
reciprocating motion that produces the mechanical
Reciprocating Engine
 Powerplant Theory and Design

RECIPROCATING ENGINE
 prepared by : Engr. Eric John Velasco
 
Outlines of Discussion :
I Engine Introduction, Definition, and Principles
II Engine Characteristics Engine Classifications, Construction
and Engine Nomenclature
III Engine Construction, and Operation
IV: Engine Analysis, Thermodynamic
Applications
 Part I
Engine Introduction ,Definition, and Principles
 The piston engine is an internal combustion
engine working on the principle deviced by Dr.
Otto in 1876. The piston engine converts
chemical energy in the form of petroleum fuel
into mechanical energy via heat and can be
termed a heat engine. The working medium is
air, which is capable of changes in volume and
pressure when subjected to an increase in
temperature caused by the burning fuel.
 The working cycle consist of four strokes of the
piston: Induction, Compression, Power, and,
Exhaust. This is known as the four-stroke or Otto
cycle. The cycle is of an intermittent nature; each
stroke is a distinct and separate from the others.
During each cycle, the piston moves in a
reciprocating motion within a tube termed a
cylinder barrel. The crankshaft converts this linear
motion into a rotary motion. In one four stroke
cycle, the crankshaft makes two complete
revolutions – 720 degrees.
 What is a Reciprocating Engine?
 A reciprocating engine is a type of heat engine that
derives its name from the back-and-forth, or
reciprocating movement of its pistons. It is this
energy needed to accomplish work.
PartII
Engine Characteristics, Classifications, and Nomenclature
 Engine Requirements:
 Lightweight – powerplant weight must be kept as low
as possible to provide greater weight for useful load
and provide a margin of safety.
Reliability – a powerplant is reliable when it can be
depended upon to do what it is intended for it to do by
the manufacturer.
 Durability – this is the measure the engine life, while
maintaining the desired reliability.

Compactness – it is necessary to affect proper
streamlining and balance of the airplane, and in single
engine airplane, the shape and size of the engine
affects the visibility of the pilot.
 Flexibility – the ability to operate efficiently
regardless of the conditions.
 Weight per horsepower – the ratio of the weight of
the engine to the horsepower it can produce. This is
the factor that engine manufacturers consider the most.
The engine must produce a large amount of power but
must also be light in construction.
 Specific power output – the amount of power
produced in a given amount of fuel.
 Fuel economy – it is a factor of the fuel
characteristics, fuel must be more resistant to
detonation, to allow an increase in engine
compression ratio.

Balance – if the powerplant is free from vibration, it
is said to be balance.
 Reasonable cost – the first cost must be low enough
to meet the competition in the market and be accepted
by the airframe manufacturer.
 Economy of operation – it must have a reasonable
cost of operation, it must be such that it will make
profit for the operator.
 Types of Reciprocating Engine:
- Reciprocating engine is usually classified
according to its cylinder arrangement namely:
 Radial engine
- Single row
- Double row
- Multiple row or corncob

In-Line engine
- In line upright
- In line inverted

V-Type engine
- V type upright
- V type inverted
- Double V or Fan type
 Opposed or Flat type engine

X type engine
 Radial Engines

A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders
arranged radially about a central crankcase.

single-row radial engine has an odd number of
cylinders attached radially to a crankcase. A typical
configuration consists of five to nine cylinders evenly
spaced on the same circular plane with all pistons
connected to a single crankshaft.
 multiple-row radial engines consisted of two single
row engines in line with each other connected to a
single crankshaft. This type of engine is sometimes
referred to as a double-row radial engine and typically
has a total of 14 or 18 cylinders.
 Greatest drag of all types
 Most widely used engines ever built
 In-Line Engines
An in-line engine generally has an even number of cylinders
that are aligned in a single row parallel with the
crankshaft. This engine can be either liq-uid-cooled or
air cooled and the pistons can be located either upright
above the crankshaft or inverted below the crankshaft.
 In-line Engines Advantages
 An in-line engine has a comparatively small frontal
area and, therefore, allows for better streamlining.
Least drag.
 Another advantage of the in-line engine is that, when
mounted with the cylinders inverted, the crankshaft is
higher off the ground. The higher crankshaft allowed
greater propeller ground clearance which, in turn,
permitted the use of shorter landing gear.
 In-Line Engines Disadvantages:

have relatively low power-to-weight ratios.
 the rearmost cylinders of an air-cooled in-line engine
receive relatively little cooling air, so in-line engines
were typically limited to only four or six cylinders.
 With these limitations, most in-line engine designs
were confined to low- and medium-horsepower
engines used in light aircraft.

