Metallurgical Modelling of Welding 2nd Edition 1997 PDF

Metallurgical
Modelling
of Welding
SECOND EDITION
0YSTEIN GRONG
Norwegian University of
Science and Technology,
Department of Metallurgy,
N-7034 Trondheim, Norway
MATERIALS MODELLING SERIES
Editor: H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia
The University of Cambridge
Department of Materials Science
and Metallurgy
T H E INSTITUTE OF MATERIALS
Book 677
First published in 1997 by
The Institute of Materials
1 Carlton House Terrace
London SWlY 5DB
First edition (Book 557)

Published in 1994
The Institute of Materials 1997

All rights reserved
ISBNl 86125 036 3
Originally typeset by
PicA Publishing Services
Additional typesetting and corrections by
Fakenham Photosetting Ltd
Printed and bound in the UK at
The University Press, Cambridge
TO TORHILD, TORBJ0RN AND HAVARD
without your support, this book would never have been finished.
Preface to the second edition
Besides correcting some minor linguistic and print errors, I have in the second edition in-
cluded a collection of different exercise problems which have been used in the training of stu-
dents at NTNU. They illustrate how the models described in the previous chapters can be used
to solve practical problems of more interdisciplinary nature. Each of them contains a 'prob-
lem description' and some background information on materials and welding conditions. The
exercises are designed to illuminate the microstructural connections throughout the weld
thermal cycle and show how the properties achieved depend on the operating conditions ap-
plied. Solutions to the problems are also presented. These are not complete or exhaustive, but
are just meant as an aid to the reader to develop the ideas further.
Trondheim, 28 October, 1996
0ystein Grong
Preface to the first edition
The purpose of this textbook is to present a broad overview on the fundamentals of welding
metallurgy to graduate students, investigators and engineers who already have a good back-
ground in physical metallurgy and materials science. However, in contrast to previous text-
books covering the same field, the present book takes a more direct theoretical approach to
welding metallurgy based on a synthesis of knowledge from diverse disciplines. The motiva-
tion for this work has largely been provided by the need for improved physical models for
process optimalisation and microstructure control in the light of the recent advances that have
taken place within the field of materials processing and alloy design.
The present textbook describes a novel approach to the modelling of dynamic processes in
welding metallurgy, not previously dealt with. In particular, attempts have been made to ra-
tionalise chemical, structural and mechanical changes in weldments in terms of models based
on well established concepts from ladle refining, casting, rolling and heat treatment of steels
and aluminium alloys. The judicious construction of the constitutive equations makes full use
of both dimensionless parameters and calibration techniques to eliminate poorly known ki-
netic constants. Many of the models presented are thus generic in the sense that they can be
generalised to a wide range of materials and processing. To help the reader understand and
apply the subjects and models treated, numerous example problems, exercise problems and
case studies have been worked out and integrated in the text. These are meant to illustrate the
basic physical principles that underline the experimental observations and to provide a way of
developing the ideas further.
Over the years, I have benefited from interaction and collaboration with numerous people
within the scientific community. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the contribution
from my father Professor Tor Grong who is partly responsible for my professional upbringing
and development as a metallurgist through his positive influence on and interest in my re-
search work. Secondly, I am very grateful to the late Professor Nils Christensen who first
introduced me to the fascinating field of welding metallurgy and later taught me the basic
principles of scientific work and reasoning. I will also take this opportunity to thank all my
friends and colleagues at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (Norway), The Colorado School
of Mines (USA), the University of Cambridge (England), and the Universitat der Bundeswehr
Hamburg (Germany) whom I have worked with over the past decade. Of this group of people,
I would particularly like to mention two names, i.e. our department secretary Mrs. Reidun
0stbye who has helped me to convert my original manuscript into a readable text and Mr.
Roald Skjaerv0 who is responsible for all line-drawings in this textbook. Their contributions
are gratefully acknowledged.
Trondheim, 1 December, 1993
0ystein Grong
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition ........................................................ xiii
Preface to the First Edition ............................................................. xiv
1. Heat Flow and Temperature Distribution in Welding ........... 1

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 1
1.2 Non-steady Heat Conduction .................................................... 1
1.3 Thermal Properties of Some Metals and Alloys ........................ 2
1.4 Instantaneous Heat Sources ..................................................... 4
1.5 Local Fusion in Arc Strikes ........................................................ 7
1.6 Spot Welding ............................................................................. 10
1.7 Thermit Welding ........................................................................ 14
1.8 Friction Welding ........................................................................ 18
1.9 Moving Heat Sources and Pseudo-steady State ...................... 24
1.10 Arc Welding ............................................................................... 24
1.10.1 Arc Efficiency Factors .................................................. 26
1.10.2 Thick Plate Solutions ................................................... 26
1.10.2.1 Transient Heating Period ............................. 28
1.10.2.2 Pseudo-steady State Temperature
Distribution ................................................... 31
1.10.2.3 Simplified Solution for a Fast-moving High
Power Source .............................................. 41
1.10.3 Thin Plate Solutions ..................................................... 45
1.10.3.1 Transient Heating Period ............................. 48
1.10.3.2 Pseudo-steady State Temperature
Distribution ................................................... 49
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. vi

Contents vii
1.10.3.3 Simplified Solution for a Fast Moving High

Power Source .............................................. 56
1.10.4 Medium Thick Plate Solution ....................................... 59
1.10.4.1 Dimensionless Maps for Heat Flow
Analyses ...................................................... 61
1.10.4.2 Experimental Verification of the Medium
Thick Plate Solution ..................................... 72
1.10.4.3 Practical Implications ................................... 75
1.10.5 Distributed Heat Sources ............................................. 77
1.10.5.1 General Solution .......................................... 77
1.10.5.2 Simplified Solution ....................................... 80
1.10.6 Thermal Conditions during Interrupted Welding .......... 91
1.10.7 Thermal Conditions during Root Pass Welding ........... 95
1.10.8 Semi-empirical Methods for Assessment of Bead
Morphology .................................................................. 96
1.10.8.1 Amounts of Deposit and Fused Parent
Metal ............................................................ 96
1.10.8.2 Bead Penetration ......................................... 99
1.10.9 Local Preheating .......................................................... 100
References ......................................................................................... 103
Appendix 1.1: Nomenclature ............................................................ 105
Appendix 1.2: Refined Heat Flow Model for Spot Welding .............. 110
Appendix 1.3: The Gaussian Error Function .................................... 111
Appendix 1.4: Gaussian Heat Distribution ....................................... 112
2. Chemical Reactions in Arc Welding ...................................... 116

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 116
2.2 Overall Reaction Model ............................................................. 116
2.3 Dissociation of Gases in the Arc Column .................................. 117
2.4 Kinetics of Gas Absorption ........................................................ 120
2.4.1 Thin Film Model ........................................................... 120
2.4.2 Rate of Element Absorption ......................................... 121
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

viii Contents
2.5 The Concept of Pseudo-equilibrium .......................................... 122

2.6 Kinetics of Gas Desorption ........................................................ 123
2.6.1 Rate of Element Desorption ......................................... 123
2.6.2 Sievert’s Law ............................................................... 124
2.7 Overall Kinetic Model for Mass Transfer during Cooling in
the Weld Pool ............................................................................ 124
2.8 Absorption of Hydrogen ............................................................ 128
2.8.1 Sources of Hydrogen ................................................... 128
2.8.2 Methods of Hydrogen Determination in Steel
Welds ........................................................................... 128
2.8.3 Reaction Model ............................................................ 130
2.8.4 Comparison between Measured and Predicted
Hydrogen Contents ...................................................... 131
2.8.4.1 Gas-shielded Welding .................................. 131
2.8.4.2 Covered Electrodes ..................................... 134
2.8.4.3 Submerged Arc Welding .............................. 138
2.8.4.4 Implications of Sievert’s Law ....................... 140
2.8.4.5 Hydrogen in Multi-run Weldments ............... 140
2.8.4.6 Hydrogen in Non-ferrous Weldments .......... 141
2.9 Absorption of Nitrogen .............................................................. 141
2.9.1 Sources of Nitrogen ..................................................... 142
2.9.2 Gas-shielded Welding .................................................. 142
2.9.3 Covered Electrodes ..................................................... 143
2.9.4 Submerged Arc Welding .............................................. 146
2.10 Absorption of Oxygen ................................................................ 148
2.10.1 Gas Metal Arc Welding ................................................ 148
2.10.1.1 Sampling of Metal Concentrations at
Elevated Temperatures ............................... 149
2.10.1.2 Oxidation of Carbon ..................................... 149
2.10.1.3 Oxidation of Silicon ...................................... 152
2.10.1.4 Evaporation of Manganese .......................... 156
2.10.1.5 Transient Concentrations of Oxygen ........... 160

Contents ix
2.10.1.6 Classification of Shielding Gases ................ 166

2.10.1.7 Overall Oxygen Balance .............................. 166
2.10.1.8 Effects of Welding Parameters .................... 169
2.10.2 Submerged Arc Welding .............................................. 170
2.10.2.1 Flux Basicity Index ....................................... 171
2.10.2.2 Transient Oxygen Concentrations ............... 172
2.10.3 Covered Electrodes ..................................................... 173
2.10.3.1 Reaction Model ............................................ 174
2.10.3.2 Absorption of Carbon and Oxygen .............. 176
2.10.3.3 Losses of Silicon and Manganese ............... 177
2.10.3.4 The Product [%C] [%O] ............................... 179
2.11 Weld Pool Deoxidation Reactions ............................................. 180
2.11.1 Nucleation of Oxide Inclusions ..................................... 182
2.11.2 Growth and Separation of Oxide Inclusions ................. 184
2.11.2.1 Buoyancy (Stokes Flotation) ........................ 185
2.11.2.2 Fluid Flow Pattern ........................................ 186
2.11.2.3 Separation Model ......................................... 188
2.11.3 Predictions of Retained Oxygen in the Weld Metal ...... 190
2.11.3.1 Thermodynamic Model ................................ 190
2.11.3.2 Implications of Model ................................... 192
2.12 Non-metallic Inclusions in Steel Weld Metals ........................... 192
2.12.1 Volume Fraction of Inclusions ...................................... 193
2.12.2 Size Distribution of Inclusions ...................................... 195
2.12.2.1 Effect of Heat Input ...................................... 196
2.12.2.2 Coarsening Mechanism ............................... 196
2.12.2.3 Proposed Deoxidation Model ....................... 201
2.12.3 Constituent Elements and Phases in Inclusions .......... 202
2.12.3.1 Aluminium, Silicon and Manganese
Contents ...................................................... 202
2.12.3.2 Copper and Sulphur Contents ..................... 202
2.12.3.3 Titanium and Nitrogen Contents .................. 203
2.12.3.4 Constituent Phases ...................................... 204

x Contents
2.12.4 Prediction of Inclusion Composition ............................. 204

2.12.4.1 C-Mn Steel Weld Metals .............................. 204
2.12.4.2 Low-alloy Steel Weld Metals ........................ 206
References ......................................................................................... 212
Appendix 2.2: Derivation of Equation (2-60) .................................... 219
3. Solidification Behaviour of Fusion Welds ............................ 221

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 221
3.2 Structural Zones in Castings and Welds ................................... 221
3.3 Epitaxial Solidification ............................................................... 222
3.3.1 Energy Barrier to Nucleation ........................................ 225
3.3.2 Implications of Epitaxial Solidification .......................... 226
3.4 Weld Pool Shape and Columnar Grain Structures .................... 228
3.4.1 Weld Pool Geometry .................................................... 228
3.4.2 Columnar Grain Morphology ........................................ 229
3.4.3 Growth Rate of Columnar Grains ................................. 230
3.4.3.1 Nominal Crystal Growth Rate ...................... 230
3.4.3.2 Local Crystal Growth Rate ........................... 234
3.4.4 Reorientation of Columnar Grains ............................... 239
3.4.4.1 Bowing of Crystals ....................................... 240
3.4.4.2 Renucleation of Crystals .............................. 242
3.5 Solidification Microstructures .................................................... 251
3.5.1 Substructure Characteristics ........................................ 251
3.5.2 Stability of the Solidification Front ................................ 254
3.5.2.1 Interface Stability Criterion ........................... 254
3.5.2.2 Factors Affecting the Interface Stability ....... 256
3.5.3 Dendrite Morphology ................................................... 260
3.5.3.1 Dendrite Tip Radius ..................................... 260
3.5.3.2 Primary Dendrite Arm Spacing .................... 261
3.5.3.3 Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing ............... 264

Contents xi
3.6 Equiaxed Dendritic Growth ....................................................... 268

3.6.1 Columnar to Equiaxed Transition ................................. 268
3.6.2 Nucleation Mechanisms ............................................... 272
3.7 Solute Redistribution ................................................................. 272
3.7.1 Microsegregation ......................................................... 272
3.7.2 Macrosegregation ........................................................ 278
3.7.3 Gas Porosity ................................................................ 279
3.7.3.1 Nucleation of Gas Bubbles .......................... 279
3.7.3.2 Growth and Detachment of Gas Bubbles .... 281
3.7.3.3 Separation of Gas Bubbles .......................... 284
3.7.4 Removal of Microsegregations during Cooling ............ 286
3.7.4.1 Diffusion Model ............................................ 286
3.7.4.2 Application to Continuous Cooling ............... 286
3.8 Peritectic Solidification .............................................................. 290
3.8.1 Primary Precipitation of the γp-phase ........................... 290
3.8.2 Transformation Behaviour of Low-alloy Steel Weld
Metals .......................................................................... 290
3.8.2.1 Primary Precipitation of Delta Ferrite ........... 290
3.8.2.2 Primary Precipitation of Austenite ................ 292
3.8.2.3 Primary Precipitation of Both Delta
Ferrite and Austenite ................................... 292
References ......................................................................................... 293
4. Precipitate Stability in Welds ................................................. 301

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 301
4.2 The Solubility Product ............................................................... 301
4.2.1 Thermodynamic Background ....................................... 301
4.2.2 Equilibrium Dissolution Temperature ........................... 303
4.2.3 Stable and Metastable Solvus Boundaries .................. 304
4.2.3.1 Equilibrium Precipitates ............................... 304
4.2.3.2 Metastable Precipitates ............................... 308

xii Contents
4.3 Particle Coarsening ................................................................... 314

4.3.1 Coarsening Kinetics ..................................................... 314
4.3.2 Application to Continuous Heating and Cooling ........... 314
4.3.2.1 Kinetic Strength of Thermal Cycle ............... 315
4.3.2.2 Model Limitations ......................................... 315
4.4 Particle Dissolution .................................................................... 316
4.4.1 Analytical Solutions ...................................................... 316
4.4.1.1 The Invariant Size Approximation ................ 319
4.4.1.2 Application to Continuous Heating and
Cooling ........................................................ 322
4.4.2 Numerical Solution ....................................................... 325
4.4.2.1 Two-dimensional Diffusion Model ................ 326
4.4.2.2 Generic Model ............................................. 328
4.4.2.3 Application to Continuous Heating and
Cooling ........................................................ 329
4.4.2.4 Process Diagrams for Single Pass 6082-
T6 Butt Welds .............................................. 332
References ......................................................................................... 334
5. Grain Growth in Welds ........................................................... 337

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 337
5.2 Factors Affecting the Grain Boundary Mobility .......................... 337
5.2.1 Characterisation of Grain Structures ............................ 337
5.2.2 Driving Pressure for Grain Growth ............................... 339
5.2.3 Drag from Impurity Elements in Solid Solution ............ 340
5.2.4 Drag from a Random Particle Distribution ................... 341
5.2.5 Combined Effect of Impurities and Particles ................ 342
5.3 Analytical Modelling of Normal Grain Growth ........................... 343
5.3.1 Limiting Grain Size ....................................................... 343
5.3.2 Grain Boundary Mobility ............................................... 345

Contents xiii
5.3.3 Grain Growth Mechanisms .......................................... 345

5.3.3.1 Generic Grain Growth Model ....................... 345
5.3.3.2 Grain Growth in the Absence of Pinning
Precipitates .................................................. 347
5.3.3.3 Grain Growth in the Presence of Stable
Precipitates .................................................. 348
5.3.3.4 Grain Growth in the Presence of Growing
Precipitates .................................................. 351
5.3.3.5 Grain Growth in the Presence of
Dissolving Precipitates ................................. 356
5.4 Grain Growth Diagrams for Steel Welding ................................ 360
5.4.1 Construction of Diagrams ............................................ 360
5.4.1.1 Heat Flow Models ........................................ 360
5.4.1.2 Grain Growth Model ..................................... 361
5.4.1.3 Calibration Procedure .................................. 361
5.4.1.4 Axes and Features of Diagrams .................. 363
5.4.2 Case Studies ............................................................... 364
5.4.2.1 Titanium-microalloyed Steels ....................... 364
5.4.2.2 Niobium-microalloyed Steels ....................... 367
5.4.2.3 C-Mn Steel Weld Metals .............................. 370
5.4.2.4 Cr-Mo Low-alloy Steels ................................ 372
5.4.2.5 Type 316 Austenitic Stainless Steels ........... 375
5.5 Computer Simulation of Grain Growth ...................................... 380
5.5.1 Grain Growth in the Presence of a Temperature
Gradient ....................................................................... 380
5.5.2 Free Surface Effects .................................................... 382
References ......................................................................................... 382
6. Solid State Transformations in Welds ................................... 387

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 387
6.2 Transformation Kinetics ............................................................ 387
6.2.1 Driving Force for Transformation Reactions ................ 387

xiv Contents
6.2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation in Solids ............................ 389

6.2.2.1 Rate of Heterogeneous Nucleation .............. 389
6.2.2.2 Determination of ∆Ghet.* and Qd ................... 390
6.2.2.3 Mathematical Description of the C-curve ..... 392
6.2.3 Growth of Precipitates .................................................. 396
6.2.3.1 Interface-controlled Growth ......................... 396
6.2.3.2 Diffusion-controlled Growth ......................... 397
6.2.4 Overall Transformation Kinetics ................................... 400
6.2.4.1 Constant Nucleation and Growth Rates ...... 400
6.2.4.2 Site Saturation ............................................. 402
6.2.5 Non-isothermal Transformations .................................. 402
6.2.5.1 The Principles of Additivity ........................... 403
6.2.5.2 Isokinetic Reactions ..................................... 404
6.2.5.3 Additivity in Relation to the Avrami
Equation ...................................................... 404
6.2.5.4 Non-additive Reactions ................................ 405
6.3 High Strength Low-alloy Steels ................................................. 406
6.3.1 Classification of Microstructures .................................. 406
6.3.2 Currently Used Nomenclature ...................................... 406
6.3.3 Grain Boundary Ferrite ................................................ 408
6.3.3.1 Crystallography of Grain Boundary
Ferrite .......................................................... 408
6.3.3.2 Nucleation of Grain Boundary Ferrite .......... 408
6.3.3.3 Growth of Grain Boundary Ferrite ................ 422
6.3.4 Widmanstätten Ferrite .................................................. 427
6.3.5 Acicular Ferrite in Steel Weld Deposits ........................ 428
6.3.5.1 Crystallography of Acicular Ferrite ............... 428
6.3.5.2 Texture Components of Acicular Ferrite ...... 429
6.3.5.3 Nature of Acicular Ferrite ............................. 430
6.3.5.4 Nucleation and Growth of Acicular
Ferrite .......................................................... 432
6.3.6 Acicular Ferrite in Wrought Steels ............................... 444

Contents xv
6.3.7 Bainite .......................................................................... 444

6.3.7.1 Upper Bainite ............................................... 444
6.3.7.2 Lower Bainite ............................................... 447
6.3.8 Martensite .................................................................... 448
6.3.8.1 Lath Martensite ............................................ 448
6.3.8.2 Plate (Twinned) Martensite .......................... 448
6.4 Austenitic Stainless Steels ........................................................ 453
6.4.1 Kinetics of Chromium Carbide Formation .................... 456
6.4.2 Area of Weld Decay ..................................................... 456
6.5 Al-Mg-Si Alloys .......................................................................... 458
6.5.1 Quench-sensitivity in Relation to Welding .................... 459
6.5.1.1 Conditions for β’(Mg2Si) Precipitation
during Cooling .............................................. 459
6.5.1.2 Strength Recovery during Natural
Ageing ......................................................... 461
6.5.2 Subgrain Evolution during Continuous Drive
Friction Welding ........................................................... 464
References ......................................................................................... 467
Appendix 6.2: Additivity in Relation to the Avrami Equation ............ 475
7. Properties of Weldments ........................................................ 477

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 477
7.2 Low-alloy Steel Weldments ....................................................... 477
7.2.1 Weld Metal Mechanical Properties .............................. 477
7.2.1.1 Weld Metal Strength Level ........................... 478
7.2.1.2 Weld Metal Resistance to Ductile
Fracture ....................................................... 480
7.2.1.3 Weld Metal Resistance to Cleavage
Fracture ....................................................... 485
7.2.1.4 The Weld Metal Ductile to Brittle
Transition ..................................................... 486

xvi Contents
7.2.1.5 Effects of Reheating on Weld Metal

Toughness ................................................... 491
7.2.2 HAZ Mechanical Properties ......................................... 494
7.2.2.1 HAZ Hardness and Strength Level .............. 495
7.2.2.2 Tempering of the Heat Affected Zone .......... 500
7.2.2.3 HAZ Toughness ........................................... 502
7.2.3 Hydrogen Cracking ...................................................... 509
7.2.3.1 Mechanisms of Hydrogen Cracking ............. 509
7.2.3.2 Solubility of Hydrogen in Steel ..................... 513
7.2.3.3 Diffusivity of Hydrogen in Steel .................... 514
7.2.3.4 Diffusion of Hydrogen in Welds ................... 514
7.2.3.5 Factors Affecting the HAZ Cracking
Resistance ................................................... 518
7.2.4 H2S Stress Corrosion Cracking .................................... 524
7.2.4.1 Threshold Stress for Cracking ..................... 524
7.2.4.2 Prediction of HAZ Cracking Resistance ....... 525
7.3 Stainless Steel Weldments ....................................................... 527
7.3.1 HAZ Corrosion Resistance .......................................... 527
7.3.2 HAZ Strength Level ..................................................... 529
7.3.3 HAZ Toughness ........................................................... 530
7.3.4 Solidification Cracking .................................................. 532
7.4 Aluminium Weldments .............................................................. 536
7.4.1 Solidification Cracking .................................................. 536
7.4.2 Hot Cracking ................................................................ 540
7.4.2.1 Constitutional Liquation in Binary Al-Si
Alloys ........................................................... 541
7.4.2.2 Constitutional Liquation in Ternary Al-Mg-
Si Alloys ....................................................... 542
7.4.2.3 Factors Affecting the Hot Cracking
Susceptibility ................................................ 544
7.4.3 HAZ Microstructure and Strength Evolution during
Fusion Welding ............................................................ 547

Contents xvii
7.4.3.1 Effects of Reheating on Weld Properties ..... 547

7.4.3.2 Strengthening Mechanisms in Al-Mg-Si
Alloys ........................................................... 548
7.4.3.3 Constitutive Equations ................................. 548
7.4.3.4 Predictions of HAZ Hardness and
Strength Distribution .................................... 550
7.4.4 HAZ Microstructure and Strength Evolution during
Friction Welding ........................................................... 556
7.4.4.1 Heat Generation in Friction Welding ............ 556
7.4.4.2 Response of Al-Mg-Si Alloys and Al-SiC
MMCs to Friction Welding ............................ 557
7.4.4.3 Constitutive Equations ................................. 558
7.4.4.4 Coupling of Models ...................................... 558
7.4.4.5 Prediction of the HAZ Hardness
Distribution ................................................... 560
References ......................................................................................... 564
8. Exercise Problems with Solutions ......................................... 571

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 571
8.2 Exercise Problem I: Welding of Low Alloy Steels ...................... 571
8.3 Exercise Problem II: Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels ..... 583
8.4 Exercise Problem III: Welding of Al-Mg-Si Alloys ...................... 587
Index .............................................................................................. 595
Author Index ................................................................................. 602

1
Heat Flow and Temperature Distribution in
Welding
1.1 Introduction
Welding metallurgy is concerned with the application of well-known metallurgical principles

for assessment of chemical and physical reactions occurring during welding. On purely prac-
tical grounds it is nevertheless convenient to consider welding metallurgy as a profession of its
own because of the characteristic non-isothermal nature of the process. In welding the reac-
tions are forced to take place within seconds in a small volume of metal where the thermal
conditions are highly different from those prevailing in production, refining and fabrication of
metals and alloys. For example, steel welding is characterised by:
High peak temperatures, up to several thousand 0 C.

