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Beginnings and Endings: Keys to

Better Engineering Technical Writing


Abstract—Engineers face many technical writing tasks that have many
features in common: title, abstract, introduction, problem formulation,
methods, results, and conclusions. But it is often very difficult to actually
write these segments in the same order they appear in the finished
product. Instead of this linear approach, we recommend a modular
approach starting with the core sections, the methods and results that
researchers know best, and working backward and forward to pick up
—MARCIA MARTENS PIERSON the beginnings and endings. We show how the beginning and ending
AND BION L. PIERSON sections build on the core sections and offer strategies to improve them.

Index Terms— Abstracts, conclusions, introductions, modular writing


approach, technical writing strategies, titles.

Manuscript received April 1997.


Roman engineer Frontinus [4]. Both
This paper is based on a presentation
given at the 57th Annual American Society C ONVENTIONAL wisdom says
that engineers as a group dread
stressed the need to keep a written
of Engineering Education North Midwest record of what had been done so
Section Meeting, St. Cloud, MN, writing. Yet the results of a recent that those who came later could
October 5–6, 1995.
M. M. Pierson is with Engineering
survey of practicing aerospace en- follow their steps. Early in this cen-
Publication and Communication Services, gineers and scientists [1] show that tury, the famous scientist Charles
Iowa State University, practicing engineers spend a signif- Steinmetz [5] had a particularly
Ames, IA 50011-3060 USA. icant portion of their time creating
B. L. Pierson is with Aerospace Engineering
clear view of the value of good
and Engineering Mechanics, their own technical documents or engineering writing. He was con-
Iowa State University, working on those of others. For cerned among other things with how
Ames, IA 50011-3231 USA. example, “the average number of well research reports communicate
IEEE PII: S 0361-1434(97)08925-X.
hours spent per week producing knowledge to particular audiences.
technical communications varied Even these early engineers felt re-
from a mean low of 19.6 hours to a sponsible not only for practicing
mean high of 23.3 hours,” depend- engineering but also for document-
ing whether the engineers worked ing it and making their knowledge
in design or development, “and a available to others. That goal is still
mean low of 14.9 to a mean high important today and is amplified
of 19.6 hours” if they worked on by the knowledge that how well
technical communications received engineers conduct research, write,
from others. Add to that engineering and publish has a great impact on
academics who write proposals, the advancement of their careers
journal articles, project reports, and as well as on the advancement of
conference papers, to say nothing knowledge.
of lectures and class handouts, and
we see that the need to write well
is pervasive. While the fields of engineering and
the language to discuss them have
Engineering and writing have been expanded enormously over the cen-
inextricably linked from the early turies, the need to communicate
Roman times [2] as shown in the engineering knowledge is still at the
earliest translations of the Roman heart of the engineering profession
architect Vitruvius [3] and of the both in industry and academia. We
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION,
VOL. 40, NO. 4, DECEMBER 1997
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300 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 40, NO. 4, DECEMBER 1997