V-type Engines
 the cylinders of a V-type engine are arranged around a
single crankshaft in two in-line banks that are 45, 60,
or 90 degrees apart.
 Since V-type engines had two rows of cylinders, they
were typically capable of producing more horsepower
than an in-line engine.
 The cylinders on a V-type engine could be above the
crankshaft or below it, in which case the engine is
referred to as an inverted V-type engine.
 Most V-type engines had 8 or 12 cylinders and were
either liquid-cooled or air cooled.
 Opposed Engines
 opposed-type engines are the most
reciprocating engines used on light aircraft.
popular
 A typical opposed engine can produce as little as 36
horsepower to as much as 400 horsepower.
 always have an even number of cylinders, and a
cylinder on one side of a crankcase "opposes" a
cylinder on the other side.
 While some opposed engines are liquid-cooled, the
majority are air cooled.
 Opposed Engines Continued...
 Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight
ratios because they have a comparatively small,
lightweight crankcase.
 an opposed engine's compact cylinder arrangement
reduces the engine's frontal area and allows a
streamlined installation that minimizes aerodynamic
drag.

opposed engines typically vibrate less than other
engines because an opposed engine's power impulses
tend to cancel each other.

Most efficient, dependable, and economical type
available for light aircraft.

Engine Components
 Crankcase
 The crankcase is the foundation of a reciprocating
engine. It contains the engine's internal parts and
provides a mounting surface for the engine cylinders
and external accessories.
 The crankcase provides a tight enclosure for the
lubricating oil as well as a means of attaching a
complete engine to an airframe.
 most aircraft crankcases are made of cast aluminum
alloys.
 Radial Engine Crankcase
 radial engine crankcases are divided into distinct
sections.
 The number of sections can be as few as three or as
many as seven depending on the size and type of
engine.
 In general, a typical radial engine crankcase separates
into four main sections: the nose section, the power
section, the supercharger section, and the accessory
section.
 The Four Basic Power Delivering Parts:
 Cylinder
 Piston
 Connecting Rod
 Crankshaft
 Cylinders
 The cylinder provides a combustion chamber where
the burning and expansion of gases takes place to
produce power.

Considered as the powerhouse of the engine, where
the chemical energy of the fuel is converted to
mechanical energy.

A cylinder houses the piston and connecting rod
assembly as well as the valves and spark plugs.

a cylinder must be strong enough to withstand the
internal pressures developed during engine operation
yet be lightweight to minimize engine weight.
 Cylinders Continued...
 Transmits power through pistons, connecting rods
and rotate the crankshaft.
 Dissipates substantial amount of heat produced by the
combustion of fuel.
 The two parts are cylinder head and the cylinder
barrel.
 Cylinder Barrel
 The most commonly used material is a high-strength
steel alloy such as chromium-molybdenum steel (SAE
4130 or 4140), or nickel chromium molybdenum steel.
 The lower cylinders on radial engines and all the
cylinders on inverted engines typically employ
cylinders with extended cylinder skirts.
 The exterior of a cylinder barrel consists of several
thin cooling fins that are machined into the exterior
cylinder wall
 Cylinder Heads
 The cylinder head acts as a lid on the cylinder barrel
to provide an enclosed chamber for combustion.
 cylinder heads contain intake and exhaust valve ports,
spark plugs, valve actuating mechanisms, and also
serve to conduct heat away from the cylinder barrels.
 The inner shape of a cylinder head may be flat, semi-  Cam-Ground Piston
spherical, or peaked, to resemble the shape of a house
roof.  All pistons expand as they heat up. However, due to
the added mass at the piston boss, most pistons


expand more along the piston boss than perpendicular
the semi-spherical type has proved to be the most to the piston boss.
satisfactory because it is stronger and provides for


more rapid and thorough scavenging of exhaust gases.

Pistons
 This uneven expansion can cause a piston to take on
an oblong, or oval shape, at normal engine operating

 The piston in a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical

temperatures, resulting in uneven piston and cylinder
wear.
plunger that moves up and down, back and forth
within a cylinder.

 Pistons perform two primary functions; first, they

 One way to compensate for this is with a cam ground
piston. A cam ground piston is machined with a
draw fuel and air into a cylinder, compress the gases, slightly oval shape. That is, the diameter of the piston
and purge burned exhaust gases from the cylinder; parallel to the piston boss is slightly less than the
second, they transmit the force produced by diameter per-pendicular to the piston boss.
combustion to the crankshaft.

