CAD/CAM or CAM, (TMAT-3307)

• Two computer-based systems which impact the use

of CNC technology which is computer aided design
and computer aided manufacturing.
• A computer aided design, or CAD, system uses
computers to create graphically product designs
and models.
• These designs can be review/analysis, revised, and
refined for optimum end use and application.
• Once finalized, the CAD design is then exported to a
computer aided manufacturing, or CAM, system.
• CAM systems it assists in all phases of
manufacturing a product, including
process planning, production planning,
machining, scheduling,
management and quality control.
In CNC (Computer Numerical Control), the
instructions are stored as a program in a micro-
computer attached to the machine.
The computer will also handle much of the control
logic of the machine, making it more adaptable
than earlier hard-wired controllers.
 What is a CNC Machine?
• Conventionally, an operator decides and adjusts
various machines parameters like feed , depth of
cut etc depending on type of job , and controls the
slide movements by hand.
• In a CNC Machine all functions and slide
movements are controlled by motors using
computer programs.
• For a CNC, machine control unit (MCU) decides
cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, tool selection ,
coolant on or ff and tool paths.
• The MCU issues commands in form of numeric data
to motors that position slides and tool paths and
tool selection accordingly.
 Advantages of CNC
• High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts
• Volume of production is very high
• Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined.
E.g. Turbines
• Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings,
less scrap
• More safe, higher productivity, better quality
• Less paper work, faster prototype production,
reduction in lead times
Disadvantages of CNC
• Costly setup, skilled operators
• Computers, programming knowledge required
• By integrating a computer processor, “CNC” as it is
now known, allows part machining programs to be
edited and stored in the computer memory as well
as permitting diagnostics/analytic and quality
control functions during the actual machining.
• All CNC machining begins with a part program,
which is a sequential instructions or coded
commands that direct the specific machine
functions.
• The part program may be manually generated or,
more commonly, generated by computer aided part
programming systems.
 1.1 Basic in CNC
• All computer controlled machines are able to
accurately and repeatedly control motion in
various directions.
• Each of these directions of motion is called an
axis. Depending on the machine type there are
commonly two to five axes.
• Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a linear
axis in which movement is in a straight line, or
a rotary axis with motion following a circular
path.
 Components of CNC
A CNC system consists of three basic components
1 . Part program
2 . Machine Control Unit (MCU)
3 . Machine tool (lathe, drill press, milling machine
etc)
 1 . Part program
• The part program is a detailed set of commands to
be followed by the machine tool. Each command
specifies a position in the Cartesian coordinate
system (x,y,z) or motion (work-piece travel or
cutting tool travel), machining parameters and
on/off function.
• Part programmers should be well versed with
machine tools, machining processes, effects of
process variables, and limitations of CNC controls.
The part program is written manually or by using
computerassisted language such as APT (Automated
Programming Tool).
 2. Machine Control Unit
• The machine control unit (MCU) is a microcomputer
that stores the program and executes the
• commands into actions by the machine tool. The
MCU consists of two main units: the data
processing unit (DPU) and the control loops unit
(CLU). The DPU software includes control system
software, calculation algorithms, translation
software that converts the part program into a
usable format for the MCU, interpolation algorithm
to achieve smooth motion of the cutter, editing of
part program (in case of errors and changes).
• The DPU processes the data from the part program
and provides it to the CLU which operates the drives
attached to the machine leadscrews and receives
feedback signals on the actual position and velocity
of each one of the axes. A driver (dc motor) and a
feedback device are attached to the leadscrew.
• The CLU consists of the circuits for position and
velocity control loops, deceleration and backlash
take up, function controls such as spindle on/off.
The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC
system.
It is used to perform the following functions:
• Read coded instructions
• Decode coded instructions
• Implement interpolations (linear, circular, and
helical) to generate axis motion commands
• Feed axis motion commands to the amplifier
circuits for driving the axis mechanisms
• Receive the feedback signals of position and speed
for each drive axis
• Implement auxiliary control functions such as
coolant or spindle on/off, and tool change
 3. Machine Tool
• The machine tool could be one of the following:
lathe, milling machine, laser, plasma,
• coordinate measuring machine etc. Figure 3 shows
that a right-hand coordinate system is used
• to describe the motions of a machine tool . There
are three linear axes (x,y,z), three rotational
• axes (i,j,k), and other axes such as tilt (9) are
possible. For example, a 5-axis machine
• implies any combination of x,y,z, i,j,k,and θ.
 1.1.1 PRINCIPLES OF CNC
• Basic Length Unit (BLU)
• Each BLU unit corresponds to the position
resolution of the axis of motion. For example, 1 BLU
= 0.0001" means that the axis will move 0.0001" for
every one electrical pulse received by the motor.
The BLU is also referred to as Bit (binary digit).
Pulse = BLU = Bit
• CNC terminology
• BLU: basic length unit  smallest programmable
move of each axis.
• Controller: (Machine Control Unit, MCU)
Electronic and computerized interface between
operator and m/c
 Controller components:
1. Data Processing Unit (DPU)
2. Control-Loops Unit (CLU)
Data Processing Unit:
Input device [RS-232 port/ Tape Reader/ Punched
Tape Reader]Data Reading Circuits and Parity
Checking Circuits Decoders to distribute data to the
axes controllers.
• Types of CNC Machines depend on the controller
• Based on Motion Type:
• Point-to-Point or Continuous path
• Based on Control Loops:
• Open loop or Closed loop
• Based on Power Supply:
• Electric or Hydraulic or
Pneumatic
• Based on Positioning System
• Incremental or Absolute
 Control Loops Unit:

Interpolator to supply machine-motion commands

between data points Position of the control loop
hardware for each axis of motion. there are two
control loops.
 Open Loop Control Systems
• The open-loop control means that there is no
feedback and uses stepping motors for driving the
lead-screw .
• A stepping motor is a device whose output shaft
rotates through a fixed angle in response to an
input pulse. The accuracy of the system depends on
the motor's ability to step through the exact
number. The frequency of the stepping motor
depends on the load torque..
• The higher the load torque, lower would be the
frequency . Excessive load torque may occur in
motors due to the cutting forces in machine tools.
Hence this system is more suitable for cases where
the tool force does not exist (Example: laser cutting)

Figure of Open loop control system

• In open-loop control system step motors are used
• Step motors are driven by electric pulses
• Every pulse rotates the motor spindle through a
certain amount
• By counting the pulses, the amount of motion can
be controlled
• No feedback signal for error correction
• Lower positioning accuracy
 Closed-loop Control Systems
• Closed -loop NC systems are appropriate when
there is a force resisting the movement of the
tool/work-piece . Milling and turning are typical
examples. In these systems the DC servomotors and
feedback devices are used to ensure that the
desired position is achieved.
• The encoder consists of a light source, a photo-
detector, and a disk containing a series of slots. The
encoder is connected to the leadscrew .
• As the screw turns, the slots cause the light to be
seen by the photo-detector as a series of flash's
which are converted into an equivalent series of
electrical pulses which are then used to characterize
the position and the speed.
• The equations remain essentially the same as open-
loop except that the angle between the slots in the
disk is the step angle, α.
• Both the input to the control loop and the feedback
signals are a sequence of pulses, each pulse
representing a BLU unit. The two sequences are
correlated by a comparator and gives a signal, by
means of a digital-to-analog converter, (a signal
representing the position error), to operate the
drive motor (DC servomotor) . Figure of Closed loop
control system.
• In closed-loop control systems DC or AC motors are
used
• Position transducers are used to generate position
feedback signals for error correction
• Better accuracy can be achieved
• More expensive
• Suitable for large size machine tools
• Components of Servo-motor controlled CNC

Motor lead screw rotation table moves

Motor speed control feedback position sensed by encoder

Two types of encoder configurations

1.2 Structures in Computer Numerical Control
A part program is a series of coded instructions required
to produce a part. It controls the movement of the
machine tool and the on/off control of auxiliary
functions such as spindle rotation and coolant. The
coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers
and symbols and are arranged in a format of functional
blocks as in the following example
N10 G01 X5.0 Y2.5 F15.0
| | | | |
| | | | Feed rate (15 in/min)
| | | Y-coordinate (2.5")
| | X-coordinate (5.0")
| Linear interpolation mode
Sequence number
 Three Main parts of a CNC program
Part 1- Program set-up
• N5 G90 G21 (Absolute units, metric)