want to look at the major problems likely contributions difficult at best. and the methods used to solve
we see in the technical papers we Abstracting journals are the place the problem—What worked? What
edit as the editor of an international to start. A subject search gives the didn’t? and Why?—and describe
scientific journal and as a technical scope and key players on any given the process used to get to a so-
editor in an engineering college. We topic. From there, an author search lution. Reviewing their laboratory
first consider the overall writing will yield the specific articles most notebooks or computer files shows
process and how to get started. likely to be of interest. Checking the how they tackled the problem—the
Then we explore the four parts references in these articles will likely false starts, the twists and turns,
of technical writing that seem to add a number of other authors and and the triumphs. Beginning with
give authors the most difficulty: titles of interest. what they know best gets writers off
title, abstract, introduction, and dead center and into the fray. At this
conclusions. These beginnings and After researchers have compiled a creative stage, writers do not need to
endings play a critical role in the list of articles, the next question worry too much about the grammar,
overall success of any technical is how to deal with them. Before but rather they need to concentrate
paper [6], [7]. Our recommendation writing can begin, information must on tracking the research.
is to adopt a modular approach be gathered and thoughts assem-
for writing a technical report or bled. One method we find helpful When a draft of the methods is
article. By that we mean to pull the in the beginning stages of writ- complete, writers can go on to the
sections out of their normal order ing is to label a piece of paper or next section and show the results
and work on them in the order of a computer file with the various achieved. The questions they need
ease for the author. The discussion sections of the paper. Generally, to ask themselves include: What did
focuses on determining the purpose researchers know what should be I find out that I didn’t know before?
of each of these beginning and included in a technical paper: 1) What do the data indicate? How
ending components, the order in title, 2) abstract, 3) introduction, 4) do my results compare with those
which they might be written, and problem formulation, 5) methods, of others? After these questions
strategies for writing each one. 6) conclusions, and 7) references. are answered, writers need to go
The task is to enter salient points or back to the laboratory notebook
quotes from the literature under the or computer files to document the
GETTING STARTED proper heading with bibliographic results. Tables and figures can be
J. H. Mitchell [8] says that “most information noted. The order of the used to display the results and
research and writing projects be- information under each heading is to show comparisons with other
gin with a problem and end with not critical at this point because methods. Once a draft of the results
a solution.” Thus to get started, entries can be rearranged later. is finished, the bulk of the paper is
writers need to develop a working well under way. This achievement
problem statement. This is sim- Once the notes are taken, research- will give writers the confidence to
ply a qualitative statement of the ers typically think that the best tackle the next section, which might
main message or messages in the way to write the paper is to start be either the introduction or con-
paper under construction. What at the beginning and write till they clusions.
will the publication of this paper come to the end. That approach is
accomplish? For instance, we might a logical and linear way to think,
state the problem for this paper as but it is not necessarily the most WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
follows: researchers frequently have effective way to work through the For many situations, the introduc-
trouble writing technical papers writing process. Facing a blank tion will be the best place to start.
because they get bogged down in piece of paper labeled introduction The purpose of the introduction
the beginnings and endings. Such a or abstract can be daunting. Rather is to encourage the reader to read
working problem statement will help we recommend a modular approach the whole article. It explains why
keep the writer focused on the main in which we separate the sections of there is a need or a problem and
objective while working on each of the paper and work on them in the how the author will deal with it.
the components. order that is easiest for the writer. The introduction usually motivates
the present study, provides a lit-
With a working problem statement erature review, and explains how
in hand, researchers can do the METHODS AND RESULTS the current work fits with what
literature review and examine what When the research or project is has gone before. In addition, a
people currently know and where complete, researchers know the brief summary of the findings is
the issues are. Until researchers most about the problem that has frequently included. What better
know something about past work, just been solved, the methods used time to write the introduction than
they will find planning the research, to solve it, and the results achieved. when the results section has just
assessing how their ideas fit with Thus it seems auspicious to be- been completed. The importance of
previous work, and determining the gin with the problem formulation the work and how it fits in with the
PIERSON AND PIERSON: KEYS TO BETTER ENGINEERING TECHNICAL WRITING 301