 Usually made of aluminum alloy AMS 4140 for  Piston Rings

forged pistons Alcoa 132 alloy for cast pistons. Piston rings perform three functions in aircraft reciprocating
engines:

 Piston speed is maximum during the first and fourth

quarters of crankshaft rotation.
 combustion
They prevent leakage of gas pressure from the
chamber,

  reduce oil seepage into the combustion chamber,


Piston temperature may exceed 4000°F and pressures
may be as high as 500 psi or up. transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder walls.

 Parts of a Piston
Piston Ring Joints:

 Piston Head - The piston's top surface is called the

 Butt
piston head and is directly exposed to the heat of
combustion.
 Step
 Ring Grooves - cut into a piston's outside surface to
 Angle
hold a set of piston rings. As many as six ring grooves
may be machined around a piston.  Types of Piston Rings:
 Ring Land - The portion of the piston between the
ring grooves.
 Compression rings
 Piston pin boss - is an enlarged area inside the piston
 Oil rings
that provides additional bearing area for a piston pin
which passes through the piston pin boss to attach the
 Compression Rings
piston to a connecting rod.  pistonCompression rings prevent gas from escaping past the

 Piston skirt - To help align a piston in a cylinder, the

piston base is extended to form the piston skirt.
during engine operation and are placed in the
ring grooves immediately below the piston head.

 Piston Head Designs

 most aircraft engines typically use two or three
compression rings on each piston.
 Full-floating - free to rotate in both the connecting
rod and the piston, and are used in most modern
aircraft engines.

 The cross section of a compression ring can be rec-

tangular, wedge shaped, or tapered.



Connecting Rods
Oil Rings


The connecting rod is the link which transmits the
Oil rings control the amount of oil that is applied to force exerted on a piston to a crankshaft.
the cylinder walls as well as prevent oil from entering
the combustion chamber.  Most connecting rods are made of a durable steel


alloy; however, aluminum can be used with low
The two types of oil rings that are found on most horsepower engines.


engines are oil control rings and oil scraper rings.

Oil Control Rings

 One end of a connecting rod connects to the
crankshaft and is called the crankpin end

 Oil control rings are placed in the grooves

immediately below the compression rings.
 the other end connects to the piston and is called the
piston end.

 The primary purpose of oil control rings is to regulate  Types of Connecting Rods:
the thickness of the oil film on the cylinder wall.
 Plain Type

 To allow an oil control ring to remove excess oil and  Master and Articulated


return it to the crankcase, small holes are drilled in the
piston ring grooves, or ring lands. Fork and Blade

 Oil Scraper Rings  Plain type

 used to regulate the amount of oil that passes between

the piston skirt and the cylinder wall.
 Plain connecting rods are used in opposed and in-line
engines.

 sometimes called an oil wiper ring, usually has a

beveled face and is installed in a ring groove at the  Master and Articulated


bottom of the piston skirt.

Piston Pin
 The master-and-articulated rod assembly is commonly
used in radial engines.

 A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod.  With this type of assembly, one piston in each row of

 Piston pins are sometimes called wrist pins

cylinders is connected to the crankshaft by a master
rod.

 Piston Pin Classifications:

 The remaining pistons are connected to the master
rod by articulated rods.

 Stationary - are held tightly in place by a setscrew

that prevents movement.
 Therefore, in a nine cylinder engine there is one
master rod and eight articulating rods, while a double

 Semi-floating - retained stationary in the connecting

row 18 cylinder engine has two master rods and 16
articulating rods.


rod by a set clamp that engages a slot in the pin.
Allows little movement.
 Fork and Blade  Valve Operating Mechanisms:

 The fork-and-blade rod assembly is used primarily in

V-type engines and consists of a fork connecting rod
 open each valve at the correct time, hold it open for a
certain period, and then close the valve.


and a blade connecting rod.

 Valves
Consists of Camshaft, valve lifter or tappet, push rod,
and rocker arm



Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and out
of a cylinder by opening and closing at predetermined Camshaft – a device for actuating the valve lifting
times in the combustion process. mechanism. Typically used in opposed engines,
camshaft consists of a round shaft with a series of

 Each cylinder has at least one intake valve and one

exhaust valve.
cams, or lobes, that transform the circular motion of
the crankshaft to the linear motion needed to actuate a
valve.