• N10 M06 T2 (Stop for tool change, use

tool number 2)
• N15 M03 S1200 (Turn the spindle on CW to
1200 rpm)
 Part 2- Chip Removal
• N20 G00 X1 Y1 (Rapid to X1,Y1 from
origin point)
• N25 Z0.125 (Rapid down to Z0.125)
• N30 G01 Z-0.125 F100 (Feed down to Z-0.125 at
100 mm/min)
• N35 G01 X2 Y2 (Feed diagonally to X2,Y2)
• N40 G00 Z1 (Rapid up to Z1)
• N45 X0 Y0 (Rapid to X0,Y0)
 Part 3- System Shutdown
• N50 M05 (Turn the spindle off)
• N55 M00 (Program stop)
 TYPES OF CNC MACHINES
In every aspects of manufacturing CNC machines are
used. It can be mainly classified in eight classes.
1. Mills and Machining centers
2. Lathes and Turning centers
3. EDM Machines
4. Grinding machines
5. Cutting Machines
6. Fabrication Machines
7. Welding Machines
8. Coordinate Measuring Machines
 1.3 Motion control
• The most basic function of any CNC machine is
automatic, precise, and consistent motion control.
• Rather than applying completely mechanical
devices to cause motion as it is required on most
conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow
motion control in a revolutionary manner.
• All forms of CNC equipment have two or more
directions of motion, called axes. These axes can be
precisely and automatically positioned along their
lengths of travel.
• The two most common types of axis are linear
(driven along a straight path) and rotary (driven
along a circular path).
 Incremental and Absolute coordinate
systems in CNC
• CNC systems are further divided into incremental
and absolute systems. In incremental mode, the
distance is measured from one point to the next.
For example, if you want to drill five holes at
different locations, the x-position commands are x +
500, + 200, +600, - 300, -700, -300.
• An absolute system is one in which all the moving
commands are referred from a reference point (zero
point or origin) . For the above case, the x-position
commands are x 500,700, 1300, 1000, 300, 0. Both
systems are incorporated in most CNC systems. For
an inexperienced operator, it is wise to use
incremental mode.
(a) Absolute versus incremental; In absolute
positioning, the move is specified by x = 6, y = 8 ;
in incremental, the move is specified by x=4, y=5
for the tool to be moved from (2,3) to (6,8)
(b) Drilling 5-holes at different locations
Absolute Coordinate System Incremental Coordinate System
• Each axis consists of a mechanical component, such
as a slide that moves, a servo drive motor that
powers the mechanical movement, and a ball screw
to transfer the power from the servo drive motor to
the mechanical component.
• These components, along with the computer
controls that govern them, are referred to as an axis
drive system.
• Using a vertical mill machining center as an
example, there are typically three linear axes of
motion. Each is given an alphabetic designation or
address.
• The machine table motion side to side is called the
“X” axis.
• Table movement in and out is the “Y” axis, while
head movement up and down the column is the “Z”
axis.
 Three Basic Categories of Motion Systems
Point to Point - No contouring capability
Straight cut control - one axis motion at a time is
controlled for machining
Contouring - multiple axis’s controlled simultaneously
 Point-to-Point Systems
• Point-to-point systems are those that move the tool
or the workpiece from one point to another and
then the tool performs the required task. Upon
completion, the tool (or workpiece) moves to the
next position and the cycle is repeated (Figure 4).
The simplest example for this type of system is a
drilling machine where the workpiece moves .
• In this system, the feed rate and the path of the
cutting tool (or workpiece) have no significance on
the machining process. The accuracy of positioning
depends on the system's resolution in terms of BLU
(basic length unit) which is generally between 0
.001" and 0.0001" .
 Continuous Path Systems (Straight cut and
Contouring systems)
• These systems provide continuous path such that
the tool can perform while the axes are moving,
enabling the system to generate angular surfaces,
two-dimensional curves, or three dimensional
contours . Example is a milling machine where such
tasks are accomplished. Each axis might move
continuously at a different velocity.
• Velocity error is significant in affecting the positions
of the cutter. It is much more important in circular
contour cutting where one axis follows sine function
while the other follows cosine function.
(a) Continuous path cutting and (b) Position error
caused by the velocity error
Examples
INTERPOLATION
Control multiple axes simultaneously to move
on a line, a circle, or a curve.
Y Y