larger scheme of research in this Some authors, such as Mills and body, comprehensive interpretation
area should be the clearest at this Walter [12], recommend includ- of information in the body, and
time. ing the organization of the paper. recommendations and proposals
For example, “This report will be based on the information in the
divided into five major parts: ” body.”
Much has been written about the
While perhaps useful for a long
function of introductions. Menzel,
report, this information already
Jones, and Boyd [9] indicate that
appears in the table of contents. From our perspective, authors need
“the first sentence of the introduc-
We do not recommend that writers to make a distinction between a
tion is a kind of a road map, a
end the introduction with such a summary that deals with the proc-
brief indication of the direction the
paragraph unless the guidelines call ess of the research and a conclusion
argument will take and the nature
for it. Such a paragraph is a weak that focuses on the contributions
of the goal.” Rada [10], on the other
ending to an important section; it is of the research. For a long report,
hand, touts the role of introductions
usually filler and does not advance writers may want to summarize the
as assuring the likelihood that a
the work. A better method is to work briefly and then analyze the
reader will move on to the body of
end the introduction with a clear significance of the research in a
the article. Miles [11] states that
statement of the importance of the final section titled Summary and
the introduction “usually gives an
research and then use subheadings Conclusions. However, a conclusion
overview of the problem confronted,
to indicate the structure of the should not simply restate what
the theory behind the methodology
remainder of the paper. was done, and writers should avoid
used, and a statement about the
the trap of repeating a lot of what
significance or importance of the
was stated in the introduction.
current research,” while Mills and WRITING THE CONCLUSIONS Thus the summary ought to be
Walter [12] cite four specific func-
When the introduction has been kept to a minimum and instead
tions of the technical introduction:
drafted, the next section to tackle is the emphasis should be placed
to state the subject, purpose, scope,
the conclusions. Writers have writ- on interpreting the results and
and plan of development.
ten about their vision of the project, especially on identifying the con-
the methods they have used, and tributions. It may be advantageous
The common themes in the litera- the results they have obtained. Now to list the main conclusions with
ture indicate that the introduction it is time for them to step back, ask bullets or numbers so that readers
contains the problem statement, themselves the following questions, can identify them immediately.
shows what has been done on the and assess what they have learned.
problem in the past, and relates What does the research mean? Why
the current work to past history. As is it significant? What contributions Most journal articles should not
writers do research, they are all in- does it make, i.e., what value has it include a summary. Rather the
debted to the researchers who have added to the body of knowledge in conclusions should delineate the
preceded them. We like to think of the field? How will others be able to significance of the research. What
this progression of knowledge as use it? Where do we go from here? do we know now that we did not
a pyramid, with each higher level know at the beginning? How good
resting on the base of the previous Authors of technical writing books are the results? Writers should be as
one. If the research area is well- and technical society publication quantitative as possible when they
developed, writers can cite survey guides offer a variety of thoughts state their conclusions. For exam-
papers for the earlier works and on the function of conclusions. For ple, use “The XYZ method achieved
then spend more time reviewing the example, Marder [13] notes that a 15.7% reduction in manufacturing
last ten years of research. Having “conclusions give a sense of com- time,” rather than “the XYZ method
shown their place on this pyramid, pletion to the report” and “conclu- works well.” The IEEE Power Engi-
they can indicate their methods of sions and recommendations (either neering Society [16] suggests several
development and indicate briefly positive or negative) comprise the additional questions for authors to
what they have found. Questions for value received for the money spent.” answer at the end of the conclu-
writers to ask themselves include: “Conclusions,” notes the American sions: “What are the advantages
Is my approach an incremental con- Institute of Physics [14], “are con- and limitations of the work?” and
tribution or a new way of approach- victions based on evidence. If you “What are the recommendations for
ing the problem? Specifically, how state conclusions, make certain that further work?” Perhaps the paper
does my work differ from previously they follow logically from data you has several small contributions or
published work? Be explicit about presented in the paper, and that maybe a big one. Whichever it is,
this; do not make the reader guess they agree with what you promised the conclusions section is the place
what is new. End the introduction in the introduction.” Lannon [15] to wrap up the package and deliver
by stating the importance of the lists the functions of conclusions as it to the reader.
research. a “summary of information in the
302 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 40, NO. 4, DECEMBER 1997

