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Article history: Magnesium alloys have received broad attentions in industry due to their competitive strength to density
Received 24 September 2015 ratio, but the poor ductility and strength limit their wide range of applications as engineering materials.
Received in revised form A novel severe plastic deformation (SPD) technique of high speed extrusion machining (HSEM) was used
15 November 2015
here. This method could improve the aforementioned disadvantages of magnesium alloys by one single
Accepted 16 November 2015
processing step. In this work, systematic HSEM experiments with different chip thickness ratios were
Available online 17 November 2015
conducted for magnesium alloy AZ31B. The microstructure of the chips reveals that HSEM is an effective
Keywords: SPD method for attaining magnesium alloys with different grain sizes and textures. The magnesium alloy
High speed extrusion machining with bimodal grain size distribution has increased mechanical properties than initial sample. The elec-
Magnesium alloy
tron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis shows that the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) affects the
Grain refinement
grain refinement and resulting hardness in AZ31B. Based on the experimental observations, a new
Dynamic recrystallization
theoretical model is put forward to describe the effect of DRX on materials during HSEM. Compared with
the experimental measurements, the theoretical model is effective to predict the mechanical property of
materials after HSEM.
& 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction size and grain boundary distribution, thus conferring the micro-
structure significantly different properties. However, in these
Weight reduction of automobile is an attractive option for conventional SPD techniques, multiple passes of deformation
significant advances in both fuel efficiency and the resulting re- process are needed to accumulate large strain in materials, and
duction in CO2 emission [1,2]. Magnesium alloys are attractive suitable route and temperature are also necessary in order to re-
metals for the aerospace and automotive field to take advantage of fine the microstructure down to ultrafine-grain [17–20].
their high strength-to-weight ratio [3]. However, magnesium al- Machining has been proved to be a particularly effective
loys show poor ductility at ambient temperature due to their method to achieve SPD [21,22]. Compared with the conventional
hexagonal close-packed (HCP) crystal structure and an insufficient SPD techniques, the SPD method of machining needs one de-
number of operative slips [4]. Compared with the competing formation step to produce large strain in the material. Chan-
materials, the strength of magnesium is lower than that of steel or drasekar and co-workers have used the machining SPD method to
aluminum [5–7]. Therefore, the poor ductility and strength of promote formation of ultra-fine grained (UFG) and nanocrystalline
microstructures [23,24]. In order to control the deformation field,
magnesium alloys limit their wide range of applications as en-
Chandrasekar further devised a large strain extrusion machining
gineering materials.
(LSEM) apparatus by introducing constraint into machining [25].
Severe plastic deformation (SPD) has emerged as an effective
Dai and co-workers developed the dynamic LSEM and quasi-static
technique to produce ultrafine-grained microstructure for im-
LSEM devices to research the suppression of repeated adiabatic
proved ductility and strength [8–11]. Conventional SPD techniques
shear banding and deformation field [26,27].
such as equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) [12], high pressure
As for the SPD process of magnesium alloy, the SPD speed plays
torsion (HPT) [13], accumulative roll bonding (ARB) [14] and ac-
an important role in the deformation behavior of magnesium alloy.
cumulative back extrusion (ABE) [15,16] are able to vary the grain Shear bands or crack could be produced at low SPD speed in
magnesium alloy [28,29], which is harmful for its usage. As SPD
n
Corresponding author. speed increasing, dynamic recrystallization (DRX) behavior is
E-mail address: liuyao@ustb.edu.cn (Y. Liu). dramatically enhanced by high temperature [28,30]. For low speed
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2015.11.046
0921-5093/& 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y. Liu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 651 (2016) 878–885 879
LSEM magnesium alloys, Efe et al. first suppressed the crack in- Table 2 by adjusting the position of constraint. After cutting, chips
itiation in magnesium alloy sheet by high hydrostatic pressure were collected and embedded into clean resin. The lateral process
[29]. However, high speed LSEM magnesium alloys is not explored was mechanically polished and then the polished surfaces were
in improving the properties of magnesium alloys. It is suggested etched in a 5 g picric acid þ10 ml water þ10 ml acetic
that remarkable grain refinement could be obtained during high acidþ 100 ml ethanol solution for about 10 s to reveal the de-
speed LSEM magnesium alloys, due to the contribution of DRX in formed microstructure of AZ31B.
high speed SPD. Grain refinement could potentially help to im- These etched specimens were further observed with the optical
prove strength of magnesium alloys owing to Hall–Petch re- microscope (Olympus BX51M) to examine the morphologies of
lationship [31,32]. Therefore, it is meaningful to research the grain chips. The grain sizes were measured by the planimetric procedure
refinement of magnesium alloys in high speed extrusion ma- in the image analysis software Image Pro-Plus 6.0 according to
chining (HSEM). ASTM E112-10 method by counting at least 500 grains [35,36].
