CHAPTER 4

Conductors
Conductors are designed to conform to a range o f nominal areas in graduated ste
ps. Outside North and South America, and countries following their techniques, t
he rest of the world now adopts essentially c o m m o n practices and standards
based on IEC 228, i.e. metric (mm 2) sizes. American usage continues to be based
on American Wire Gauge (AWG) up to 4/0, i.e. 107 mm 2, and larger sizes are in
thousand circular mils (kcmil). A 'mil' is 1/1000 inch and circular mils represe
nt the area of an equivalent solid rod with a diameter expressed in mils. It is
important to bear in mind the connotation of 'nominal' as applied to the standar
d sizes because it is impracticable for manufacturers to produce conductors to p
recise areas. One factor is that in a stranded conductor the current flows essen
tially along the wires and as the outer wires are longer than the conductor, due
to helical application of the wires, they have increased resistance. As a very
large number o f sizes of conductor have to be made it is uneconomical to produc
e special wire sizes for each conductor area and it is necessary to limit the to
tal number of wire sizes handled. This always has to be taken into account in re
vision of conductor standards. Manufacturers, therefore, adjust their wire sizes
and manufacturing processes to meet a specified maximum resistance rather than
an area. For this purpose it is also necessary in specifications to allow manufa
cturers to choose the number of wires, within limits, for shaped and compacted c
onductors and for flexible conductors. The effective electrical areas are thus b
ased on the maximum d.c. resistance and are slightly different from the nominal
areas. The divergences are upwards and downwards on individual sizes and there i
s no regular pattern. The overall system has evolved over many years with arbitr
ary rules. Until 1978 the IEC practice provided different maximum resistance val
ues for single-core and multicore cables, thus allowing for the increased conduc
tor length due to laying-up the cores. This has now changed, however, and a sing
le maximum d.c. resistance is specified for each size of conductor of a given ma
terial. American specifications still adhere to the pattern of a 'nominal' resis
tance, together with a tolerance to provide a maximum resistance for single-core
cable and a further tolerance for multicore cable. These tolerances also vary w
ith conductor classification. Table A4.1 in appendix A4 shows the standard condu
ctor sizes for fixed wiring cables included in IEC 228 and the maximum resistanc
es for three conductor materials. These 69
70
Electric Cables Handbook
resistances also apply to the size range which is applicable for solid conductor
s, i.e. essentially 0 . 5 - 1 6 m m 2 for copper and 1.5-300mm 2 for aluminium.
Table A4.2 provides similar information for flexible conductors and applies to c
onductors having two classifications of flexibility, covered by the standard. Ta
ble A4.3 indicates corresponding information for fixed wiring cables to a typica
l American specification. In trying to select cables which correspond between me
tric and American practice much care is necessary, however, and table A4.3 merel
y extracts data from one of three tables in the specification to which reference
is made in the footnote. A column has been included with the heading 'equivalen
t metric area' and this is merely an arithmetic conversion from a 'nominal area'
. As explained above the nominal area has no exactitude and in choosing correspo
nding sizes it is necessary to work from the specified maximum resistances. Othe
r points in the metric-American comparison are as follows. (a) Table A4.3 caters
only for stranded conductors and different resistances apply to solid conductor
s. (b) There are many classifications o f conductors in American practice, each
with different standard resistances. Classes B, C and D cover power cables, C ha
ving more flexibility than B, and D still further flexibility. All three classes
have 'concentric-lay' conductors (see later). Classes G, H, I, K, M cater for '
rope-lay' or 'bunch-stranded' flexible cords and cables with varying flexibility
for particular applications. Table A4.3 is based on classes B to D and so illus
trates only a small proportion of the total range. (c) The tolerances between 'n
ominal' and 'maximum' resistances also vary with some types of conductors and ca
bles. F o r sizes up to 16mm 2 and for higher voltages, where electrical stress
at the conductor surface is important, the construction is circular. F o r the m
ajority o f multicore power cables up to 11 kV a sector shape is used (fig. 4.1)
to keep the cable dimensions to a minimum. The corner radii are adjusted accord
ing to the cable voltage for reasons of electrical stress and influence on the d
ielectric during bending. A 'D' shape is frequently used for 2-core cables and a
n oval construction for 33 kV paper insulated cables, the latter largely to prov
ide better uniformity of frictional forces between layers of paper. In this chap
ter the references to resistance are mainly concerned with d.c. resistance. The
a.c. resistance is also very important in many applications and is covered in ch
apter 2.