High temperature gradients, locally of the order of 103 0C mm"1.
Rapid temperature fluctuations, locally of the order of 103 0C s 1 .
It follows that a quantitative analysis of metallurgical reactions in welding requires detailed

information about the weld thermal history. From a practical point of view the analytical
approach to the solution of heat flow problems in welding is preferable, since this makes it
possible to derive relatively simple equations which provide the required background for an
understanding of the temperature-time pattern. However, because of the complexity of the
heat flow phenomena, it is always necessary to check the validity of such predictions against
more reliable data obtained from numerical calculations and in situ thermocouple measure-
ments. Although the analytical models suffer from a number of simplifying assumptions, it is
obvious that these solutions in many cases are sufficiently accurate to provide at least a quali-
tative description of the weld thermal programme.
An important aspect of the present treatment is the use of different dimensionless groups
for a general outline of the temperature distribution in welding. Although this practice in-
volves several problems, it is a convenient way to reduce the total number of variables to an
acceptable level and hence, condense general information about the weld thermal programme
into two-dimensional (2-D) maps or diagrams. Consequently, readers who are unfamiliar with
the concept should accept the challenge and try to overcome the barrier associated with the use
of such dimensionless groups in heat flow analyses.
1.2 Non-Steady Heat Conduction
The symbols and units used throughout this chapter are defined in Appendix 1.1.
Since heat losses from free surfaces by radiation and convection are usually negligible in
welding, the temperature distribution can generally be obtained from the fundamental differ-
ential equations for heat conduction in solids. For uniaxial heat conduction, the governing
equation can be written as:1
(i-D
where T is the temperature, t is the time, x is the heat flow direction, and a is the thermal
diffusivity. The thermal diffusivity is related to the thermal conductivity X and the volume
heat capacity pc through the following equation:
(1-2)
For biaxial and triaxial heat conduction we may write by analogy:1
d-3)
and
(1-4)
The above equations must clearly be satisfied by all solutions of heat conduction problems,
but for a given set of initial and boundary conditions there will be one and only one solution.
1.3 Thermal Properties of Some Metals and Alloys
A pre-condition for obtaining simple analytical solutions to the differential heat flow equa-
tions is that the thermal properties of the base material are constant and independent of tem-
perature. For most metals and alloys this is a rather unrealistic assumption, since both X, a,
and pc may vary significantly with temperature as illustrated in Fig. 1.1. In addition, the
thermal properties are also dependent upon the chemical composition and the thermal history
of the base material (see Fig. 1.2), which further complicates the situation.
By neglecting such effects in the heat flow models, we impose several limitations on the
application of the analytical solutions. Nevertheless, experience has shown that these prob-
lems to some extent can be overcome by the choice of reasonable average values for X, a and
pc within a specific temperature range. Table 1.1 contains a summary of relevant thermal
properties for different metals and alloys, based on a critical review of literature data. It should
be noted that the thermal data in Table 1.1 do not include a correction for heat consumed in
melting of the parent materials. Although the latent heat of melting is temporarily removed
during fusion welding, experience has shown this effect can be accounted for by calibrating
the equations against a known isotherm (e.g. the fusion boundary). In practice, such correc-
tions are done by adjusting the arc efficiency factor Tq until a good correlation is achieved
between theory and experiments.
Carbon steel
Hx-H0 = PC(T-T0 ),J/mm3
Temperature, 0C
Fig. 1.1. Enthalpy increment H7-H0 referred to an initial temperature T0 = 200C. Data from Refs.
2-4.
Table 1.1 Physical properties for some metals and alloys. Data from Refs 2 - 6 .
Material (WrTIm-10C-1) (mm2 s"1) (Jmnr 3 0C"1) (0C) (J mnr 3 ) (J mnr 3 )
Carbon 0.040 8 0.005 1520 7.50 2.0

Steels
Low Alloy 0.025 5 0.005 1520 7.50 2.0
Steels
High Alloy 0.020 4 0.005 1500 7.40 2.0
Steels
Titanium 0.030 10 0.003 1650 4.89 1.4
Alloys
Aluminium 0.230 85 0.0027 660 1.73 0.8
(> 99% Al)
Al-Mg-Si 0.167 62 0.0027 652 1.71 0.8
Alloys
Al-Mg 0.149 55 0.0027 650 1.70 0.8
Alloys
Does not include the latent heat of melting (AH1n).

(a)
X9 W/mm 0C
Temperature, 0C
(b)
High alloy steel
X, W/mm 0C
Temperature, 0C
Fig. 1.2. Factors affecting the thermal conductivity X of steels; (a) Temperature level and chemical
composition, (b) Heat treatment procedure. Data from Refs. 2-4.
1.4 Instantaneous Heat Sources
The concept of instantaneous heat sources is widely used in the theory of heat conduction.1 It
is seen from Fig. 1.3 that these solutions are based on the assumption that the heat is released
instantaneously at time t - 0 in an infinite medium of initial temperature T0, either across a
plane (uniaxial conduction), along a line (biaxial conduction), or in a point (triaxial conduc-
tion). The material outside the heat source is assumed to extend to x = + °° for a plane source
in a long rod, to r = °° for a line source in a wide plate, or to R = °° for a point source in a heavy
slab. The initial and boundary conditions can be summarised as follows:
T-T0 = oo for t = O and x = O (alternatively r = O or R = O)
T-J 0 = O for t = O and x * O (alternatively r > O or 7? > O)
7-T 0 = O for O < t < oo when x = ± oo (alternatively r = oo or R = oo).
It is easy to verify that the following solutions satisfy both the basic differential heat flow
equations (1-1), (1-3) and (1-4) and the initial and boundary conditions listed above:
(i) Plane source in a long rod (Fig. 1.3a):

d-5)
where Q is the net heat input (energy) released at time t = O, and A is the cross section of the
rod.
(ii) Line source in a wide plate (Fig. 1.3b):
(1-6)
where d is the plate thickness.
(iii) Point source in a heavy slab (Fig. 1.3c):

(1-7)
Equations (1-5), (1-6) and (1-7) provide the required basis for a comprehensive theoretical
treatment of heat flow phenomena in welding. These solutions can either be applied directly
or be used in an integral or differential form. In the next sections a few examples will be given
to illustrate the direct application of the instantaneous heat source concept to problems related
to welding.
(a) T
Fig. 1.3. Schematic representation of instantaneous heat source models; (a) Plane source in a long rod.
(b) T
X y
(C)
Fig. 1.3.Schematic representation of instantaneous heat source models (continued); (b) Line source in a
wide plate, (c) Point source in a heavy slab.
1.5 Local Fusion in Arc Strikes
The series of fused metal spots formed on arc ignition make a good case for application of
equation (1-7).
Model
The model considers a point source on a heavy slab as illustrated in Fig. 1.4. The heat is
assumed to be released instantaneously at time t = 0 on the surface of the slab. This causes a
temperature rise in the material which is exactly twice as large as that calculated from equation
(1-7):
(1-8)
In order to obtain a general survey of the thermal programme, it is convenient to write

equation (1-8) in a dimensionless form. The following parameters are defined for this pur-
pose:
— Dimensionless temperature:
(1-9)
where Tc is the chosen reference temperature.
— Dimensionless time:
d-10)
where tt is the arc ignition time.
— Dimensionless operating parameter:
(1-11)
where qo is the net arc power (equal to Qlt(), and (Hc-Ho) is the heat content per unit volume at
the reference temperature.
— Dimensionless radius vector:
(1-12)
By substituting these parameters into equation (1-8), we obtain:
(1-13)
Heat source
Isotherms
3-D heat flow
Fig. 1.4. Instantaneous point source model for assessment of temperatures in arc strikes.
e/n Linear time scale

0Zn1
T1
î
Fig. 1.5. Calculated temperatures in arc strikes.
Equation (1-13) has been solved numerically for different values ofCT1and T1. The results
are presented graphically in Fig. 1.5. Due to the inherent assumption of instantaneous release
of heat in a point, it is not possible to use equation (1-13) down to very small values OfCT1 and
T1. However, at some distance from the heat source and after a time not much shorter than the
real (assumed) time of heating, the calculated temperature-time pattern will be reasonably
correct. Note that the heavy broken line in Fig. 1.5 represents the locus of the peak tempera-
tures. This locus is obtained by setting 3In(OAi1VdT1 = 0:
from which
Substituting this into equation (1-13) gives:
(1-14)
where Qp is the peak temperature, and e is the natural logarithm base number.
Example (1.1)
Consider a small weld crater formed in an arc strike on a thick plate of low alloy steel. Calcu-
late the cooling time from 800 to 5000C (Af875), and the total width of the fully transformed
region adjacent to the fusion boundary. The operational conditions are as follows:
where r| is the arc efficiency factor. Relevant thermal data for low alloy steel are given in
Table 1.1.
Solution
In the present case it is convenient to use the melting point of the steel as a reference tempera-
ture (i.e. 0 = 0m = 1 when Tc = TJ. The corresponding values OfZi1 and 9 (at 800 and 5000C,
respectively) are:
Cooling time At8/5

Since the cooling curves in Fig. 1.5 are virtually parallel at temperatures below 800 0 C, Af875
will be independent of Cr1 and similar to that calculated for the centre-line ((J1 = 0). By rear-
ranging equation (1-13) we get:
and
Total width offully transformed region

Zone widths can generally be calculated from equation (1-14), as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. Tak-
ing the Ac3-temperature equal to 8900C for this particular steel, we obtain:
and
Alternatively, the same information could have been read from Fig. 1.5. Although it is
difficult to check the accuracy of these predictions, the calculated values for Ats/5 and ARlm are
considered reasonably correct. Thus, because the cooling rate is very large, in arc strikes a
hard martensitic microstructure would be expected to form within the transformed parts of the
HAZ, in agreement with general experience.
1.6 Spot Welding
Equation (1-6) can be used for an assessment of the temperature-time pattern in spot welding
of plates.
Model
The model considers a line source which penetrates two overlapping plates of similar thermal
properties, as illustrated in Fig. 1.7. The heat is assumed to be released instantaneously at time
Heat source
Fig. 1.6. Definition of isothermal zone width in Example (1.1).

Electrode
Heat source d
Fig. 1.7. Idealised heat flow model for spot welding of plates.
t = 0. If transfer of heat into the electrodes is neglected, the temperature distribution is given
by equation (1-6).
This equation can be written in a dimensionless form by introducing the following group of
parameters:
— Dimensionless time:
(1-15)
where th is the heating time (i.e. the duration of the pulse).
— Dimensionless operating parameter:
(1-16)
where dt is the total thickness of the joint.
— Dimensionless radius vector:
(1-17)
By substituting these parameters into equation (1-6), we get:
(1-18)
where 6 denotes the dimensionless temperature (previously defined in equation (1-9)).

Linear time scale
e/n2
6/n2
T
2
T2
Fig. 1.8. Calculated temperature-time pattern in spot welding.
Figure 1.8 shows a graphical representation of equation (1-18) for a limited range of a 2 and
T2. A closer inspection of the graph reveals that the temperature-time pattern in spot welding
is similar to that observed during arc ignition (see Fig. 1.5). The locus of the peak tempera-
tures in Fig. 1.8 is obtained by setting d\n{^ln7}ldx2 - 0.
which gives
and
(1-19)
Example (1.2)
Consider spot welding of 2 mm plates of low alloy steel under the following operational con-
ditions:
Calculate the cooling time from 800 to 5000C (Af8/5) in the centre of the weld, and the cooling
rate (CR.) at the onset of the austenite to ferrite transformation. Assume in these calculations
that the total voltage drop between the electrodes is 1.6 V. The M^-temperature of the steel is
taken equal to 475°C.
Solution
If we use the melting point of the steel as a reference temperature, the parameters n2 and 6 (at
800 and 5000C, respectively) become:
Cooling time Atg/5

The parameter A%5 can be calculated from equation (1-18). For the weld centre-line (CT2 = 0),
we get:
and
Cooling rate at 475 0C

The cooling rate at a specific temperature is obtained by differentiation of equation (1-18) with
respect to time. When (J2 = 0 the cooling rate at 9 = 0.3 (475°C) becomes:
and
Since the cooling curves in Fig. 1.8 are virtually parallel at temperatures below 8000C (i.e.
for QZn2 < 0.15), the computed values of Ar8/5 and CR. are also valid for positions outside the
weld centre-line. In the present example the centre-line solutions can be applied down to
(°"2m)2 ~ 2. According to equation (1-19), this corresponds to a lower peak temperature of:
which is equivalent with:

It should be emphasised that the present heat flow model represents a crude oversimplifica-
tion of the spot welding process. In a real welding situation, most of the heat is generated at the
interface between the two plates because of the large contact resistance. This gives rise to the
development of an elliptical weld nugget inside the joint as shown in Fig. 1.9. Moreover, since
the model neglects transfer of heat into the electrodes, the mode of heat flow will be mixed and
not truly two-dimensional as assumed above. Consequently, equation (1-18) cannot be ap-
plied for reliable predictions of isothermal contours and zone widths. Nevertheless, the model
may provide useful information about the cooling conditions during spot welding if the effi-
ciency factor if] and the voltage drop between the electrodes can be estimated with a reasonable
degree of accuracy.
A more refined heat flow model for spot welding is presented in Appendix 1.2.
1.7 Thermit Welding
Thermit welding is a process that uses heat from exothermic chemical reactions to produce
coalescence between metals and alloys. The thermit mixture consists of two components, i.e.
a metal oxide and a strong reducing agent. The excess heat of formation of the reaction prod-
uct provides the energy source required to form the weld.
Model
In thermit welding the time interval between the ignition of the powder mixture and the com-
pletion of the reduction process will be short because of the high reaction rates involved.
Assume that a groove of width 2L1 is filled instantaneously at time t = 0 by liquid metal of an
initial temperature Tt (see Fig. 1.10). The metal temperature outside the fusion zone is T0. If
heat losses to the surroundings are neglected, the problem can be treated as uniaxial conduc-
tion where the heat source (extending from -L 1 to +L1) is represented by a series of elementary
sources, each with a heat content of:
(1-20)
At time t this source produces a small rise of temperature at position JC, given by equation (1 -5):
(1-21)
The final temperature distribution is obtained by substituting u = (x-xy(4at)m (i.e. dx'-

- du(4at)m) into equation (1-21) and integrating between the limits JC'= -L 1 and x'- +L1. This
gives (after some manipulation):
(1-22)
Isl'srau*'*'=]
Fusion zone
Fig. 1.9. Calculated peak temperature contours in spot welding of steel plates (numerical solution). Op-
erational conditions: / = 23kA, 64 cycles. Data from Bently et al1
Fusion zone
Fig. 1.10. Idealised heat flow model for thermit welding of rails.
where erf(u) is the Gaussian error function. The error function is defined in Appendix 1.3*.
Because of the complex nature of equation (1-22), it is convenient to present the different
solutions in a dimensionless form by introducing the following groups of parameters:
*The error function is available in tables. However, in numerical calculations it is more convenient to use the
Fortran subroutine given in Appendix 1.3.
Dimensionless temperature:
(1-23)
Dimensionless time:
(1-24)
Dimensionless jc-coordinate:
(1-25)
Substituting these parameters into equation (1-22) gives:
(1-26)
Equation (1-26) has been solved numerically for different values of Q and T3. The results
are presented graphically in Fig. 1.11. As would be expected, the fusion zone itself (Q < 1)
cools in a monotonic manner, while the temperature in positions outside the fusion boundary
(Q > 1) will pass through a maximum before cooling. The locus of the HAZ peak temperatures
in Fig. 1.11 is defined by 3673T3 = 0. Referring to Appendix 1.3, we may write:
which gives
(1-27)
The peak temperature distribution is obtained by solving equation (1-27) for different com-
binations of Qm and T3m and inserting the roots into equation (1-26).
Example (1.3)
Consider thermit welding of steel rails (i.e. reduction of Fe2O3 with Al powder) under the
following operational conditions:
Calculate the cooling time from 800 to 5000C in the centre of the weld, and the total width
of the fully transformed region adjacent to the fusion boundary. The Ac3-temperature of the
steel is taken equal to 8900C.
Definition of parameters:
91
T
3
Fig. 1.11. Calculated temperature-time pattern in thermit welding.
Solution
For positions along the weld centre-line (Q. = 0) equation (1-26) reduces to:
Cooling time At 8/5

From the above relation it is possible to calculate the cooling time from Tt = 22000C to 800 and
5000C, respectively:
and
By rearranging equation (1-24), we obtain the following expression for Ar875:

The computed value for A/8/5 is also valid for positions outside the weld centre-line, since
the cooling curves at such low temperatures are reasonably parallel within the fusion zone.
Total width of fully transformed region

The fusion boundary is defined by:
The locus of the 8900C isotherm in temperature-time space can be read from Fig. 1.11.
Taking the ordinate equal to 0.40, we get:
By inserting this value into equation (1-27), we obtain the corresponding coordinate of the
isotherm:
The total width of the fully transformed HAZ is thus:
Unfortunately, measurements are not available to check the accuracy of these predictions.
Systematic errors would be expected, however, because of the assumption of instantaneous
release of heat immediately after powder ignition and the neglect of heat losses to the sur-
roundings. Nevertheless, the present example is a good illustration of the versatility of the
concept of instantaneous heat sources, since these solutions can easily be added in space as
shown here or in time for continuous heat sources (to be discussed below).
1.8 Friction Welding
Friction welding is a solid state joining process that produces a weld under the compressive
force contact of one rotating and one stationary workpiece. The heat is generated at the weld
interface because of the continuous rubbing of the contact surfaces, which, in turn, causes a
temperature rise and subsequent softening of the material. Eventually, the material at the
interface starts to flow plastically and forms an up-set collar. When a certain amount of up-
setting has occurred, the rotation is stopped and the compressive force is maintained or slightly
increased to consolidate the weld.
Model (after Rykalin et al.5j

The model considers a continuous (plane) heat source in a long rod as shown in Fig. 1.12(a).
The heat is liberated at a constant rate q'o in the plane x = 0 starting at time / = 0. If we
subdivide the time t during which the source operates into a series of infinitesimal elements dt/
(Fig. 1.12b), each element will have a heat content of:
(1-28)
(a)
Continuous heat source
(b) q
t
Fig. 1.12. Idealised heatflowmodel for friction welding of rods; (a) Sketch of model, (b) Subdivision of
time into a series of infinitesimal elements dt'.
At time / this heat will cause a small rise of temperature in the material, in correspondance
with equation (1-5):
(1-29)
If we substitute t"=t-1'into equation (1 -29), the total temperature rise at time t is obtained
by integrating from t"= t (t'= 0) to /"= 0 (t'= t):
(1-30)
In order to evaluate this integral, we will make use of the following mathematical transfor-
mation:
where
and
Hence, we may write:
The latter integral can be expressed in terms of the complementary error function* erfc{u)
by substituting:
and integrating between the limits u = x I (4at)l/2 and w = <*>.

This gives (after some manipulation):
(1-31)
If the temperature of the contact section at the end of the heating period is taken equal to Th,
equation (1-31) can be rewritten as:
(1-32)
where t'h denotes the duration of the heating period (t < t'h). Measured contact section tem-
peratures for different metal/alloy combinations are given in Table 1.2.
Equation (1-32) may be presented in a dimensionless form by the use of the following
groups of parameters:
Dimensionless temperature:
(1-33)
Dimensionless time:
(1-34)
The complementary error function is defined in Appendix 1.3.

Table 1.2 Measured contact section temperatures during friction welding of some metals and alloys.
Data from Tensi et al.10
Metal/Alloy Measuring Temperature Level Partial

Combination Method [0C] Melting
Steel Thermocouples 1080-1340 No

1
Steel-Nickel Direct readings 1260-1400 No/Yes
Steel-Titanium Direct readings1 1080 No
1
Copper-Al Direct readings 548 Yes
1
Copper-Nickel Direct readings 1083 Yes
Al-Cu-2Mg Thermocouples 506 Yes
Al-4.3Cu Thermocouples 562 Yes
Al-12Si Thermocouples 575 Yes
Al-5Mg Thermocouples 582 Yes
Based on direct readings of the voltage drop between the two work-pieces.
— Dimensionless .^-coordinate:
(1-35)
By substituting these parameters into equation (1-32), we obtain:
(1-36)
Equation (1-36) describes the temperature in different positions from the weld contact sec-
tion during the heating period. However, when the rotation stops, the weld will be subjected to
free cooling, since there is no generation of heat at the interface. As shown in Fig. 1.13(a) this
can be accounted for by introducing an imaginary heat source of power +qo at time t = t'h
which acts simultaneously with an imaginary heat sink of negative power -q o. It follows from
the principles of superposition (see Fig. 1.13b) that the temperature during the cooling period
is given by:9
(1-37)
where 6"(x4) and 6"(T 4 - 1) are the temperatures calculated for the heat source and the heat
sink, respectively, using equation (1-36).
Equations (1-36) and (1-37) have been solved numerically for different values of Q'and T4.
The results are presented graphically in Fig. 1.14. Considering the contact section (Q'= 0), the
temperature increases monotonically with time during the heating period, in correspondance
with the relationship:
(1-38)
q
(a)
Imaginary heat source

Real heat
source
t
Imaginary heat sink
e"
(b)
Heating
period
$ffl9
Fig. 1.13. Method for calculation of transient temperatures during friction welding; (a) Sketch of
imaginary heat source/heat sink model, (b) Principles of superposition.
Similarly, for the cooling period we get:
(1-39)
Outside the contact section (Q / > 0), the temperature rise will be smaller and the cooling
rate lower than that calculated from equations (1-38) and (1-39).
Heating Cooling
e"
Fig. 1.14. Calculated temperature-time pattern in friction welding.
Example (1.4)
Consider friction welding of 026mm aluminium rods (Al-Cu-2Mg) under the following con-
ditions:
Calculate the peak temperature distribution across the joint. Assume in these calculations
that the thermal diffusivity of the Al-Cu-2Mg alloy is 70mm2 s"1.
Solution
Readings from Fig. 1.14 give:
Next Page
In this particular case, it is possible to check the accuracy of the calculations against in situ
thermocouple measurements carried out on friction welded components made under similar
conditions. A comparison with the data in Fig. 1.15 shows that the model is quite successful in
predicting the HAZ peak temperature distribution. In contrast, the weld heating and cooling
cycles cannot be reproduced with the same degree of precision. This has to do with the fact
that the present analytical solution omits a consideration of the plastic straining occurring
during friction welding, which displaces the coordinates and alters the heat balance for the
system.
1.9 Moving Heat Sources and Pseudo-Steady State
In most fusion welding processes the heat source does not remain stationary. In the following
we shall assume that the source moves at a constant speed along a straight line, and that the net
power supply from the source is constant. Experience shows that such conditions lead to a
fused zone of constant width. This is easily verified by moving a tungsten arc across a sheet of
steel or aluminium, or by moving a soldering iron across a piece of lead or tin. Moreover,
zones of temperatures below the melting point also remain at constant width, as indicated by
the pattern of temper colours developed on welding ground or polished sheet.
It follows from the definition of pseudo-steady state that the temperature will not vary with
time when observed from a point located in the heat source. Under such conditions the tem-
perature field around the source can be described as a temperature 'mountain' moving in the
direction of welding (e.g. see Fig. 15 in Ref. 11). For points along the weld centre-line, the
temperature at different positions away from the heat source (which for a constant welding
speed becomes a time axis) may be presented in a two-dimensional plot as indicated in Fig.
1.16. Specifically, this figure shows a schematic representation of the temperature in steel
welding from the base plate ahead of the arc to well into the solidified weld metal trailing the
arc. If we consider a fixed point on the weld centre-line, the temperature will increase very
rapidly during the initial period, reaching a maximum of about 2000-22000C for positions
immediately beneath the root of the arc.11 When the arc has passed, the temperature will start
to fall, and eventually (after long times) approach that of the base plate. In contrast, an ob-
server moving along with the heat source will always see the same temperature landscape,
since this will not change with time according to the presuppositions.
It will be shown below that the assumption of pseudo-steady state largely simplifies the
mathematical treatment of heat flow during fusion welding, although it imposes certain re-
strictions on the options of the models.
1.10 Arc Welding
Arc welding is a collective term which includes the following processes*:
- Shielded metal arc (SMA) welding.

- Gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding.
- Gas metal arc (GMA) welding.
*The terminology used here is in accordance with the American Welding Society's recommendations. 12
2
Chemical Reactions in Arc Welding
2.1 Introduction
The weld metal composition is controlled by chemical reactions occurring in the weld pool at
elevated temperatures, and is therefore influenced by the choice of welding consumables (i.e.
combination of filler metal, flux, and/or shielding gas), the base metal chemistry, as well as the
operational conditions applied. In contrast to ladle refining of metals and alloys where the
reactions occur under approximately isothermal conditions, a characteristic feature of the arc
welding process is that the chemical interactions between the liquid metal and its surroundings
(arc atmosphere, slag) take place within seconds in a small volume where the metal tempera-
ture gradients are of the order of 1000°C mm"1 with corresponding cooling rates up to
1000°C s"1. The complex thermal cycle experienced by the liquid metal during transfer from
the electrode tip to the weld pool in GMA welding of steel is shown schematically in Fig. 2.1.
As a result of this strong non-isothermal behaviour, it is very difficult to elucidate the
reaction sequences during all stages of the process. Consequently, a complete understanding
of the major controlling factors is still missing, which implies that fundamentally based pre-
dictions of the final weld metal chemical composition are limited. Additional problems result
from the lack of adequate thermodynamic data for the complex slag-metal reaction systems
involved. However, within these restrictions, the development of weld metal compositions
can be treated with the basic principles of thermodynamics and kinetic theory considered in
the following sections.
2.2 Overall Reaction Model
In ladle refining of metals and alloys, the reaction kinetics are usually controlled by mass
transfer between the liquid metal and its surroundings (slag or ambient atmosphere). Exam-
ples of such kinetically controlled processes are separation of non-metallic inclusions from a
deoxidised steel melt or removal of hydrogen from liquid aluminium. In welding, the reaction
pattern is more difficult to assess because of the characteristic non-isothermal behaviour of the
process (see Fig. 2.1). Nevertheless, experience shows that it is possible to analyse mass
transfer in welding analogous to that in ladle refining by considering a simple two-stage reac-
tion model, which assumes:1
(i) A high temperature stage, where the reactions approach a state of local
pseudo-equilibrium.
(ii) A cooling stage, where the concentrations established during the initial stage
tend to readjust by rejection of dissolved elements from the liquid.
Gas nozzle
Contact tube
Shielding gas
Filler wire
Arc plasma
temperature~10000°C Electrode tip droplet
(1600-20000C)
Cold part of Falling droplet (24000C)
weld pool (< 19000C)
Hot part of weld pool
(1900-22000C)
Weld pool Base plate

retention
time 2-1Os
Fig. 2.1. Schematic diagram showing the main process stages in GMA welding. Characteristic average
temperature ranges at each stage are indicated by values in parenthesis.
As indicated in Fig. 2.2 the high temperature stage comprises both gas/metal and slag/metal
interactions occurring at the electrode tip, in the arc plasma, or in the hot part of the weld pool,
and is characterised by extensive absorption of elements into the liquid metal. During the
subsequent stage of cooling following the passage of the arc, a supersaturation rapidly in-
creases because of the decrease in the element solubility with decreasing temperatures. The
system will respond to this supersaturation by rejection of dissolved elements from the liquid,
either through a gas/metal reaction (desorption) or by precipitation of new phases. In the latter
case the extent of mass transfer is determined by the separation rate of the reaction products in
the weld pool. It should be noted that the boundary between the two stages is not sharp, which
means that phase separation may proceed simultaneously with absorption in the hot part of the
weld pool.
In the following sections, the chemistry of arc welding will be discussed in the light of this
two-stage reaction model.
2.3 Dissociation of Gases in the Arc Column
As shown in Table 2.1, gases such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide will be
widely dissociated in the arc column because of the high temperatures involved (the arc plasma
temperature is typically of the order of 10 0000C or higher). From a thermodynamic stand-
point, dissociation can be treated as gaseous chemical reactions, where the concentrations of
the reactants are equal to their respective partial pressures. Hence, for dissociation of diatomic
gases, we may write:
(2-1)
where X denotes any gaseous species.