DEVELOPING A TITLE letting the title serve as an inflated title or subtitle. The to in infinitives
The title provides the first hook advertisement.” is also lowercased” [20].
for the reader. Not only are titles
important for their content but To shorten a draft title, cut the
words that are not essential. As WRITING THE ABSTRACT
also for their visibility, especially
when they appear in an abstracting an example, consider the title, “An Abstracts are often the hardest
journal. Finding the right words Investigation into the Effects of part to write and yet are the most
and phrases is crucial to bringing Residential Air-Conditioning Main- important. Thus we recommend
the reader into the article itself. Our tenance in Reducing the Demand for leaving it till last so writers have
strategy for writing titles is to jot Electrical Energy.” Clearly, the au- their whole text in front of them.
down key words and play with them thor is considering the relationship Abstracts play a role both within
to see how they might go together. between residential air conditioning the paper and outside it. As part
While writing the paper, we keep a maintenance and electric power of the paper, abstracts give a brief
list of alternatives so that a number demand. A more compact title would overview and help the reader know
of possible titles are available, either simply be “Role of Air-Conditioning and judge the value of a particular
to use as is or as a springboard for Maintenance on Electric Power De- piece of scientific writing. Outside
a new title. mand.” This new title reflects the the paper, the abstract serves as
relationship between the two parts a filter for classifying papers. Ab-
of the subject and reduces the stracts of journal articles appear
What makes a good title? Make it number of words by half. in abstracting journals and in this
short and make it snappy sums up form they help readers decide if
the thinking of many technical com- Most importantly, the title should they want to see the whole paper
municators [9], [17]. An exception reflect the focus of the paper and or not. For reports, the abstract
is Jones [18], who indicates that allow an editor to place the paper gives the first clue to an agency
unlike literary books, whose titles in the appropriate category in an whether the work is worthwhile
are short to arouse interest, report abstracting journal, conference at- and whether they will look beyond
titles are primarily informative and tendees to know whether they want the abstract. To get a paper read,
concerned more with completeness to hear the paper, or managers to authors must take great care to
than conciseness. He does advocate know if a particular report is of give enough information in the
being as brief as possible, but up interest for the problem at hand. appropriate language (buzz words
to 40 or 50 words may be used. Titles then are critical—they need if you will) so that researchers can
Many other technical writers ad- to have the keywords that will help quickly decide if they will read the
vise making the title brief while a researcher make the first cut, full paper.
still descriptive. Marder [13], for e.g., is the paper about linear or
example, suggests that a title “is a nonlinear programming? control Authors writing about abstracts
phrase announcing the essence of theory? artificial neural networks? provide a variety of recommen-
the report,” but it should not be a Also pick some of the title words to dations. Menzel, Jones, and Boyd
summary of the report’s contents. distinguish your work from previ- [9] admonish writers “to present a
Since many journals limit the length ous papers. For example, if in the clear, concise summary, preferably
of titles, authors should check the past a particular problem has only in one paragraph, of the purpose
guidelines. Even if guidelines pose been solved using linear methods and most import results of the
no restrictions, a good goal for and you are solving the problem investigation together with a mini-
title length is recommended by with nonlinear methods, make sure mum of the theory it is based on”
the American Mathematical Society you include the word nonlinear in to be used in abstracting journals.
[19], which asserts that “A title of your title. Consider inventing a new Booth [17] advises authors “to state
more than ten or twelve words is word to make your title stand out, briefly what you did. Then the main
likely to be miscopied, misquoted, e.g., “Optimal Aerocapture Trajec- results . State the conclusion in
distorted, and cursed.” Jones [18] tories”—aerocapture is not in the the last sentence.” Marder [13] calls
also suggests that the title may be- dictionary, but it conveys the main abstracts a “thumbnail (sketch) of
gin with the words “Report on ” or focus of the paper. the report itself.”
“A Study of .” Most current writers
on technical writing recommend Once a title is chosen, take time to Regardless of the words used to
instead using key words to start the proofread it and check for spelling, describe an abstract, the abstract
title [9], [17]. The American Mathe- grammar, and capitalization. For is critical in getting a researcher’s
matical Society [19] is more explicit example, “articles (a, an, the), coor- work out to the scientific com-
than that when they advise authors dinating conjunctions (and, but, or, munity. In our view, the abstract
to “make the title as informative for, nor) and prepositions, regard- contains some elements of an intro-
as possible, but avoid redundancy, less of length, are lowercased unless duction, problem statement, meth-
and eschew the medieval practice of they are the first or last word of the ods, results, and conclusions. A
PIERSON AND PIERSON: KEYS TO BETTER ENGINEERING TECHNICAL WRITING 303