(10,5) (10,5)

(3,2) (3,2)
X X

Point-to-point control path Linear path

(10-3) 7
Vx =6 2 2
=6 = 5.5149
(10-3) + (5-2) 49+ 9

(5-2) 3
Vy =6 2 2
=6 = 2.3635
(10-3) + (5-2) 49+ 9
 CNC INTERPOLATIONS
• Interpolations are done to execute contouring tool
paths. It produces a series of intermediate data
points between given coordinate positions and
computes the axial velocity of an individual axis
along the contour path.
• Now a day’s all CNC controls are equipped with
linear and circular interpolations, some provides
helical interpolation,
parabolic and
cubic interpolations.
1. Linear interpolation: This moves tool from start
point to the target point along a straight line. It can
be implemented in a 2-D plane or 3-D space. the
programming command should indicate X, Y, Z
coordinates of target point, and feed rate.
2. Circular interpolation: It is programmed to cut
circular arcs in three principal planes; namely XY, YZ,
ZX.
Direction, target position, arc radius, cutting plane,
and feed rate must be specified in the program.
3. Helical interpolation: Helical interpolation
combines the two-axis circular interpolation with a
linear interpolation in third axis.
4. Parabolic interpolation: It uses three non-collinear
points to approximate curves that are of free forms.
It reduces the number of programmed points by as
much as 50 times the number required by the linear
interpolation mode. It is mainly used in mold and
die making.
5. Cubic interpolation: Cubic interpolation
approximates the surfaces defined by third-order
geometry.
It involves the motion of three axes to machine
complex shapes such as automobile sheet metal
dies.
• In general main three Interpolations are:

•
• (a) linear, (b) continuous path approximated by
• incremental straight lines, and

(c) circular
 Work Positioning
• The method of accurate work positioning in relation
to the cutting tool is called the “rectangular
coordinate system.” On the vertical mill, the
horizontal base line is designated the “X” axis, while
the vertical base line is designated the “Y” axis. The
“Z” axis is at a right angle, perpendicular to both the
“X” and “Y” axes.
The main axes of a vertical machining center
• Increments for all base lines are specified in linear
measurements, for most machines the smallest
increment is one ten-thousandth of an inch (.0001).
If the machine is graduated in metric the smallest
increment is usually one thousandth of a millimeter
(.001mm).
• The rectangular coordinate system allows the
mathematical plotting of points in space. These
points or locations are called “coordinates.” The
coordinates in turn relate to the tool center and
dictate the “tool path” through the work.
 Chapter Two
2. Computer Numerical Control
CNC is refers to a computer that is joined to the NC
machine to make the machine versatile / flexible.
Information can be stored in a memory bank. The
programme is read from a storage medium such as
the punched tape /dongle/ and retrieved/recover to
the memory of the CNC computer. Some CNC
machines have a magnetic medium (tape or disk)
for storing programs. This gives more flexibility for
editing or saving CNC programs. Figure below
illustrates the general configuration of CNC.
Magnetic tape or Miscellaneous
disk or paper tape control -e.g. limit
reader switches, coolant,
spindle, etc.
CNC
controller
with keypad Machine tool
and display

Axis drive and

Paper control
tape punch (x,y,z,a,b,w)
spindle speed
 In a Computer Numerical Controlled
machine, the machines are interfaced/line
with computers. This makes them more
versatile in the sense that, suppose a change
in dimension of a part is required.
In a NC machine, you would have had to
change the program in the tape and then feed
it to the machine again.
But in a CNC machine, you just change a
variable in the computer and your
modification is done!!
 2.1 Preparatory functions and axis
Programming consists of a series of instructions in form
of letter codes are preparatory function or Codes

• CNC instructions are called part program commands.

• When running, a part program is interpreted or

understood one command line at a time until all lines are
completed.