'Hot1 part of 'Cold' part of weld pool
weld pool
Solid weld metal

Peak temperature
Solid weld metal

Temperature
Grey j
zonei
Absorption Rejection of
of elements dissolved elements
Solid weld metal

Peak concentration
Solid weld metal
Concentration
Equilibrium concentration at melting point
Time
Fig. 2.2. Idealised two-stage reaction model for arc welding (schematic).
Table 2.1 Temperature for 90% dissociation of some gases in the arc column. Data from Lancaster.2
Gas Dissociation Temperature (K)
CO 2 3800
H2 4575
O2 5100
N2 8300
Next, consider a shielding gas which consists of two components, i.e. one inert component
(argon or helium) and one active component X2. When the fraction dissociated is close to
unity, the partial pressure of species X in the gas phase px is equal to:
(2-2)
where H1 and nx are the total number of moles of components / (inert gas) and X, respectively
in the shielding gas, andptot is the total pressure (in atm).
It follows from equation (2-1) that two moles of X form from each mole of X2 that dissoci-
ates. Hence, equation (2-2) can be rewritten as:
(2-3)
where nXl is the total number of moles of component X2 which originally was present in the
shielding gas.
If nXl and H1 are proportional to the volume concentrations of the respective gas compo-
nents in the shielding gas, equation (2-3) becomes:
(2-4)
Taking vol% / = (100 - vol% X2) andp,ot = 1 atm, we obtain the following expression for
Px-
(2-5)
Similarly, if X2 is replaced by another gas component of the type YX2, we get:
(2-6)
and
(2-7)
It is evident from the graphical representations of equations (2-5) and (2-7) in Fig. 2.3 that
the partial pressure of the dissociated component X increases monotonically with increasing
concentrations of X2 and YX2 in the shielding gas. The observed non-linear variation of px
arises from the associated change in the total number of moles of constituent species in the gas
phase due to the dissociation reaction. Moreover, it is interesting to note that the partial pres-
sure px is also dependent on the nature of the active gas component in the arc column (i.e. the
stoichiometry of the reaction). This means that the oxidation capacity of for instance CO2 is
only half that of O2 when comparison is made on the basis of equal concentrations in the
shielding gas (to be discussed later).
Px
Vol%)^ f VoRGYX2
Fig. 2.3. Graphical representation of equations (2-5) and (2-7).
2.4 Kinetics of Gas Absorption
In general, mass transfer between a gas phase and a melt involves:3
(i) Transport of reactants from the bulk phase to the gas/metal interface.
(ii) Chemical reaction at the interface.
(iii) Transport of dissolved elements from the interface to the bulk of the metal.
2.4.1 Thin film model

In cases where the rate of element absorption is controlled by a transport mechanism in the gas
phase (step one), it is a reasonable approximation to assume that all resistance to mass transfer
is confined to a stagnant layer of thickness 8 (in mm) adjacent to the metal surface, as shown in
Fig. 2.4. Under such conditions, the overall mass transfer coefficient is given by:2
(2-8)
where Dx is the diffusion coefficient of the transferring species X (in mm2 s~*).
Although the validity of equation (2-8) may be questioned, the thin film model provides a
simple physical picture of the resistance to mass transfer during gas absorption.
Partial pressure
Distance
Fig. 2.4. Film model for mass transfer (schematic).
2.4.2 Rate of element absorption

Referring to Fig. 2.5, the rate of mass transfer between the two phases (in mol s"1) can be
written as:
(2-9)
where A is the contact area (in mm 2 ), R is the universal gas constant (in mm3 atm K"1 mol"1),
T is the absolute temperature (in K), px is the partial pressure of the dissociated species X in the
bulk phase (in atm), and px is the equilibrium partial pressure of the same species at the gas/
metal interface (in atm).
Based on equation (2-9) it is possible to calculate the transient concentration of element X
in the hot part of the weld pool. Let m denote the total mass of liquid weld metal entering/
leaving the reaction zone per unit time (in g s"1). If Mx represents the atomic weight of the
element (in g mol"1), we obtain the following relation w h e n / ? x » p°x:
(2-10)
It follows from equation (2-10) that the transient concentration of element X in the hot part
of the weld pool is proportional to the partial pressure of the dissociated component X in the
plasma gas. Since this partial pressure is related to the initial content of the molecular species
X2 or YX2 in the shielding gas through equations (2-5) and (2-7), we may write:
Arc column
Bulk gas
phase
Stagnant gaseous
boundary layer
Gas/metal interface
Metal phase
Hot part of
weld pool
Fig. 2.5. Idealised kinetic model for gas absorption in arc welding (schematic).
(2-11)
and
(2-12)
where C1 and C2 are kinetic constants which are characteristic of the reaction systems under
consideration.
2.5 The Concept of Pseudo-Equilibrium
Although the above analysis presupposes that the element absorption is controlled by a
transport mechanism in the gas phase, the transient concentration of the active component X in
the hot part of the weld pool can alternatively be calculated from chemical thermodynamics by
considering the following reaction:
X(gas) X (dissolved) (2-13)
By introducing the equilibrium constant K{ for the reaction and setting the activity coeffi-
cient to unity, we get:
(2-14)
This equation should be compared with equation (2-10) which predicts a linear relationship
between wt% X and px. If the above analysis is correct, one would expect that the partial
pressure px at the gas/metal interface is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the
dissociated component in the bulk phase. Unfortunately, the proportionality constant is diffi-
cult to establish in practice.
2.6 Kinetics of Gas Desorption
During the subsequent stage of cooling following the passage of the arc, the concentrations
established at elevated temperatures will tend to readjust by rejection of dissolved elements
from the liquid. When it comes to gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen, this occurs through a
desorption mechanism, where the driving force for the reaction is provided by the decrease in
the element solubility with decreasing metal temperatures.
2.6.1 Rate of element desorption

Consider a melt which first is brought in equilibrium with a monoatomic gas of partial pres-
sure px at a high temperature T1, and then is rapidly cooled to a lower temperature T2 and
immediately brought in contact with diatomic X2 of partial pressure pXl (see Fig. 2.6). Under
such conditions, the rate of element desorption (in mol s"1) is given by:
(2-15)
where k'd is the mass transfer coefficient (in mm s 1X and p°x is the equilibrium partial pres-
sure of component X2 at the gas/metal interface (in atm).
Bulk gas
phase
Stagnant gaseous
boundary layer
Gas/metal interface
Metal phase
Cold part of
weld pool
Fig. 2.6. Idealised kinetic model for gas desorption in arc welding (schematic).
The partial pressure pX2 can be calculated from chemical thermodynamics by considering
the following reaction:
2X(dissolved) = X2 (gas) (2-16)
from which
(2-17)
where K2 is the equilibrium constant, and [wt% X] is the concentration of element X in the
liquid metal (in weight percent). Note that the activity coefficient has been set to unity in the
derivation of equation (2-17).
The equilibrium constant K2 may be expressed in terms of the solubility of element X in the
liquid metal at 1 atm total pressure Sx. Hence, equation (2-17) transforms to:
(2-18)
By combining equations (2-15) and (2-18), we get:
(2-19)
Data for the solubility of hydrogen and nitrogen in some metals up to about 22000C are
given in Figs. 2.7 and 2.8, respectively. It is evident that the element solubility decreases
steadily with decreasing metal temperatures down to the melting point. This implies that the
desorption reaction is thermodynamically favoured by the thermal conditions existing in the
cold part of the weld pool.
2.6.2. Sievert's law

It follows from equation (2-19) that desorption becomes kinetically unfeasible when
Px2 ~ Px2' corresponding to:
(2-20)
Equation (2-20) is known as the Sievert's law. This relation provides a basis for calculating
the final weld metal composition in cases where the resistance to mass transfer is sufficiently
small to maintain full chemical equilibrium between the liquid metal and the ambient (bulk)
gas phase.
2.7 Overall Kinetic Model for Mass Transfer during Cooling in the Weld Pool
Because of the complexity of the rate phenomena involved, it would be a formidable task to
derive a complete kinetic model for mass transfer in arc welding from first principles. How-
(a) (b)
Aluminium
ml H2/100 g fused metal
ml H2/100 g fused metal

Copper
Solid Cu
Temperature, 0C Temperature, 0C
(C) (d)
ml H2/100g fused metal
ml H2/100g fused metal
Iron Nickel
Temperature, 0C Temperature, 0C
Fig. 2.7. Solubility of hydrogen in some metals; (a) Aluminium, (b) Copper, (c) Iron, (d) Nickel. Data
compiled by Christensen.4
ever, for the idealised system considered in Fig. 2.9, it is possible to develop a simple math-
ematical relation which provides quantitative information about the extent of element transfer
occurring during cooling in the weld pool. Let [%X]eq denote the equilibrium concentration of
element X in the melt. If we assume that the net flux of element X passing through the phase
boundary A per unit time is proportional to the difference ([%X] - [%X]eqX the following
balance is obtained:3
(2-21)
where V is the volume of the melt (in mm 3 ), kd is the overall mass transfer coefficient (in
mm s"1), and A is the contact area between the two phases (in mm 2 ).
Temperature, 0C
Iron
log (wt% N)
104AT1 K
Fig. 2.8. Solubility of nitrogen in iron. Data from Turkdogan.5
Phase I i
Contact area (A)

Distance
Net flux of X
Phase i Volume (V)
Concentration
Fig. 2.9. Idealised kinetic model for mass transfer in arc welding (schematic).
By rearranging equation (2-21) and integrating between the limife [%X]( (att = O) and [%X]
(at an arbitrary time t\ we get:
(2-22)
where to is a time constant (equal to VI kjA).

It is evident from the graphical representation of equation (2-22) in Fig. 2.10 that the rate of
mass transfer depends on the ratio Vl kji, i.e. the time required to reduce the concentration of
element X to a certain level is inversely proportional to the mass transfer coefficient kd. This
type of response is typical of a first order kinetic reaction.
Although the above model refers to mass transfer under isothermal conditions, it is also
applicable to welding if we assume that the weld cooling cycle can be replaced by an equiva-
lent isothermal hold-up at a chosen reference temperature. Thus, by rearranging equation (2-
22), we get:
(2-23)
It follows that the final concentration of element X in the weld metal depends both on the
cooling conditions and on the intrinsic resistance to mass transfer, combined in the ratio t/to.
When [%X]eq is sufficiently small, equation (2-23) predicts a direct proportionality between
[%X] and [%X\t (i.e. the initial concentration of element X in the weld pool). This will be the
case during deoxidation of steel weld metals where separation of oxide inclusions from the
weld pool is the rate controlling step. Moreover, when t/t0 » 1 (small resistance to mass
transfer), equation (2-23) reduces to:
(2-24)
Under such conditions the final weld metal composition can be calculated from simple
chemical thermodynamics.
Because of this flexibility, equation (2-23) is applicable to a wide range of metallurgical
problems at the same time as it provides a simple physical picture of the resistance to mass
transfer during cooling in the weld pool.
(X-X^)Z(X1-Xeq)
t,s
Fig. 2.10. Graphical representation of equation (2-22).

2.8 Absorption of Hydrogen
Some of the well-known harmful effects of hydrogen discussed in Chapters 3 and 7 (i.e. weld
porosity and HAZ cold cracking) are closely related to the local concentration of hydrogen
established in the weld pool at elevated temperatures due to chemical interactions between
the liquid metal and its surroundings.
2.8.1 Sources of hydrogen

Broadly speaking, the principal sources of hydrogen in welding consumables are:6
(i) Loosely bound moisture in the coating of shielded metal arc (SMA) electrodes and in
the flux used in submerged arc (SA) or flux-cored arc (FCA) welding. Occasionally, moisture
may also be introduced through the shielding gas in gas metal arc (GMA) and gas tungsten arc
(GTA) welding.
(ii) Firmly bound water in the electrode coating or the welding flux. This can be in the
form of hydrated oxides (e.g. rust on the surface of electrode wires and iron powder), hydro-
carbons (in cellulose), or crystal water (bound in clay, astbestos, binder etc.).
(iii) Oil, dirt and grease, either on the surface of the work piece itself, or trapped in the
surface layers of welding wires and electrode cored wires.
It is evident from Fig. 2.11 that the weld metal hydrogen content may vary strongly from
one process to another. The lowest hydrogen levels are usually obtained with the use of low-
moisture basic electrodes or GMA welding with solid wires. Submerged arc welding and flux-
cored arc welding, on the other hand, may give high or low concentrations of hydrogen in the
weld metal, depending on the flux quality and the operational conditions applied (note that the
former process is not included in Fig. 2.11). The highest hydrogen levels are normally associ-
ated with cellulosic, acid, and rutile type electrodes. This is due to the presence of large
amounts of asbestos, clay and other hydrogen-containing compounds in the electrode coating.
Table 2.2 (shown on page 132) gives a summary of measured arc atmosphere compositions
in GMA and SMA welding. Included are also typical ranges for the weld metal hydrogen
content.
2.8.2 Methods of hydrogen determination in steel welds

Hydrogen is unlike other elements in weld metal in that it diffuses rapidly at normal room
temperatures, and hence, some of it may be lost before an analysis can be made. This, coupled
with the fact that the concentrations to be measured are usually at the parts per million level,
means that special sampling and analysis procedures are needed. In order that research results
may be compared between different laboratories and can be used to develop hydrogen control
procedures, some international standardisation of these sampling and analysis methods is nec-
essary.
Three methods are currently being used, as defined in the following standards:
Potential hydrogen level
FCAW
Very Low Medium High

low
Weld hydrogen level
Fig. 2.11. Ranking of different welding processes in terms of hydrogen level (schematic). The diagram is
based on the ideas of Coe.6
(i) The Japanese method (JIS Z 313-1975), which has been adopted with important ad-
justments from the former ASTM designation A316-48T. This method involves collection of
released hydrogen from a single pass weld above glycerine for 48h at 45 0 C. The total volume
of hydrogen is reported in ml per 10Og deposit. Only 5 s of delay are allowed from extinction
of the arc to quenching.
(ii) The French method (N.F.A. 81-305-1975) where two beads are deposited onto core
wires placed in a copper mould. Hydrogen released from this bead is collected above mercury,
and the volume is reported in ml per 10Og fused metal (including the fused core wire metal).
(iii) The International Institute of Welding (HW) method (ISO 3690-1977), where a single
bead is deposited on previously degassed and weighed mild steel blocks clamped in a quick-
release copper fixture. The weldment is quenched and refrigerated according to a rigorously
specified time schedule. Hydrogen released from the specimens is collected above mercury
for 72 h at 25°C, and the results are reported in ml per 10Og deposit, or in g per ton fused metal.
To avoid confusion, it is recommended to use the symbol HDM for the content reported in terms
of deposited metal (ml per 10Og deposit), and HFM for the content referred to fused metal (ml
per 100 g or g per ton fused metal). The relationship between HDM and HFM is shown in Fig.
2.12.
As would be expected, these three methods do not give identical results when applied to a
given electrode. Approximate correlations have been established between the HW criteria
HDM and HFM and the numbers obtained by the Japanese and the French methods (designated
HJIS and HFR, respectively). For covered electrodes tested at various hydrogen levels, we
have:7
Fig. 2.12. The relation between HDM and HFM (0.9 is the conversion factor from ml per 10Og to g per ton).
(2-25)
(2-26)
The conversion factor from HFR to HFM applies to a ratio of deposited to fused metal,
DI(B + D), equal to 0.6, which is a reasonable average for basic electrodes.
The use of HFM in preference of HDM is normally recommended, because it is a more ra-
tional criterion of concentration. Moreover, HDM values would be grossly unfair, if applied to
high penetration processes like submerged arc welding. In GTA welds made without filler
wire HDM cannot be used at all, since there is no deposit.
It should be noted that the present HW procedure gives the amount of 'diffusible hydrogen'.
For certain purposes the total hydrogen content may be wanted. It is obtained by adding the
content of 'residual hydrogen' determined on the same samples by vacuum or carrier gas
extraction at 6500C. A very small additional amount may be observed on vacuum fusion of the
sample, tentatively labelled 'fixed hydrogen'. There is no clear line of demarcation between
these categories of hydrogen. As will be discussed later, the extent of hydrogen trapping
depends both on the weld metal constitution and the thermal history of the metal. In single-
bead basic electrode deposits the diffusible fraction is usually well above 90%.
2.8.3 Reaction model

Normally, measurements of hydrogen in weld metals are carried out on samples from solidi-
fied beads. Due to the rapid migration of hydrogen at elevated temperatures, such data do not
represent the conditions in the hot part of the weld pool. Quenched end crater samples would
be better in this respect, but they are not representative of normal welding. Further complica-
tions arise from the presence of hydrogen in different states (e.g. diffusible or residual hydro-
gen) and the lack of consistent sampling methods.
Nevertheless, experience has shown that pick-up of hydrogen in arc welding can be inter-
preted on the basis of the simple model outlined in Fig. 2.13. According to this model, two
zones are considered:
(i) An inner zone of very high temperatures which is characterised by absorption of atomic
hydrogen from the surrounding arc atmosphere.
Electrode
Hot part of weld pool Cold part of weld pool

Absorption of atomic hydrogen Desorption of hydrogen
(controlled by pH in the arc column) (controlled by pH2 in ambient gas phase)
Hydrogen
trapped in
weld metal
Weld pool
Fig. 2.13. Idealised reaction model for hydrogen pick-up in arc welding.
(ii) An outer zone of lower temperatures where the resistance to hydrogen desorption is
sufficiently small to maintain full chemical equilibrium between the liquid weld metal and the
ambient (bulk) gas phase.
Under such conditions, the final weld metal hydrogen content should be proportional to the
square root of the initial partial pressure of diatomic hydrogen in the shielding gas, in agree-
ment with Sievert's law (equation (2-20)).
2.8.4 Comparison between measured and predicted hydrogen contents

It is evident from the data in Table 2.2 that the reported ranges for hydrogen contents in steel
weld metals are quite wide, and therefore not suitable for a direct comparison of prediction
with measurement. For such purposes, the welding conditions and consumables must be more
precisely defined.
2.8.4.1 Gas-shielded welding

In GTA and GMA welds the hydrogen content is usually too low to make a direct comparison
between theory and experiments. An exception is welding under controlled laboratory condi-
tions where the hydrogen content in the shielding gas can be varied within relatively wide
limits. The results from such experiments are summarised in Fig. 2.14, from which it is seen
that Sievert's law indeed is valid. A closer inspection of the data reveals that the weld metal
hydrogen content falls within the range calculated for chemical equilibrium at 1550 and 20000C,
depending on the applied welding current. This shows that the effective reaction temperature
is sensitive to variations in the operational conditions.
An interesting effect of oxygen on the weld metal hydrogen content has been reported by
Matsuda et al.9 Their data are reproduced in Fig. 2.15. It is evident that the hydrogen level is
significantly higher in the presence of oxygen. This is probably due to the formation of a thin
(protective) layer of slag on the top of the bead, which kinetically suppresses the desorption of
hydrogen during cooling.
Table 2.2 Measured arc atmosphere compositions in steel welding. Also included are typical ranges for
the weld metal hydrogen content. Data compiled by Christensen.4
Arc Atmosphere Composition Weld Metal

(vol%) Hydrogen
Content (ppm)
Method Primary Source
of Hydrogen CO2 CO H 2 +H 2 O Range Average
GMAW* Moisture introduced 98-80 2-20 <0.02 1-5 3

(CO2) through the shielding gas
SMAW Firmly bound water in -4 -34 -62 10-30 25
(acid) the electrode coating
SMAW Firmly bound water in ~4 -42 -54 10-30 25
(rutile) the electrode coating
SMAW Loosely bound water in -19 -77 -4 2-10 3-5
(basic) the electrode coating
FCAW Firmly bound water 10-20
(rutile) influx
FCAW Loosely bound water 2-5
(basic) influx
SAW Loosely bound water 2-10
(basic) influx
*The arc atmosphere composition can vary within wide limits, depending on the operational conditions applied.
GTAW (low-alloy steel)

ml H2/100 g fused metal, HpM
GTAW (low-alloy steel)
Welding conditions: 300A-18V-2.5 mm/s
ml H2 /100 g fused metal, HJ|S
Weld metal oxygen content, wt%

Fig. 2.15. Hydrogen pick-up in GTA welding at different levels of oxygen in the weld metal. Data from
Matsuda et al.9
Example (2.1)
Consider GTA welding (Ar-shielding) on a thick plate of low-alloy steel under the following
conditions:
/ = 200A, U = 15V, v = 3 mm s"1, TI = 0.5, T0 = 20°C
The shielding gas contains 0.1 vol% moisture (H2O) and is supplied at a rate of 15Nl mhr 1 .
Calculate the 'potential' hydrogen level, assuming that all hydrogen introduced through the
shielding gas is absorbed in the weld metal.
Solution
First we calculate the total mass of hydrogen per mm:
The resulting bead cross section and total mass of weld metal per mm can be estimated
from the Rosenthal equation by considering the dimensionless operating parameter at the melting
point (equation (1-50)):
Reading from Fig. 1.21 gives:

Taking the density of the steel equal to 7.85 X 10 3 g mm 3, we obtain:
The 'potential' hydrogen level is thus:
It is evident from the above calculations that the 'potential' hydrogen level is at least one
order of magnitude higher than the expected weld metal hydrogen content (1 to 3 ppm). This
shows that the hydrogen pick-up in GTA welding is not determined by the total amount of
hydrogen which is introduced through the shielding gas, but is mainly controlled by the result-
ing partial pressure of hydrogen in the ambient (bulk) gas phase.
2.8.4.2 Covered electrodes

In SMA welding the partial pressure of hydrogen is more difficult to assess due to the presence
of trapped moisture and hydrogen-containing compounds in the electrode coating. Such com-
pounds will loose their identity at the stage of introduction into the arc atmosphere. Since very
little information is available on the species present in the arc column, we shall base our esti-
mate on a simple thermodynamic approach, including only the molecular species H2 and H2O
which can be determined by analysis (see data in Table 2.2). It follows that the combined
partial pressure of H2 and H2O in the gas phase is given by:
(2-27)
The parameter pw can be estimated on the basis of combustion measurements of the elec-
trode coating, assuming that no carbon is picked up or lost from the system in excess of the
amount calculated from an analysis of the base plate and the electrode wire. For a recorded
content of mw g H2O and mc g CO2 per 100 g of electrode coating, we obtain:
(2-28)
From a thermodynamic standpoint, replacement of pHl b y / ^ in the expression for Sievert's

law requires the use of a modified solubility of hydrogen, defined as:
(2-29)
where K3 is the equilibrium constant for the H 2 O-H reaction, and [%O] is the weld metal
oxygen content. In practice, the correction term ^ K3/(K3+[%0]) does not depart signifi-
cantly from unity, which means that Sw ~ SH.
During welding with basic covered electrodes considerable amounts of CO2 may form as a
result of decomposition of calcium carbonate, according to the reaction:
(2-30)
Modern basic electrodes contain between 20 to 40 weight percent CaCO3, which is equiva-
lent with a CO2 content of 9 to 18 percent. Taking as an average mc equal to 15 g CO2 per 100 g
electrode coating, we obtain:
(2-31)
In Fig. 2.16 the validity of equation (2-31) has been checked against relevant literature data
(compiled by Chew10). A closer inspection of the data reveals that the weld metal hydrogen
content falls within the range calculated for chemical equilibrium at 1520 to 2000°C, taking Sw
equal to the solubility of hydrogen in pure iron at the indicated temperatures (i.e. 27 and 40 ml
H2 per 100 g fused metal, respectively). Although the observed scatter in the effective reaction
temperature is admittedly large, equation (2-31) points out a very interesting effect, namely
that the hydrogen content of SMA steel weld metals is controlled by the combined partial
pressure of H2 and H2O in the ambient gas phase. For this reason it is frequently recom-
mended that calcium carbonate is added to the electrode coating, which on decomposition
produces considerable amounts of shielding gas in the form of CO2. Hydrogen shielding can
also be achieved by additions of volatile alkali-fluorides, which on heating will evaporate and
dilute the atmosphere with respect to hydrogen.
SMAW (low-alloy steel)

ml H2/100 g fused metal, HpM •
Water content in electrode coating, wt%

Fig. 2.16. Hydrogen pick-up in SMA welding at different water contents in the electrode coating. Data
compiled by Chew.10
Example (2.2)
Consider SMA welding on mild steel with basic covered electrodes. The electrode coating
contains 35 wt% CaCO3 and 0.5 wt% H2O in the as-received condition. After drying at 3500C
for 1 h the water content is reduced to 0.2 wt% H2O. Estimate the weld metal hydrogen
content (in ppm) both before and after drying of the electrode. Assume in these calculations an
effective reaction temperature of 18000C.
Solution
First we calculate the CO2 content per 100 g of electrode coating. Taking the atomic weight of
CaCO3 and CO2 equal to 100.1 and 40.0, respectively, we obtain:
The combined partial pressure pw can now be estimated from equation (2-28). Before
drying we have:
After drying of the electrode, the partial pressure pw becomes:
From Fig. 2.7(c) it is evident that the solubility of hydrogen in liquid iron at 18000C is
about 37 ml H2 per 100 g fused metal. This corresponds to a modified solubility Sw (in ppm)
of:
Substituting this value into the expression for Sievert's law gives:
(before drying)
(after drying)
It follows from the above calculations that a low weld metal hydrogen level requires the use
of 'dry' basic electrodes. In practice, this can be achieved by protecting the electrodes against
moisture pick-up during storage (see Fig. 2.17). However, in certain cases it is necessary to
differentiate between strongly bound and loosely adsorbed moisture in the coating of basic
electrodes. This point is more clearly illustrated in Fig. 2.18, which shows the HDM content of
hydrogen in basic electrode deposits at various levels of coating moisture. It is seen that water
remaining from an insufficient baking treatment is more dangerous than moisture picked up by
exposure of a properly dried coating. This has to do with the fact that loosely adsorbed mois-
Water content in electrode coating, wt%
Exposure time, days
Fig. 2.17. Moisture content in basic electrode coating as a function of exposure time and relative humid-
ity (R.H.) in ambient gas phase. Data from Evans.11

high
ml H2 /100 deposit, HDM
medium
low
very low
Water content, wt%

Fig. 2.18. Hydrogen pick-up in SMA welding at different levels (states) of adsorbed water in the elec-
trode coating. Data from Evans and Bach.12
ture will tend to evaporate during the welding operation (before it enters the arc column)
because of resistance heating of the electrode, a process which is not feasible when the water is
bound in rust on the surface of the electrode wire or the iron powder.
2.8.4.3 Submerged arc welding