 The intake valve controls the amount of fuel/air

mixture that enters a cylinder through the intake port,
 Cam ring - in place of a camshaft, a radial engine
uses one or two cam rings, depending on the number
of cylinder rows. A circular piece of steel with a series

 while the exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to

of raised cam lobes on its outer edge.


exit the cylinder through the exhaust port.

 intake valves operate at lower temperatures than

exhaust valves
Valve lifter or tappet – a mechanism to transmit the
force of the cam to the push rod

 To help dissipate heat better, some exhaust valve

stems are hollowed out and then partially filled with
 Push Rod – a steel or aluminum alloy rod or tube
situated between the valve lifter and the rocker arm to
metallic sodium. When installed in an operating transmit the motion of the valve lifter.
engine, the sodium melts when the valve stem reaches


approximately 208 degrees Fahrenheit. The melted
sodium circulates naturally due to the up and down
motion of the valve and helps carry heat from the
valve head into the stem where it is dissipated through
Rocker Arm – a pivoted arm mounted on the
bearings of the cylinder head to open and close the
valves.


the cylinder head.
 Crankshafts


Valve Seating Components

 Valve Face - portion of the valve that creates a seal at

the intake and exhaust ports.
The crankshaft is the backbone of a reciprocating
engine.

 Valve Seat - a circular ring of hardened metal that

provides a uniform sealing surface for the valve face.
 Its main purpose is to transform the reciprocating
motion of the pistons and connecting rods into rotary

 Valve Guide - is a cylindrical sleeve that provides

motion to turn a propeller.


support to the valve stem and keeps the valve face
aligned with the valve seat. A typical crankshaft has one or more cranks, or

 Valve Springs - are helical-coiled springs that are

throws, located at specified points along its length.


installed in the cylinder head and provide the force
that holds the valve face firmly against the valve seat. Since crankshafts must withstand high stress, they are

 Valve Spring Retainer – holds the valve springs in

generally forged from a strong alloy such as
chromium-nickel molybdenum steel.
place
 Parts of a Crankshaft
 Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal  A dynamic damper is a weight which is fastened to


a crankshaft's crank cheek assembly in such a way
Crankpin that it is free to move back and forth in a small arc.

 Crank cheek or crank arm  Crankshaft Types

 Counterweights and dampers  The type of crankshaft used on a particular engine

depends on the number and arrangement of an
 Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal - represent the engine's cylinders.
centreline of a crankshaft and support the crankshaft
as it rotates in the main bearings. Center of rotation of  Single Throw
the crankshaft.
 Two Throw
 Crankpin - or connecting-rod bearing journals or
throws, serve as attachment points for the connecting  Four Throw
rods. To reduce total crankshaft weight, crankpins are
usually hollow. This hollow construction also  Six Throw
provides a passage for lubricating oil. In addition, a
hollow crankpin serves as a collection chamber for  Single Throw or 360 degree
sludge, dirt, carbon deposits, and other foreign
material. This is called sludge chamber  used on single-row radial engines.

 As its name implies, a single-throw crankshaft

 Crankcheek or crankarm - required to connect the
crankpin to the crankshaft.
consists of a single crankpin with two main journals
that support the crankshaft in the crankcase.

 Counterweights and dampers - helps balance the

crankshaft. Its function is to relieve the whip and  A single-throw crankshaft may be constructed out of
vibration caused by rotation of the crankshaft. either one or two pieces.

 Crankshaft Balance  Two Throw

 Statically Balance  Used on Twin-row radial engines, one throw for each
bank of cylinders.
 Dynamically Balance

 Statically Balanced  The throws on a two-throw crankshaft are typically

set 180 degrees from each other and may consist of
 when the weight of an entire crankshaft assembly is
balanced around its axis of rotation.
either one or three pieces.

 Once a crankshaft is statically balanced it must be  Four Throw

dynamically balanced.
 used on four cylinder opposed engines and four
 Dynamic Balance cylinder in-line engines.

 refers to balancing the centrifugal forces created by a

rotating crankshaft and the impact forces created by  Six Throw
an engine's power impulses.
 Used on six cylinder opposed and in-line engines and
12 cylinder V-type engines.
 The most common means of dynamically balancing a
crankshaft is through the use of dynamic dampers.
 Bearings
 A bearing is any surface which supports and reduces
friction between two moving parts.
 Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball
bearings except that polished steel rollers are used
instead of balls

 A part in which a journal, pivot, shaft turns or

revolves.
 The rollers provide a greater contact area and a
corresponding increase in rolling friction over that of
a ball bearing.

 Typical areas where bearings are used in an aircraft

engine include the main journals, crankpins,
 Has two types namely: straight roller bearings
which suitable when the bearing is subjected to radial
connecting rod ends, and accessory drive shafts. loads only such as crankshafts main bearings, and
tapered roller bearings that allow the bearing to


withstand both radial and thrust loads.
There are two ways in which bearing surfaces move
in relation to each other. One is by the sliding
movement of one metal against another, and the  Part III
second is for one surface to roll over another.