• Commands, which are also referred to as blocks/units of

data, are made up of words which each begin with a
letter address and end with a numerical value.
 In CNC Programming
• Each letter address relates to a specific machine
function.
• “G” and “M” letter addresses are two of the most
common codes.
• A “G” letter specifies certain machine preparations
such as inch or metric modes, or absolutes versus
incremental modes.
• A “M” letter specifies miscellaneous/various
machine functions and work like on/off switches for
coolant flow, tool changing, or spindle rotation.
• Other letter addresses are used to direct a wide
variety of other machine commands like (N, F, S, D
and T).
 In CNC programming Important things to know:

• Units, incremental or absolute positioning

• Coordinates: X,Y,Z, RX,RY,RZ ( three traditional and
three rotational) or six-degree of freedom

• Feed rate and spindle speed

• Coolant Control: On/Off, Flood, Mist
• Tool Control: Tool and tool parameters
Codes:
The most common codes used when programming
CNC machines tools are
1. G-codes (preparatory functions),
G code: used for controlling the relative movement
of the work-piece and machine spindle.
It prepares the MCU circuits to perform a specific
operation .
• G codes- Initial machining setup and establishing
operating conditions
2. M codes (miscellaneous functions)
M code: for controlling individual machine
components, such as motor on/off control,
selection of spindle speed, tool change, and coolant
on/off control.
• Miscellaneous Function, M
• Consisting of two digits, this word relates to the
movement of the machine in terms of spindle
on/off, coolant on/off etc.
3. Other codes such as N, F, S, D, and T are used for
machine functions such as feed, speed, cutter
diameter offset, tool number, etc.
N- Sequence Number
• Consisting of typically three digits, its purpose is to
identify the specific machining operation through
the block number particularly when testing a part
program.
 Dimension Words
1 . Distance dimension words, X,Y,Z
2 . Circular dimension words, I,J,K for distances to the
arc center
3 . Angular dimensions, A,B.C
While (1) and (3) are expressed either by
incremental or absolute mode, (2) is always in given
in incremental mode. All angular dimensions are
specified in revolutions or degrees.
• Example, N100 G91 X -5.0 Y7 .0 F100 S200 T01 M03
• In the above example, X moves a distance of 5 in. in
the negative direction while:
• Y moves a distance of 7 in. in the positive direction.
Other axes remain stationary.
• In some systems, actual distances are used. In
others, the dimension words are programmed in
BLUs.
 Feed rate, F
• It is expressed in in/min or mm/min and, is used in
contouring or point-to-point or straight-cut systems.
For example, a feed-rate of F100 implies 100 in/min
or 100 mm/min. Feed-rates are independent of
spindle speed.
• In linear motions, the feed-rate of the cutting tool is
not corrected for the cutter radius . But in circular
motions, the feed-rate should be corrected for the
tool radius as follows;
F = [(part contour radius ± tool radius)/part contour
radius] (required feed-rate
 Spindle speed, S
• Programmed in rev/min, it is expressed as RPM or
by a three-digit code number that is related to the
RPM.
Tool-word, T
• Consisting of a maximum of five digits, each cutting
tool has a different code number. The tool is
automatically selected by the automatic tool
changer when the code number is programmed in a
block.
 Program Command Parameters
Optimum machine programming requires consideration of
certain machine operating parameters including:
• Positioning control
• Compensations/reward
• Special machine features
• Positioning control is the ability to program tool and
machine slide movement simultaneously along two or
more axes.
• Positioning may be for point-to-point movement or for
contouring movement along a continuous path.
Contouring requires tool movement along multiple axes
simultaneously.
This movement is referred to as “Interpolation”
which is the process of calculating intermediate
values between specific points along a programmed
path and outputting those values as a precise motion.
Interpolation may be linear having just a start and
end point along a straight line, or circular which
requires an end point, a center and a direction
around the arc.
 Rules for programming
Block Format
N135 G01 X1.0 Y1.0 Z0.125 F5
Sample Block
• Restrictions on CNC blocks
• Each may contain only one tool move
• Each may contain any number of non-tool move G-codes
• Each may contain only one feed rate
• Each may contain only one specified tool or spindle
speed
• The block numbers should be sequential
• Both the program start flag/standard and the program
number must be independent of all other commands (on
separate lines)
• The data within a block should follow the sequence
shown in the above sample block.
 • G-code
• G00 Rapid Transverse
• G01 Linear Interpolation
• G02 Circular Interpolation, CW
• G03 Circular Interpolation, CCW
• G17 XY Plane
• G18 XZ Plane
• G19 YZ Plane
• G20/G70 Inch units
• G21/G71 Metric Units
• G40 Cutter compensation
cancel
• G41 Cutter compensation left
• G42 Cutter compensation right
• G43 Tool length compensation (plus)
• G43 Tool length compensation (plus)
• G44 Tool length compensation (minus)
• G49 Tool length compensation cancel
• G80 Cancel canned cycles
• G81 Drilling cycle
• G82 Counter boring cycle
• G83 Deep hole drilling cycle
• G90 Absolute positioning
• G91 Incremental positioning
G92 thread cutting cycle
G94 cutting cycle B (end face cycle)
G96 assessed surface speed control
G97 Assessed surface speed control
cancel
G98 feed per minute
G99 feed per revolution
 Table of Important M codes
• M00 Program stop:-(stop spindle & coolant, cycle start will
continue)
• M01 Optional program stop
• M02 Program end
• M03 Spindle on and clockwise
• M04 Spindle on counterclockwise
• M05 Spindle stop
• M06 Tool change
• M08 Coolant on
• M09 Coolant off
• M10 Clamps on
• M11 Clamps off
• M30 Program stop, reset to start or ( program end and
rewind(stops spindle and coolant also)
 Example
Manual Part Programming Example