This method is usually classified as a pure slag-shielded process, because carbonates or other
gas-producing compounds are not present in large quantities. A closed arc cavity does exist,
however, as indicated by the falling volt-ampere curve characteristic of open arcs, and by
observations made by probes inserted through the flux cover.
It is reasonable to assume that the gas contained within this enclosure consists of metal
vapour, volatile constituents originating from the flux, and relatively small fractions of carbon
monoxide and water vapour. Acid fluxes of the calcium silicate type will probably generate
silicon monoxide, while agglomerated fluxes bonded with alkali silicate will produce volatile
alkali fluorides. In addition, carbon monoxide may be present as a result of oxidation of car-
bon, or decomposition of carbonates.
A small but important contribution to the cavity atmosphere is the trace of moisture remain-
ing in the flux even after careful drying. No direct measurements of partial pressures are avail-
able, and the gas composition must therefore be inferred from observations of hydrogen ab-
sorption in the weld metal. Hydrogen pick-up during SA welding has been examined by Evans
and Bach.12 Their data are replotted in Fig. 2.19. The shape of the observed curve of hydrogen
vs residual water content would seem to indicate a relationship similar to that predicted by
Sievert's law. In fact, a very close fit can be obtained through empirical calibration of the
dilution term in equation (2-28). This, however, implies unreasonable amounts of CaCO3.
Carbon monoxide in addition to that delivered by carbonates could be formed by oxidation of
carbon. Again, an unreasonable amount of carbon loss would be required. Therefore, it must
be concluded that further research is needed for a proper interpretation of the factors control-
ling hydrogen pick-up in SA welding.
SAW (low-alloy steel)

Hydrogen content, HFM (ppm)
ml H2/100 deposit, HDM
Water content, wt%

Fig. 2.19. Hydrogen pick-up in SA welding at different water contents in the flux. Data from Evans and
Bach.12
Example (2.3)
Consider SA welding on a thick plate of low-alloy steel under the following conditions:
The flux contains 0.04 wt% H2O and is consumed at a rate of 0.6 g per g weld deposit.
Estimate both 'potential' and 'equilibrium' hydrogen levels when the total oxidation loss of
carbon in the weld pool is 0.03 wt%.
Solution
First we calculate the total amount of fused parent metal and weld deposit formed on welding.
From equations (1-75) and (1-120), we have:
and
When the dilution ratio DI(B + D) is known, it is possible to calculate the total flux con-
sumption per gram fused weld metal:
The 'potential' hydrogen level is thus:
If we assume that all CO produced by reactions between dissolved carbon and oxygen is
infiltrated in the arc column, the following balance is obtained:
Total number of moles of CO per g fused weld metal:
Total number of moles of H2O per g fused weld metal:

This gives:
Since the effective reaction temperature of hydrogen absorption in SA welding is not known,
the maximum solubility of hydrogen at 1 atm total pressure is taken equal to 33 ppm, similar to
that in the previous example. By inserting this value in the expression for Sievert's law, we
obtain:
In practice, the 'potential' hydrogen level represents an upper limit for the hydrogen con-
centration which cannot be exceeded. Thus, the contradictory results obtained in the present
example clearly illustrate the difficulties involved in estimating the effective partial pressure
of hydrogen in SA welding.
2.8.4.4 Implications of Sievert's law

An important implication of Sievert's law is that the fraction of hydrogen picked up from the
arc atmosphere is very high at low hydrogen pressures:
(2-32)
As seen from equation (2-32), the first traces of hydrogen added to the atmosphere are
completely absorbed in the metal. At increasing partial pressures the fraction of hydrogen
picked up in the metal will gradually decrease, finally attaining a threshold of (SH/2) in the
case of pure H2. This shows that the concept of 'potential' hydrogen content frequently used to
characterise filler materials (see Fig. 2.11) is a dangerous one, since the rates of absorption are
so different in the high and low ranges of the hydrogen potential.
2.8.4.5 Hydrogen in multi-run weldments

So far, no standardised method is available for the determination of hydrogen in multi-layer
welds. Early measurements by Roux,13 using an arrangement similar to that subsequently
adopted in French standards, indicate a constant ratio of extracted hydrogen to the mass of
fused metal, regardless of the number of passes. If hydrogen is reported on the basis of depos-
ited metal, this ratio may vary by a factor of 2.5 when comparing a deposit made in five passes
to a single bead.
Exploratory measurements of local hydrogen contents in large-size joints have been made
by Skjolberg,14 who butt welded a 40 mm plate with a self-shielding flux cored wire at an
interpass temperature of 2000C. Samples were cut from a refrigerated part of the weldment at
mid-thickness, including positions in the weld metal close to the fusion line and samples in the
HAZ. His results are summarised in Table 2.3.
Normal testing of the filler wire according to ISO 3690 gave fused metal hydrogen contents
of 3.3 ppm (diffusible) and 1.7 ppm (residual). A comparison with Table 2.3 shows that the
multi-run content of diffusible hydrogen is much lower than the corresponding ISO value,
probably as a result of a high interpass temperature which facilitates loss of hydrogen to the
surroundings through diffusion.
Table 2.3 Measured hydrogen contents in multi-run FCA steel weldment. Data from Skjolberg.14
HAZ
Distance from fusion line (mm)
Condition Weld Metal Oto 5 5 to 10 10 to 15
As-welded 0.6 ppm diffusible 0.25 ppm 0.15 ppm

0.9 ppm residual diffusible diffusible
PWHT* 0.35 ppm diffusible 0.15 ppm 0.15 ppm 0.10 ppm
(4h/150°C) 2.25 ppm residual diffusible diffusible diffusible
*Post weld heat treated.
2.8.4.6 Hydrogen in non-ferrous weldments

The solubility of hydrogen in metals and alloys of industrial importance increases with tem-
perature, and passes through a maximum in the vicinity of the boiling point, where the oppos-
ing trends of increasing solubility and increasing dilution by metal vapour balance. Solubility
curves for hydrogen in aluminium, copper, and nickel up to about 22000C have previously
been presented in Fig. 2.7.
Since all these metals can dissolve considerable amounts of hydrogen, the risk of hydrogen
absorption during welding is imminent if moisture is present in the shielding gas. Results
obtained from arc melting experiments with Cu, Al, Ni in Ar-H 2 gas atmospheres indicate that
hydrogen is absorbed at a high temperature zone under the arc and is transported by fluid flow
to the outer, cooler regions of the pool.15 Rejection of the gas in the supersaturated outer
regions is slower than the absorption in the hot zone, so the gas content throughout the pool
approximates to that in the absorption zone. Typical estimates of the effective reaction tem-
perature of hydrogen desorption (based on the Sievert's law) gave the following result:15
Copper: 16500C
Aluminium: 19000C
Nickel: 19000C
At present, it is not known whether these reaction temperatures also apply to conventional
GTA or GMA welding of the same materials or are mainly restricted to the operational condi-
tions employed in the arc melting experiments.
2.9 Absorption of Nitrogen
It is generally recognised that interstitial nitrogen embrittles steel (e.g. see discussion in Chap-
ter 7). In steel weld metals the associated loss of toughness due to free nitrogen has been
attributed to solid solution hardening and dislocation locking effects. In addition, excessive
nitrogen pick-up can cause porosity in steel weldments because of gas evolution during solidi-
fication.
2.9.7 Sources of nitrogen
Since the total nitrogen level in most welding consumables and shielding gases is quite low,
the main source of nitrogen contamination is air infiltrated in the arc column. For this reason,
the weld metal nitrogen content is very sensitive to variations in the operational conditions
(e.g. arc length, electrode stick-out, shielding gas flow rate etc.). The overall reaction of nitro-
gen absorption is similar to that of hydrogen:
(dissolved) (2-33)
By introducing the equilibrium constant K4 for the reaction, we get:
(2-34)
where SN is the maximum solubility of nitrogen at 1 atm total pressure,/^ is the activity coef-
ficient, and pNl is the resulting partial pressure of diatomic nitrogen in the gas phase.
The solubility of nitrogen in liquid iron is approximately given by:
(2-35)
where T is the temperature in K.

At 1600 and 20000C, this equation gives equilibrium concentrations of 446 and 465 ppm,
respectively. In alloyed steel containing large amounts of nitride-forming elements (e.g.
austenitic stainless steel), the activity coefficient of nitrogen fN is about 1/4 and hence, the
solubility will be about 4 times higher than that calculated from equation (2-35).
From a primitive model of pseudo-equilibrium between gaseous N2 and dissolved N a maxi-
mum solubility of about 465 ppm would be expected in welding under 1 atm total pressure.
Thus, the maximum pick-up of nitrogen in deposition of bare wire in air would be of the order
of 465A/OT8 ppm or 416 ppm. If a tentative estimate of air infiltration in the arc column is
made at 1 vol% N2, the expected pick-up of nitrogen would be 465 VoToT or about 47 ppm.
A comparison with the data in Table 2.4 shows that the measured weld metal nitrogen
contents are much higher than predicted from Sievert's law. This implies that the mechanism
of nitrogen desorption is different from that of hydrogen.
2.9.2 Gas-shielded welding

Information on the factors controlling nitrogen pick-up may be obtained from the work of
Kobayashi et a/.,16 who examined the GMA welding process in a systematic manner. Some of
their results are shown in Fig. 2.20.
Figure 2.20(a), for low-alloy steel, reveals that the square root relationship is a fair approxi-
mation only for welding in mixtures of N 2 and H 2 (curve No. 5). Mixtures of N2 + Ar (curve
No. 3), N 2 + CO2 (curve No. 2) and N2 + O 2 (curve No. 1) show increasing deviation from the
predicted behaviour. Pure N2 under reduced pressure gives a curve (No. 4) of an entirely differ-
ent shape including a maximum at pN ~ 0.05.
Table 2.4 Summary of measured weld metal nitrogen contents. Data compiled by Christensen.4
Welding Method Material Nitrogen Content (ppm)
SMAW (basic electrodes) Low-alloy steel 60-180

Stainless steel 550-650
SMAW (rutile electrodes) Low-alloy steel 200-350
Stainless steel 600-750
SAW Low-alloy steel 40-140
FCAW Low-alloy steel 125-275
GMAW Low-alloy steel 50-200
Similar features are seen from Fig. 2.20(b) for welding of stainless steel. Again, the devia-
tion becomes more pronounced as the oxidation potential of the gas mixture is increased in the
sequence H 2 -Ar-CO 2 -O 2 . Moreover, a comparison with Fig. 2.20(a) reveals that the displace-
ment of the nitrogen concentrations in the presence of chromium is larger than expected from
the calculated reduction of the nitrogen activity coefficient.
The trends observed in Fig. 2.20 have been confirmed by O'Brien and Jordan17 who studied
nitrogen pick-up during CO2-shielded welding of low-alloy steel. As can be seen from Fig.
2.21 (a) their curves are similar to those of Kobayashi et al.16 for short circuiting metal transfer,
while a mixed spray/globular transfer gives a sharp rise of nitrogen absorption up to pNi = 0.3
followed by a constant or slightly decreasing concentration (Fig. 2.21(b)). Both patterns are
clearly not in accordance with predictions based on Sievert's law (equation (2-34)).
An interpretation of the observed trends should be made with a view to absorption of hy-
drogen, where the concept of pseudo-equilibrium has proved useful for a semiquantitative
prediction. In both cases the molecular species H2 and N 2 are known to dissociate in the arc
column (see Table 2.1), and would therefore dissolve in the metal to an extent far beyond the
solubility controlled by pH or PN . The excess of dissolved hydrogen is probably released as
gas at weld pool temperatures. This will also be the case with nitrogen in the absence of oxy-
gen, as shown previously in Fig. 2.20(a) and (b). However, under oxidising conditions the
desorption of gaseous nitrogen becomes suppressed by the presence of oxygen at the gas/metal
interface and hence, nitrogen is retained at a level which by far exceeds the solubility limit at
1 atm total pressure of N2. This has been confirmed experimentally by Uda and Ohno18 in their
classic work on surface active elements (i.e. oxygen, sulphur and selenium) in liquid steel. A
similar phenomenon was quoted in Section 2.8.4.1 from the work of Matsuda et al9 even in
the case of hydrogen, where increased entrapment of hydrogen was observed in the presence
of oxygen (see Fig. 2.15).
It appears thus that excessive absorption of nitrogen (and in some cases also hydrogen)
should be interpreted as a state of incomplete release of solute, as described previously in
Sections 2.6 and 2.7. As a consequence, Sievert's law cannot be used for an estimate of nitro-
gen pick-up in steel welding, unless the weld metal oxygen content is extremely low.
2.9.3 Covered electrodes

The nitrogen content of SMA weld deposits is known to be sensitive to variations in the arc
(a)
GMAW (low-alloy steel)

Nitrogen content, wt%
Vol% N 2 in shielding gas
(b)
GMAW (stainless steel)

Fig. 2.20. Nitrogen pick-up in GMA welding at different concentrations of N2 in the shielding gas;
(a) Low-alloy steel, (b) Stainless steel. Data from Kobayashi et al.16
(a)
Low-alloy steel
Experiment

(b)
Low-alloy steel
Experiment Fig. 2.21. Nitrogen pick-up in GMA weld-

ing at different concentrations of N2 in the
shielding gas; (a) Short circuting metal
transfer, (b) Mixed and free flight metal
transfer. Data from O'Brien and Jordan.17
Vol% N2in shielding gas

length (voltage) because of the risk of air infiltration in the arc column. This point is more
clearly illustrated in Fig. 2.22, which shows that the resulting weld metal nitrogen level may
vary significantly from one weld to another, depending on the operational conditions applied.
Consequently, the use of long arcs in SMAW should be avoided in order to prevent excessive
pick-up of nitrogen from the surrounding atmosphere.
2.9.4 Submerged arc welding

In submerged arc welding the risk of air infiltration in the arc column is less imminent, since
welding is performed under the shield of a flux. Hence, in multipass welds the filler wire itself
will be the main source of nitrogen (see Fig. 2.23), while in single pass weldments the base
plate nitrogen content is more important because of the high dilution involved. The latter point
is illustrated by the following numerical example.
Example (2.4)
Consider SA (single pass) welding on a thick plate of low-alloy steel under the following
conditions:
Based on the 'rule of mixtures', calculate the weld metal nitrogen content. Assume in these
calculations that the nitrogen content of the base plate and the filler wire is 0.005 and 0.012
wt%, respectively.

4 and 5 mm basic covered electrodes
Nitrogen content, ppm
A B C D
Welder No.
Fig. 2.22. Natural fluctuations in nitrogen pick-up during SMA welding due to variations in the arc
length. Data from Morigaki et al.19
Next Page
SAW (multipass steel weldments)

Weld metal nitrogen content, ppm
loss
gain
Nitrogen content in electrode wire, ppm
Fig. 2.23. Nitrogen pick-up in SA welding at different levels of nitrogen in the electrode wire. Data from
Bhadeshia et a/.20
Solution
First we calculate the total amount of fused parent metal and weld deposit formed on welding.
From equations (1-75) and (1-120), we have:
and
The 'rule of mixtures' gives us the nominal weld metal nitrogen content, which is defined
as:
The above calculations show that the nitrogen content of single pass SA steel welds is close
to that of the base plate because of the high dilution involved. This is in agreement with gen-
eral experience.
3
Solidification Behaviour of Fusion Welds
3.1 Introduction
Inherent to the welding process is the formation of a pool of molten metal directly below the
heat source. The shape of this molten pool is influenced by the flow of both heat and metal,
with melting occurring ahead of the heat source and solidification behind it. The heat input
determines the volume of molten metal and, hence, dilution and weld metal composition, as
well as the thermal conditions under which solidification takes place. Also important to solidi-
fication is the crystal growth rate, which is geometrically related to weld travel speed and weld
pool shape. Hence, weld pool shape, weld metal composition, cooling rate, and growth rate
are all factors interrelated to heat input which will affect the solidification microstructure.
Some important points regarding interpretation of weld metal microstructure in terms of these
four factors will be discussed below.
Since the properties and integrity of the weld metal depend on the solidification microstruc-
ture, a verified quantitative understanding of the weld pool solidification behaviour is essen-
tial. At present, our knowledge of the chemical and physical reactions occurring during solidi-
fication of fusion welds is limited. This situation arises mainly from a complex sequence of
reactions caused by the interplay between a number of variables which cannot readily be ac-
counted for in a mathematical simulation of the process. Nevertheless, the present treatment
will show that it is possible to rationalise the development of the weld metal solidification
microstructure with models based on well established concepts from casting and homogenising
treatment of metals and alloys.
3.2 Structural Zones in Castings and Welds
During ingot casting, three different structural zones can generally be observed, as shown
schematically in Fig. 3.1. The chill zone is produced by heterogeneous nucleation in the re-
gion adjacent to the mould wall as a result of the pertinent thermal undercooling. These grains
rapidly become dendritic, and dendrites having their <100> direction (preferred easy growth
direction for cubic crystals) parallel to the maximum temperature gradient in the melt will
soon outgrow those grains that do not have this favourable orientation. Competitive growth
occurring during the initial stage of the solidification process leads to an alignment of the
crystals in the heat flow direction and eventually to the formation of a columnar zone. 12 Fi-
nally, an equiaxed zone may develop in the centre of the casting, mainly as a result of growth
of detached dendrite arms within the remaining, slightly undercooled liquid.
A similar situation also exists in welding, as indicated in Fig. 3.2 However, in this case the
chill zone is absent, since the partly melted base metal grains at the fusion boundary act as seed
crystals for the growing columnar grains.3 In addition, the growth direction of the columnar
Shrinkage pipe
Chill zone
Columnar zone
Equiaxed zone
Mould
Fig. 3.1. Transverse section of an ingot showing the chill zone, the columnar zone and the equiaxed zone
(schematic).
grains will change continuously from the fusion line towards the centre of the weld due to a
corresponding shift in the direction of the maximum temperature gradient in the weld pool.
This change in orientation may result in a curvature of the columnar grains (Fig. 3.2(a)). Alter-
natively, new grains can nucleate and grow in a columnar manner, producing a so-called 'stray'
structure as shown schematically in Fig. 3.2(b). Finally, if the conditions for nucleation of new
grains are favourable, an equiaxed zone will form near the weld centreline similar to that
observed in ingots or castings (see Fig. 3.2(b)).
Although the process of weld pool solidification is frequently compared with that of an
ingot in 'miniature', a number of basic differences, already mentioned, exist which strongly
influence the microstructure and properties of the weld metal. Of particular importance is also
the disparity in cooling rate between a fusion weld and an ingot (see Fig. 3.3). For conven-
tional processes such as shielded metal arc (SMA), gas metal arc (GMA), submerged arc (SA)
or gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding the cooling rate may vary from 10 to 103 0 C s"1, while for
modern high energy beam processes such as electron beam (EB) and laser welding the cooling
rate is typically of the order of 103 to 106 0 C s"1.4 Consequently, to appreciate fully the impli-
cations of these differences in general solidification behaviour between a weld pool and an
ingot, it is necessary to consider in detail the sequence of events taking place in the solidifying
weld metal beginning with the initiation of crystal growth at the fusion boundary.
3.3 Epitaxial Solidification
It is well established that initial solidification during welding takes place epitaxially, where the
partly melted base metal grains at the fusion boundary act as seed crystals for the columnar
grains. This process is illustrated schematically in Fig. 3.4.
(a)
Welding direction
(b)
Columnar zone
Equiaxed zone Welding direction
Columnar zone •
Fig. 3.2. Examples of structural zones in fusion welds (schematic); (a) Curved columnar grains,
(b) Stray grain structure.
Cooling rate, °C/s
Rapid solidification technology

Electron beam welding
Laser welding
GMAW, GTAW
SMAW, SAW,
Process
Fig. 3.3. Disparity in cooling conditions between casting, welding and rapid solidification.
boundary
Fusion
HAZ Weld metal
Fig. 3.4. Schematic illustration showing epitaxial growth of columnar grains from partly melted base
metal grains at fusion boundary.
Liquid (L)
Substrate (S)
Fig. 3.5. Schematic representation of heterogeneous nucleation.

3.3.1 Energy barrier to nucleation
During epitaxial solidification, a solid embryo (nucleus) of the weld metal forms at the melted-
back surface of the base metal grain. Assuming that the interfacial energy between the embryo
and the liquid is isotropic, it can be shown, for a given volume of the embryo, that the interfa-
cial energy of the whole system is minimised if the embryo has the shape of a spherical cap.
Under such conditions, the following relationship exists between the interfacial energies (see
Fig. 3.5):
(3-1)
where (3 is the wetting angle.

The change in free energy, AGhet, accompanying the formation of a solid nucleus with this
configuration is given by:5
(3-2)
where VE is the volume of the solid embryo, AGV is the free energy change associated with the
embryo formation, AEL and AES are the areas of the embryo-liquid and embryo-substrate inter-
faces, respectively, and/(P) is the so-called shape factor, defined as:
(3-3)
The critical radius of the stable nucleus, r / , is found by differentiating equation (3-2) with
respect to rs and equating to zero:
(3-4)
By substituting equation (3-4) into equation (3-2), we obtain the following expression for
the energy barrier to heterogeneous nucleation (AG^ r ):
(3-5)
where AHm is the latent heat of melting, Tm is the melting point, and AJT is the undercooling.
It is easy to verify that the first term in equation (3-5) is equal to the energy barrier to
homogeneous nucleation, AGôm. Hence, we may write:
(3-6)
Equation (3-6) shows that AG^ is a simple function of the wetting angle O). Since the
chemical composition and the crystal structure of the two solid phases are usually very similar,
we have:6
Under such conditions equation (3-1) predicts that the wetting angle 3 ~ 0 (cos(3 ~ 1),
which implies that there is a negligible energy barrier to solidification of the weld metal (№}*het
~ 0), i.e. no undercooling of the melt is needed, and solidification occurs uniformly over the
whole grain of the base metal. This is in sharp contrast to conventional casting of metals and
alloys where some undercooling of the melt is always required to overcome the inherent en-
ergy barrier to solidification (see Fig. 3.6).
3.3.2 Implications of epitaxial solidification

Since the initial size of the weld metal columnar grains is inherited directly from the grain
growth zone adjacent to the fusion boundary, the solidification microstructure depends on the
grain coarsening behaviour of the base material. This is particularly a problem in high energy
processes such as submerged arc and gas metal arc welding, where grain growth of the base
metal can be considerable. In such cases the size of the columnar grains at the fusion boundary
will be correspondingly coarse, as indicated by the data in Fig. 3.7.
Moreover, during multipass welding the columnar grains can renucleate at the boundary
between for instance the first and the second weld pass and subsequently grow across the
entire fusion zone, as illustrated in Fig. 3.8. This type of behaviour is usually observed in
weldments which do not undergo transformations in the solid state (e.g. aluminium, certain
titanium alloys, stainless steel etc.). In practice, the problem can be eliminated by additions of
inoculants via the filler wire, which facilitates a refinement of the columnar grain structure
through heterogeneous nucleation of new (equiaxed) grains ahead of the advancing interface
(to be discussed later).
AG
r
s
Casting
Welding Homogeneous
nucleation
Fig. 3.6. The free energy change associated with heterogeneous nucleation during casting and weld
metal solidification, respectively (schematic). The corresponding free energy change associated with
homogeneous nucleation is indicated by the broken curve in the graph.
Fusion
line
prior austenite grain size (jim)
HAZ Weld
Weld metal
metal
GMAW (low-alloy steel)
HAZ prior austenite grain size (jim)
Fig. 3.7. Correlation between HAZ prior austenite grain size at the fusion boundary and the correspond-
ing weld metal prior austenite grain size. Data from Grong et al?
2. pass
1. pass
HAZ
Base metal
Fig. 3.8. Optical micrograph showing renucleation of columnar grains during multipass GMA welding
of a P-titanium alloy.
3.4 Weld Pool Shape and Columnar Grain Structures
Growth of the columnar grains always proceeds closely to the direction of the maximum ther-
mal gradient in the weld pool, i.e. normal to the fusion boundary. This implies that the colum-
nar grain morphology depends on the weld pool geometry.
3.4.1 Weld pool geometry

The weld pool geometry is a function of the welding speed and the balance between the heat
input and the cooling conditions, as influenced by the base plate thermal properties. At pseudo-
steady state, these conditions establish a dynamic equilibrium between heat supply and heat
extraction so that the shape of the weld pool remains constant for any given speed. Following
the treatment in Chapter 1, the weld pool geometry depends on the dimensionless operating
parameter n3, defined as:
(3-7)
where qo is the net arc power, v is the welding speed, a is the thermal diffusivity of the base
plate, and Hm-Ho is the heat content per unit volume at the melting point.
As shown in Fig. 3.9(a), a tear-shaped weld pool is favoured by a high n3 value, which is
characteristic of fast moving high power sources. In contrast, at a low arc power and a low
welding speed the shape of the weld pool becomes more elliptical because of a shift in the
mode of heat flow (see Fig. 3.9(b)). Note, however, that the thermal properties of the base
metal is also of importance in this respect, since the n3 parameter is a function of both a and
Hm-Ho. Consequently, a tear-shaped weld pool is usually observed in weldments of a low
thermal diffusivity (e.g. austenitic stainless steel), whereas an elliptical or spherical weld pool
is more likely to form during aluminium welding owing to the resulting higher thermal diffu-
sivity of the base metal.
In addition to the factors mentioned above, the geometry of the weld pool is also affected by
convectional heat transfer due to the presence of buoyancy, electromagnetic or suface tension
gradient forces. Recently, attempts have been made to include such effects in heat flow mod-
els for welding.8"11 Referring to Fig. 3.10(a) the buoyancy force will promote the formation of
a shallow, wide weld pool because of transport of 'hot' metal to the surface and 'cold' metal to
the bottom of the pool. In the presence of the electromagnetic force the flow pattern is re-
versed, since the latter force will tend to push the liquid metal in the central part of the pool
downward to the root of the weld. This makes the weld pool deeper and more narrow, as
shown in Fig. 3.10(b).
Moreover, it is generally accepted that surface tension gradients can promote circulation of
liquid metal within the weld pool from the region of low surface tension to the region of higher
surface tension.9 In the absence of surface active elements such as oxygen and sulphur, the
surface tension decreases with increasing temperature as illustrated in Fig. 3.10(c), which forces
the metal to flow outwards towards the fusion boundary. This results in the formation of a
relatively wide and shallow weld pool. However, if oxygen or sulphur is present in sufficient
quantities a positive temperature coefficient of the surface tension may develop, which facili-
tates an inward fluid flow pattern and an increased weld penetration (see Fig. 3.10(d)). The
important influence of surface active elements on the resulting bead morphology is well docu-
HAZ isotherms
Fusion boundary
V
Weld
pool
(a)
HAZ isotherms
Fusion boundary
V
Weld
pool
(b)
Fig. 3.9. Theoretical shape of fusion boundary and neighbouring isotherms under different operational
conditions; (a) High n3 values, (b) Low ^-values.
merited for ordinary GTA austenitic stainless steel welds. 1 2 1 3 The indications are that such
effects become even more important under hyperbaric welding conditions. 14
3.4.2 Columnar grain morphology

It is evident from the above discussion that a change in the weld pool geometry, caused by
variations in the operational conditions, may strongly alter the weld metal solidification micro-
structure. In fact, more than nine different grain morphologies have been observed during
fusion welding.15 The two most important are shown in Fig. 3.11. Referring to Fig. 3.11(a) a
spherical or elliptical weld pool will reveal curved and tapered columnar grains owing to a
shift in the direction of the maximum thermal gradient in the liquid from the fusion boundary
towards the weld centre-line. In contrast, a tear-shaped weld pool yields straight and broad
Electrode
Arc
Weld pool
(a)
Electrode
Arc
Weld pool
(b)
Fig. 3.10. Schematic diagrams illustrating the major fluid flow mechanisms operating in a weld pool;
(a) Buoyancy force (b) Electromagnetic force.
columnar grains as shown in Fig. 3.11(b), since the direction of the maximum temperature
gradient in the melt does not change significantly during the solidification process. The lat-
ter condition is known to promote formation of centre-line cracking because of mechanical
entrapment of inclusions and enrichment of eutectic liquid at the trailing edge of the weld
pool.
3.4.3 Growth rate of columnar grains

The growth rate of the columnar grains is geometrically related to the weld travel speed and
the weld pool shape.
3.4.3.1 Nominal crystal growth rate

Since the shape of the weld pool remains constant during steady state welding, the growth rate
of the columnar grains must vary with position along the fusion boundary. This point is more
clearly illustrated in Fig. 3.12 which shows a sketch of a single columnar grain growing paral-
lel with the steepest temperature gradient in the weld pool. Taking the angle between the
Surface tension
Temperature
Electrode
Arc
Weld pool
(C)
Surface tension
Temperature
Electrode
Arc
Weld pool
(d)
Fig. 3.10. Schematic diagrams illustrating the major fluid flow mechanisms operating in a weld pool
(continued); (c) Surface tension gradient force (negative gradient); (d) Surface tension gradient force
(positive gradient).
Heat source v
(a)
Heat source v
(b)
Fig. 3.11. Schematic comparison of columnar grain structures obtained under different welding condi-
tions; (a) Elliptical weld pool (low n3 values), (b) Tear-shaped weld pool (high n3 values). Open arrows
indicate the direction of the maximum temperature gradient in the weld pool.
Fusion boundary
Heat source
Crystal
Fig. 3.12. Definition of the nominal crystal growth rate RN.
growth direction and the welding direction equal to a, the steady state growth rate, R N , be-
comes:
(3-8)
where v is the welding speed.