D
t
Ufi
Fig. 4.1 Shapes for multicore power cables: I4I, width; D, depth; R, back radius
; r corner radius; 1I, V gauge depth
Conductors
71
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDISATION British practice is based on BS6360: 1991, 'Conduc
tors in insulated cables', which implements CENELEC HD 383 $2, and which is in l
ine with IEC 228 and IEC 228A. As IEC 228 reflects practice throughout the world
(outside the USA), it can be taken as a basis for comments. IEC228 covers condu
ctors from 0.5 to 2000mm 2 and specifies the maximum d.c. resistance values for
insulated conductors and flexible cords generally but excluding pressurised tran
smission cables. Class 1 for solid conductors and Class 2 for stranded conductor
s both deal with single-core and multicore cables for fixed installations and de
fine identical maximum resistance values for each size and type in copper, metal
coated copper and aluminium. Class 3 and 4 of the previous editions have been de
leted. Classes 5 and 6 cater for flexible copper and metal-coated copper conduct
ors of two ranges of flexibility. The maximum resistances in the two classes are
the same for each, but differ from those of conductors for fixed installations.
The wires used in stranded conductors are specified by designation of a minimum
number of wires in the conductors for fixed installations. This minimum number
is varied according to whether the conductor is circular (non-compacted), circul
ar (compacted) or shaped. For circular non-compacted conductors all wires must b
e of the same diameter but a ratio of 2:1 is permitted for the other two types.
For flexible conductors the control is by specification of the maximum diameter
of the wires. A new feature of the 1978 edition of IEC228 was the inclusion of m
etal-coated aluminium, with the object of catering for copper-clad aluminium. Ho
wever, IEC 228 Amendment 1:1993 again restricted aluminium conductors to plain a
luminium or aluminium allo.y. From the fact that conductor resistances for singl
e-core and multicore cables are the same, it may be considered that the resistan
ces are now more arbitrary than previously. Originally the resistances were deri
ved from the assumption that, for example in the case of stranded copper conduct
ors, the wire had 100% International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) conductivit
y and various factors were applied, e.g. 4A R -- mr d 2 KI K2 K3 where R= A= n=
d= (~/km) (4.1)
maximum conductor resistance at 20°C (~]km) volume resistivity at 20°C (~ mm2]km) numb
er of wires in conductor nominal diameter of wires in conductor (mm)
Kl, K2 and/(3 are constants of specified values. Kl varies with wire diameter an
d allows for tolerances on the nominal diameter and the effect of metal coating
when appropriate. K2 allows for the fact that in stranding the length of individ
ual wires is longer than the length of the finished conductor./(3 allows similar
ly for laying-up the cores in multicore cable. When effects of actual wire condu
ctivity and compacting were superimposed, the cablemaker still had to derive his
own requirements for input wire diameter and number of wires and the allowances
for Kl,/(2 and K3 had limited practical significance in the published form.
72
Electric Cables Handbook
The resistances of copper and aluminium vary significantly with temperature and
measured values on cables need to be corrected to the specified values at 20°C. At
this temperature, the temperature coefficient of resistance per degree Celsius f
or copper is 0.00393 and for aluminium is 0.00403. F o r most purposes the value
for each metal can be taken as 0.004 and table A4.4 (appendix A4) provides fact
ors to convert to or from 20°C over the range 5-85°C. More exact formulae for conversi
on o f a measured conductor resistance to a basis o f 20°C and a length of 1000m ar
e as follows. Copper: Aluminium: where t: Rt: L= Rz0 = 254.5 1000 R20 : Rt234.5
+ t L 248 1000 R20 : R t - 228 + t L (f~/km) ([2/km)
conductor temperature (°C) measured resistance (f~/km) cable length (m) conductor r
esistance at 20°C (f~/km)
BRITISH STANDARDS Whilst IEC 228 prescribes the basic essentials in terms of the
finished resistance and control of the wire diameters used, British practice ha
s always provided some additional requirements: (a) properties of the wire or ma
terial from which the conductor is made; (b) restrictions applicable to joints i
n individual wires and solid conductors; (c) control of the dimensions of shaped
solid aluminium conductors to ensure compatibility with sleeves fitted for comp
ression jointing. Largely for the purpose of providing guidance to engineers inv
olved in the preparation of standards for conductors, some further information o
n the principles of standardisation and the use of formula (4.1) was provided in
BS 6360: 1991. This refers to a 'conceptual' construction of conductors and pro
vides more data on the sizes used in standards. These data comprise for non-comp
acted stranded conductors a number and nominal diameter of wires, nominal conduc
tor diameters and weights. Stranded copper conductors for fixed installation and
for flexible cables are included, together with plain aluminium stranded conduc
tors for fixed installation. Further reference is also made to formula (4.1) and
the values for the constants Kl, K2 and K3.
