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Evaluation of the Student Life-stress Inventory-Revised

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 Evaluation of the Student Life-stress Inventory-Revised
Bemadette M. Gadzella, Mustafa Baloglu, William G. Masten, and Qingwei Wang

Analysis of the Student-life Stress Inventory, SSI-R,with 601 students showed that the
inventory was a reliable and valid instrument for measuring students' Stressors and
reactions to Stressors. The SSI-R has 53 items grouped under nine categories and two
sections {Stressors and Reactions to Stressors). The internal consistency for the total
SSI-R was .93 and test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from .46 to .76. Significant
differences were found among the three stress level groups on all categories and total
stress score. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that variables contdbuted to their
respective latent variables. Scores on the SSl-R categories correlated positively with
scores on the Test Anxiety. State-Trait Anxiety, and Beck Depression Inventory scores,
respectively. Other studies should be conducted to determine if there are differences
between participants who score mild versus severe stress on various activities and
learning processes.

At one time or another, everyone experi-
ences some stress. Stress may be a different
kind of and/or at different levels. Selye ( 1974)
defined stress as the non-specific response of
the body to demands made on it. He described
stress as distress and eustress. The distress
has negative effects but eustress has positive
effects on humans. Some researchers refer
to Stressors as hassles (Lazarus & FoUonan,
(1984) or mild and severe (Gadzella, 1991).
The mild stress would be equivalent to Selye's
eustress and the severe stress to his distress.
The study of stress, its effects, and how
to cope with it, is of concern to psychologists,
counselors, educators, students, and common
people in general. To combat stress, it is im-
portant to first recognize and admit that one
Bemadette M. Gadzella, Ph.D., Professor
Emeritus, Department of Psychology, Counseling,
and Special Education, Texas A&M University-
Commerce. Mustafa Baloglu, Ph.D., Professor &
Dean, Faculty of Education, Gaziosmanpasa Uni-
versity, Tokat,Turkey. William G. Masten, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor, Department of Psychology,
Counseling, and Special Education, Texas A&M
University-Commerce. Qingwei Wang, Ph.D.,
Adjunct Professor, Department of Psychology,
Counseling, and Special Education.
Correspondence concerning this árdele
should be addressed to Dr. William G. Masten at
William masten@hotmail.com.
82
is experiencing it, to understand what effects
it has, and know how to cope and/or reduce
the stressful experiences.
Theorists point out that the effects of
stress are not entirely negative. Seligman
and Csikszentmihalyi (2000), stated that
researchers had devoted too much time to the
weaknesses and harmful effects of stress and
had neglected to explore the effects of stress
which can make life worth living. Folkman
and Mosknvitz (2000) also drew attention to
the favorable outcomes of stressful experi-
ences. Other researchers (e .g. ,Tedescki, Park,
& Galhoun, 1998) felt that stress may promote
personal growth, assist people in developing
new skills, reevaluate priorities, and acquire
new strengths. Sutherland (2000) summed it
up indicating that most people would prefer
some stimulation (caused by stress) rather
than live a boring stress-free existence. Stated
differently, stressful situations may lead to
personal changes which might be beneficial
to individuals. That is, it can improve one's
coping skills and enable one to learn from
one's mistakes (Galhoun &Tedescki, 2001).
This type of stress may be referred to as mild
or eustress as described by Selye (1974).
Over the years, researchers (Holmes
& Rahe, 1967; Scheier & Garver, 1985)
developed questionnaires to assist people in
understanding their stressful experiences.