Considering spherical or elliptical weld pools, the nominal crystal growth rate is lowest at
the edge of the weld pool (a—>90°, cosa-^0) and highest at the weld centre-line where R N
approaches v (a->0, c o s a ^ l ) . In contrast, columnar grains trailing behind a tear-shaped weld
pool will grow at an approximately constant rate which is significantly lower than the actual
welding speed (a » 0), since the direction of the maximum temperature gradient in the weld
pool does not change during the solidification process. This is also in agreement with practical
experience (see Fig. 3.13).
(a)
Nominal growth rate (RN), mm/s Niobium (1 mm plate thickness)
Relative position from edge of weld pool (%)•
(b)
Stainless steel (1 mm plate thickness)
Nominal growth rate (RN), mm/s
Equiaxed zone
Relative position from edge of weld pool (%)
Fig. 3.13. Measured crystal growth rates in thin sheet electron beam welding; (a) Niobium, (b) Stainless
steel. Data from Senda et al.16
Example (3.1)
Consider electron beam (EB) welding of a lmm thin sheet of austenitic stainless steel under
the following conditions:
Estimate on the basis of the Rosenthal thin plate solution (equation 1-83) the steady state
growth rate of the columnar grains trailing the weld pool.
Solution
The contour of the fusion boundary can be calculated from the Rosenthal thin plate solution
according to the procedure shown in Example (1.10). If we include a correction for the latent
heat of melting, the QbZn3 ratio at the melting point becomes:
Substitution of the above value into equation (1-83) gives the fusion boundary contour
shown in Fig. 3.14. It is evident from Fig. 3.14 that the weld pool is very elongated under the
prevailing circumstances due to a constrained heat flow in the ^-direction. This implies that the
angle a will not change significantly during the solidification process. Taking a as an average,
equal to about 70°, the steady-state crystal growth rate R N becomes:
This value is in reasonable agreement with the measured crystal growth rates in Fig. 3.13(b).
3.4.3.2 Local crystal growth rate

Equation (3-8) does not take into account the inherent anisotropy of crystal growth. For fac-
eted materials the dendrite growth directions are always those that are 'capped' by relatively
slow-growing (usually low-index) crystallographic planes.1 Figure 3.15 shows examples of
faceted cubic crystals delimited by {100} and {111} planes, respectively. If the {111} planes
are the slowest growing ones, the {100} planes will grow out, leaving the {111} facets and a
new crystal growing in the <100> directions as shown schematically in Fig. 3.15(b).
Although most metals and alloys do not form faceted dendrites, the anisotropy of crystal
growth is still maintained during solidification.2 In fact, experience has shown that the major
dendrite growth direction is normally the axis of a pyramid whose sides are the most closely
packed planes with which a pyramid can be formed.1 These directions are thus <100> for
body- and face-centred cubic structures, < 1010 > for hexagonal close-packed structures, and
<110> for body-centred tetragonal structures.
Because of the existence of preferred growth directions, the local growth rate of the crystals
RL will always be higher than the nominal growth rate R N defined in equation (3-8). Consider
now a cubic crystal which grows along the steepest temperature gradient in the weld pool, as
shown schematically in Fig. 3.16. If § denotes the angle between the interface normal and the
<100> direction, the following relationship exists between RN and RL:
-y(mm)
Columnar zone Heat source
Equiaxed zone
+x(mm)
Columnar zone
Fusion boundary
+yjmm)
Fig. 3.14. Predicted shape of fusion boundary during electron beam welding of austenitic stainless steel
(Example (3.1)).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.25.Examples of faceted cubic crystals; (a) Crystal delimited by {100} planes, (b) Crystal delim-
ited by {111} planes.
Columnar grain
Welding direction (x)
Fig. 3.16. Definition of the local crystal growth rate RL.

Tip temperature, 0C
Liquidus temperature
Tip velocity, mm/s-

Fig. 3.17. Calculated dendrite tip temperature vs dendrite growth velocity for an Fe-15Ni-15Cr alloy.
The undercooling of the dendrite tip is given by the difference between the liquidus temperature and the
solid curve in the graph. Data from Rappaz et alP
(3-9)
which gives:
(3-10)
Equation (3-10) shows that the local growth rate increases with increasing misalignment of
the crystal with respect to the direction of the maximum temperature gradient in the weld pool.
Since such crystals cannot advance without a corresponding increase in the undercooling ahead
of the solid/liquid interface (see Fig. 3.17), they will soon be outgrowed by other grains which
have a more favourable orientation. Fusion welds of the fee and bcc type will therefore de-
velop a sharp <100> solidification texture in the columnar grain region, similar to that docu-
mented for ingots and castings. The weld metal columnar grains may nevertheless be sepa-
rated by 'high-angle' boundaries, as shown in Fig. 3.1&, due to a possible rotation of the grains
in the plane perpendicular to their <100> length axes.
Example (3.2)
Consider electron beam welding of a 2mm thick single crystal disk of Fe-15Ni-15Cr under
The orientation of the disk with respect to the beam travel direction is shown in Fig. 3.19.
Calculate on the basis of the minimum velocity (undercooling) criterion the growth rate of
the dendrites trailing the weld pool under steady state welding conditions (assume 2-D
heat flow). Make also schematic drawings of the solidification microstructure in different
sections of the weld. Relevant thermal properties for the Fe-15Ni-15Cr single crystal are
given below:
Solution
Since the base metal is a single crystal, separate columnar grains will not develop. Neverthe-
less, under 2-D heat flow conditions growth of the dendrites can occur both in the [100] and
the [010] (alternatively the [010]) direction. Referring to Fig. 3.20 the growth rate of the
[100] and the [010] deridrites is given by:
and
Fig. 3.18. Spatial misorientation between two columnar grains growing in the <100> direction (sche-
matic).
Heat source
Weld
Fig. 3.19. Orientation of the single crystal Fe-15Ni-15Cr disk with respect to beam travel direction (Ex-
ample (3.2)).
Welding direction
Fig. 3.20. Schematic diagram showing the pertinent orientation relations between the fusion boundary
interface normal and the dendrite growth directions (Example (3.2)).
From this it is seen that the velocity of the [100] dendrites is always equal to that of the heat
source v. In contrast, the growth rate of the [010] dendrites depends both on v and a, and will
therefore vary with position along the fusion boundary. It follows from minimum velocity
criterion that the [100] dendrites will be selected when the interface normal angle a is less than
45°, while the [010] dendrites will develop at larger angles. This is shown graphically in Fig.
3.21.
At pseudo-steady state the fusion boundary can be calculated from the Rosenthal thin plate
solution (equation (1-83)) according to the procedure shown in Example (1.10). If we include
dendrites
/V
hk ,
R
a, degrees
Fig. 3.21.Normalised minimum dendrite tip velocity vs interface normal angle a (Example 3.2)).
a correction for the latent heat of melting, the QbIn3 ratio at the melting point becomes:
Substitution of this value into equation (1-83) gives the fusion boundary contour shown in
Fig. 3.22(a). Included in Fig. 3.22 are also schematic drawings of the predicted solidification
microstructure in different sections of the weld.
The results in Fig. 3.22 should be compared with the reconstructed 3-D image of the solidi-
fication microstructure in Fig. 3.23, taken form Rappaz et al.17 Due to partial heat flow in the
z-direction, [001] dendrite trunks will also develop. Nevertheless, these data confirm the gen-
eral validity of equations (3-8) and (3-10) relating crystal growth rate to welding speed and
weld pool shape.
3.4.4 Reorientation of columnar grains

In principle, there are two different ways a columnar grain can adjust its orientation during
solidification in order to accommodate a shift in the direction of the maximum temperature
gradient in the weld pool, i.e.:
(i) Through bowing

(ii) Through renucleation.
(a) -y (mm)
dendrites Heat source
dendrites +x (mm)
dendrites
+y (mm)
Fusion boundary
(b) Fusion zone (4.4 mm)
Base plate
dendrites dendrites dendrites
Fig. 3.22. Schematic representation of the weld metal solidification micro structure (Example 3.2));
(a) Top view of fusion zone, (b) Transverse section of fusion zone.
3.4.4.1 Bowing of crystals

A continuous change in the crystal orientation due to bowing will result in curved columnar
grains, as shown previously in Fig. 3.2(a). This type of grain morphology has been observed
in for instance electron beam welded aluminium and iridium alloys.34 Normally, the adjust-
ment of the crystal orientation is promoted by multiple branching of dendrites present within
the grains. Alternatively, the reorientation can be accommodated by the presence of surface
defects at the solid/liquid interface, e.g. screw dislocations, twin boundaries, rotation bounda-
ries, etc. The latter process presumes, however, a faceted growth morphology, and is therefore
of minor interest in the present context.
Example (3.3)
Consider a curved columnar grain of iridium which grows from the fusion boundary towards
the weld centre-line along a circle segment of length L, as shown schematically in Fig. 3.24.
Based on the assumption that the bowing is accommodated solely by branching of [010] dendrites
in the [100] direction, calculate the maximum local growth rate of the crystal during solidifica-
tion.
y
X
2
Fig. 3.23. Reconstructed 3-D image of solidification microstructure in an electron beam welded Fe-15Ni-
15Cr single crystal. The letters (a), (b) and (c) refer to [100], [010] and [001] type of dendrites, respec-
tively. After Rappaz et al.17
Weld centre-line
Fusion line
Fig. 3.24. Sketch of curved columnar grain in Example (3.3).
Solution
In principle, the solution to this problem is identical to that presented in Example (3.2). Refer-
ring to Fig. 3.24 the growth rate of [100] and the [010] dendrite stems is given by:
and
It follows from Fig. 3.21 that growth will occur preferentially in the [010] direction as long
as the interface normal angle a is larger than 45°, while the [100] direction is selected at
smaller angles. This means that the local growth rate of the dendrites, in practice, never will
exceed the welding speed v.
3.4.4.2 Renucleation of crystals

In ingots and castings, three different mechanisms for nucleation of new grains ahead of the
advancing interface are operative:12
(i) Heterogeneous nucleation

(ii) Dendrite fragmentation
(iii) Grain detachment.
The former mechanism is of particular importance in welding, since the weld metal often
contains a high number of second phase particles which form in the liquid state. These parti-
cles can either be primary products of the weld metal deoxidation or stem from reactions
between specific alloying elements which are deliberately introduced into the weld pool through
the filler wire. The latter process is also known as inoculation.
Nucleation potency of second phase particles

In general, the effectiveness of individual particles to act as heterogeneous nucleation sites can
be evaluated from a balance of interfacial energies, analogous to that described in Section
3.3.1 for epitaxial nucleation. It follows from the definition of the wetting angle (3 in Fig. 3.5
that the energy barrier to heterogeneous nucleation is a function of both the substrate/liquid
interfacial energy ySL, the substrate/embryo interfacial energy yES, and the embryo/liquid in-
terfacial energy yEL. Complete wetting is achieved when:
(3-11)
Under such conditions, the nucleus will readily grow from the liquid on the substrate. Un-
fortunately, data for interfacial energies are scarce and unreliable, which makes predictions
based on equation (3-11) rather fortuitous.18
In pure metals, experience has shown that the solid/liquid interfacial energies are roughly
proportional to the melting point, as shown by the data in Fig. 3.25. On this basis, it can be
expected that the higher melting point phases will reveal the highest ySL values, and thus be
nucleants for lower melting phases. A similar situation also exists in the case of non-metallic
inclusions in liquid steel, where the high-melting point phases are seen to exhibit the highest
solid/liquid interfacial energies (see Fig. 3.26).
In contrast, very little information is available on the substrate/embryo interfacial energy
yES. For fully incoherent interfaces, yES would be expected to be of the order of 0.5 to 1 J m~2.5
However, this value will be greatly reduced if there is epitaxy between the inclusions and the
nucleus, which results in a low lattice disregistry between the two phases. In general, assess-
ment of the degree of atomic misfit between the nucleus n and the substrate s can be done on
Melting point, K
Interfacial energy, J / m 2
Fig. 3.25. Values of solid/liquid interfacial energy ySL of various metals as function of their melting points.
Data from Mondolfo.18
lnterfacial energy, J/m2
Melting point, 0 C
Fig. 3.26. Values of interfacial energy 7 5L for different types of non-metallic inclusions in liquid steel at
16000C as function of their melting points. Data compiled from miscellaneous sources.
the basis of the Bramfitt's planar lattice disregistry model :19
(3-12)
where a low-index plane of the substrate;

a low-index direction in (hkl)s
a low-index plane in the nucleated solid;
a low-index direction in (hkl)n;
the interatomic spacing along [wvw]n;
the interatomic spacing along [WVH>]5; and
the angle between the [wvw]^ and the [wvw]w.
In practice, the undercooling Ar (which is a measure of the energy barrier to heterogeneous

nucleation) increases monotonically with increasing values of the planar lattice disregistry, as
shown by the data in Fig. 3.27. This means that the most potent catalyst particles are those
which also provide a good epitaxial fit between the substrate and the embryo. Examples of
such catalyst particles are TiAl3 in aluminium 18 and TiN in steel.19 Nucleation of delta ferrite
at titanium nitride will be considered below.
Undercooling, 0C
« „ « >
Fig. 3.27. Relationship between planar lattice disregistry and undercooling for different nucleants in
steel. Data compiled from miscellaneous sources.
Example (3.4)
In low-alloy steel weld metals, titanium nitride can form in the melt due to interactions be-
tween dissolved titanium and nitrogen. Assume that the TiN particles are faceted and delim-
ited by {100} planes. Calculate on the basis of equation (3-12) the minimum planar lattice
disregistry between TiN and the nucleating delta-ferrite phase under the prevailing circum-
stances. Indicate also the plausible orientation relationship between the two phases. The
lattice parameters of delta ferrite and TiN at 15200C may be taken equal to 0.293 and 0.43 lnm,
respectively.
Solution
Titanium nitride has the NaCl crystal structure, while delta ferrite is body-centred cubic, as
shown in Fig. 3.28(a) and (b). It is evident from Fig. 3.29(a) that a straight cube-to-cube ori-
entation relationship between TiN and 8-Fe will not result in a small lattice disregistry.
However, the situation is largely improved if the two phases are rotated 45° with respect to
each other (see Fig. 3.29(b)), conforming to the following orientation relationship:
The resulting crystallographic relationship at the interface is shown schematically in Fig.

3.29(c). Since the lattice arrangements are similar in this case, equation (3-12) reduces to:
A comparison with the data in Fig. 3.27 shows that the calculated lattice disregistry con-
forms to an undercooling of about 1 to 2°C. This value is sufficiently small to facilitate hetero-
geneous nucleation of new grains ahead of the advancing interface during solidification.
Considering other inclusions with more complex crystal structures, the chances of obtain-
ing a small planar lattice disregistry between the substrate and the delta ferrite nucleus are
Fe- atoms
N-atoms
Ti- atoms
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.28. Crystal structures of phases considered in Example (3.4); (a) Titanium nitride, (b) Delta ferrite.
TiN
(a)
TiN
(C)
(b)
Ti atoms N atoms 8-Fe atoms
Fig. 3.29. Possible crystallographic relationships between titanium nitride and delta ferrite (Example (3.4));
(a) Straight cube-to-cube orientation, (b) Twisted cube-to-cube orientation, (c) Details of lattice arrange-
ment along coherent TiN/d-Fe interface.
rather poor (see Fig. 3.27). Nevertheless, such particles can act as favourable sites for hetero-
geneous nucleation if 7 ^ is sufficiently large compared with yEL and 7 ^ . This is illustrated by
the following example:
Example (3.5)
In low-alloy steel weld metals 7-Al2O3 inclusions can form during the primary deoxidation
stage as discussed in Section 2.12.4.2 (Chapter 2). Based on the classic theory of heteroge-
neous nucleation, evaluate the nucleation potency of such inclusions with respect delta ferrite.
Solution
It is readily seen from Fig. 3.27 that the planar lattice disregistry between delta ferrite and
Al2O3 is very large, which indicates of a fully incoherent interface (i.e. yES « 0.75 J m" 2 ).
Moreover, readings from Figs. 3.25 and 3.26 give the following average values for the delta fer-
rite/liquid and the inclusion/liquid interfacial energies:
and
According to equation (3-11) complete wetting is achieved when ySL > yES + yEL. This
requirement is clearly met under the prevailing circumstances.
Similar calculations can also be performed for other types of non-metallic inclusions in
steel weld metals. The results are presented graphically in Fig. 3.30. It is evident that the
nucleation potency of the inclusions increases in the order SiO2-MnO, Al 2 O 3 -Ti 2 O 3 -SiO 2 -
MnO, Al2O3, reflecting a corresponding increase in the inclusion/liquid interfacial energy ySL.
The resulting change in the weld metal solidification microstructure is shown in Fig. 3.31,
from which it is seen that both the average width and length of the columnar grains decrease
with increasing Al2O3-contents in the inclusions. This observation is not surprising, consider-
ing the characteristic high solid/liquid interfacial energy between aluminium oxide and steel
(see Fig. 3.26). The important effect of deoxidation practice on the weld metal solidification
microstructure is well documented in the literature.320"22
Rate of heterogeneous nucleation

It can be inferred from the classic theory of heterogeneous nucleation that the nucleation rate
p (degrees)
No wetting
Complete wetting
G*he/AGhom
Embryo'
A
Inclusion
(Y sf Y ES )/7 EL
Fig. 3.30. Nucleation potency of different weld metal oxide inclusions with respect to delta ferrite.
(a) AI2O3 content (wt%)
Average width of grains, î m 95% confidence limit
Pure AI2O3
(A%AI)weld/[%O]anaL
(b) AI2O3 content (wt%)
95% confidence limit

Average length of grains, ^m
Pure AI2O3
<A%AIW[%0W
Fig. 3.31.Effect of deoxidation practice on the columnar grain structure in low-alloy steel weld metals;
(a) Average width of columnar grains, (b) Average length of columnar grains. Data from Kluken et al.22
Nhet(i.e. number of nuclei which form per unit time and unit volume of the melt) is interre-
lated to the energy barrier AG^ through the following equation:5
(3-13)
whereZ1 is a frequency factor, Nv is the density of nucleation sites per unit volume of the melt,
AGD is the activation energy for diffusion of atoms across the interface, and k is the Boltzmann
constant.
Since AGD is often negligible compared with AGêt in liquids, equation (3-13) reduces to:
(3-14)
Equation (3-14) shows that the nucleation rate Nhet depends both on Nv and &Ghe{. Hence,
under full wetting conditions (AGhet ~ 0), the number of nuclei which form per second and mm3
ahead of the advancing interface is directly proportional to the instantaneous concentration of
catalyst particles in the melt. Examples of such particles are TiAl3 in aluminium and TiN/Al2O3
in steel. The important effect of controlled titanium additions and subsequent TiAl3 precipi-
tation on the columnar grain structure in 1100 aluminium welds is illustrated in Fig. 3.32.
Critical cell/dendrite alignment angle

It follows from the minimum growth rate criterion and the definition of the local crystal growth
rate in equation (3-10) that reorientation of the columnar grains will occur when the cell/
dendrite alignment angle $ reaches a critical value <\>*. The value of 4>* will, in turn, depend on
the nucleation potency of the catalyst particles and can be estimated for different types of
welds. If growth of the columnar grains is assumed to occur along a circle segment of length
L (see Fig. 3.33), the critical cell/dendrite alignment angle is given by:
(3-15)
where co is the total grain rotation angle, and / is the average length of the columnar grains (in
mm).
Average width of grains, (x m
Titanium content, wt%
Fig. 3.32. Effect of titanium on the columnar grain structure in 1100 aluminium welds. The value Y is
the fractional distance from fusion line to top surface of weld metal. Data from Yunjia et alP
Weld metal
Fig. 3.33. Characteristic growth pattern of columnar grains in bead-on-plate welds (schematic).
By introducing reasonable average values for co and / in the case of SA welding of low-
alloy steel,22 we obtain:
(3-16)
Calculated values for 4>* in steel weld metals are presented in Fig. 3.34, using data from
Kluken et al.22 An expected, the critical cell/dendrite alignment angle in fully aluminium
deoxidised steel welds is seen to be very small (of the order of 2°), reflecting the fact that
nucleation of delta ferrite occurs readily at Al2O3 inclusions. The value of 4>* increases gradu-
ally with decreasing Al2O3 contents in the inclusions and reaches a maximum of about 4° for
Si-Mn deoxidised steel weld metals. This situation can be attributed to less favourable nucle-
ating opportunities for delta ferrite at silica-containing inclusions, which reduces the possibili-
ties of obtaining a change in the crystal orientation during solidification through a nucleation
and growth process.
Dendrite fragmentation
In principle, nucleation of new grains ahead of the advancing interface can also occur from
random solid dendrite fragments contained in the weld pool. Although the source of these
solid fragments has yet to be investigated, it is reasonable to assume that they are generated by
some process of interface fragmentation due to thermal fluctuations in the melt or mechanical
disturbances at the solid/liquid interface.3 At present, it cannot be stated with certainty whether
grain refinement by dendrite fragmentation is a significant process in fusion welding.26
Grain detachment
Since the partially melted base metal grains at the fusion boundary are loosely held together by
liquid films between them, there is also a possibility that some of these grains may detach
themselves from the base metal and be trapped in the solidification front.26 Like dendrite
fragments, such partially melted grains can act as seed crystals for the formation of new grains
in the weld metal during solidification if they are able to survive sufficiently long in the melt.
Next Page
R L / v cos a
Calculated from
equation (3-10)
Critical cell/dendrite alignment angle ($*)

Fig. 3.34. Critical cell/dendrite alignment angle ()>* for reorientation of delta ferrite columnar grains dur-
ing solidification of steel weld metals. Data from Kluken et al.22
3.5 Solidification Microstructures
So far, we have discussed growth of columnar grains without considering in detail the weld
metal solidification microstructure. In general, each individual grain will exhibit a substruc-
ture consisting of a parallel array of dendrites or cells. This substructure can readily be re-
vealed by etching, also in cases where it is masked by subsequent solid state transformation
reactions (as in ferrous alloys).2224
3.5.1 Substructure characteristics

A cellular substructure within a single grain consists of an array of parallel (hexagonal) cells
which are separated from each other by 'low-angle' grain boundaries, as shown schematically
in Fig. 3.35. In the presence of solute, these boundaries respond to etching even in the absence
of segregation. When the cellular to dendritic transition occurs, the cells become more dis-
torted and will finally take the form of irregular cubes, as indicated by the optical micrograph
in Fig. 3.36. This is actually a dendritic type of substructure, where the formation of secondary
and tertiary dendrite arms is suppressed because of a relatively small temperature gradient in
the transverse direction compared with the longitudinal (growth) direction. Fully branced
dendrites may, however, develop in the centre of the weld if the thermal conditions are favour-
able. Branching will then occur in specific crystallographic directions, e.g. along the three
<100> easy growth directions for bcc and fee crystals, as illustrated in Fig. 3.37.
Besides the difference in morphology, the distinction between cells and dendrites lies pri-
marily in their sensitivity to crystalline alignment. Cells do not necessarily have the <100>
axis orientation, while dendrites do.2 Hence, cells can grow with their axes parallel to the heat
flow direction, regardless of the crystal orientation. This important point is often overlooked
when discussing competitive grain growth in fusion welding.
4
Precipitate Stability in Welds
4.1 Introduction
Precipitate stability is an important aspect of welding metallurgy. Normally, modern structural

steels and aluminium alloys derive their balanced package of high strength, ductility and tough-
ness via optimised thermomechanical processing to produce a fine-grained, precipitation
strengthened matrix. This delicate balance of microalloy precipitation and microstructure,
however, is significantly disturbed by the heat of welding processes, which, in turn, affects the
mechanical integrity of the weldment.
When a commercial alloy is subjected to welding or heat treatment several competitive
processes are operative which may contribute to a change in the volume fraction and size
distribution of the base metal precipitates. The two most important are:1
(i) Particle coarsening (Ostwald ripening)

