168

West, M. l., Slomianka, L. and Gundersen, H. l G. (1991): Unbiased stereo logical estimation of
Optical Fibre Probe Microscopy
the total number of neurons in the subdivisions of the rat hippocampus using the optical fractionator.
Anatomic. Record. 231: 482-497.

C.lR. Sheppard and H. Fatemi

Department ofPhysical Optics, School ofPhysics

University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia

ABS1RACT

The optical fibre probe microscope is a compact system which allows investigation of surface
topography. The effects of surface height, tilt and refractive index on the image were investigated
both eoretically and experimentally.

1. Introduction

In the optical fibre probe microscope (Cerre et aI., 1991), light is launched into a single mode
optical fibre and is incident on the object (Fig. 1-1). The reflected light is coupled back into the
fibre, and after passing through a fibre coupler its intensity measured with a photodiode detector.
An image is built up by scanning the fibre tip relative to the object surface. This can be achieved
by mechanically moving either the fibre tip or the object itself The strength of the light coupled
back into the fibre depends on the reflectivity ofthe sample, but also its distance from the fibre (i.e.
the surface height) and the tilt of the surface. In practice there is also a reflection oflight from the
fibre tip, which results in interference fringes being formed as the object is scanned in depth. The
interference pattern consists of fringes within an envelope defined by upper and lower parts.
Investigation ofthe details of theinterference allows us to extract the various properties of the surface
at the particular scan point. In this way it is very similar to the confocal surface profiling methods,
except that in the present case there is no peak in intensity because the radiation from the fibre is
divergent rather than convergent.

The light emerging from a single mode optical fibre is closely approximated by a Gaussian beam.
The variation in intensity along the axis is proportional to 11 (1 + (z / Z0>2) , where z is the distance
from the beam waist, located at the fibre tip, and Zo is the confocal parameter.

169
 171
170

In the present study, we examine the effects when the surface is tilted, so that y;e(). We assume
that the value of Zo, and thus the far-field angle of divergence, e, and also the amplitude reflection
coefficient ro of the fibre tip, are known. The aim is to measure the amplitude reflection coefficient
r of the sample, and the local tilt of the sample surface. The method is valid when the illuminated
surface can be assumed locally plane. Spatial resolution is thus limited to about the fibre spot size,
which is around 3 Ilm in our experiments.

In order to investigate the behaviour of the signal with different sample parameters, we used a
tilted mirror as sample. Fig.1-4 shows an example of an experimental plot. The figure covers the
lower part of the envelope of the interference fringes, showing a zero in intensity the position of
which can be used to extract the reflectivity and tilt of the sample. The existence of this zero limits
such measurements to a value of r greater than 0.2. In practice this covers a wide range of industrial
and biological samples .

•
Fig.1-1. A schematic diagram of the optical fibre probe microscope.

2. Experimental Investigation of Image Formation

Ifthere is a sample in front of the illuminating fibre tip, a fraction of the light can be reflected
from the sample surface back towards the fibre. Part of this light couples back into the fibre, whilst
the rest is reflected by the fibre tip back to the sample. Thus multiple reflections are set up, similar
to a Fabry-Perot resonator. The fibre tip is viewed and positioned relative to the sample surface (Fig. single mode
1-2), and can be tracked from side and top views through an image grabbing system. For a given optical fibre
surface tilt the axial position is scanned using a feedback-controlled piezoactuator, driven by a
sawtooth generator. The signal is digitally accumulated in a storage oscilloscope and processed
using a computer. For the particular case when the normal to the sample surface is parallel to the
axis, i.e. when y=0 in Fig. 1-2, the experimentally recorded intensity is shown in Fig. 1-3 (Fatemi
f\
cco
cam~a'V
and Sheppard, 1993; Sheppard et aI., 1995). It is possible to measure the geometrical parameters of
the light emitted from the fibre, e.g. zo, by observations using a plane mirror as sample.

'f
Fig.1-2. A close-up of the fibre tip and sample.
 --..or-

172 173

pep) = eXP(ikz)exp( _~iUp2 )exp( _~ p2) (13.1)

where P is a nonnalized radial coordinate in the pupil plane in the range 0 ~ P < CfJ, and u the
nonnalized defocus coordinate
:i:'
'<0
c:
ID
E u =4kzsin2(a 12) (13.2)

where a is the effective aperture of the system, corresponding to the value p =1. The field in the
focal region can be calculated in the scalar paraxial approximation by the Kirchhoff diffraction
integral

I
10llm 20 llm
Dis1ance
U(v,U) = exp(ikz) exp ( -~iUp2 )exp( -~ p2 Yo(Vp)PdP (13.3)

Fig. 1-3. Experimentally recorded axial response from an untilted mirror. where v is the transverse optical coordinate

v= krsina (13.4)

Evaluating the integral in Eq.(13.3)