Engine Construction, and Operation
Types of Bearings
Cycle – series of events returning to its original state.
 Plain Bearing Engine Cycle – series of events that an internal combustion


engine undergoes while it is operating and delivering
Ball Bearing power. There are two revolutions of the crankshaft for


each cycle of the engine.
Roller Bearing
 Thermodynamic Cycles of Heat engine:
 Plain Bearings


Carnot cycle
Plain bearings are generally used for crankshaft main
bearings, cam ring and camshaft bearings, connecting  Otto Cycle
rod end bearings, and accessory drive shaft bearings.
 Diesel Cycle

 These bearings are typically subject to radial loads  Brayton Cycle

only


Engine Geometry:
Ball Bearings
 Top Dead Center (TDC) – the position of the piston
 A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner
and outer races, one or more sets of polished steel
inside the cylinder when it reaches the top most of its
travel.
balls, and a bearing retainer.
 Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the position of the
 The balls of a ball bearing are held in place and kept
evenly spaced by the bearing retainer, while the
piston inside the cylinder when it reaches the bottom
most of its travel.
inner and outer bearing races provide a smooth
surface for the balls to roll over.  Stroke (S) – the distance that the piston travels from


the top dead center to the bottom dead center
ball bearings have the least amount of rolling friction.


Engine Geometry continued...
ball bearings are well suited to withstand thrust loads
 Bore – the inside diameter of the cylinder
 Roller Bearings
 Piston displacement or volume displacement (VD)
– the volume being travelled by the piston as it moves
from the TDC to the BDC. The product of the area of
 the piston, length of the stroke, and the number of
cylinders.

 cylinder
Engine Controls
Clearance volume (Vc) – the volume within the
when the piston is at the TDC.  Throttle – controls the engine power

 within
Total volume (V ) – the over all or total volume
the cylinder.
T
 Propeller Control – for constant speed and

 The Four Stroke Five Event engine Cycle:

controllable pitch propeller


Strokes: Events:
Intake Intake Mixture Control – used to adjust fuel air mixture
Compression Compression with settings, full rich, lean, idle cut off
Power Ignition


Exhaust Power or Expansion
Exhaust or Scavenging Carburator air heater – operate the gate valve in

 The Four Stroke Engine

the air induction system to provide either cold air or
hot air for carburator. Heated air is required when in
danger of icing.



Engine Cooling:

 Air Cooling – thin metal fins project from the outer

surface of the walls and heads of the engine cylinders
Miscellaneous Engine Controls – includes cowl
flaps, oil coolers, superchargers etc.

(cooling fins). Deflector baffles are also used which

are fastened around the cylinders to direct the flow of
air to obtain maximum cooling.

 Liquid Cooling – consists of liquid passages around

 The Two Stroke Cycle

the cylinders and other hot spots of the engine. The

cooling liquid used is ethylene glycol or mixture of
 The two-stroke cycle is similar to the four-stroke
cycle in that the same five events occur in each
ethylene glycol and water. operating cycle.

 However, the five events occur in two piston strokes

rather than four strokes. This means that one cycle is
 Engine Cooling
completed in one crankshaft revolution.
Effects of Excessive Heat:  Two Stroke, Three events cycle:

 charge.
Adversely affects the combustion of fuel and air
Stroke:
Compression
Power, Intake, exhaust stroke

 Weakens and shortens life of engine parts Events:

 Impairs lubrication Compression

Ignition and Power

 Components of liquid cooling system: Exhaust and Intake

 cooled  Two Stroke Cycle Operation:


Radiator – is the component by which the liquid is
As a two-stroke cycle begins, the piston moves up and

 applied
Thermostatic element – govern the amount of cooling
two events occur simultaneously.


to the liquid

 Coolant pump – circulates the cooling fluid The piston compresses the fuel/air charge in the
cylinder and creates an area of low pressure within the

 Pipes and Hoses

crankcase. This low pressure pulls fuel and air into the
crankcase through a check valve.
 The piston gets pressed downward and performs

 work to the crankshaft.

Once the piston is a few degrees before top dead • Expulsion stroke: The burned exhaust gases are
center, ignition occurs and the fuel/air mixture begins ejected out of the cylinder through a second valve
to burn. by the piston sliding upward again.

 As the piston passes top dead center the pressure from

the expanding gases begin to force the piston


downward on the power stroke.