(ii) Particle dissolution (reversion)
Referring to Fig. 4.1, particle coarsening occurs typically at temperatures well below the
equilibrium solvus Te of the precipitates, while particle dissolution is the dominating mecha-
nism at higher temperatures. On the other hand, there exists no clear line of demarcation
between these two processes, which means that particle coarsening can take place simultane-
ously with reversion in certain regions of the weld where the peak temperature of the thermal
cycle falls within the 'gray zone' in Fig. 4.1. Nevertheless, it is important to regard them as
separate processes, since the reaction kinetics are so different (coarsening is driven by the
surface energy alone, whereas dissolution, which involves a change in the total volume frac-
tion, is driven by the free energy change of transformation).
4.2 The Solubility Product
The solubility product is a basic thermodynamic quantity which determines the stability of
the particles under equilibrium conditions. Because of its simple nature, the solubility product
is widely used for an evaluation of the response of grain size-controlled and dispersion-hard-
ened materials to welding and thermal processing.23
4.2.1 Thermodynamic background

In general, the solubility product can be derived from an analysis of the Gibbs free energy AG°
of the following dissolution reaction:
Temperature
Increasing heating rate

Particle dissolution
'Grey zone1
Particle coarsening |
%B
Fig. 4.1. Schematic diagram showing the characteristic temperature ranges where specific physical
reactions occur during reheating of grain size-controlled and dispersion-hardened materials.
(4-1)
At equilibrium, we have:
(4-2)
where AH° and AS° are the standard enthalpy and entropy of reaction, respectively. The other
symbols have their usual meaning (see Appendix 4.1).
When pure An Bm is used as a standard state, the activity of the precipitate {aAn Bm) is equal
to unity. In addition, for dilute solutions it is a fair approximation to set aA~[%A] and aB~[%B],
where the matrix concentrations of elements A and B are either in wt% or at%*. Hence, the
solubility product can be written as:
(4-3)
*For the solute, the standard state is usually a hypothetical 1 % solution. This implies that the activity coefficient is
equal to unity as long as Henry's law is obeyed.
Table 4.1 gives a summary of equilibrium solubility products for a wide range of precipi-
tates in low-alloy steels and aluminium alloys.
In addition to the compounds listed in Table 4.1, different types of mixed precipitates may
form within systems which contain more than two alloying elements.3"6 However, since the
presence of such multiphase particles largely increases the complexity of the analysis, only
pure binary intermetallics will be considered below.
4.2.2 Equilibrium dissolution temperature

Based on equation (4-3) it is possible to calculate the equilibrium dissolution temperature Td of
the precipitates. By rearranging this equation, we get:
(4-4)
where [%A]o and [%B]o refer to the analytical content of elements A and B in the base metal,
respectively.
Equation (4-4) shows that the equilibrium dissolution temperature increases with increas-
ing concentrations of solute in the matrix. This is in agreement with the Le Chatelier's princi-
ple.
Table 4.1 Equilibrium solubility products for different types of precipitates in low-alloy steels and
aluminium alloys. Data compiled from miscellaneous sources.
Material/ phase Type of log [%A]n [%B]m

Precipitate C* = AS°/R' D* = Mi0IR'
TiN 0.32 8000
TiC 5.33 10475
NbN 4.04 10230
Low-alloy steel NbC 2.26 6770
(austenite)t VN 3.02 7840
VC 6.72 9500
AIN 1.79 7184
Mo2C 5.0 7375
Al-Mg-Si^ Mg2Si 5.85 5010
Al-Cu-Mg$ CuMg 6.64 4005
MgZn 5.33 2985
Al-Zn-Mgij: Zn2Mg 7.72 4255
All concentrations in wt%

All concentrations in at.%
Example (4.1)
Consider a low-alloy steel with the following chemical composition:
Calculate on the basis of the reported solubility products in Table 4.1 the equilibrium disso-
lution temperature of each of the following three nitride precipitates, i.e. NbN, AlN, and TiN.
Solution
The equilibrium dissolution temperature of the precipitates can be computed from equation (4-
4) by inserting the correct values for C* and D* from Table 4.1:
It is evident from these calculations that precipitates of the NbN and the AlN type will
dissolve readily at temperatures above 1050 to 11000C, while TiN is thermodynamically sta-
ble up to about 14500C. In practice, however, a certain degree of superheating is always
required to overcome the inherent kinetic barrier against dissolution, particularly if the heating
rate is high. Consequently, in a real welding situation the actual dissolution temperature of the
precipitates may be considerably higher than that inferred from simple thermodynamic calcu-
lations based on the solubility product (to be discussed later).
4.2.3 Stable and metastable solvus boundaries

Due to the lack of adequate phase diagrams for the complex alloy systems involved, thermo-
dynamic calculations based on the solubility product represent in many cases the only practi-
cal means of estimating the solid solubility of alloying elements in commercial low-alloy steels
and aluminium alloys.
4.2.3.1 Equilibrium precipitates

In the case of large, incoherent precipitates (where the Gibbs-Thomson effect can be neglected),
the concentration of element A in equilibrium with pure An Bm at different temperatures can be
inferred directly from equation (4-3). If we replace / ^ by R (i.e. switch from common to
natural logarithms), this equation yields:
(4-5)
Equation (4-5) describes the solvus surface within the solvent-rich corner of the phase dia-
gram. However, when a pure binary compound dissolves the concentration of elements A and
B in solid solution is fixed by the stoichiometry of the reaction. The following relationship
exists between [%B] and [%A]:
(4-6)
or
where MA and MB are the atomic weight of elements A and B, respectively.

Figure 4.2 shows a graphical representation of equations (4-5) and (4-6), and the corre-
sponding change in the matrix concentrations during dissolution of pure AnBm for a given set
of starting conditions.
Alternatively, we can express T as function of the product [%A]n [%B]m by utilising equa-
tions (4-3) and (4-6). The combination of these equations provides a mathematical description
of the 'solvus boundary' of an equilibrium precipitate in a multi-component alloy system. It is
evident from the graphical representation in Fig. 4.3 that the solid solubility will always in-
[%A]0
[%B]
[%B]o
Excess B
[%A]
Fig. 4.2. Concentration displacements during dissolution of binary intermetallics (equilibrium condi-
tions).
I Increased dissolution temperature
Temperature
Increased additions
Nominal alloy composition
_of element B
Reduced solid solubility
of element A
Concentration of element A
Fig. 4.3. Factors affecting the solid solubility of a binary intermetallic compound in a multi-component
alloy system (schematic).
crease with increasing temperature when AH° is positive. This type of behaviour is character-
istic of intermetallics in metals and alloys, since the dissolution process in such systems is
endothermic.7 As a result, increased additions of a second alloying element B will also reduce
the solubility of the first alloying element A by shifting the 'solvus boundary' towards higher
temperatures when an intermetallic compound between A and B is formed.
With the aid of Fig. 4.3 it is easy to verify that the equilibrium volume fraction of the
precipitates/^ at a fixed temperature is given by:
(4-7)
where fmax is the maximum possible volume fraction precipitated at absolute zero.
Equation (4-7) provides a basis for estimating the equilibrium volume fraction of binary
intermetallics in complex alloy systems at different temperatures in cases where the concentra-
tion of element B is sufficiently high to tie-up all A in the form of precipitates. Similarly, if A
is present in an overstoichiometric amount with respect to B, we may write:
(4-8)
Example (4.2)
In Al-Mg-Si alloys the equilibrium Mg2Si phase may form during prolonged high tempera-
ture annealing. Consider a pure ternary alloy which contains 0.75 wt% (0.83 at.%) Mg and 1.0
wt% (0.96 at.%) Si. Estimate on the basis of the solubility product the equilibrium volume
fraction of Mg2Si at 4000C. Make also a sketch of the Mg2Si solvus in a vertical section
through the ternary Al-Mg-Si phase diagram. Relevant physical data for the Al-Mg-Si sys-
tem are given below:
Solution
The maximum possible volume fraction of Mg2Si precipitated at absolute zero (fmax) can be
estimated from a simple mass balance by considering the stoichiometry of the reaction:
Moreover, the solubility product [at.% Mg]2 [at.% Si] at 4000C (673K) can be obtained
from equation (4-3) by utilising data from Table 4.1:
from which
If we also take into account the stoichiometry of the reaction, the solubility product can be
expressed solely in terms of the Mg-concentration. Substituting
into the above equation gives [at.% Mg] ~ 0.20. The equilibrium volume fraction OfMg2Si at
4000C is thus:
Similarly, the equilibrium Mg2Si solvus can be calculated from the solubility product by
substituting
into equation (4-3). By inserting data from Table 4.1 and rearranging this equation, we get:
It is seen from the graphical representation of the above equation in Fig. 4.4 that the Mg2Si
compound is thermodynamically stable up to about 3000C. At higher temperatures the phase
will start to dissolve until the process is completed at 5600C.
It is obvious from these calculations that the microstructure of overaged Al-Mg-Si alloys
should be very persistent to the heat of welding processes. In practice, only a narrow solutionised
zone forms adjacent to the fusion boundary. However, within this zone significant strength
recovery may occur after welding due to reprecipitation of hardening phases from the
supersaturated solid solution. Consequently, in such weldments the ultimate HAZ strength
level is usually higher than that of the base metal, as illustrated in Fig. 4.5.
4.2.3.2 Metastable precipitates

In practice, the solid solubility is also affected by the size of the particles. If, for instance, a
Dissolution temperature: 5600C

Temperature, 0C
Nominal alloy composition
at% Mg
at%Mg Si
Fig. 4.4. Solubility of Mg2Si in aluminium (Example (4.2)).

Strength level
After artificial ageing
After natural ageing
Immediately after welding
HAZ Unaffected base metal
Distance from fusion line

Fig. 4.5. Response of overaged Al-Mg-Si alloys to welding and subsequent heat treatment (schematic).
spherical precipitate is acted on by an external pressure of say 1 atm, the same precipitate is
also subjected to an extra pressure AP due to the curvature of the particle/matrix interface, just
as a soap bubble exerts an extra pressure on its content (see Fig. 4.6(a)). The pressure AP is
given as:8
(4-9)
where 7 is the particle/matrix interfacial energy, and r is the radius of the precipitate.
Because of this extra pressure, the Gibbs energy of a small precipitate will be higher than
that of a large one, which, in turn, increases its solubility (see Fig. 4.6(b)). The important
influence of particle curvature on the solid solubility has been extensively investigated and
reported in the literature.18 Usually, the phenomenon is referred to as the capillary or the
Gibbs-Thompson effect.
In the following we shall assume that the thermodynamic and crystallographic properties
of the metastable precipitates are similar to those of the equilibrium phase and that the re-
duced thermal stability is only associated with capillary effects. For single phase precipitates
in binary alloy systems, it is fairly simple to show that the concentration of solute across
a curved interface, [%A]r, is interrelated to the equilibrium concentration of solute across a
planar interface, [%A], through the following equation:8
(4-10)
where Vn is the molar volume of the precipitate (in m3 mol"1), and Q is the contribution of the
interface curvature to the reaction enthalpy (equal to IyVJr).
(a)
Matrix
Atmospheric
pressure
(b)
Small precipitate
Gibbs energy
Matrix
Large precipitate
[%A] [%A] r
Concentration
Fig. 4.6. Effect of interfacial energy on the solubility of small particles; (a) Schematic representation of
spherical particles embedded in a metal matrix, (b) Integral molar Gibbs energy of matrix and precipi-
tates at a constant temperature.
Assuming that this relationship also holds in the case of binary intermetallics, a combina-
tion of equations (4-5) and (4-10) gives:
(4-11)
where
(4-12)
or
Alternatively, we can express T as a function of the product [%A]rn [%B]rm. This gives the
following expression for the solvus temperature of metastable precipitates T'eq:
(4-13)
It is evident from the graphical representation of equation (4-13) in Fig. 4.7 that the solid
solubility at a given temperature is significantly increased at small particle radii. Taking as an
example 7 = 0.5 J n r 2 , Vm = 10~5 m3 moH, R = 8.314 J Kr1 moH, T = 500 K, we obtain from
equation (4-10):
or
where r is the particle radius in nm.

From this it is seen that quite large solubility differences can arise for particles in the range
from r = 1 - 50nm.
Large (equilibrium) precipitates
Small (metastable) precipitates

Temperature
Concentration
Fig. 4.7. Graphical representation of equation (4-13) (schematic).

Example (4.3)
In Al-Mg-Si alloys metastable (hardening) p"(Mg2Si)-precipitates m a y form during artificial
ageing in the temperature range from 160-2000C. Consider a T6 heat treated ternary alloy
which contains 0.75 wt% (0.83 at.%) Mg and 1.0 wt% (0.96 at.%) Si. Based on equation (4-
13) make a sketch of the metastable P "(Mg2Si) solvus in a vertical section through the ternary
Al-Mg-Si phase diagram. In these calculations we shall assume that the thermodynamic
properties of the metastable (3"(Mg2Si) phase are similar to those of the equilibrium (3 (Mg2Si)
phase, i.e. the reduced thermal stability is only related to the Gibbs-Thomson effect. Relevant
physical data for the Al-Mg-Si system are given below:
Solution
First we estimate the molar volume of the precipitate:
The contribution of the particle curvature to the reaction enthalpy is thus:
The metastable [3"(Mg2Si) solvus can now be calculated from the solubility product by
substituting
into equation (4-13). By inserting data from Table 4.1 and rearranging this equation, we get:
It is evident from the graphical representation of the above equation in Fig. 4.8 that the
particle curvature has a dramatic effect on the solid solubility. A comparison with Fig. 4.4
shows that the dissolution temperature drops from about 5600C in the case of the equilibrium
Mg2Si phase to approximately 225°C for the metastable |3"(Mg2Si)-phase. On this basis it is
not surprising to find that artificially aged (T6 heat treated) Al-Mg-Si alloys suffer from se-
vere softening in the HAZ after welding, as shown schematically in Fig. 4.9. Moreover, it is
Dissolution temperature: 225 0C
Temperature, 0C
composition A
Nominal alloy
Metastable solvus
boundary
at% Mg
at% Mg 2 Si
Fig. 4.8. Solubility of (3"(Mg2Si) in aluminium (Example (4.3)).

Strength level
After artificial ageing
After natural ageing
Immediately after welding
HAZ
Fig. 4.9. Response of artificially aged Al-Mg-Si alloys to welding and subsequent heat treatment (sche-
matic).
evident that the characteristic low dissolution temperature of the precipitates also gives rise to
the formation of a heat affected zone which is significantly wider than that observed during
welding of overaged Al-Mg-Si alloys.9 This shows that the response of age-hardenable alu-
minium alloys to welding and thermal processing depends strongly on the initial base metal
temper condition.
With the aid of equation (4-11) it is also possible to calculate an average (apparent) metastable
solvus boundary enthalpy for hardening |3"(Mg2Si)-precipitates in Al-Mg-Si alloys. A closer
evaluation of the exponent gives:
This value is in close agreement with the reported solvus boundary enthalpy for (3"(Mg2Si)-
precipitates in 6082-T6 aluminium alloys. 910
4.3 Particle Coarsening
When dispersed particles have some solubility in the matrix in which they are contained, there
is a tendency for the smaller particles to dissolve and for the material in them to precipitate on
larger particles. The driving force is provided by the consequent reduction in the total interfa-
cial energy and ultimately, only a single large particle would exist within the system.
4.3.1 Coarsening kinetics

The classical theory for particle coarsening was developed independently by Lifshitz and
Slyovoz11 and by Wagner.12 The kinetics are generally controlled by volume diffusion through
the matrix. At steady state, the time dependence of the mean particle radius r is found to
be:11'12
(4-14)
where ro is the initial particle radius, 7 is the particle-matrix interfacial energy, Dm is the ele-
ment diffusivity, Cm is the concentration of solute in the matrix, Vm is the molar volume of the
precipitate per mole of the diffusate, and t is the retention time.
Although the classic Lifshitz-Wagner theory suffers from a number of simplifying assump-
tions, experimental observations usually reveal a cubic growth law of the form given by equa-
tion (4-14).13
4.3.2 Application to continuous heating and cooling

Ion, Easterling and Ashby14 have shown how equation (4-14) can be applied to continuous
heating and cooling. In their analysis equation (4-14) was used in a more general form:
(4-15)
where c{ is a kinetic constant, and Qs is the activation energy for the coarsening process (for
binary intermetallics Qs may be taken equal to the activation energy for diffusion of the less
mobile constituent atom of the precipitates in the matrix).
4.3.2.1 Kinetic strength of thermal cycle

It follows that the extent of particle coarsening occurring during a weld thermal cycle can be
calculated by integration of equation (4-15) between the limits t = t{ and t = t2:
(4-16)
The integral on the right-hand side of equation (4-16) represents the kinetic strength of the
thermal cycle with respect to particle coarsening, and can be determined by means of numer-
ical methods when the weld thermal (T-t) programme is known. The resulting radius of the
precipitates may then be evaluated from equation (4-16) by inserting representative values
for the constants ro and C1 (e.g. obtained from quantitative particle measurements).
4.3.2.2 Model limitations

A salient assumption in the classic Lifshitz-Wagner theory is that the particles coarsen at
almost constant volume fraction, i.e. no solute is lost to the surrounding matrix during the
coarsening process. Consequently, equation (4-16) should only be applied in cases where the
peak temperature of the thermal cycle is well below the equilibrium solvus of the precipitates.
Example (4.4)
Consider stringer bead deposition (GMAW) on a thick plate of a Ti-microalloyed steel under
Assume that the base metal contains a fine dispersion of TiN precipitates in the as-received
condition. Calculate on the basis of equation (4-16) and the Rosenthal thick plate solution
(equation (1-45)) the extent of particle coarsening occurring within the fully transformed heat
affected zone during welding. Relevant physical data for titanium-microalloyed steels are
given below:
(activation energy for diffusion of Ti in austenite)
Solution
In the present example the problem is to calculate the size of the TiN precipitates in different
positions from the fusion boundary. This requires detailed information about the weld thermal
programme, as shown in Fig. 4.10(a). By substituting the appropriate values for qo, X, a and v
into the Rosenthal thick plate solution, the governing heat flow equation becomes:
where /?* refers to the three-dimensional radius vector in the moving coordinate system (desig-
nated R in equation (1-45)), while x is the welding direction (equal to vt at pseudo-steady
state).
Since titanium nitride is thermodynamically stable up to the melting point of the steel,
equation (4-16) can be used to calculate the extent of particle coarsening occurring within the
transformed parts of the HAZ. In the present example, we may write:
where the times tx and t2 are defined in Fig. 4.10(a).

The kinetic strength of the weld thermal cycle with respect to particle coarsening can now
be evaluated from these two equations by utilising the numerical integration procedure shown
in Fig. 4.10(b). The results from such computations are presented graphically in Fig. 4.11.
It is evident from this figure that significant coarsening of the precipitates occurs within the
HAZ during welding, particularly in regions close to the fusion boundary where the peak
temperature of the thermal cycle is high. A comparison with the experimental data of Ion et
al.l4 (reproduced in Fig. 4.12) shows that the theory gives a fairly good prediction of particle
size as a function of the peak temperature, provided that the kinetic constant C1 in equation (4-
16) can be estimated with a reasonable degree of accuracy. In practice, however, the numerical
value of C1 will vary significantly with the chemical composition and thermal history of the
base metal (see Fig. 4.13). This means that empirical calibration of equation (4-16) to experi-
mental data is always required to avoid systematic deviations between theory and experiments.
4.4 Particle Dissolution
During welding, the thermal pulse experienced by the heat affected zone adjacent to the fusion
boundary can result in complete dissolution of the base metal precipitates. Since this may give
rise to subsequent strength loss and grain growth, it is important to understand how variations
in welding parameters and operational conditions affect the dissolution rate. In the following,
the kinetics of particle dissolution will be discussed from a more fundamental point of view.
4.4.1 Analytical solutions

Over the years, several analytical models have been developed which describe the kinetics of
particle dissolution in metals and alloys at elevated temperatures.16 None of these solutions are
exact, since they represent different approximations to the diffusion field around the dissolv-
(a)
Weld metal
HAZ
Temperature
Y~ regime
Time
(b)
(i/r)exp(-Qs/RT)
Time
Fig. 4.10. Kinetic strength of weld thermal cycle with respect to particle coarsening (Example (4.4)); (a)
HAZ temperature-time programme (schematic), (b) Numerical integration procedure (schematic).
Fully transformed HAZ •
Partly transformed HAZ

Particle radius, nm
Weld metal
Peak temperature, 0C
Fig. 4.11. Coarsening of TiN during steel welding (Example (4.4)).
Rosenthal thick plate heat cycle:

Frequency, %•
Particle radius, nm
Fig. 4.12. Measured size distribution of TiN before (broken lines) and after (full lines) weld thermal
simulation. Operational conditions as in Example (4.4). Data from Ion et al.14
ing precipitates. Nevertheless, it will be shown below that at least some of them are suffi-
ciently accurate to capture the essential physics of the problem and to give valuable quantita-
tive information on the extent of particle dissolution occurring during the weld thermal cycle.
Annealing temperature: 1350 0C
Particle radius, nm
Steel A
Steel B
Steel C
Annealing time, s
Fig. 4.13. Effects of annealing time and steel chemical composition on the mean particle size of TiN.
Data from Matsuda and Okumura.15
4.4. L1 The invariant size approximation

The model described here is due to Whelan.17 Consider a spherical particle embedded in an
infinite matrix, as shown schematically in Fig. 4.14. The corresponding matrix concentration
profile is plotted in the lower part of the figure. In this case the concentration of the constituent
element A is higher close to the particle/matrix interface than in the bulk. Hence, there is a
tendency for the element to diffuse away from the particle and into the surrounding matrix (i.e.
the particle dissolves). Based on the assumption that the particle/matrix interface is stationary
(i.e. the diffusion field has no memory of the past position of the interface), Whelan17 arrived
at the following expression for the dissolution rate of a spherical precipitate at a constant
temperature:
(4-17)
where r is the particle radius, a is the dimensionless supersaturation (defined in Fig. 4.14), and
Dm is the element bulk diffusivity.
The term Hr on the right-hand side of equation (4-17) stems from the steady-state part of
the diffusion field, while the (1 A/7) term arises from the transient part. Because of the com-
plex form of equation (4-17) it cannot be integrated analytically and hence, numerical
methods must be applied. However, if the transient part of equation (4-17) is neglected (con-
forming to the solution after long times), it is possible to obtain a simple expression for the
particle radius as a function of time:
(4-18)
where ro is the initial particle radius.

Equation (4-18) is identical with the so-called invariant-field solution developed independ-
Concentration
Distance
Fig. 4J4. Schematic representation of the concentration profile around a dissolving spherical particle in
an infinite matrix.
ently by Aaron et al.16 and is valid after a certain period of time, provided that there is no
impingement of diffusion fields from neighbouring precipitates. As shown in Fig. 4.15, this
simplified solution gives a reasonable description of the dissolution kinetics of small spherical
precipitates in steel during reheating above the AC1 -temperature.
Following the treatment of Agren,18 the time required for complete dissolution of a spher-
ical precipitate td can be obtained from equation (4-18) by setting r = 0:
(4-19)
Moreover, the volume fraction of the precipitates/as a function of time is given by:
(4-20)
where fo is the initial particle volume fraction.

The former equation shows that the dissolution time td depends strongly on the initial parti-
cle size rQ.
Example (4.5)
The following example illustrates the direct application of equations (4-18) and (4-19). Con-
sider a niobium-microalloyed steel which contains a fine dispersion of NbC precipitates. Pro-
vided that impingement of diffusion fields from neighbouring particles can be neglected, cal-
culate the total time required for complete dissolution of a 100 nm large NbC precipitate at
Particle radius, jam
Numerical solution (Agren)
Simplified analytical
solution (Whelan)
Time, s
Fig. 4.15. Dissolution kinetics of spherical cementite particles in austenite at 8500C. Data from Agren.18
135O°C. Data for the steel chemical composition and the diffusivity of Nb in austenite at
13500C are given below:
Steel chemical composition:
Diffusivity of Nb in austenite at 13500C:
Atomic weight of Nb:

Atomic weight of C :
Solution
In the present example it is reasonable to assume that the dissolution rate of the precipitate is
controlled by diffusion of Nb in austenite. For a single NbC precipitate embedded in a Nb-
depleted matrix, the dimensionless supersaturation becomes:
The equilibrium concentration of niobium at the particle/matrix interface can be estimated

from the solubility product by utilising data from Table 4.1. If we assume that the carbon
concentration at the interface is constant and equal to the nominal value of 0.12 wt% (i.e. the
stoichiometry of the dissolution reaction is neglected), equation (4-5) reduces to:
Moreover, the concentration of Nb in the precipitate is equal to:
This gives:
The dissolution time td can now be calculated from equation (4-19) by inserting the appro-
priate values for ro, aNt)J and Dm\
A comparison with Fig. 4.16 shows that the predicted value is off by a factor of about 4
compared with that obtained from more sophisticated numerical calculations. This degree of
accuracy is acceptable and justifies the use of equation (4-18) for prediction of the dissolution
rate of spherical precipitates under different thermal conditions provided that the model is
calibrated against experimental data points.
4.4.1.2 Application to continuous heating and cooling
Application of the model to continuous heating and cooling requires numerical integration of
equation (4-18) over the weld thermal cycle:
(4-21)
Under such conditions the volume fraction of the precipitates is given by:
(4-22)
Equations (4-21) and (4-22) provide a basis for predicting the extent of particle dissolution
occurring within the HAZ during welding in the absence of impingement of diffusion fields
from neighbouring precipitates.
Dissolution time, s
Particle diameter, nm
Fig. 4.16. The dissolution time of NbC in austenite at 13500C as function of initial particle diameter lro
for different Nb and C levels (numerical solution). Data from Suzuki et al.6
Example (4.6)
Consider stringer bead deposition (SAW) on a thick plate of a Nb-microalloyed steel (0.10
wt% C - 0.03 wt% Nb) under the following conditions:
Assume that the base metal contains a fine dispersion of NbC precipitates in the as-received
condition. Calculate on the basis of equation (4-22) and the Rosenthal thick plate solution
(equation (1-45)) the extent of particle dissolution occurring within the fully transformed HAZ
during welding. Relevant physical data for Nb-microalloyed steels are given below:
Solution
In the present example the problem is to calculate the variation in the//fo ratio across the fully
transformed HAZ. By substituting the appropriate values for qo, X, a, and v into the Rosenthal
thick plate solution, the governing heat flow equation becomes:
Since it is reasonable to assume that the dissolution rate of the precipitates is controlled by
diffusion of Nb in austenite, the dimensionless supersaturation reduces to:
As shown in example (4.5), the equilibrium concentration of niobium at the particle/matrix

interface (in wt%) can be estimated from the solubility product by utilising data from Table
4.1. If we assume that the carbon concentration at the interface is constant and equal to the
nominal value of 0.10 wt%, equation (4-5) becomes:
Moreover, the concentration of Nb in the precipitate is equal to:
This gives:
By substituting the appropriate expressions for aNb and DNb into equation (4-22), we ob-
tain:
Here the lower and upper integration limits refer to the total time spent in the thermal cycle
from Ac3 to T and down again to Ac3.
The extent of particle dissolution occurring within the HAZ during welding can now be
calculated in an iterative manner by numerical integration of the above equation over the weld
thermal cycle. The results from such computations are presented graphically in Fig. 4.17.
It is evident from these data that NbC starts to dissolve when the peak temperature of the
thermal cycle T exceeds the equilibrium dissolution temperature Td of the precipitate. The
process is completed when T approaches 13300C, conforming to a temperature interval of
1900C. This shows that considerable superheating is required in order to overcome the inher-
ent kinetic barrier against particle dissolution under the prevailing circumstances.
4.4.2 Numerical solution

In the previous treatment, no consideration is given to impingement of diffusion fields from
neighbouring precipitates or the position of the particle/matrix interface during the dissolution
process. In certain cases, however, such phenomena will have a marked effect on the dissolu-
tion kinetics.18"22 A good example is Al-Mg-Si alloys where the hardening P"(Mg2Si)-phase
forms a very fine distribution of needle-shaped precipitates along <100> directions in the
aluminium matrix. These precipitates are closely spaced and will therefore interact strongly
with each other during dissolution (coupled reversion).
No dissolution-
f/fo
Complete dissolution
Fig. 4.17. Dissolution of NbC during steel welding (Example (4.6)).