Other researchers such as (Sarason, John-
son and Siegel (1978) studied stress and its
relationships with various experiences. One
inventory. Student-life Stress Inventory, SSI
(Gadzella, 1991 ; Gadzella & Baloglu, 2001)
assesses students' stress levels and assists
students in understanding the different kind
of Stressors and reactions to Stressors they
might experience. Numerous studies have
been conducted with the SSI (e.g., Gadzella,
1994; Gadzella & Baloglu, 2001; Gadzella
& Guthrie, 1993; Gadzella & Full wood,
1992; Gadzella, Ginther,&Fullwood, 1993;
Misra & Castillo, 2004; Misra, MeKan,
Russo, & West, 2000; Marzeth & Farileh,
2004) showing significant differences among
students with different overall stress levels
and their responses to the SSI, Other studies
(e.g., Ming-Hui, 2005; Gadzella & Stephen,
2007; Gadzella & Marrs, 2007; Gadzella,
Zascavage, Masten, Young, Stephens, &
Pierce, 2007) showed differences among
student stress level groups and academic
performance. In a recent study (Gadzella &
Masten, 2007), data showed that the mild
stress level group performed better than the
severe stress level group on processing and
retaining information. Stated simply, this
study showed that the mild stress can be
beneficial to individuals.
The scores in the SSI categories were
analyzed (Gadzella & Masten, 2005 J and the
data showed that some areas in the categories
in the SSI did not measure effectively. So the
SSI (Gadzella, 1991; Gadzella & Baloglu,
2001 ) was revised and is referred to here as
the Student Life Stress Inventory-Revised
(SSI-R; Gadzella, 2005), Data on the SSI-R
were collected and analyzed. The purpose
of the present study was to report the psy-
chometric properties of the SSI-R and show
its relationships with other inventories, such
as, the Test Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger,
1980), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spiel-
berger, 1993), and Beck Depression Inventory
(Beck, 1978).
Life Stress Inventory Revised. . / 83
Method
Participants
There were 601 students, enrolled at a
southwestem state university who volun-
tarily participated in the study, of whom 171
(28.5%) were men and 423 (70.4%) were
women. Seven participants did not report their
gender. In the group, 59 (9.8%) were fresh-
men, 97 (16.1%) sophomores, 142 (23.6%)
juniors,129(21.5%)seniors,and 145(23.6%)
graduate students. Twenty-five students did
not indicate their college status. Participants '
ages ranged from 17 to 60 years {M= 20.03,
SD=8.31 ). Two hundred forty-two responded
to the Test Anxiety Inventory, 238 responded
to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and 240
responded to the Beck Depression Inventory.
Participants were asked to indicate
their perceived overall stress levels as mild,
moderate, or severe. One hundred fifty-four
(23,6%) indicated their overall stress levels
as mild, 354 (55.6%) reported as moderate,
and 115 (18.8%) as severe.
Instruments
Data on stress were collected from the
responses to the Student-life Stress Inventory-
Revered (Gadzella, 2005). The SSI-R has 53
items grouped under two sections: Stressors
and Reactions to Stressors. In the Stressors
section there are five categories: Erustra-
tions. Conflicts, Pressures, Changes, and
Self-imposed. In the Reactions to Stressors,
there are four categories: Physiological, Emo-
tional, Behavioral, and Cognitive Appraisal.
The total stress score is the summation of the
nine categories scores (values). The SSI-R
is scored following the scoring instmctions
on scoring each item, category, section, and
total. Students ' course grades ranged from 36
to 100, (M= 84.27,50= 10,11).
Procedure
Participants were informed of the study;
they signed the release forms indicating data
may be used for research purposes. Instructors
gave extra course credits for students who
84/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 2

participated in the study. Students responded
to the inventories during their class periods.
Two main software programs were used
to analyze the data: Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) 10.0 (SPSS, Inc.,
1998) and Equations 5.5 (EQS ; Bentler, 1992;
1995;Bentler&Wu, 1993).Data were coded
onto SPSS 10.0 database and arranged so that
they could be transferred onto EQS. Several
analyses were computed such as the reliability
ofthe SSTR (alphas and test-retest), current
validity, confirmatory factor analyses, and
correlations of its scores with the Test Anxiety
Inventory,State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and
Beck Depression Inventory, respectively.