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”
Tool size = 0.25 inch,
Feed rate = 6 inch per
5”
minute,
Cutting speed = 300 rpm,
Tool start position: 2.0, 2.0
Programming in inches
45°

(4, 4)
p1
Motion of tool:
p0  p1  p2  p3  p4  p5  p1  p0
p0 (2, 2)
• Step-1
1. Set up the programming parameters
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Programming in inches
5”
Use absolute coordinates

Feed in ipm
45°
N010 G70 G90 G94 G97 M04
(4, 4)
p1
Spindle speed in rpm
p0 (2, 2)
Spindle CCW
• Step-2
2. Set up the machining conditions
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”
Machine moves in XY-plane

Use full-circle interpolation

5”
Feed rate

Spindle speed
45°
N020 G17 G75 F6.0 S300 T1001 M08
(4, 4)
p1
Tool no.
p0 (2, 2)
Flood coolant ON
• Step-3
3. Move tool from p0 to p1 in straight line
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

Linear interpolation
1”
target coordinates

5” N030 G01 X3.875 Y3.698

45°

(4, 4)
p1

p0 (2, 2)
• Step-4
4. Cut profile from p1 to p2
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Linear interpolation
5” target coordinates

N040 G01 X3.875 Y9.125

45°
or
(4, 4)
p1 N040 G01 Y9.125

p0 (2, 2)

X-coordinate does not change  no need to program it

Step-5
5. Cut profile from p2 to p3
5”
2.5”
p2 p3
p4
p5 Linear interpolation

target coordinates
1”

N050 G01 X5.634 Y9.125

5”

y = 9 + 0.125 = 9.125
(6.5 - x)2 + 0.1252 = (1 - 0.125)2
x = 5.634
45° p3
(x, y)
(4, 4)
p1 (6.5, 9)
.125

p0 (2, 2)

1”
• Step-6
6. Cut along circle from p3 to p4

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

circular interpolation, CCW motion

5”
target coordinates

45° N060 G03 X7.366 Y9.125 I6.5 J9.0

(4, 4) coordinates of center of circle

p1

p0 (2, 2)
• Step-7
7. Cut from p4 to p5
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

5”

Linear interpolation

45° target coordinates (Y is unchanged)

(4, 4) N070 G01 X9.302

p1

p0 (2, 2)
• Step-8
8. Cut from p5 to p1
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

5”
Linear interpolation

target coordinates (see step 3)

45°
N080 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
(4, 4)
p1

p0 (2, 2)
• Step-9
9. Return to home position, stop program
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Linear interpolation