1 . exp(ikz)exp
U(v,u) = - - (V2 . ) (13.5)
1+ lU 2(1 + lU)
.~e. I 111-1",11. '.Ill,,'"' "
. . . .Ia. 1,i'JJO,1t 1, 'l'!i!I,:l;~~-
_lira..
...........
I 11< 11'

1:1
"
,.1,\" ,[ ":
I
which can be also written in the fonn
............, , I
numI!!!!!!!~== _____M_=-===ii===- 2 2
uD u 1 exp(ikz)exp ( iuv 2
U(v,u)=--. ) exp( v 2 ) (13.6)
l+lU 2(1+u ) 2(1 +u )

Fig .1-4. An example of an interference pattern from a tilted mirror as sample. The lower part of the envelope These expressions can be seen to be equivalent to the usual expressions for a Gaussian beam (Yariv,
is shown, depicting a zero in the envelope. 1975) with

v=J2rlwo (13.7)
3. Theory
where Wo is the waist ofthe beam,
We start by investigating focusing by a lens with a Gaussian weighting whose defocused pupil
function can be assumed (Born and Wolf, 1989, p.440). u =zl Zo (13.8)

where Zo is the confocal parameter

zo=kw~/2 (13.9)
174 175

c(/,u) = eXP(ikz)exp( -~iUI2 }xp( _~/2)

The intensity in the focal region can be written in the simple form
(13.16)

J(V,U) = - -1e2x p - - -2
(v2) (13.10)
where I is a normalized transverse spatial frequency, equal to the true spatial frequency normalized
(1+u ) 1+u
by sina lA = 11 (.finwo) .

For confocal reflection the defocused CTF is given by

In the far-field we can put \u\» 1 so that
2x",
C(l,u)=eXP(2ikz)!Iexp{
-(l+iu) P2+4 (P)} pdpdlj> (13.17)
~ exp(ikz) exp(iV2u exp(-~)
2

U( v, u) = )
~13.11)
lU 2u
or after normalization
and the intensity is
c(l,u)=--. ZZ) exp(2ikz)
1 exp(-/2/4)exp ( -iu- (13.18)
1 p --;;
J(v,u) = -;;ex (V2) (13.12) l+lU 4

The 3-D CTF can be calculated by Fourier transformation ofEq.(13.20), or by a line integral over
the product of the defocused pupil functions. Using the latter method

By analogy with diffraction by a circular aperture we can associate v = u with the shadow edge
(which is here of course not a hard edge). Thus c(l,s) = 2n! exp {-(p2 + ~ )r(S-2kz+ p2 + ~ }dP (13.19)

Z2 ( ( sine
I=~exp - - . -
Z2 sma
)2) (13.13) or, after normalizing

/2
c(l,s) = exp(-s), s+-~so (13.20)
where 4

sine"" r 1Z (13.14) where the offset So is given by

and So = 2kzo = k2W~ = 1/2sin2(a 12) (13.21)

sina = .fi 1kwo (13.15)

The coherent transfer function for confocal reflection is shown in Fig. 1-5.

can be identified as the numerical aperture ofthe beam. Here we should stress the distinction between
the numerical aperture of the beam and the numerical aperture of a fibre, which for the single-mode
case can be very different. Again by analogy with imaging by a circular aperture, the coherent
transfer function (CTF), is equal to the defocused pupil function
 177
176

0.8

O.S

-5 Fig. 1-6. The intensity in the axial response of a confocal reflection microscope with Gaussian pupils for a
surface tilted through an angle y, where I =2sin y / sin u.
Fig. 1-5. The 3D CTF for a confocal reflection microscope with Gaussian illumination and collection pupil
weightings.

The field emitted by a single mode fibre approximates that of the Gaussian beam, the only
difference being that the field can only be probed for the half of the distribution which occurs in
The axial response of a confocal reflection system to a planar reflector as object can be calculated
free space. For the problem of coupling of light back into the fibre by a tilted plane reflector,
either as the value of the defocused CTF (Eq.(13.20)) for a value separated from the fibre by a normalized distance u, the efficiency of coupling into the fundamental
mode of the fibre can be calculated as an overlap integral over the end-face ofthe receiving fibre.
1=2 siny (13.22) However it should be recognized that the fibre probe is basically a confocal system so that the
sina efficiency of coupling is given directly by the previous discussion. There the overlap integral was
performed over the pupil function, which for the fibre case is not a physical entity, but can be
where y is the angle subtended to the axis by the surface normal, or by the ID Fourier transform of considered as the angular spectrum of the ampitude at the beam waist.
a line through the 3D CTF at the same value of I (Sheppard and Cogswell, 1990). From Eq.(13.20)
we have for the intensity of the axial response For reflection from a planar object the solution, Eq.(13.23) shows the effects of separation and
tilt are completely separable, which may be surprizing. If the axial response is measured using a
fibre probe, an additional effect which must be considered is reflection from the end face of the
l! fibre, which also leads to multiple reflection. Let the amplitude reflection coefficient from the fibre
li" 1
I(u,y)=--exp - 2 - 2.Y
(Sin2 -) (13.23)
surface be ro and that from the surface under inspection be r. Then the total amplitude can be
11 (1+u 2 ) sm a
summed, using Eq. (13.20)
it!,:
1 2 2 . 2 (13.24)
I'H =--2-exp(-k Wo srn y)
le (l+u ) (1- r,2) ro . 1 ( 12 )
U(/,u) =ro ---O-L(-rorexp(2ikz»)} --,,-exp -(l+iju)- (13.25)
I: ro j~1 (1 + iju) 4
I
which is illustrated in Fig. 1-6.
rf: The signal consists of fast-varying interference fringes with a slowly decaying envelope, the
spacing ofthe fringes depending on the numerical aperture of the emitted radiation.
178 179