CONDUCTOR DIMENSIONS When conventional practice for joining conductors and termi
nating them on appliances was by soldering for the larger conductors and use of
pinch-screw type fitting for small conductors, no problems arose in relation to
the tolerance between conductor and ferrule or tunnel diameter. However, with th
e introduction of compression and crimping techniques for straight ferrules and
termination lugs, the clearance between
Conductors
73
conductor and fitting became important. Cases arose when conductors and fittings
from one manufacturer were not compatible with those from another, e.g. the con
ductor was too large to enter the bore of the ferrule. The problem was tackled n
ationally and internationally and the outcome was the issue in 1982 of a supplem
ent (IEC 228A) to IEC 228 which provided what is termed a 'Guide to the dimensio
nal limits of circular conductors'. The tables included in BS 6360:1991 are repr
oduced in appendix A4, tables A4.5 and A4.6, and some further comments, largely
relating to circular conductors, are printed under the tables. BS 6360 has a cro
ss-reference to BS 3988 which gives dimensional data for shaped solid aluminium
conductors used in cables covered by British Standards. The data in BS 3988 appl
y to conductors for use in making the cables and not directly to conductors in t
he manufactured cables. However, the dimensions of the conductor envelope will n
ot increase during cable manufacture and hence are a good guide for connectors t
o fit the conductors. As shaped stranded copper and aluminium conductors are nor
mally circularised before connection it is considered unnecessary to standardise
dimensional limits for these conductors.
STRANDED CONDUCTORS Conventional practice is illustrated in fig. 4.2(a) in which
there is a centre wire and then concentric layers of nominally 6, 12, 18, 24, 3
0, 36 and 42 wires - hence the term 'concentric-lay' conductor often used in Ame
rican terminology. In practice fewer wires are used in the outer layers, e.g. 17
rather than 18 in fig. 4.2(a), due to compression/ compaction. Usually each lay
er is applied with alternate direction of lay as this provides the most stable c
onstruction with resistance to 'birdcaging'. For some special applications unidi
rectional lay may be used. Instead of one wire there may be three or four wires
in the centre. However, it is more usual nowadays to pass such conductors throug
h shaping rolls or pull them through a die to obtain some compacting (fig. 4.2(b
)). This has the advantage of providing a smoother surface and reducing the over
all size of the cable. Sector conductors are basically stranded in the same way
and the shape is obtained by passage through shaping rolls (fig. 4.3) preferably
after application of each layer of wires. With copper conductors work hardening
in compacting has to be kept to a minimum. This factor also limits the degree o
f compaction to a normal range of 85-90% (expressed against the volume of the ci
rcumscribing envelope). At higher degrees of compaction the extra copper require
d to meet the specified resistance may be greater in cost than the saving in mat
erial usage outside the insulation obtained by the reduced conductor diameter. C
ompacted conductors normally have fewer wires than uncompacted conductors and th
is is one reason why manufacturers deprecate the former practice of denoting con
ductor sizes by their wire formation, e.g. 37/1.78mm. Nevertheless, as already m
entioned, it is not practicable for manufacturers to use an ideal wire diameter
for every single conductor and it is very important to keep the total number of
wire sizes to a minimum. This applies particularly when there is a storage syste
m for wire on bobbins. Figure 4.4 illustrates the automatic loading of a bobbin
of wire on to the strander carriage.
(a)
(b)
Conductors
75
Fig. 4.3 Rotating shaping and compacting rolls for power cable conductors The ro
lls used for shaping and compacting normally rotate around the conductor to impa
rt a pre-spiral lay (fig. 4.5). This avoids the need to twist the cores when lay
ing-up into the multicore form, thus providing a more stable construction with l
ess possibility of damage to the insulation, both in manufacture and in subseque
nt bending.