Table 1
Intemal Consistencies (Alphas) for the Student-life Stress Inventory-Revised (SSI-R) by
Subscales and the Total Scale Score for Cender and Total Groups

Coefficient Alpha
Group
SSI-R Categories Men Women Total
(«=171) (n = 423) {n ^ 594)

Stressors (Total) .86 .85 .85

Frustrations .75 .68 .70
Conflicts .78 .77 .77
Pressures .72 .65 .69
Changes .87 .84 .85
Self-imposed .63 .64 .63
Reactions to Stressors (Total) .90 .88 .89
Physiological .87 .85 .86
Emotional .85 .78 .81
Behavioral .71 .75 .74
Cognitive App. .82 .78 .79
Total Inventory .93 .92 .93

Table 2
Test-Retest Correlations for Two Responses to SSI-R (n = 460)

Stressors Category r

Frustrations .76**
Conflicts .42*
Pressures .64**
Changes .65**
Self-imposed .67**
Physiological .77*
Emotional .71*
Behavioral .70**
Cognitive Appraisal .59*
Total .61*
*p< .05. **p< .01

Results
The internal consistencies for 594 par-
ticipants by groups (men, women, and total
SSI-R scores) are displayed in Table 1. The
alpha for the total group on the total SSI-R
was .93, for men .93, and for women .92.
Four hundred sixty participants re-
sponded to the SSI-R twice within 10 days.
Correlations (test-retest) between the two
scores for each category and total SSI-R are
displayed in Table 2. The highest correlation
{r = .765,p < .01) was for the Physiological
category and the lowest (r = .424, p < .05)
for Conflicts. The test-retest correlation for
the Total SSI-R was r = .61 (p < .01).
Concurrent validity was computed for
this group. Analysis of variances was used to
determine differences among the stress level
groups (i.e.,mild, moderate, and severe) and
responses to the items in the nine categories.
The results (Table 3) showed significant dif-
ferences among the groups in all categories
and total stress score.
Tukey post hoc tests were computed for
all categories and the Total SSL The results
showed that (a) in all categories (except the
Cognitive Appraisal) and the Total SSI, the
' severe' stress level group scored significantly
higher {p < .001) than the 'moderate' and
'mild' stress level groups, respectively, and
(b) in all categories (except the Cognitive
Appraisal and Behavioral), the 'moderate'
group scored significantly higher {p < .001)
than the 'mild' stress level group.
To perform the confirmatory factor
analysis, intercorrelations for the nine catego-
ries, two sections {Stressors and Reactions to
Stressors) and the Total SSI-R were computed.
These correlations are summarized in Table
4 along with means and standard deviations
for the nine categories. All correlations (Table
4) among categories, sections, and Total SSI-
R were significant {p < .001). The highest
correlation (r = .57) was among scores in
the Physiological and Emotional categories
and the lowest (r = .1%) was with Cognitive
Appraisal and Total SSI-7?.
Life Stress inventory Revised.. / 85
The hypothesized confirmatory factor
analysis model included two latent variables:
Stressors and Reactions to Stressors. All the
parameters related to the dependent variables
were set free to be estimated. The maximum
likelihood (ML) estimation was used to
estimate the free parameters of the model.
The goodness-of-fit sununary was obtained
for the hypothesized model through the ML
estimation method.
Results showed that the x^ associated
with the model of independence (i.e., vari-
ables are uncorrelated) was rejected, x^ ^^^
- 1664.45, p < .001. Adequate support was
found for the hypothesized model in terms
of fit statistics: Normed Fit Index (Bentler
&Bonett, 1980); Bentler-BonettNonnormed
Fit Index (Bentler & Bonett, 1980) ; Compara-
tive Fit Index (Bentler, 1990); Incremental
Fit Index (Bollen, 1989); Goodness of Fit
Index (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1988); Adjusted
Goodness of Fitlndex (Jöreskog & Sörbom);
or Root Mean Square Error of Approxima-
tion (Steiger, 1990). Table 5 shows several
fit indices for the model.
Because the fit indices supported the
factor structure of the modified model, stan-
dardized coefficients were computed (see
Figure 1). Figure 1 shows that nondiectional
relationshop between Stressors and Reac-
tions to Stressors was significant. Morever,
measured variables loading ranged from .49
to .69 in the Stressors and from .10 to .81 in
Reactions to Stressors. The largest amount of
variance accounted for by stress generated by
Changes was (7?^ - .48). The largest amount
of variance accounted for by in the Reactions
to Stressors {R^ - .66).
Correlations were computed between
SSI-R scores and scores on the Test Anxiety
State-Trait Anxiety and Beck Depression
Inventory respectively, and course grades.
These correlations are presented in Table
6.Test Anxiety scores are reported/or worry
(TAW), for emotional (TAE), and total (TAT).
In most cases, SSI-R scores correlated
positively with scores in the other invento-
86/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 2

Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations, and F-ratios for Groups (Mild n = 154, Moderate n =
334, and Severe n = 113) on the Ratings of Their Stressors and Reactions to Stressors

F (2,598)
Group M SD

Mild 66.66 10.85

Moderate 75.61 10.20 97.86*
I. Stressors (Total)
Severe 84.67 10.67
Mild 15.89 4.03
Frustrations Moderate 18.26 3.88 40.56*
Severe 20.42 4.82
Mild 9.71 2.86
Conflicts Moderate 11.04 2.67 26.33*
Severe 12.23 3.21
Mild 13.96 3.07
Pressures Moderate 15.69 2.66 58.71*
Severe 17.51 1.98
Mild 6.98 2.36
Changes Moderate 8.57 2.46 77.14*
Severe 10.84 2.85
20.11
Mild 4.02
22.02
Self-imposed Moderate O-J f,f, 3.86 28.49*
¿•J .KJKJ
Severe 3.58
Mild 60.30 13.70
II. Reactions to Stressors (Total) Moderate 74.38 13.48 127.45*
Severe 88.18 16.76
Mild 27.30 7.86
Physiological Moderate 34.72 8.78 83.52*
Severe 41.44 10.60
Mild 9.99 3.60
Emotional Moderate 12.91 3.25 100.13*
Severe 15.97 3.68
Mild 15.05 4.07
Behavioral Moderate 18.18 4.63 70.15*
Severe 22.07 6.00
2.65
Mild 7.95
Cognitive App. Moderate 8.56 2.47 3.63**
0 on
Severe 8.69
Mild 126.96 21.63
III. Total Inventory Moderate 149.99 20.87 148.00*
Severe 172.85 24.04
*;7<.OOO1; **p< .05
 Life Stress Inventory Revised.. / 87

Table 4
Means, Standard Deviations, and Interrelationships among'the
Total and Subscale Scores of the SSI-R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Stressors .77* .66* .72* .71* .56* .57* .63* .54* .03
1. Frustrations
2. Conflicts .46*
3. Pressure .37* .38*
4. Changes .52* .33* .44*
5.Self-imposed .25* .23* .44* .28*
Reactions to
.50* .37* .51* .54* .66* .90* .78* .77* .25*
Stressors
6. Physiological .41* .31* .47* .46* .38*
7. Emotional .46* .37* .46* .51* .41* .57*
8. Behavioral .45* .35* .39* 44* .27* .51* .61*
9. Cognitive .04* -.05 -.01 .09** .04 .09** .10** -.15*
Total .67* .54* .65* .67* .63* .84* .78* .74* .18*
Mean 18.0 10.92 15.59 8.59 21.84 34.08 12.74 18.11 8.43
Standard 4.36 2.95 2.91 2.82 4.02 10.09 3.95 5.31 2.62
Deviation
* p < . 0 1 ; * * p < .05

Table 5
Goodness-of-Fit Summaries for the Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model
Model
Fit Indices (n = 559)

Independence Model 1664.45

Gonfirmatory Model c^^^^^ * 114.56
Normed Fit Index .93
Nonnormed Fit Index .93
Gomparative Fit Index .95
Incremental Fit Index .95
Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) .96
Adjusted GFl .93
"ML = Maximum Likelihood. *p < .001.

