must be kept in motion until it has been pumped to the desired interval. If
it is allowed to rest, it quickly begins to gel and becomes difficult to pump.

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