 This downward stroke also compresses the fuel/air

charge in the crankcase. As the piston approaches the 
Diesel vs. Gasoline

Gasoline does not self-ignite when compressed,

bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust port is because it does not generate enough heat
uncovered and spent gases are purged from the
cylinder.  It needs activation energy to explode, and this energy
is generated by a spark plug at the top of the cylinder

 A split second later, the piston uncovers the intake

port and allows the pressurized fuel/air charge in the  Part IV:
crankcase to enter the cylinder. Engine Analysis, Thermodynamic
Applications

 The cycle then repeats itself as the piston compresses

the fuel/air charge in the cylinder and draws a fresh
fuel/air charge into the crankcase.
 The Diesel Engine
 A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine
which operates using the diesel cycle named after Dr.
Rudolph Diesel
 Engine Thermodynamic Cycles:
 Otto Cycle – the cycle of spark ignition engines
 Diesel Cycle – model for the Diesel or compression
ignition engines.
 Otto Cycle

 Diesel engines have the highest rate of energy to fuel

(kwh/lbs) compared to any internal or external
combustion engine
1-2: Isentropic Compression
2-3: Constant Volume addition of heat
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant Volume rejection of heat

 The defining feature of the diesel engine is the use of

compression ignition to burn the fuel, which is
injected into the combustion chamber during the final
stage of compression
 Piston Displacement
 Piston displacement is defined as the volume of air
displaced by a piston as it moves from bottom center
to top center.

 The four stroke of diesel engine

 To determine a piston's displacement, you must
• Suction stroke: Pure air gets sucked in by the
multiply the area of a piston head by the length of the
piston sliding downward.
piston stroke. Expressed in cubic inches of volume.
• Compression stroke: The piston compresses the
air above and uses thereby work, performed by

•
the crankshaft.
Power stroke: In the upper dead-center, the air is
 The total piston displacement of an engine is the total
volume displaced by all the pistons during one
max. compressed: Pressure and Temperature are revolution of the crankshaft. It equals the number of
very high. Now the black injection pump injects cylinders in the engine multiplied by the piston
heavy fuel in the hot air. By the high temperature displacement of one piston
the fuel gets ignited immediately (auto ignition).
 the greater the total piston displacement, the greater  Brake horsepower (BHP)


the maximum horsepower that an engine can develop
Friction horsepower (FHP)

 displacement
piston displacement is also called volume  Indicated Horsepower:

 Piston Displacement:
 Indicated horsepower (IHP) is the total power
actually developed in an engine's cylinders without
2
Area of the Piston = pi d reference to friction losses within the engine.
4


where: pi = 3.1416...
d = diameter of the piston head/bore To calculate indicated horsepower, the average
effective pressure within the cylinders must be known.
Piston Displacement = Area of piston x L


where: L = lenght of stroke

 Total Piston Displacement:

Area of the piston x L x n
This average pressure is referred to as indicated mean
effective pressure

 Example


where: n = number of cylinders

 Example
Compute the indicated horsepower for a six-cylinder
engine that has a bore of five inches, a stroke of five

 What is the total piston displacement of a four

cylinder aircraft engine which has a bore of 4 inches
inches, and is turning at 2,750 rpm with a measured
IMEP of 125 psi per cylinder.

and a length of stroke of 6 inches?  Friction Horsepower

 If the cylinder Bore is too large...  The power required to overcome the friction and

 fuel will be wasted and the intensity of the heat and

the restricted flow of the heat may be so great that the
cylinder may not be cooled properly
 If the Stroke is too large...
energy losses is known as friction horsepower and is
measured by driving an engine with a calibrated motor
and measuring power needed to turn the engine at a
given speed.
 Brake Horsepower

 Excessive dynamic stresses and too much angularity

of the connecting rods will be the consequences.
 The actual amount of power delivered to the propeller
shaft is called brake horsepower.
 Square Engine

 The Bore and Stroke are equal

 One way to determine brake horsepower is to subtract
an engine's friction horsepower from its indicated

 provides the best and efficient engine performance

horsepower.

Crank Radius
R = stroke/2
 85 – 90% of the IHP

Length of Connecting Rod

L = 4R
 IHP = BHP + FHP

 Mean Effective Pressure


4 stroke cycle engine:
1 cycle/min (cpm) = 2 rpm an average pressure inside the cylinders of an internal
 Engine Power:
combustion engine based on some calculated or
measured horsepower.