5” target coordinates (see step 3)

N090 G01 X2.0 Y2.0 M30

45°
end of data
(4, 4)
N100 M00
p1

p0 (2, 2) program stop

 Axis of motion
Axis of motion describes the relative motion that
occurs between the cutting tool and the workpiece.
Three main axes of motion for machine tools are
referred to as the x,y and z axes that form a right
hand coordinate system.
 Chapter Three
3. Fundamentals of Numerical Control:
A system in which actions are controlled by direct
insertion of numerical data at some point.
The system must automatically interpret this data.
• NC has been defined by the Electronic Industries
Association (EIA) as” a system in which actions are
controlled by the direct insertion of numerical data
at some points.
• The system must automatically interpret at least
some portion of this data”
• In a Numerical Control machine, the program is fed
to the machine through magnetic tapes or other
such media.
• The original NC machines were essentially basic
machine tools which were modified to have motors
for movement along the axes.
• The term ‘NC‘ is used to describe the control of the
various functions of a machine using numeric data.
In the early age of NC, machines were fed with
information by means of the punched tape.
• An Electro-mechanical tape reader was used to load
a machine tape into the controller.
Difference between CNC and NC

CNC machine NC machine

The machines are interfaced/line with In a Numerical Control machine, the program is

computers. This makes them more versatile in fed to the machine through magnetic tapes or
other such media.
the sense that, suppose a change in dimension
of a part is required.
In a CNC machine, you just change a variable in But In a NC machine, you would have had
the computer and your modification is done!! to change the program in the tape and
then feed it to the machine again.

The original NC machines were

essentially basic machine tools which
were modified to have motors for
movement along the axes.
• 3.1 Major components of NC
In general there are three basic components of an
operational NC (as illustrated in Figure 1):
1. Programme of instruction.
2. A machine control unit.
3. Machine tool.

Machine tool
Control unit
Program of
instruction
• The program of instruction is a numerical or
symbolic code that is detailed step-by-step to tell
the machine tool what to do.
• The controller unit is the unit that reads the
programme of instructions and converts it to real
movement of a machine tool.
• Two basic types of control unit are used with NC
machines: open-loop control and closed-loop
control.
• The machine tool performs the mechanical work
and deals directly with the part being machined.
1. Program of instruction/input medium
Part programming or instructions needed to drive
the machine tool components.
In which instructions are prepared manually or by
the use of computer.
Instructions include machining paramerters (feed
rate, cutting speed); sequence of the action (e.g
positioning and functions).
Instruction are stored in the form of tape( paper,
magnetic); floppy dikettes; DNC download to CNC
RAM.
 2. Machine control unit(MCU)
- Electronics and control hardware
- Interpret instruction set
- Execute instructions
- Monitor results and correct where appropriate
3. Machine tool
Mechanical structure that performs the machining,
including the components that drive each axis of
motion( e.g., AC or DC motor; hydraulic actuator;
stepper motor- choice affects speed of response,
accuracy and power capacity).
Machine setup and machine operation are two
chief tasks performed by NC machine operation.
A. Machine setup involves/engage
1. Setting up of the work-hold devices
2. Loading the NC program
3. Loading necessary tools
4. Measuring and entering work coordinate offset and
compensation values
• Apart from these a trial run is made to ensure the
smooth operation of the machine.
B. Whereas, machine operation includes
1. Loading and unloading the work-pieces
2. Machine operation monitoring for broken and worn
tools
3. In-process inspection and measurement and SPC
charting .
• Applications of NC
• Machine tool applications:
1. Milling machines.
2. Drilling machines.
3. Boring machines.
4. Turning machines.
5. Grinding machines.
6. Sawing machines.
3.2 Characteristics of an NC machine tool
Characteristic
– Accuracy
– Repeatability
– spindle and axis-motor horsepower
– number of controlled axes
– dimension of workpiece
– features of the machine and the controller
 Accuracy
It is a measure of control system’s capacity to position the tool or
workpiece to a specified set of coordinates.
– Control resolution: Basic length unit (BLU)
– Hardware inaccuracies
• inaccuracies in the machine elements
• machine-tool assembly errors
• spindle run-out
• Lead-screw backlash
• tool deflection
• thermal error
Repeatability
– It is a measure of how closely a machine repeats a given position
command
– Measure of agreement among repeated positioning movements
under the same operation conditions.
– It is measured as the diameter of the circle enclosing a target area
produced by many repeated experiments
 Steps in CN/CNC programming procedure
1. Interpret part drawing
-define zero points( M/c zero, w/p zero and home zero)
-define x-, y-,z- axes
2. Determine machining requirements like;
- Determine required operation and sequence
- Determine tooling requirements
- Determine feed, seed, depth(s) of cut.
3. Complete part program
4. Complete post/job processor/mainframe or computer
5. Store part program(e.g. punch tape, disk file)
6. Verify completed program:”check it out,” is it accurate?
 3.2 NC machine tool motors
Drive Motors
A. Electric motor
– widely used
– small size, ease of control, low cost
B. Hydraulic drive
– much larger power/size ratio
C. Pneumatic drive
– rarely used in NC positioning system
– can be used to drive the auxiliary devices
 A. Electric motor
1. Stepping motor
2. Servo motor (DC or AC)
 Most closed-loop systems control use servo motors (either DC or
AC), while, open- loop NC machines normally use stepping-motor
drives