4.4.2.1 Two-dimensional diffusion model
For rod or needle-shaped precipitates in a finite, depleted matrix, the rate of dissolution can be
calculated by numerical methods from a simplified two-dimensional diffusion model. Assum-
ing that the precipitates are mainly aligned in one crystallographic direction, it is reasonable to
approximate their distribution by that of a face-centered cubic (close-packed) space lattice, as
shown in Fig. 4.18(a). If planes are placed midway between the nearest-neighbour particles,
they enclose each particle in a separate cell. Since symmetry demands that the net flux of
solute through the cell boundaries is zero, the dissolution zone is approximately defined by an
inscribed cylinder whose volume is equivalent to that of the hexagonal cell. The modelling
principles outlined in Fig. 4.18(a) and (b) have previously been used by a number of other
investigators to describe particle dissolution during isothermal heat treatment.18"22 Conse-
quently, readers who are unfamiliar with the concept should consult the original papers for
further details.
It follows from Fig. 4.18(b) that the rate of reversion can be reported as:
(4-23)
where ro is the initial cylinder (particle) radius.
(a)
(b)
Concentration
Distance
Fig. 4.18. Numerical model for dissolution of rod-shaped particles in a finite, depleted matrix; (a) Disso-
lution cell geometry, (b) Particle/matrix concentration profile (moving boundary).
For a specific alloy, the ratio between ro and L (the mean interparticle spacing) can be
calculated from a simple mass balance, assuming that all solute is tied-up in precipitates. Tak-
ing this ratio equal to 0.06 for rod-shaped precipitates in diluted alloys,9 the kinetics of particle
dissolution during isothermal heat treatment have been examined for a wide range of opera-
tional conditions. These results are presented in a general form in Fig. 4.19 by the use of the
following groups of dimensionless parameters:
Dimensionless time (4-24)
Dimensionless supersaturation (4-25)

(a is defined previously in Fig. 4.14).
The data in Fig. 4.19 suggest that the reaction kinetics during the initial stage of the process
are approximately described by the relation:
(4-26)
where c2 is a kinetic constant, and n{ is a time exponent (assumed constant and equal to 0.5
under the prevailing circumstances).
The rate of particle dissolution will gradually decline with increasing values of T as a result
of impingement of diffusion fields from neighbouring precipitates which reduces a. In prac-
tice, this is seen as a continuous decrease in the slope of the flfo-x curves in Fig. 4.19 (nx < 0.5).
In such cases equation (4-26) will only be valid within small increments of X.
log <1 - f/fo)
log T
Fig. 4.19. Dissolution kinetics of rod-shaped particles in a finite, depleted matrix. Data from Myhr and
Grong.9
4.4.2.2 Generic model
Myhr and Grong9 have shown how this model can be applied to specific alloy systems.
From equation (4-26) we have:
(4-27)
where n{ < 0.5.

This equation can further be simplified if we assume that and
(4-28)
For isothermal heat treatment at a chosen reference temperature (Tn), the rate of particle
dissolution is determined by the retention time tr{. Let f* denote the maximum hold time
required for complete dissolution of the precipitates. It follows that equation (4-28) can be
written in a general form by normalising tn with respect to t*x. The parameter t*n is obtained
by setting flfo = 0:
(4-29)
where C3 is a new kinetic constant.

If heat treatment is carried out at a different temperature (T * Tn) , the maximum hold time
t* is simply given by:
(4-30)
By inserting the approximate expressions for C1 and Dm into equation (4-30) (see previous
examples), and rearranging equation (4-28), we obtain:
(4-31)
and
(4-32)
where Q'apP. is the apparent (metastable) solvus boundary enthalpy (defined in Section 4.2.3.2),
and Qs is the activation energy for diffusion of the less mobile constitutive atom of the precipi-
tates.
Equations (4-31) and (4-32) exploit some good modelling techniques. For example, the use
of a dimensionless time eliminates an unknown kinetic constant which premultiplies t and ^1*
in the derivation of equation (4-32). Moreover, by raising the dimensionless time to a power
H1 means that the premultiplying constant, here unity, is independent of the value of nv and is
itself also dimensionless. Finally, the form of equation (4-31) eliminates further unknown
kinetic constants, and may readily be calibrated using an experimental time r* at a reference
temperature.
Figure 4.20 shows the variation inflfo with time (on log axes), from a range of isothermal
experiments carried out on 6082-T6 aluminium alloys, using hardness (or electrical conduc-
tivity) measurements to evaluate/7/\ The curve (equation (4-32)) extrapolates back to a slope
of 0.5 (the exponent n{) for the case of the early stages of dissolution before impingement of
the diffusion fields. The exponent nx is seen to fall to lower values when the proportion dis-
solved is higher, in agreement with the theoretical curves in Fig. 4.19.
4.4.2.3 Application to continuous heating and cooling

Myhr and Grong9 have also shown how this model can be applied to situations where the
temperature varies with time (as in welding).
In order to obtain a general description of particle dissolution under non-isothermal condi-
tions, it is convenient to introduce the related concepts of an isokinetic reaction and the kinetic
strength of a thermal cycle.23 A reaction is said to be isokinetic if the increments of transfor-
mation in infinitesimal isothermal time steps are additive. Christian24 defines this mathemati-
cally by stating that a reaction is isokinetic if the evolution equation for some state variable X
may be written in the form:
log(i-f/f 0 )
log (t/t*)
Fig. 4.20. 'Master-curve' for dissolution of hardening p"(Mg2Si)-precipitates in 6082-T6 aluminium

alloys. Data from Myhr and Grong.9
(4-33)
where G(X) and H{T) are arbitrary functions of X and T, respectively.

For a given thermal history T(t), this essentially means that the differential equation con-
tains separable variables of X and T. The same criterion may also be applied to the models
derived above. In the case of coupled reversion, we may write:
(4-34)
and
(4-35)
Since dfldlx and t\ are unique functions of/and T, respectively, the additivity condition is
satisfied. Consequently, when the temperature varies with time, we replace the term 11 t*x in
equation (4-34) by dt I t*x and integrate over the thermal cycle, giving:
(4-36)
This integral is called the kinetic strength of the thermal cycle with respect to reversion.
The resulting volume fraction of the precipitates following a heating cycle is then found by
evaluating the integral Z1 numerically (e.g. by utilising input data from Table 4.2) and replac-
ing 111* with Z1 in equation (4-32), yielding a value for flfQ from the master curve of Fig. 4.20.
Case Study (4.1)
By utilising equation (4-36) and the general heat flow model for welding on medium thick
plates (i.e. equation (1-104)), it is possible to calculate the variation in the f/fo ratio (i.e. the
solute distribution) across the HAZ of single pass 6082-T6 aluminium weldments for a wide
range of operational conditions (see Table 4.3). The results from such computations are pre-
sented graphically in Fig. 4.21 -4.23.
When stringer bead deposition is carried out on a plate of medium thickness, the solute
distribution in the transverse y direction is expected to vary with distance from the plate sur-
face due to a continuous change in the heat flow conditions. A closer inspection of Figs. 4.21
and 4.22 shows that this is correctly accounted for in the present model. In contrast, a full
penetration butt weld will always reveal a similar solute distribution in the transverse direction
of the weld, as shown in Fig. 4.23. This situation arises from the lack of a temperature gradient
in the through-thickness z direction of the plate.
Table 4.2 Basic input data in dissolution model for hardening p" (Mg2Si)- precipitates in 6082-T6
aluminium alloys. Data from Myhr and Grong.9
Parameter Q'app Qs nx t\
(starting value) (375°C)
Value 3OkJm0I-1 13OkJm 0 I- 1 0.5 600 s
(a)
Wo
Comolete dissolution
Aym ,mm
(b)
f/fo
ym,mm
Fig. 4.21. Dissolution of p"(Mg2Si)-precipitates during aluminium welding (Weld 1); (a) Upper plate
surface, (b) Lower plate surface. Operational conditions as in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Operational conditions used in aluminium welding experiments (Case study 4.1).
Weld Material Plate thickness Net arc power Welding speed

No.* (mm) (kW) (mms"1)
1 AA6082 15 9.1 4.2
2 AA6082 15 5.7 9.1
3 AA6082 13 14.0 5.8
* Calibration of heat flow model is done by including an empirical correction for heat consumed in melting of the
parent material (thermal data for the AA6082 alloy are given in Table 1.1, Chapter 1).
(a)
Mo
Aym,mm
(b)
f/fo
ym,mm
Fig. 4.22. Dissolution of (3"(Mg2Si)-PrCCiPiIaIeS during aluminium welding (Weld 2); (a) Upper plate
surface, (b) Centre of plate. Operational conditions as in Table 4.3.
4.4.2.4 Process diagrams for single pass 6082-T6 butt welds

For single pass butt welding of plates, the heat flow model (equation 1-104)) can largely be
simplified if the net arc power is kept sufficiently high compared with the plate thickness (i.e.
q /d>0.5 kW mm"1). Under such conditions the mode of heat flow becomes essentially one-
dimensional, and the temperature distribution is determined by the ratio qo/vd, kJ ram"2 (see
Sections 1.10.3.3 and 1.10.4.1 in Chapter 1).
Wo
Ay ,mm
m
Fig. 4.23. Dissolution of p"(Mg2Si)-precipitates during aluminium welding (Weld 3). Operational con-
ditions as in Table 4.3.
Figure 4.24 shows plots of the variation in the flfo ratio across the HAZ of 6082-T6 alu-
minium weldments for different values of qo Ivd. It follows that a narrow width of the dissolu-
tion zone requires the use of a low energy per mm2 of the weld. In practice, this can be
achieved by the use of an efficient welding process (e.g. electron beam or laser welding) which
facilitates deposition off a full penetration butt weld without employing a groove preparation
(i.e. eliminates the need for filler metals).
f/fo
Scale:
Fig. 4.24. Process diagram showing the solute distribution within the HAZ of single-pass 6082-T6 alu-
minium butt welds for different values of qo Ivd.
References
1. R.D. Doherty: Physical Metallurgy, 3rd Edn (Eds R.W. Chan and R Haasen), 1983, Amster-
dam, North-Holland Physics Publ., 934-1030.
2. K.E. Easterling: Introduction to the Physical Metallurgy of Welding, 1983, London, Butterworths
& Co., Ltd.
3. H. Adrian and RB. Pickering: Mater. ScL TechnoL, 1991, 7, 176-182.
4. B. Loberg, A. Nordgren, J. Strid and K.E. Easterling: MetalL Trans., 1984,15A, 33-41.
5. J. Strid and K.E. Easterling: Acta MetalL, 1985, 33, 2057-2074.
6. S. Suzuki, G.C. Weatherly and D.C. Houghton: Acta. MetalL, 1987, 35, 341-352.
7. J.L. Petty-Galis and R.D. Goolsby: J. Mater. ScL, 1989, 24, 1439-1446.
8. D. A. Porter and K.E. Easterling: Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys, 1981, Wokingham
(England), Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd.
9. O.R. Myhr and 0. Grong: Acta MetalL Mater., 1991, 39, 2693-2702; ibid., 2703-2708.
10. H.R. Shercliff and M.F. Ashby: Acta MetalL Mater., 1990, 38, 1789-1802; ibid., 1803-1812.
11. J.M. Lifshitz and V.V. Slyozov: /. Phys. Chem. Solids, 1961,19, 35-50.
12. C. Wagner: Z. Electrochem., 1961, 65, 581-591.
13. L.C. Brown: Acta MetalL Mater., 1992, 40, 1293-1303.
14. J.C. Ion, K.E. Easterling and M.F. Ashby: Acta MetalL, 1984, 32, 1949-1962.
15. S. Matsuda and N. Okumura: Trans. ISIJ, 1978,18, 198-205.
16. H.B. Aaron, D. Fainstein and G.R. Kotler: J. Appl. Phys., 1970, 41, 4404-4410.
17. MJ. Whelan: Metal ScL J., 1969, 3, 95-97.
18. J. Agren: Scand. J. MetalL, 1990,19, 2-8.
19. R.A. Tanzilli and R.W. Heckel: Trans. Met. Soc. AIME, 1968, 242, 2313-2321.
20. H.B. Aaron and R. Kotler: MetalL Trans., 1971, 2, 393-408.
21. R. Asthana and S.K. Pabi: Mat. ScL Eng., 1990, A128, 253-258.
22. U.H. Tundal and N. Ryum: MetalL Trans., 1992, 23A, 433-444; ibid., 445-449.
23. H.R. Shercliff, 0. Grong, O.R. Myhr and M.F. Ashby: Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Aluminium
Alloys — Their Physical and Mechanical Properties, Trondheim, Norway, June 1992, Vol. Ill,
pp. 357-369, The University of Trondheim, The Norwegian Inst. of Technol.
24. J.W. Christian: Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys, 1975, Oxford, Pergamon Press.
Appendix 4.1
Nomenclature
thermal diffusivity (mm2 s l) end temperature of ferrite to

austenite transformation (0C)
activity of element A in alloy
equilibrium concentration of
activity of precipitate An Bm element A in matrix (wt% or
at.%)
in alloy
analytical content of element
activity of element B in alloy A in alloy (wt% or at.%)
arbitrary alloying element equilibrium concentration of
element A across a curved
start temperature of ferrite to particle/matrix interface
austenite transformation (0C) (wt% or at.%)
arbitrary alloying element standard free energy of reac-
tion (J mol"1 or kJ mol"1)
element B in matrix (wt% or GMAW gas metal arc welding
at.%)
H(T) arbitrary function of T
analytical content of element
B in alloy (wt% or at.%) standard enthalpy of reac-
tion (J mol"1 or kJ mol"1)
element B across a curved amperage (A)
particle/matrix interface
(wt% or at.%) kinetic strength of thermal
cycle with respect to rever-
various kinetic constants and sion
temperature-dependent pa-
rameters equilibrium constant
normalised (dimensionless) mean interparticle spacing in

entropy of reaction dissolution model (m, Jim or
nm)
concentration of solute at
particle/matrix interface integer
(wt% or at.%)
atomic weight of element A
nominal alloy composition (g mol"1)
(wt% or at.%)
concentration of solute in atomic weight of binary pre-

matrix (mol irr 3 , wt% or cipitate (g mol"1)
at.%)
atomic weight of element B
concentration of solute inside (g mol-1)
the precipitates (wt% or
at.%) integer
plate thickness (mm) time exponent in dissolution

model
normalised enthalpy of reac-
tion (K) pressure caused by curvature
effects (J nr 3 )
element diffusivity (mm2 s"1
or m2 s"1) net arc power (W)
particle volume fraction apparent (metastable) solvus

boundary enthalpy (kJ mor 1 )
initial particle volume frac-
tion activation energy for diffu-
sion (kJ moH)
equilibrium particle volume
fraction particle radius (m, Jim or nm)
maximum particle volume initial particle radius (m, (im

fraction at absolute zero or nm)
arbitrary function of X
universal gas constant artificially aged condition
(8.314JK-1InOl-1)
voltage (V)
universal gas constant multi-
plied by InIO (19.14J Kr1 welding speed (mm s"1)
mol"1)
welding direction (mm)
three-dimensional radius
vector in Rosenthal equation state variable
(mm)
transverse direction (mm)
standard entropy of reaction width of HAZ referred to fu-
(J K mol"1) sion boundary (mm)
SAW submerged arc welding through-thickness direction

(mm)
time (s)
molar volume of precipitate
time necessary for complete (m3 mol 1 )
dissolution of precipitate(s)
molar volume of precipitate
integration limits (s) per mole of the diffusate (m3
mol-1)
time necessary for complete
reversion at T(s)
density of precipitate An Bm
retention time at T1. (s) (g cm"3 or kg rrr3)
time necessary for complete thermal conductivity (W

reversion at Trl(s) mm-1 0C-1)
temperature (0C or K) dimensionless supersaturat-

ion in dissolution model
ambient temperature (0C or
K) density (g cm"3 or kg nr 3 )
equilibrium dissolution tem- arc efficiency factor

perature of precipitate (0C or
K) particle/matrix interfacial
energy (J m~2)
melting point (0C or K)
dimensionless time in disso-
peak temperature of thermal lution model
cycle (0C or K)
contribution of particle cur-
chosen reference temperature vature to reaction enthalpy (J
in dissolution model (0C or mol"1 or kJ mol"1)
K)
equilibrium phase in Al-Mg-
equilibrium solvus tempera- Si alloys
ture (0C or K)
hardening precipitate in Al-
solvus temperature of Mg-Si alloys
metastable precipitates (0C or
K)
5
Grain Growth in Welds
5.1 Introduction
Grain growth is an important aspect of welding metallurgy. Normal grain growth in metals
and alloys is a thermally activated process driven by the reduction in the grain boundary en-
ergy. Physically, it occurs by growth of the larger grains at the expense of the smaller ones
which tend to shrink.
Under isothermal heat treatment conditions, normal grain growth is well described by the
following empirical equation:1
(5-1)
where D is the mean grain size (diameter), D0 is the initial grain size, n is the time exponent,
/ is the isothermal annealing time, Qapp. is the apparent activation energy for grain growth, and
C1 is a kinetic constant. The other symbols have their usual meaning.
For most metals and alloys the time exponent n in equation (5-1) varies typically in the
range from 0.1 to 0.4, as shown in Fig. 5.1. Only in the case of ultrapure metals annealed at
very high temperatures the time exponent may approach a constant value of 0.5. This corre-
sponds to the limiting case where the grain boundary migration rate is directly proportional to
the driving pressure 7 /D (7 denotes the grain boundary interfacial energy per unit area, while
D is the grain size).
It is well recognised that alloying and impurity elements both in the dissolved state and in
the form of inclusions or second phase particles will retard grain growth.2"* Consequently, a
comprehensive theoretical treatment of grain growth in welds must include a consideration of
such effects. The present analysis will therefore start with a closer examination of factors
affecting the grain boundary mobility in metals and alloys under conditions applicable to weld-
ing.
5.2 Factors Affecting the Grain Boundary Mobility
5.2.7 Characterisation of grain structures

A critical aspect of modelling grain growth is the quantitative description of grain structures,
which is essential in making a comparison between theoretical predictions and experimental
(U) JU8U0CJX9 91U|1
•Brass
Z.R.AI
Homologous temperature (T/Tm)

Fig. 5.1. Temperature-dependence of the time exponent in isothermal grain growth (Z.R.: zone refined,
H.R: high purity). Data compiled by Hu and Rath.1
measurements. Different parameters are used to describe the size and the shape of individual
grains. In three dimensions, individual grain volumes cannot be determined directly from
measurements made in single cross sections through the structure. Therefore, certain geomet-
ric assumptions must be employed to obtain these quantities.
Since most grain size measurements seek to correlate the interaction of grain boundaries
with specific properties (e.g. the transformation behaviour), an estimate of the grain boundary
area per unit volume Sv is often required. This parameter can be calculated without assump-
tions concerning grain shape and size distribution from measurements of the mean linear grain
intercept D*.5
(5-2)
If the mean grain diameter D is required from 5V, this may be obtained by assuming a
spherical grain shape. Noting that each boundary is shared by two adjacent grains, we obtain:
(5-3)
from which
(5-4)
It follows that the mean linear grain intercept D* is always smaller than the actual grain size
D.
A common observation in metals and alloys is that the size distributions of grain aggregates
at different annealing times become equivalent when the measured grain size parameter, D, is
normalised (scaled) by the time-dependent average of this metric, D (see Fig. 5.2). This
means that grain structures can be completely characterised, in a statistical sense, by simple
probability functions of the standard deviation of the distribution together with the time de-
pendence of the average size scale D.
5.2.2 Driving pressure for grain growth

The thermodynamic driving pressure for motion of a spherically curved element of grain bound-
ary is given by:7
(5-5)
where y is the grain boundary interfacial energy, and p* is the radius of curvature.
It is conventional practice to replace p* in equation (5-5) with some measure of the average
grain size, such as the mean linear grain intercept D*, or with the diameter of the equivalent
spherical volume of some geometrically modelled average grain size. Experimental measure-
ments performed on high purity aluminium indicate that p* ~ 3.23 D*.7 This observation is
consistent with the model of Hellman and Hillert,8 which predicts that the curvature of the
most critical element of grain boundary that must be stabilised is p* = 3 D . Under such condi-
tions, the driving pressure becomes:
(5-6)
Zone refined iron

F (arbitrary units)
Rayleigh distribution
Log-normal
distribution
D/D
Fig. 5.2. Comparison of measured grain size data in iron with the Rayleigh and log-normal distribution
functions F. The similarity of the size distributions at different annealing times illustrates the self-similar
scaling behaviour of normal grain growth. After Pande.6
In practice, the numerical constant in equation (5-6) can vary by, at least, a factor of three,
depending on the assumptions of the models. Consequently, in the general case the average
driving pressure is given by:
(5-7)
where c2 is a constant which is characteristic of the system under consideration.
5.2.3 Drag from impurity elements in solid solution

In the dissolved state impurity and alloying elements will retard grain growth through elastic
attraction of the atoms towards the open structure of the grain boundary. The boundary must
then either drag the impurity atoms along (so that its speed is limited by the diffusion rate of
these atoms) or break away if the impurity concentration is sufficiently small or the driving
pressure or temperature is high enough.
An analysis of such effects can be done on the basis of the classic impurity drag theories of
Chan2 and Lucke and Stiiwe,3 which deal with the following two extreme cases:
(i) A low velocity limit, where the rate of grain boundary migration is controlled by diffu-
sion of impurity atoms perpendicular to the boundary.
(ii) A high velocity limit, where the grain boundary migration process is mainly governed
by the diffusion of solvent atoms across the boundary (i.e. controlled by the rate of boundary
self diffusion).
The low velocity limit is associated with either a low driving pressure PG or a high impurity
level C0, and is characterised by a linear type of relationship between the grain boundary
migration rate Va and PG:2
(5-8)
Here e denotes the intrinsic drag coefficient, while 1F is a parameter depending on the
diffusivity and the interaction energy between the grain boundary and the impurity atoms.
For the other extreme (i.e. the high velocity limit), the grain boundary migration rate Vb is
described by the relationship:2
(5-9)
where 4Vp2 denotes another complex function of the impurity diffusivity and the interaction
energy between the grain boundary and the impurity atoms.
In the case of spherical grains, the classic grain growth equation predicts that the grain
boundary migration rate V is a power function of the driving pressure (y /D). This is readily
seen by differentiating equation (5-1) and inserting 7 (the grain boundary interfacial energy)
into the resulting expression:
(5-10)
where c3 is a new kinetic constant.
Note that at very high driving pressures or low impurity levels, equation (5-9) approaches
the limiting case where the migration rate Vb becomes directly proportional to PG, correspond-
ing to a time exponent n = 0.5 in the grain growth equation. At this point the grain boundary
will break away from its surrounding impurity atmosphere and migrate at a rate close to the
rate of boundary self diffusion. In most cases, however, the relationship between V and PG
derived from equation (5-10) will be different from the theoretical one due to the empirical
nature of the grain growth equation.
For high driving pressures and intermediate impurity concentrations, the classic impurity
drag theories predict a discontinuous transition from the high to the low velocity limit. It has,
however, been argued by Vandermeer9 that the observed transition may be considered as con-
tinuous. Thus, in a log V vs log PG plot it would appear as a steep curve connecting the lines
for the high and low velocity extremes together, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 5.3.
5.2.4 Drag from a random particle distribution

The retardation of grain growth by second phase particles was first theoretically investigated
by Zener.10 There seems to be general agreement that the maximum pinnig force Fp exerted by
a single particle of radius r on a grain boundary is given by: 410
(5-11)
High velocity limit

log V
Transition region
Low velocity limit
log PG
Fig. 5.3. Schematic variation of grain boundary migration rate V with driving pressure PQ according to
the classic impurity drag theories of Cahn2 and Liicke and Stiiwe.3 The diagram is based on the ideas of
Vandermeer.9
If the number of interacting particles per unit area of the grain boundary is taken equal to na,
the resulting retardation pressure becomes:
(5-12)
Assuming that only one half of the particles which touches the grain boundary will interact
with a maximum force, na is related to Nv (the number of particles per unit volume) through the
following equation:410
(5-13)
Given that the particles are spherical and of uniform size, Nv can be expressed as:
(5-14)
where/is the particle volume fraction.
A combination of equations (5-12), (5-13), and (5-14) leads to the well-known expression
for the so-called Zener drag (or Zener retardation pressure):410
(5-15)
In practice, the numerical constant in equation (5-15) can vary by, at least, a factor of five,
depending on the assumptions of the models.11 Consequently, in the general case the Zener
retardation pressure is given by:
(5-16)
where C4 is a constant which is characteristic of the system under consideration.
5.2.5 Combined effect of impurities and particles

As already stated in the introduction of this chapter, the time exponent n is a measure of the
resistance to grain boundary motion in the presence of impurity and alloying elements in solid
solution. Based on equation (5-1) Hu and Rath 112 have shown that the grain boundary migra-
tion rate V is related to the effective driving pressure APG and the time exponent n through the
following equation:
(5-17)
where M is the grain boundary mobility.