GFI - Goodness-of-Fit Index greater than .90 indicates adequate fit (Bentler & Bonett,
1980)
AGFI = Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index greater than .90 indicates adequate fit
(Bentler & Bonett, 1980)
RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error Approximation less than .10 indicates adequate fit
(Bentler & Bonett, 1980).
88/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 2

Frustrations
= ,74 (10,49)

E-,84(6.13) Conflicts

E=,76 (4,88) Pressures

E«.72 (4,10) Changes

E-,87(6.I9)
Self-imposed

E = -70 (49.93) —„ Physiological

E " ,58 (5,26)
—^ Emotional
Behavioral
E - , 6 9 (13,30)

E - 1,00(6,77)
—* Cognitive

Numbers inside parentheses are parameter estimates

Numbers outside of parentheses are standardized eoeffieients '
E =* Errors, errors of observed variables
*p<.OS .
Figure 1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Student-Life Stress Inventory-Revised (SSI-R).

ries. Scores in Cognitive Appraisal and Test
Anxiety, (worry). Test Anxiety (Emotional)
and Total Test Anxiety), respectively, did not
correlate positively with scores in the Cogni-
tive Appraisal. Data (Table 6) show the high-
est correlation {r- .55 p< .01) was between
Physiological and Trait Anxiety scores and
the lowest {r- .I5p< .05) between Conflicts
and Test Anxiety Emotional scores. Course
grades correlated negatively with Test Anxiety
(worry, r = -.20, State Anxiety (r = -.29p <
.01) and Beck Depression Inventories, (r -
-.15 p < .05); respectively.
Conclusion and Discussion
The present study analyzed the psycho-
metric properties of the SSI-R. Data showed
the inventory is a reliable and valid instrument
measuring students' Stressors and reactions
to Stressors. The internal consistency for the
 Life Stress Inventory Revised. . / 89

Table 6
Correlations between SSI-R and other Inventory Scores

Category TAW TAE TAT STA TR BDI

in = 242) (« = 238) (n = 240)

Frustration .37** .30** 35** .43** .57** .50**

Conflicts .19** .15** .18** .28** .36** .35**

Pressures .18** .24** .24** .23** .26** .26**

Changes 27** .24** 27** 39** .51** .48**

Self-imposed .23** 29** 29** 24** 29** 19**

Physiological .46** .47** .49* .47** .55** .51**

Emotional .26** .27** .29** .37** 44** .46**

Behavioral .18** .16** .18** .35** 41** .45**

Cognitive Appraisal .07 .08 .09 .18** .26** .22**

Total .42** .42** .45** .52** .64** .59**

Course grade -.20** -.08 -.14 ..29** -.21** -.15*

*p<.05. **p<.Ol

Note.- TAW= Test Anxiety ( Worry), TAE= Test Anxiety Emotional, TAT=2b/a/ Test Anxiety
STA= State Anxiety, TR= Trait Anxiety, BDI= Beck Depression Inventory

Total SSTR was .93 and test-retest correla-
tions showed significant correlations on all
categories ranging from .46 to .76. Confir-
matory factor analysis showed the variables
contributed to its respective latent variables.
Significant positive correlations were found
between SSI-R categories and Total Stress
scores and the scores on the Test Anxiety,
State and Trait Anxiety and Beck Depression
Inventory, respectively.
To support the findings in the Gadzella
and Masten's study (2007), it would be desir-
able to conduct other studies to determine if
there are differences between participants
who score mild versus severe stress on various
activities and leaming processes. In the pres-
ent study, it was concluded that the SSI-R was
a viable measure to study students' Stressors
and their reactions to Stressors.
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