Milliken conductors
With alternating current there is a tendency for more of the current to be carri
ed on the outside of the conductor than in the centre (skin effect), and to over
come this problem the larger sizes of conductor are frequently o f Milliken cons
truction (fig. 4.6). Such conductors are formed from several individual sector s
hapes, usually four for power distribution cables and six for hollow-core fluid
filled cables. A thin layer of paper or other suitable insulation is applied ove
r alternate sectors. There is insufficient economic advantage to use this constr
uction below 900 mm 2 but the Milliken design may also be used to obtain increas
ed conductor flexibility. In the USA such conductors are often termed to be of '
segmental' construction.
FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS Flexibility may be achieved by stranding the conductors as d
escribed above and merely using a larger number of smaller diameter wires. The s
maller the wire diameter for a
o c~
o
Q
r~ 0
o
< ~D
Conductors
77
i
.......... ::
:~:i~:: '~:i~' ~ ~,~:~
fig. 4.5 Shaped conductor with pre-spiralled lay
Fig. 4.6 400 kV fluid filled cable with Milliken conductor conductor of given ar
ea, the greater is the flexibility, and hence the main specification requirement
for flexibility is the maximum diameter of wire used. IEC 228 does not go beyon
d this but some specifications differ between concentric-lay and rope-lay or bun
ch-stranding. Concentric-lay refers to the conventional stranding practice in wh
ich there is a single wire or a group of wires in the centre and then successive
complete layers o f wires are applied on each other. Normally the direction of
application is reversed between layers but in some special cases it may be the s
ame, i.e. unidirectional stranding. In bunched conductors the total number o f i
ndividual wires is merely twisted together, all in the same direction and with t
he same length of lay. The position of any one wire with respect to any other is
largely fortuitous. The construction may be used for both flexible cords and ca
bles, typically with up to 56 wires. There are limitations to the total number o
f wires which can be twisted together to form a single satisfactory bunch and so
for the larger conductors small individual bunches are stranded together in lay
ers, i.e. 'multiple bunch stranded'. It is c o m m o n in cable conductors for t
he direction of lay in the bunch and in the layer to be the same and for unidire
ctional stranding to be used. American practice, however, is to reverse the dire
ction of lay in alternate layers.
78
Electric Cables Handbook
Fig. 4.7 600/1000V, 4-core unarmoured cable with solid aluminium conductors and
XLPE insulation SOLID CONDUCTORS Solid copper conductors are permitted up to 16
mm 2 in British Standards, but with the exception of mineral insulated cables ar
e rarely used above 6 mm 2 because of reduced flexibility. IEC 228 caters for so
lid conductors up to 150 mm 2 for special applications. The position is quite di
fferent with aluminium as used for power distribution cables. There is an econom
ic advantage for using solid conductors up to the maximum size which provides a
cable which can be readily handled and also a technical advantage in that both s
oldering and compression jointing are easier and more reliable with the solid fo
rm. Solid conductors cause some increase in stiffness but this is not usually si
gnificant up to 185 mm 2 with paper insulation or 240 mm 2 with plastic insulati
on. In the case of paper insulated cables the use o f shaped solid conductors is
limited to 600/1000 V because no satisfactory way of pre-spiralling them has be
en found. Solid conductors may be circular or sector shaped up to 300mm 2. For l
arger sizes of circular conductor the stiffness problem is overcome by the solid
sectoral construction comprising four 90 ° sector shaped sections laid up together
. There are six sizes between 380 and 1200 mm 2. The use of solid conductors, mo
stly of sector shape, has been extensive in the U K for 600/1000 V cables with p
aper and polymeric insulation (fig. 4.7), but less so throughout the rest of the
world. For economic reasons the corner radii are relatively sharp. The German s
pecification requires larger radii and this design is more suitable for 11 kV ca
bles with X L P E insulation. Conductor shape is important because ferrules for
compression fitting need to fit closely on the conductor. C O N D U C T O R S FO
R T R A N S M I S S I O N CABLES Most of this chapter has been concerned with co
nductors for solid type cables. The special requirements for pressure cables are
covered in part 4. USE OF A L U M I N I U M IN R E L A T I O N T O C O P P E R
F O R D I S T R I B U T I O N CABLES Usage of aluminium has varied and still var
ies from country to country. U K utilities having rationalised on aluminium in t
he early 1960s have remained with it for almost all
Conductors
79
their cables, other than small sizes of the house-service type. The relative pri
ces of copper and aluminium frequently vary but over many years copper cables ha
ve rarely been cheaper than aluminium. Much, of course, depends on cable type an
d size and the nature of the complete installation. For industrial applications
the position is similar in that large users have been better able to deal with t
he different circumstances arising and have adopted solid aluminium conductor ca
ble with PVC or, increasingly, XLPE insulation. But as the cost of joints and te
rminations tend to be higher than for copper cables and there are more of them i
n relation to cable length, small industrial users have tended to stay with copp
er. Space availability in terminal boxes or motors and distribution boards has a
lso been a factor: more space is required to deal with solid aluminium conductor
s and it is necessary to stipulate the use of aluminium when ordering the equipm
ent. BS 5372: 1976, 'Cable terminations for electrical equipment', was issued in
an attempt to provide guidance in this respect. Many other detailed points aris
e such as making alternative or appropriate arrangements for dealing with pinch-
screw fittings and, whilst all can be dealt with satisfactorily, it is only econ
omic to devote the extra effort when large-scale installations are involved. Fol
lowing the successful experience in public supply systems in the UK, similar usa
ge of aluminium became the general practice throughout Europe and today aluminiu
m is predominant in the USA and throughout much of the world. A notable contribu
tion to this has been the development of compression jointing instead of solderi
ng. For industrial applications, however, comparatively little aluminium is now
used.