1. Stepping motor
is an electromechanical actuator that translates digital
electrical signals into fixed mechanical rotation.
– When the pattern of the signals shifts, the motor
rotates one step angle.
– The direction of rotation depends on the pattern-
shifting direction.
– NC sends one stepping signal and a direction signal.
Stepping motor：is pulse control
– The number of steps (displacement) is determined by
the number of signals (pulses) received.
angle of rotor = number of pulses  step angle
– The speed of a stepping motor is determined by the
rate at which the signals (pulse rate) are received.
angular speed of rotor = pulse rate  step angle
A stepping motor provides open-loop, digital
control of the position of a workpiece in a
numerical control machine. The drive unit receives
a direction input (cw or ccw) and pulse inputs. For
each pulse it receives, the drive unit manipulates
the motor voltage and current, causing the motor
shaft to rotate by fixed angle (one step). The lead
screw converts the rotary motion of the motor shaft
into linear motion of the work-piece .
STEPPING MOTORS
A stepper motor is wound in such a way that the
rotation has a certain number of discrete "steps".
The number of steps per revolution is rather high,
around two hundred or so, and varies by model and
manufacturer. What this means is that the motor
has effectively a resolution (smallest controlled
movement) equal to the number of steps for that
motor.
• Stepper systems are often “open loop” which
means that the controller only tells the motors how
many steps to move and how fast to move, but
does not have any way of knowing where they
actually are. This can lead to errors, should a
situation arise where the motors are unable to
comply with the commanded move.
• This can be very obvious, where the motion stops
and it sounds like you stripped a gear, or subtle,
where the motor only misses a “few” steps. The
result is the same - the controller thinks you are at
X25.5, Y15.5 and in reality you might be at X25.3,
Y15.4 . This can lead to a cumulative error, which
may in turn lead to crashes, not to mention out of
spec parts.
 2. Servo Motors
• A servo motor can be either DC or AC, and is usually
comprised of the drive section and the
resolver/encoder.
• Servo Motors are variable speed motors that
rotates in response to the applied voltage.
• DC Servo motors are controlled by varying the
voltage magnitude.
• AC Servo Motors are Controlled by varying the
Voltage frequency.
A servo motor is much smoother in motion than a
comparable stepper, and will have a much higher
resolution for position control. The servo family is
further divided into AC and DC types. An AC servo
had the advantage of being able to handle much
higher current surges than a DC, as the DC has
brushes, which are the limiting factor in this case.
AC Servo is Stronger than DC servo
The trend for manufacturers of “serious” CNC
machinery is to use AC servos. “Entry level”
machines may have DC servos, or even steppers.
 B. Hydraulic Motor
Variable Speed Motors
Recırculatıng ball screws
Transform rotational motion of the motor into translational
motion of the nut attached to the machine table.
• Accuracy of NC/CNC machines depends on their rigid
construction, care in manufacturing, and the use of
ball screws to almost eliminate slop in the screws
used to move portions of the machine.