 Indicated horsepower (IHP)

 It increases as manifold pressure increases.  The ratio of the input energy to the output energy, or
the energy supplied to produce work and the actual


energy being converted into work.
indicated mean effective pressure (imep),brake mean
effective pressure (bmep)  Engine Efficiency:

 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure  Thermal Efficiency

 derived from indicated horsepower  Volumetric Efficiency

 IMEP = BMEP To  Mechanical Efficiency

mech eff.
 Thermal Efficiency:
where: BMEP To = BMEP at take off
mech eff = mechanical efficiency  An engine's thermal efficiency (TE) is a ratio of the

 Brake Mean Effective Pressure

BMEP = bhp x 33000
amount of heat energy converted to useful work to the
amount of heat energy contained in the fuel used to
support combustion.
LAN


Where: L = stroke, ft
A = area of bore, sq. in. In other words, thermal efficiency is a measure of the
N = number of working strokes per inefficiencies experienced when converting the heat
minute energy in fuel to work.
- in a four stroke cycle engine, N = ½ rpm of the engine


multiplied by the number of cylinders.

 Brake Mean Effective Pressure

BMEP = 792000 x bhp
For example, consider two engines that produce the
same amount of horsepower, but consume different
amounts of fuel. The engine using less fuel converts a
disp. rpm greater portion of the available energy into useful
work and, therefore, has a higher thermal efficiency.
where: disp. = engine displacement

BMEP = K x bhp
rpm
 Thermal Efficiency Chart

where: K = 792000/disp. or the K factor of the


engine

 Brake Mean Effective Pressure at Take

Off
Thermal efficiency can be calculated using either
brake or indicated horsepower. If brake horsepower is
used, the result is brake thermal efficiency (BTE),
BMEP To = BHP To RPM Cr BMEP Cr and if indicated horsepower is used, you get
BHP Cr RPM To indicated thermal efficiency (ITE).
where: BHP To = bhp at take off
BHP Cr = bhp at cruising
 Indicated Thermal Efficiency
ihp x 33000
RPM To = rpm at take off wt. of fuel burned/min x heat value (BTU) x 778
RPM Cr = rpm at cruising
BMEP Cr = bmep at cruising Note: Heat value in (BTU) = 1 pound of avgas contains
 Problem
20,000 BTUs of heat energy
If an R 1830 engine is turning at 2750 rpm and developing
1100 hp, what is the bmep?
 Brake Thermal Efficiency
bhp x 33000
 Efficiency:
wt. of fuel burned/min x heat value (BTU) x 778

 Example
 Determine the brake thermal efficiency of a piston  Incomplete Scavenging


engine that produces 150 brake horsepower while
burning 8 gallons of aviation gasoline per hour. Improper Valve timing

 Increases in altitude



Volumetric Efficiency:

 Volumetric efficiency (VE) is the ratio of the volume

of fuel and air an engine takes into its cylinders to the
total piston displacement.
 For example, if an engine draws in a volume of fuel
and air that is exactly equal to the engine's total piston
displacement, volumetric efficiency would be 100
percent.
 The volumetric efficiency of most normally aspirated
engines is less than 100 percent.
When the engine is running, hot exhaust
gases coming through the exhaust valves and
into the exhaust manifold are routed into the
turbocharger where they rotate a turbine. This
rotor is connected to a compressor wheel
through a shaft. This second wheel then drives
compressed air into its own housing. With the
engine in high rpm, a centrifugal force drives this
air out of the housing and into the engine cylinder.

 The reason for this is because bends, surface  Mechanical Efficiency:


roughness, and obstructions inside the induction
system slow the flow of air which, in turn, reduces the
air pressure within the manifold.
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake
horsepower to indicated horsepower and represents
the percentage of power developed in the cylinders

 On the other hand, turbocharged engines compress

that reaches the propeller shaft.


the air before it enters the cylinders, and often have
volumetric efficiencies greater than 100 percent. For example, if an engine develops 160 brake
 Volumetric Efficiency:
Vol eff = volume of charge at atmospheric
horsepower and 180 indicated horsepower, the ratio of
brake horsepower to indicated horsepower is 160:180,
which represents a mechanical efficiency of 89
pressure percent.
piston displacement

  Mechanical Efficiency


Anything that decreases the density, or volume of air
entering a cylinder decreases volumetric efficiency. output = BHP
 Some of the typical factors that affect volumetric
input IHP
efficiency of a non-turbocharged engine include:  Factors Affecting Power

 Part Throttle Operation  Manifold Pressure

 Long, small diameter, intake pipes  Detonation and Pre-ignition

 Induction systems with sharp bends  Compression Ratio

 High carburetor air temperatures  Ignition Timing

 High cylinder head temperatures  Engine Speed

 Specific Fuel Consumption  It is caused by hot spots in a cylinder that ignite the


fuel/air mixture before the spark plugs fire.
Altitude

 Fuel/Air ratio  A hot spot can be caused by something as simple as a

carbon particle, overheated valve edges, silica

 Manifold Pressure
deposits on a spark plug, or a red-hot spark plug
electrode.

 the pressure of the fuel/air mixture in the intake

manifold between the carburator or internal  Hot spots are caused by poor engine cooling, dirty
supercharger and the intake valve. intake air filters, or shutting down the engine at high
rpm.