In this paper, in order to enhance DRX behavior, a high speed The specimens for electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD)
LSEM device is designed to process magnesium alloys. A sys- analysis were prepared by polishing with SiC (down to 2000 grit
tematic HSEM experiments with different chip thickness ratios size) and further electropolishing using a solution of 90 ml ethanol
were conducted for magnesium alloy. The cutting speed is 10 m/s. and 10 ml perchloric acid (25 V at 30 °C). JOEL JSM-7800F was
The chip morphology reveals the variation of microstructure in used to examine EBSD maps of AZ31B samples. The operating
magnesium alloy with decreasing chip thickness ratio. Compared voltage was 15 KV and the observation surface was on the cross
with the microstructure in magnesium alloy before HSEM ex- section perpendicular to normal direction (ND). The scanning step
periments, the grains after HSEM experiments are refined more length was 2 μm and 0.4 μm for the initial sample and deformed
greatly. There are multiple grain sizes for large chip thickness ratio samples respectively.
in HSEM, where the large grains are surrounded by smaller grains. Vickers hardness testing of samples is further conducted on the
With the decreasing chip thickness ratio, the large grains are fur- hardness tester (Everone MH-5L) to reveal the relationship be-
ther refined and uniformly small grains are attained. To char- tween the mechanical property and the microstructure of mag-
acterize the mechanical property of magnesium alloy for different nesium alloy. Vickers hardness measurements were carried out on
chip thickness ratios in HSEM, Vickers hardness testing of mag- the cross section perpendicular to ND at regular distance intervals,
nesium alloy is conducted before and after HSEM. The Vickers using a 100 g load for 15 s.
hardness measurements show that the magnesium alloys of
multiple grain sizes have a better mechanical property than that of
the uniformly small grains. 3. Experimental observations
The paper is organized as follows: in Section 2 we briefly nar-
rate the experimental procedure of the HSEM magnesium alloy 3.1. Microstructure measurements
AZ31B. The microstructural observations and the mechanical
properties of magnesium alloys for different chip thickness ratios Fig. 3 shows the microstructure of chips for different chip
are given in Section 3. Section 4 presents the theoretical model for thickness ratios in HSEM AZ31B under the cutting condition of
HSEM magnesium alloys. Section 5 gives remarkable conclusions Table 2. Compared Fig. 1 with Fig. 3, the originally coarse grains are
of our present investigation. refined more markedly by even a single pass of HSEM processing.
The chip thickness ratio in HSEM has a great influence on grain
refinement. The grains have a heterogeneous distribution in HSEM
2. Experimental procedure for large chip thickness ratio where the large grains are sur-
rounded by smaller grains (Fig. 3a). With the decreasing chip
The initial sample used in the experiments is magnesium alloy thickness ratio, the large grains are further refined and the small
plate AZ31B. Chemical composition is specified in Table 1. The grains have a homogeneous distribution in chips (Fig. 3b–d).
annealing temperature of AZ31B is 345 °C. The microstructure of In order to reveal the relationship between grain size and chip
the initial sample and its grain size distribution are illustrated in thickness ratio, the grain sizes were measured by the statistical
Fig. 1. The average initial grain size is about 38.9 μm as shown in methods described in experimental procedure and the distribution
Fig. 1b. of grain sizes is illustrated in Fig. 4. The grains of the AZ31B before
The technique of HSEM has been elaborated in [27]. Fig. 2 HSEM have a Gaussian distribution with the average grain size of
shows a schematic of HSEM, where an orthogonal machining 38.9 μm (Fig. 1). Compared with the initial grain size, the average
process is taken into consideration. The wedge-shaped tool with a grain size of AZ31B after HSEM is much smaller.
rake angle α is static and the workpiece with a cutting layer depth The grains are refined by controlled chip thickness ratio in
t0 is moving toward the tool. Finally, because of the process of HSEM; however, the grain size distribution varies with chip
shear in primary shear zone (PSZ) OA, the workpiece materials in thickness ratio. For the chip thickness ratio λ = 0.93 (Fig. 4a), the
the cutting layer flow out along the rake face of the tool in the grains have a heterogeneous distribution with grain size ranging
form of a chip with a thickness tc . The inclined angle φ of PSZ is from 0.5 μm to 50 μm and a bimodal grain structure of coarse
named as shear angle. Based on the definition of chip thickness grains embedded in a fine matrix is produced. About 70% of the
ratio λ = tc /t0 [33,34], the different chip thickness ratios can be microstructure is composed of fine grains with a mean size of
obtained by changing the position of constraint during HSEM. 2 μm , while the rest of the grains have sizes ranging from 8 μm up
In order to explore the relationship between different chip to 50 μm . When the chip thickness ratio is less than a certain value
thickness ratios and microstructure of magnesium alloy in HSEM, (Fig. 4b–d), the bimodal grain size distribution disappear and the
the different cutting conditions for HSEM AZ31B are listed in refined grains have a Gaussian distribution. As shown in Fig. 4b–d,
the average grain sizes for λ = 0.57, λ = 0.43 and λ = 0.32 are close
Table 1 to each other. The chip thickness ratio less than a certain value can
Chemical composition of the magnesium alloy AZ31B. not remarkably affect the grain refinement if the initial tempera-
ture and cutting speed are both fixed in HSEM.