sentence for each of the main areas If writers stopped with discrete want the document to appear. Pay
may be all that is needed. The modules, of course, the paper might attention to heading styles and
abstract may be quite brief, perhaps not hold together as an organic how references should be cited and
100–200 words or less. This means whole. Therefore, the writer’s last listed. These guidelines will also
the writer has to be concise. Also the task, once all the sections are in specify number of pages, how to
writer should state the relevant facts place, is to look critically at how deal with tables and figures, and
as objectively as possible and avoid they fit together. Questions to ask so on. Putting your paper in the
self-praise and overt advertising. We include: Does each section perform recommended format is a subtle
like to think of writing an abstract its appointed task? Is the order way of saying to the editor that this
as including five parts: 1) the con- logical? Do the ideas flow together paper is prepared especially for that
text of the work, 2) the problem or are better transitions needed? journal. These details are noticed
statement—specifically what the Does the same material appear by journal editors.
scope is, 3) the methods—how the more than once? Can the writing be
work was done, 4) the results—what tightened and made clearer? Does
discoveries were made, and 5) the the writing fit the audience? For ex- As we take a long view of techni-
conclusions—the significance and ample, if it is for technical peers, is cal articles, we see that the writer
contributions of the work. the background condensed and the has three key places to hook the
methods, results, and conclusions reader—each one reveals a little
amplified? If it is for the boss in more about the topic, like layers
In writing abstracts, do not include industry, is the problem statement of an onion: for example, 1) the
references; the abstract should be clear and the big picture painted title gives readers key words to
able to stand alone. Likewise, avoid in broad strokes? Is there enough catch their interest; 2) the abstract
acronyms unless the word or word detail to back up the generalities gives a mini overview of the whole
cluster is cumbersome and is used but not so much as to discourage paper, kind of a teaser that gives
more than once. Then identify it the the reader? Does the title contain more detail than the title; and 3)
first time it is used in the abstract the key words that will hook the the introduction gives the scope of
and again the first time it is used in reader? the problem and the objectives of
the body of the paper. the research, the background and
We have talked little about the how it relates to past work, and
quality of the writing itself because the nature of the data and analysis.
that is not our primary focus here. Along with the conclusions, these
CONCLUSION But since the quality of the writing beginnings are crucial for engaging
Writing a technical paper using is very important, we offer a sugges- readers’ attention. Most seasoned
a modular approach is not the tion for writers once they have done researchers do not read all papers
norm, but it does have some ad- their best. That is to ask for some straight through. They start with the
vantages. Writing first what a re- peer review from colleagues or an title, of course, then the abstract,
searcher knows best builds confi- editorial service. Getting feedback the conclusions, a quick scan of the
dence and gets the creative juices from an impartial reader will help references, next the introduction,
flowing. By the time researchers get a writer see the places where read- and then maybe on to the body
to the tougher sections, such as the ers go astray and where reader’s of the paper. Will the beginnings
abstract, most of the ideas that they questions are unanswered. and endings of your paper survive
need are already in hand. The task this sequence of inspection? Writers
then is to pick out these salient The format of the paper is another who can master these sections will
points and key words and weave detail that needs attention. If you boost their chances of publishing
them together to tell the story in are writing a journal article, con- their articles and having others
miniature. sult the journal to see how they read them.

References
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[3] Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture (translated by Morris Hicky


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1993, pp. 282–283.

Marcia Martens Pierson is an editor in Engineering Publication and Communication


Services at Iowa State University. She received the B.S. and M.A. degrees in English
from Iowa State University and Columbia University, respectively. She works with
both faculty and students to prepare papers, proposals, contract reports, newsletters,
departmental annual reports, conference proceedings, and other documents for the
College of Engineering at Iowa State.

Bion L. Pierson is a Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engi-


neering Mechanics at Iowa State University. He received the Ph.D. degree in aerospace
engineering from the University of Michigan and the M.S. and B.S. degrees also in
aerospace engineering from Iowa State University. His primary research interests are in
trajectory optimization, numerical methods in optimal control, and control and dynamics
of aerospace vehicles. He is the editor of the international journal Optimal Control
Applications and Methods, published by John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, England.

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