 Changes in manifold air pressure affect the amount of

power an engine can produce for a given rpm.  When the engine continues running after the ignition
is turned off, preignition may be the cause.

 Excessive pressures and temperatures shorten engine  Compression Ratio

life by overstressing cylinders, pistons, connecting
rods, bearings, crankshaft journals, and valves.  An engine's compression ratio is defined as the ratio
of cylinder volume with the piston at the bottom of its


stroke to the volume with the piston at the top of its
Continued operation past upper manifold absolute stroke.
pressure limits leads to worn engine parts, decreasing
power output and lower efficiency, or worse, engine
failure.  For example, if there are 140 cubic inches of space in

 Detonation/Pre-ignition
a cylinder when the piston is at bottom center and 20
cubic inches of space when the piston is at top center,


the compression ratio is 140 to 20
Detonation - is the uncontrolled, explosive ignition of
the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder. Detonation causes
high cylinder temperatures and pressures which lead
to a rough running engine, overheating, and power
 As a general rule, the higher the compression ratio,
the greater an engine's power output.
loss.
 Compression Ratio may be limited by:

 Causes of Detonation:  the characteristics of available fuels

 using a fuel grade lower than recommended  the degree of turbocharging

 allowing the engine to overheat.



Ignition Timing
Wrong ignition timing


When the ignition event is properly timed, complete
fuel/air mixture too lean, combustion and maximum pressure occur just after


the piston passes top dead center at the beginning of
compression ratios of 12:1 or higher the power stroke.

 Pre-ignition Engine Speed - the faster an engine runs, the more power it


produces.
takes place when the fuel/air mixture ignites too soon. Specific Fuel Consumption - the number of pounds of fuel
burned per hour to produce one horsepower.
Altitude
Fuel to Air ratio - A stoichiometric mixture is a perfectly
balanced fuel/air mixture of 15 parts of air to 1 part of
 
fuel, by weight. A fuel/air mixture that is leaner than
15:1 has less fuel in the fuel/air mixture, while a rich Each engine is designed with a specific firing order to
mixture has more fuel. Combustible fuel/air ratios maintain balance and reduce vibration.
range from 8:1 to 18:1.



Problem:
Best Power Mixture – develops maximum power at a
particular rpm and is typically used during takeoff.
Fuel/air ratio of 0.075
 A four stroke cycle, 4 cylinder reciprocating engine
with a speed of 1800 rpm has a stroke of 8.0 inches
and a cylinder bore diameter of 6 inches. The mean

 effective pressure inside the cylinder is 200 psi and

Best Economy Mixture - provides the best specific the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 80 %.
fuel consumption which results in an aircraft's Determine:
maximum range and optimum fuel economy. Occurs a. Piston displacement
when the fuel/air ratio is approximately 0.062 b. No. of cycles per minute

 Take – Off Power Rating

c. IHP
d. BHP


e. FHP
determined by the maximum rpm and the manifold
pressure at which the airplane may be operated during  Problems:
the process of take off.
 Compute the horsepower output of the following


describe engine operating at 2000 rpm, bore 3.5
time limitations of take off power is 1 to 5 minutes in., stroke 4.0 in., 6 cylinders, 140 psi bmep.

 Rated Power  Compute the piston displacement of a radial

 also called standard engine rating, the maximum
horsepower output which can be obtained from an
engine when it is operated at a specified RPM and
manifold pressure conditions, established as safe for
continuous engine operations.
engine having 9 cylinders, a bore of 5 in. and
stroke of 5 in.
 Compute the compression ratio of an engine
which has a bore of 5 in. and a stroke of 5 in.
when the volume at the combustion chamber is
16.36 cu.in. with the piston at TDC

 also called METO power or the Maximum Except

 Compute the bmep of an engine when the output
is 450 hp, 2300 rpm, bore and stroke are each 5.5
Take off Power
in, and with 9 cylinders.
 Maximum Power

 the greatest power output that the engine can develop

at any time under any conditions.

 as manifold pressure increases, power output of an

engine increases.

 as rpm increases, power output of an engine increases.

 Ineffective Crank Angle

 Valve Timing

 Firing Order

 An engine's firing order represents the sequence in

which the ignition event occurs in different cylinders.