COPPER-CLAD ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS Large-scale attempts were made in the USA, and
also more particularly in India, to use aluminium conductors in general house wi
ring type systems. Owing to overheating in accessories having pinch-screw type c
onnections, the results were unsatisfactory and much of the cable had to be repl
aced to avoid excessive maintenance cost. Copper-clad aluminium conductors were
developed mainly to overcome these problems but they have had only very limited
service. Operational experience was satisfactory, the main disadvantage being th
at the increase in size over a copper cable of equal rating caused conduit occup
ancy to be reduced. They are now no longer included in IEC 228. For power cables
there is no justification for increase in conductor cost to obtain more satisfa
ctory jointing. Another factor with stranded conductors of the larger sizes is t
hat with the conventional plant used for stranding there is a possible danger of
local damage to the copper surface and any exposure of aluminium could lead to
corrosion due to the bimetallic effect.
SODIUM CONDUCTORS Because of the low density and price of sodium, coupled with i
ts reasonable conductivity of 35% IACS, interest developed in the early years of
cable making and patents were first filed in 1905. It was not until the 1960s,
however, that experimental cables were made in the UK and the USA. The significa
nt aspect was that by then
80
Electric Cables Handbook Table 4.1 Comparative data on conductor metals (sodium
taken as 100) Sodium Aluminium Copper Density Weight/unit resistance Diameter/un
it resistance 100 100 100 280 160 74 910 300 57
polyethylene had been developed for insulation and a convenient way to use sodiu
m as a conductor was to inject it into a polyethylene tube at the same time as t
he tube was being extruded, i.e. to make a complete cable core in one operation
from basic raw materials. In the USA a considerable a m o u n t of cable was put
into service to obtain operating experience. Table 4.1 indicates some of the re
levant data. Whilst the cost of conductor metal was comparatively low, there was
a much larger penalty than with aluminium in terms of conductor diameter. Never
theless, for fairly simple cables, especially single-core cables, popular in the
USA, there appeared to be a strong economic case. Even for 15 kV cables it was
only necessary to apply some copper wires outside the insulation to obtain U R D
cable comparable to the design with copper conductors. N o great difficulty was
found in producing the cables. Joints and terminations could also readily be ma
de by sealing a cap on to the cables and fitting a corkscrew arrangement into th
e conductor to achieve good electrical contact. The performance under service co
nditions was quite satisfactory provided that suitable protection was used to ca
ter for the low melting point o f sodium (98°C). Tests showed that short circuits t
o higher cable temperature could be sustained without dangerous effect. However,
sodium is an extremely reactive metal and when exposed to water it reacts vigor
ously with the formation of hydrogen and sodium hydroxide. Whilst such action wa
s not catastrophic, even if a cable was cut when immersed in water, there were o
bvious handling problems for cable installation and jointing personnel. Disposal
o f cut ends required special care and attention and difficulties arose in maki
ng repairs to damaged cable. Largely for these reasons it became apparent that i
n comparison with aluminium the handling difficulties exceeded what could be jus
tified by the saving in the initial cost of cable. The use of sodium subsequentl
y lapsed.