Elements Mg Al Zn Mn Si Cu Ca Others
Wt. (%) 97 2.5–3.5 0.6–1.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.04
It is noteworthy that the average grain size can be refined down
≤ 0.01
to 2 μm in HSEM at the ambient temperature of 293 K by a
880 Y. Liu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 651 (2016) 878–885
Fig. 1. (a) The initial microstructure of AZ31B at the normal direction (ND); (b) the initial grain size distribution.
Fig. 3. Microstructural observations of chips for different chip thickness ratios in HSEM: (a) λ = 0.93; (b) λ = 0.57; (c) λ = 0.43; (d) λ = 0.32; (e), (f), (g) and (h) are the local
magnifications of (a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively.
882 Y. Liu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 651 (2016) 878–885
Fig. 4. Grain size distribution of AZ31B after HSEM: (a) λ = 0.93; (b) λ = 0.57; (c) λ = 0.43; (c) λ = 0.32.
Fig. 5. The orientation imaging maps (OIM) for magnesium alloy samples (a) before HSEM, (b) after HSEM λ¼ 0.93, and (c) after HSEM λ ¼ 0.43.
Y. Liu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 651 (2016) 878–885 883
4. Theoretical model
ρ = ρn ( 1 − XD ) + ρs XD⋅ (3)
shear strain in Fig. 3b–d induces a full DRX for the elongated The parameter Z is given by the Arrhenius equation [49]:
grains. The grains are homogeneously refined to about 2 μm ⎛Q ⎞
(Fig. 4b–d) due to the complete DRX. During the complete DRX, Z = ε ̇ exp ⎜ ⎟,
⎝ RT ⎠ (8)
the dislocations that generate due to SPD are incorporated by the
transformation of low angle boundaries (LABs) to high angle where ε̇ is the effective strain rate, R is the universal gas constant,
boundaries (HABs) [15]. The complete DRX in chips with small Q is the activation energy for deformation, T is the absolute
chip thickness ratio may absorb the dislocations which are emitted temperature. The effective strain rate ε̇ is in the following form
due to large strain in HSEM, thus, the Vickers hardness does not [50,51]:
884 Y. Liu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 651 (2016) 878–885
V0 cos α
ε̇ = ⋅
3 h cos (φ − α ) (9)
1 −Y ⎛ ⎞
Γ=
4Y
erf ( Y ) + (1 + Y ) erfc ( Y ) − e π ⎜⎝ 2 1Y + Y ⎟,
⎠ (11)
ρm cV0 t0 cos α
Y= ,
4k (λ − sin α ) (12)
Fig. 8. Variation of temperature with cutting speed for different chip thickness
where ρm is the density of AZ31B, c is the special heat, k is the ratios.
thermal conductivity, Γ is the fraction of shear plane heat flowing
into the workpiece, Ta is the initial workpiece temperature and us
is the energy per unit volume dissipated at the shear plane. The
work has shown that us increases from 2.3 × 108 to 4.3 × 108 J/m3
when λ is decreased from 1.4 to 0.7 [29].
Substituting the parameter values in Tables 2 and 3 into Eqs.
(10)–(12), the relationship between the temperature T and cutting
speed V0 is illustrated in Fig. 8. The temperature T increases
monotonically with the cutting speed V0 and reaches a nearly
constant at high speeds. The temperature T increases with the
decreasing chip thickness ratio λ due to the increasing deforma-
tion level. As shown in Fig. 8, the temperature in AZ31B during
HSEM can reach up to 509 K at the cutting speed of 10 m/s without
pre-heating the workpiece.
For a given cutting speed V0 , numerical analysis of Eqs. (2)–(12)
can characterize the yield stress σ Y of AZ31B after HSEM. Ac-
cording to the research results of Khodabakhshi and co-workers
[55], the relationship between hardness and strength in SPD me-
tals can be presented as follow:
σY Fig. 9. Comparison of theoretical results with experimental measurements.
HV = (0.1)−n ,
3 (14)
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