The form of the envelope is illustrated in Fig. 1-7 for the case of normal incidence when ro =0.2 I
0.25
as is approximately the case for a glass fibre in air. The shape of the envelope varies as the reflectivity r=O.95
r=O.95
ofthe object is altered. For a highly reflective object, it is seen how the difference between the upper 1=1
1=2

and lower parts of the envelope first increases, is approximately constant for a range of values of u
between about one and two, and then decreases. For less-reflective objects the two branches of the
envelope move steadily together for increasing u. If r = 0.2, equal to ro, then the fringes exhibit
strong visibility for small u, whilst for even lower object reflectivities the modulation decreases in
4 10 10
strength.
(a) (b)

If the surface is tilted, the lower branch of the envelope touches the axis, as shown in Fig. 1-8.
We have obtained good quantitative agreement between theory and experimental observations of
Fig. 1-8. The effect of surface tilt on the envelope of the variation in intenSity coupled back into an optical
the geometry of the fringe envelope. Study of the envelope may prove to be the basis ofi useful
fibre: (a) I = I, (b) 1= 2 .
way of obtaining information on the surface topography. In addition the fringes can be used for
performing interference microscopy for the measurement of phase information.

4. Alternative Tip Geometries

We have also been experimenting with different geometries of fibre tip, including angled
polishing, and the formation of tapers and Inicrolenses by chemical etching.

I
0.5
0.8~\ r = 0.95 • 0.4k r=0.5
r=1
5. Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge support from the Australian Research Council and the Science
10 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 Foundation for Physics in the University of Sydney. H. Fatemi is on leave from Shahid Bahanar
2 4 6 8
u u u University ofKerman, Kerman, Iran.

I
O·05f r= 0.01
r=02 r = 0.1 0.04
0.081'\.
0.03

o.osf

0 2 4 6
U
8 10
- __ I

0
----
2 4 6
u
8 10
0.02\
0.01

0 2 4 6
U
8 10

I
6. References

Born, M. and E. Wolf (1989): Principles afOptics, 6th ed. Pergamon, Oxford.

Cerre, N., F. de Fornel and J.P. Goudonnet (1991): Reflection scanning Inicroscopy. Applied Optics
31: 903-908.
Fig. 1-7. The envelope of the variation in intensity coupled back into an optical fibre by a surface at normal
incidence as the distance of the surface is altered. The amplitude reflection coefficient of the glass-air interface
is taken as fo =0.2.

, "
180

Fatemi, H.E.G. and C.J.R. Sheppard (1993): Topographic studies of reflecting surfaces by means
of a single-mode optical fibre. Australian Conference on Optics, Lasers and Spectroscopy.
Melbourne: Proceedings, p. 70.

Sheppard, C.J.R., H. Fatemi and Min Gu (1995): The Fourier optics of near-field microscopy.
Scanning 17: 28-40.

Sheppard, C.J.R. and C.J. Cogswell (1990): Three-dimensional image formation in confocal The Fractional Fourier and Special Affine Fourier Transformations
microscopy. J Microscopy 159: 179-194.

Yariv, A. (1975): Quantum Electronics, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York.

Sumiyoshi Abe

College of Science and Technology, Nihon University

7-24-1 Narashinodai, Chiba 274, Japan

E-mail: abe@gphys.cst.nihon-u.ac.jp

John T. Sheridan

Institute of Systems Engineering and Informatics (ISE!)

European Commission Joint Research Centre(JRC), 1-21020, Ispra (VA), Italy.

E-mail.·john.sheridan@jrc.it

ABS1RACT

The Special Affme Fourier Transform (SAFT) represents the most generallossless inhomogenous
linear mapping in phase space, as an integral transformation of the wavefunction. In this monograph
an overview of recent work relating to the area oflinear transformations and optical signal processing
is presented. In particular the relationship between the SAFT and the Fractional Fourier Transform
(FRT) is examined. In order to fully appreciate these transformations the use of the W igner
Distribution Function (WDF) is reviewed. The Abelian subgroups of the SAFT are also discussed
and several potentially useful 'new' transformations are introduced. Application of the resulting ideas
in the areas of imaging and signal processing are illustrated.

181