In alloys containing grain boundary pinning precipitates, the effective driving pressure APG
is defined as the numerical difference between PG and Pz. By inserting the correct expressions
for PG and Pz into equation (5-17), we obtain:
(5-18)
It follows from equation (5-18) that the grain boundary migration rate V becomes inversely
proportional to the average grain size D when n = 0.5 a n d / = 0. This corresponds to the
limiting case where the grain boundary will break away from its surrounding impurity atmos-
phere and migrate at a rate which is controlled by the diffusion of solvent atoms across the
boundary. In most cases, however, the observed relationship between V and APG will be
different from the theoretical one due to drag from second phase particles (f> 0) or impurity
elements in solid solution (n < 0.5).
5.3 Analytical Modelling of Normal Grain Growth
By substituting V = V2 (dD/dt) and M = M0 exp (- QappIRT) into equation (5-18), it is

possible to obtain a simple differential equation which describes the variation in the average
grain size D with time t and temperature T in the presence of impurities and grain boundary
pinning precipitates:
(5-19)
Equation (5-19) can be written in a more general form by setting and
(5-20)
From this it is seen that the parameters M0 and k are true physical constants which are
related to the grain boundary mobility and the pinning efficiency of the precipitates, respec-
tively.
5.3.1 Limiting grain size

Equation (5-20) shows that the grain structure is stabilised when (d D ldi) - 0. The stable
(limiting) grain size is given by:
(5-21)
The parameter k (which in the following is referred to as the Zener coefficient) is defined as
the ratio between the numerical constants in equations (5-7) and (5-16), respectively. In the
original Zener's model k = 4/3, while other investigators have arrived at different results.811"14
As shown in Fig. 5.4, the limiting grain size may vary by over one order of magnitude, depend-
ing upon the assumptions of the models. This makes it difficult to apply equations (5-20) and
(5-21) for quantitative grain size analyses without further background information on the Zener
coefficient.
Diim.nm
Gladman
r/f, um
Fig. 5.4. Relation between limiting grain size Dum., particle radius r, and volume fraction/predicted by
different models.
Example (5. J)
Consider multipass GMA welding on a thick steel plate under the following conditions:
Based on the models of Zener,10 Hellman and Hillert,8 and Gladman13 estimate the limiting
austenite grain size Dlim in the transformed parts of the weld HAZ when the oxygen and
sulphur contents of the as-deposited weld metal are 0.04 and 0.01 wt%, respectively.
Solution
As shown in Chapter 2 of this textbook the volume fraction of oxide and sulphide inclusions
can be calculated from equation (2-75):
Similarly, the average radius of the grain boundary pinning inclusions can be obtained from
equation (2-79):
This gives the following values for the limiting austenite grain size:
Zener:
Hellman and Hillert:
Gladman:
and
As expected, the limiting austenite grain size is seen to vary by more than one order of
magnitude, depending on the assumptions of the models. In practice, the Zener coefficient in
low-alloy steel weld metals falls within the range from 0.32 to 0.93, as shown in Fig. 5.5. The
average value of A: is close to 0.52, which is the same as that inferred from the Gladman model
(upper limit). When it comes to intermetallic compounds such as titanium nitride, the Zener
coefficient varies typically between 0.75 and 0.25 during grain growth in the austenite re-
gime. 1617 This suggests that k ~ 0.50 is a reasonable estimate of the grain boundary pinning
efficiency of oxides and nitrides in steel.
5.3.2 Grain boundary mobility

Direct application of equation (5-20) requires also reliable information on the time exponent n
and the grain boundary mobility M. When n = 0.5 and/= 0, the classic impurity drag theories
predict that the activation energy Qapp, should be close to the value for boundary self diffusion
in the matrix material.2'3 This borderline case is approximately attained in steel welding, as
shown in Fig. 5.6(a) and (b), since the driving pressure for austenite grain growth immediately
following the dissolution of the pinning precipitates is usually so large that the grain boundary
migration rate approaches the higher velocity limit defined in equation (5-9).18 On this basis it
is not surprising to find that Qapp falls within the range reported for lattice self diffusion (284
kJ mol"1) and boundary self diffusion (170 kJ mol~l) in pure 7-iron19 during welding.18 In
most cases, however, the activation energy will be different from the theoretical one due to
complex interactions between impurity atoms and grain boundaries (characterised by a time
exponent n < 0.5). Under such conditions, the value of Qapp has no physical meaning.1
5.3.3 Grain growth mechanisms

Equation (5-20) provides a basis for evaluating the grain growth inhibiting effect of impurity
elements and second phase particles under different thermal conditions. This also includes
situations where the grain boundary pinning precipitates either coarsen or dissolve during the
heat treatment process.
5.3.3.1 Generic grain growth model

Equation (5-20) can readily be integrated to give the average grain size D as a function of
time. In the general case we may write:
(5-22)
(a)
SA steel weld metal
Austenite grain size, Jim
Annealing temperature, 0 C
(b)
GMA and SA steel
weld metals
D||m. Hm
r/f, urn
Fig. 5.5. Evaluation of the Zener coefficient in steel weld metals containing stable oxide and sulphide
inclusions; (a) Determination of Dum. from isothermal grain growth data (holding time: 30 min),
(b) Variation in Dum. with the inclusion rlf ratio. Data from Skaland and Grong.15
where D{im is the limiting grain size (defined in equation (5-21)).

The integral I1 on the right-hand side of equation (5-22) represents the kinetic strength of the
thermal cycle with respect to grain growth and can be determined by numerical methods when
the temperature-time programme is known. In practice, however, it is not necessary to solve this
integral to evaluate the grain growth mechanisms. Consequently, the left-hand side of equation
(a)
Steel A
Log (DxZD1) Slope: n = 0.4
Log [number of cycles]
(b)
Steel A
Steel B
LogD7
Fig. 5.6. Evaluation of the time exponent n and the activation energy Q for austenite grain growth in
steel under thermal conditions applicable to welding; (a) Time exponent n, (b) Activation energy Qapp.
Data from Akselsen et ah18
(5-22) can be solved explicitly for different values of DUm, n, and Z1. The results may then be
presented in the form of novel diagrams which show the competition between the various
processes that lead to grain growth during heat treatment of metals and alloys.
A more thorough documentation of the predictive power of the model and its applicability
to welding is given in Section 5.4.
5.3.3.2 Grain growth in the absence ofpinning precipitates

In the absence of grain boundary pinning precipitates, we have:/= 0, Dlim —> ~ , and (1/ DlitrL) = 0.
Under such conditions, equation (5-22) reduces to:
(5-23)
After integration this equation yields:
(5-24)
Referring to Fig. 5.7, the average grain size D becomes a simple cube root function of Z1
when n = 0.5 and D 0 = 0. In other situations (n < 0.5), the grains will coarsen at a slower rate
due to drag from alloying and impurity elements in solid solution. This is seen as a general
reduction in the slope of the D-Ix curves in Fig. 5.7.
The important austenite grain growth inhibiting effect of phosphorus and free nitrogen in
steel following particle dissolution is shown in Fig. 5.8.
5.3.3.3 Grain growth in the presence of stable precipitates

If grain growth occurs in the presence of stable precipitates, the limiting grain size {Dlim) in
equation (5-22) becomes constant and independent of the thermal cycle. In the specific case
when n = 0.5 the integral on the left-hand side of equation (5-22) has the following analytical
solution:
(5-25)
D, ^m
I1W"
Fig. 5.7. Predicted variation in average grain size D with /, and n f o r / = 0 and D0 = 0 ('free' grain
growth).
(a)
Steel A
D Y ,fim
Number of cycles
(b)
Steel B
D y ,um
Number of cycles -
Fig. 5.8. Illustration of the austenite grain growth inhibiting effect of phosphorus and free nitrogen in
low-alloy steel during reheating above the Ac^ temperature (multi-cycle weld thermal simulation);
(a) Steel A (50ppm P, 20ppm N), (b) Steel B (180ppm P, 80ppm N). Data from Akselsen et a/.18
from which the average grain size D is readily obtained. In other cases, numerical methods
must be employed to evaluate D.
It is evident from the graphical representation of equation (5-25) in Fig. 5.9 that the grain
growth inhibiting effect of the precipitates is very small during the initial stage of the process
when D « D lim. Under such conditions the grains will coarsen at a rate which is comparable
with that observed for free grain growth (n = 0.5,/= 0). The grain coarsening process becomes
gradually retarded as the average grain size increases because of the associated reduction in
the effective driving pressure APG until it comes to a complete stop when AP0 = 0 (i.e. D =
D Hm)-
D, jim
I 1 ^m 2
Fig. 5.9. Predicted variation in average grain size D with Z1 and Dnm. for n = 0.5 and D0 = 0 (stable
precipitates).
D, (im
I 1 , [nm]1/n
Fig. 5.10. Predicted variation in average grain size D with Z1 and n for Dum. = 250|Jin and D0 = 0
(stable precipitates). Dotted curves correspond to grain growth in the absence of pinning precipitates.
If grain growth at the same time occurs under the action of a constant drag from impurity
elements in solid solution, the situation becomes more complex. As shown in Fig. 5.10, a
decrease in the time exponent from say 0.5 to 0.2 gives rise to a marked reduction in the slope
of the D-I 1 curves, similar to that observed in Fig. 5.7 for particle-free systems (/= 0). How-
ever, the predicted grain coarsening rate is lower than that evaluated from equation (5-24) due
to the extra drag exerted by the grain boundary pinning precipitates. This leads ultimately to a
stabilisation of the microstructure when D = DUm.
5.3.3.4 Grain growth in the presence of growing precipitates

Very little information is available in the literature on the matrix grain growth behaviour of
metals and alloys in the presence of growing second phase particles. So far, virtually all
modelling work has been carried out on two phase a-(3 titanium alloys.14 Unfortunately, none
of these models can be extended to more complex alloy systems such as steels or aluminium
alloys.
When grain growth occurs in the presence of growing second phase particles, Dum. will no
longer be constant due to the associated increase in the particle rlf ratio with time. As shown in
Chapter 4 of this textbook, the Lifshitz-Wagner theory2021 provides a basis for modelling
particle growth during welding and heat treatment of metals and alloys in cases where the peak
temperature of the thermal cycle is kept well below the equilibrium solvus of the precipitates.
Under such conditions, the particles will coarsen at almost constant volume fraction (f=fo), in
accordance with equation (4-16):
(5-26)
where Qs is the activation energy for the coarsening process, C5 is a kinetic constant, and I2 is
the kinetic strength of the thermal cycle with respect to particle coarsening. The other symbols
have their usual meaning.
If the base metal contains particles of an initial radius ro and volume fraction/^, the limiting
grain size at I2 = 0 (D° lim) can be defined as:
(5-27)
from which
(5-28)
Similarly, when I2 > 0, we may write:
(5-29)
By combining equations (5-26), (5-28), and (5-29), we arrive at the following relationship
between (D Um ) and I2:
(5-30)
It is seen from equation (5-30) that the limiting grain size in the presence of growing
particles depends on the product (k/fo)3I1. In practice, the grain boundary pinning effect of the
precipitates is determined by the relative rates of particle coarsening and grain growth in the
material, i.e. whether the grain boundary mobility is sufficiently high to keep pace with the
increase in DUm during heat treatment. Generally, the pinning conditions are defined by the
(k/fo)3 I1IIx ratio, which after substitution and rearranging yields:
(5-31)
In cases where the parameters c5 ,Qs, M0*, and Qapp are known, the average grain size D
can readily be evaluated from equations (5-22), (5-30), and (5-31) by utilising an appropriate
integration procedure. However, since Qs normally differs from Qapp^ the (klfo)3I1I Ix ratio
will depend on the thermal path during continuous heating and cooling. Consequently, solu-
tion of these coupled equations generally requires stepwise integration in temperature-time
space via a fourth heat flow equation. This problem will be dealt with in Section 5.4.
The situation becomes much simpler if heat treatment is carried out isothermally. Under
such conditions the product (k/fo)311 will only differ from Ix by a proportionality constant m,
which is characteristic of the system under consideration. Accordingly, equation (5-30) can be
rewritten as:
(5-32)
From this we see that the two coupled equations (5-22) and (5-32) can be solved explicitly
for different values of D°nm., n, m, and Z1. Hence, it is possible to present the results in the form
of novel 'mechanism maps' which show the competition between particle coarsening and
grain growth during isothermal heat treatment for a wide range of operational conditions.
Examples of such diagrams are given in Figs. 5.11 and 5.12.
It is evident from these figures that the grain coarsening behaviour during isothermal heat
treatment is very sensitive to variations in the proportionality constant m. For large values of
m, the matrix grains will coarsen at a rate which is comparable with that observed in Fig. 5.7
for particle-free systems (f = 0). This corresponds to a situation where the grain boundary
pinning precipitates will completely outgrow the matrix grains. It is interesting to note that
particle outgrowing is more likely to occur if the time exponent n is small, as shown in Fig.
5.12, because of the associated reduction in the grain boundary mobility in the presence of
impurity elements in solid solution. In other systems, where the proportionality constant m is
closer to unity, the reduced coarsening rate of the precipitates gives rise to a higher Zener
retardation pressure and ultimately to a stagnation in the matrix grain growth. In the limiting
case, when m = 0, the grain growth behaviour becomes idential to that observed in Figs. 5.9
and 5.10 for stable precipitates.
Time exponent n = 0.5
D.jim
I 1 ,^m 2
Fig. 5.11. Predicted variation in average grain size D with Ix and m for D°um. = 50jLim, n = 0.5, and
D0 =0 (growing precipitates).

D,fxm
I1^m1'"
Fig. 5.12. Predicted variation in average grain size D with I1 and m for D°um. - 50|im, n = 0.3, and
D0 = 0 (growing precipitates).
Example (5.2)
Consider a titanium-microalloyed steel with the following chemical composition:
Ti(total): 0.016 wt%, Ti(soluble): 0.009 wt%, N: 0.006 wt%
Assume that the base metal contains an uniform dispersion of TiN precipitates in the as-
received condition, conforming to a limiting austenite grain size T>°um. of 50 |iim. Provided that
boundary drag from impurity elements in solid solution can be neglected (i.e. n ~ 0.5), esti-
mate on the basis of Fig. 5.11 the average austenite grain size D1 in the material after 25 s of
isothermal annealing at 13000C. Relevant physical data for titanium-microalloyed steels are
given below:
(activation energy for diffusion of Ti in austenite)
Solution
The initial volume fraction of TiN in the material can be estimated from simple stoichiometric
calculations by considering the difference between total and soluble titanium. Taking the
atomic weight of Ti and N equal to 47.9 and 14.0 g mol"1, respectively, we obtain:
From this we see that the initial radius of the TiN precipitates in the base metal is close to:
Since heat treatment is carried out under isothermal conditions, the parameters m and Z1 can
be obtained directly from equations (5-31) and (5-22) without performing a numerical integra-
tion:
Similarly, in the case of Z1 we get:
The average austenite grain size can now be read from Fig. 5.11 by linear interpolation
between the curves for m = 10 and 100 Jim. This gives:
Although experimental data are not available for a direct comparison, the predicted grain
size is of the expected order of magnitude. From this it is obvious that considerable austenite
grain growth may occur in titanium-microalloyed steels because of particle coarsening, in
spite of the fact that TiN, from a thermodynamic standpoint, is stable up to the melting point of
the steel. The process can, to some extent, be counteracted by the use of a finer dispersion of
TiN precipitates in the material. For example, if the initial particle radius is reduced by a factor
of five (conforming to a change in I W from 50 to 10 Jim), the austenite grain size of the
annealed material decreases from 75 to 65 jLim, as shown in Fig. 5.13. Nevertheless, since
particle coarsening is a physical phenomenon occurring during high temperature heat treat-
ment of metals and alloys, austenite grain growth cannot be avoided. This explains why, for
instance, conventional titanium-microalloyed steels are not suitable for high heat input weld-
ing due to their tendency to form brittle zones of Widmanstatten ferrite and upper bainite in the
coarse grained HAZ region adjacent to the fusion boundary.22

D,jim
Stable particles
I1-Hm2
Fig. 5.13. Predicted variation in average grain size D with Z1 and m for D°Hm. = 10 um, n = 0.5, and
Do = 0 (growing precipitates).
5.3.3.5 Grain growth in the presence of dissolving precipitates
Little information is available in the literature on the matrix grain growth behaviour of metals
and alloys in the presence of dissolving precipitates. As shown in Chapter 4, the model of
Whelan23 provides a basis for calculating the dissolution rate of single precipitates embedded
in an infinite matrix. If the transient part of the diffusion field is neglected, the variation in the
particle radius r with time t at a constant temperature is given by equation (4-18):
(5-33)
where a is the dimensionless supersaturation (defined in Fig. 4.14), and Dm is the element
diffusivity.
Application of the model to continuous heating and cooling requires numerical integration
of equation (5-33) over the weld thermal cycle:
(5-34)
where I3 is the kinetic strength of the thermal cycle with respect to particle dissolution.
From this relation the following expression for the particle volume fraction can be derived
(see equation (4-22), Chapter 4):
(5-35)
where fo is the initial particle volume fraction.

By substituting Dlim - k(rlf) and D°nm. = Kr0If0) into equations (5-34) and (5-35), it is
possible to obtain a simple mathematical relation which describes the variation in the limiting
grain size with I3 during particle dissolution. After some manipulation, we obtain:
(5-36)
It is seen from equation (5-36) that the limiting grain size increases from D°um. at I3 = 0 to
infinite when I3 = (fo Ik)2 (D°um. )2 • Since the magnitude of the Zener drag, in practice, depends
on the relative rates of grain growth and particle dissolution in the material, the pinning condi-
tions are defined by the (klfo)2131 Ix ratio:
(5-37)
Equation (5-37) shows that the (k/fo)2I3111 ratio is contingent upon the thermal path during
continuous heating and cooling. Consequently, application of the model to welding generally
requires numerical integration of the coupled equations (5-22), (5-36), and (5-37) over the
weld thermal cycle.
However, the integration procedure is largely simplified if heat treatment is carried out
isothermally. In such cases the product (k/fo)213 will only differ from Ix by a proportionality
constant m*, which is characteristic of the system under consideration. By substituting m*Ix
into equation (5-36), we obtain:
(5-38)
From this we see thaUhe two coupled equations (5-22) and (5-38) can be solved explicitly
for different values of Dun., n,m*, and I1. Hence, it is possible to present the results in the
form of novel 'mechanism maps' which show the competition between particle dissolution
and grain growth during isothermal heat treatment for a wide range of operational conditions.
Examples of such diagrams are given in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15.
As expected, the stability of the second phase particles is sensitive to variations in the
proportionality constant m*. Normally, the precipitates will exert a drag on the grain bounda-
ries as long as they are present in the metal matrix. However, when the dissolution process is
completed, the matrix grains are free to grow without any interference from precipitates. This

Complete particle
dissolution
D,jim
Stable particles
I 1 ,nm 2
Fig. 5.14. Predicted variation in average grain size D with Z1 and ra* for D°um. = 50 um, n = 0.5, and
D0 =0 (dissolving precipitates).
Complete particle dissolution
D,jim
I 1 ^m 1 ' 0
Fig. 5.15. Predicted variation in average grain size D with I1 and m* for D°um. - 50 Jim, n - 0.3, and
Do =0 (dissolving precipitates).
means that the grains, after prolonged high temperature annealing, will coarsen at a rate which
is comparable with that observed in Fig. 5.7 for particle-free systems. In the limiting case,
when m* = 0, the grain growth behaviour becomes identical to that shown in Figs. 5.9 and 5.10
for stable precipitates.
Example (5.3)
Consider a niobium-microalloyed steel with the following composition:
Nb(total): 0.025 wt%, Nb(soluble): 0.010 wt%, C: 0.10 wt%
Assume that the base metal contains a fine dispersion of NbC precipitates in the as-received
condition, conforming to a limiting austenite grain size Dnm. of 50 jim. Provided that the
boundary drag from impurity elements in solid solution can be neglected (i.e. n ~ 0.5), esti-
mate on the basis of Fig. 5.14 the average austenite grain size D 7 in the material after 25 s of
isothermal annealing at 13000C. Relevant physical data for niobium-microalloyed steels are
given below:
Solution
The initial volume fraction of NbC in the material can be estimated from simple stoichiometric
calculations by considering the difference between total and soluble niobium. Taking the
atomic weight of Nb and C equal to 92.9 and 12.0 g mol"1, respectively, we obtain:
From this we see that the radius of the NbC precipitates in the base metal is close to:
As shown in Example 4.6 (Chapter 4), the dimensionless supersaturation of niobium a ^

adjacent to the particle/matrix interface during dissolution can be written as:
By substituting this value into the expression for the proportionality constant m*, we obtain:
Moreover, at 1300°C the value OfZ1 becomes:
The average austenite grain size can now be read from Fig. 5.14 by interpolation between
the curves for m* = 1 and/= 0 (free grain growth). This gives:
Since the calculated value of D1 is reasonably close to that observed for a particle-free
system, it means that the presence of a fine dispersion of NbC in the base metal has no signifi-
cant effect on the resulting austenite grain size under the prevailing circumstances. Other
Next Page
types of niobium microalloyed steels may reveal a different grain coarsening behaviour, de-
pending on the chemical composition, size distribution, and initial volume fraction of the base
metal precipitates. However, the pattern remains essentially the same, i.e. the growth inhibi-
tion is always succeeded by grain coarsening as long as the precipitates are thermally unstable.
5.4 Grain Growth Diagrams for Steel Welding
In welding the temperature will change continuously with time, which makes predictions of
the HAZ grain coarsening behaviour rather complicated. The method adopted from Ashby et
^ 24,25 j s b asec i o n m e jd e a o f integrating the elementary kinetic models over the weld thermal
cycle where the unknown kinetic constants are determined by fitting the integrals at certain
fixed points to data from real or simulated welds. Although the introduction of the Zener drag
in the grain growth equation largely increases the complexity of the problem, the methodology
and calibration procedure remain essentially the same. This means that the results from such
complex computations can be presented in the form of simple grain growth diagrams which
show contours of constant grain size in temperature-time space.
5.4.1 Construction of diagrams

A grain growth model for welding consists of two components, i.e. a heat flow model, and a
structural (kinetic) model.
5.4.1.1 Heat flow models

As a first simplification, the general Rosenthal equations26 are considered for the limiting case
of a high net power qo and a high welding speed v, maintaining the ratio qo/v within a range
applicable to arc welding. It has been shown in Chapter 1 that under such conditions, where no
exchange of heat occurs in the .^-direction, the following equations apply:
Thick plate welding (2-D heat flow)
(5-39)
Thin plate welding (1-D heat flow)

6
Solid State Transformations in Welds
6.1 Introduction
The majority of phase transformations occurring in the solid state take place by thermally
activated atomic movements. In welding we are particularly interested in transformations that
are induced by a change in temperature of an alloy with a fixed bulk composition. Such
transformations include precipitation reactions, eutectoid transformations, and massive trans-
formations both in the weld metal and in the heat affected zone.
Since welding metallurgy is concerned with a number of different alloy systems (including
low and high alloy steels, aluminium alloys, titanium alloys etc.), it is not possible to cover all
aspects of transformation behaviour. Consequently, the aim of the present chapter is to pro-
vide the background material necessary for a verified quantitative understanding of phase
transformations in weldments in terms of models based on thermodynamics, kinetics, and
simple diffusion theory. These models will then be applied to specific alloy systems to illumi-
nate the basic physical principles that underline the experimental observations and to predict
behaviour under conditions which have not yet been studied.
6.2 Transformation Kinetics
In order to understand the extent and direction of a transformation reaction, it is essential to

know how far the reaction can go and how fast it will proceed. To answer the first question we
need to consider the thermodynamics, whereas kinetic theory provides information about the
reaction rate.
6.2.1 Driving force for transformation reactions

In practice, solid state transformations require a certain degree of undercooling, which is
essential to accommodate the surface and strain energies of the new phase.1 Generally, this
minimum molar free energy of transformation, AG, can be written as a balance between the
following four contributions:
(6-1)
Here AGy (the volume free energy change associated with the transformation) and AGD
(free energy donated to the system when the nucleation takes place heterogeneously) are nega-
tive, since they assist the transformation, while AGS (increase in surface energy between the
two phases) and AGE (increase in strain energy resulting from lattice distortion) are both posi-
tive because they represent a barrier against nucleation. It follows that the transformation
Molar free energy Stable (B) Stable (a)
Temperature
Fig. 6.1. Schematic representation of the molar free energies of two solid a and P phases as a function of
temperature (allotrophic transformation — no compositional change).
reaction can proceed when the driving force AG becomes greater than the right-hand side of
equation (6-1).
For an allotropic transformation, in which there is no compositional change, AG will be a
simple function of temperature, as illustrated in Fig.6.1. For alloys the situation is slightly
more complex, since there is an additional variable, i.e. the composition. In such cases the
temperature at which the a-phase becomes thermodynamically unstable (Teq) corresponds to a
fixed point on the a-(3 solvus boundary in the equilibrium phase diagram, as shown
schematically in Fig. 6.2. Since phase diagrams are available for many of the important indus-
trial alloy systems, it means that the driving force for a transformation reaction can readily be
obtained from such diagrams in the form of a characteristic undercooling (AT).
Temperature
%B
Fig. 6.2. Schematic representation of the a-(3 solvus boundary in a simple binary phase diagram.
6.2.2 Heterogeneous nucleation in solids
In general, solid state transformations in metals and alloys occur heterogeneously by nuclea-
tion at high energy sites such as grain corners, grain boundaries, inclusions, dislocations and
vacancy clusters. The potency of a nucleation site, in turn, depends on the energy barrier
against nucleation (AG*^) which is a function of the 'wetting' conditions at the substrate/
nucleus interface.1
It can be seen from Fig. 6.3 that nucleation at for instance inclusions or dislocations is
always energetically more favourable than homogeneous nucleation (AG*het < tsG*hom ) but
less favourable than nucleation at grain boundaries or free surfaces. As a result, the transfor-
mation behaviour is strongly influenced by the type and density of lattice defects and second
phase particles present within the parent material.
6.2.2.1 Rate of heterogeneous nucleation

Whereas every atom is a potential nucleation site during homogeneous nucleation, only those
associated with lattice defects or second phase particles can take part in heterogeneous nuclea-
tion. In the latter case the rate of nucleation (Nhet) is given by:1'2
(6-2)
where v is a vibration frequency factor, Nv is the total number of heterogeneous nucleation

sites per unit volume, AG^, is the energy barrier against nucleation, and Qd is the activation
energy for atomic migration across the nucleus/matrix interface.
Grain boundary
Free
surface Inclusion
horn.
Dislocations/stacking faults
AG* /AG*
Vacancy clusters
het.
Inclusions
boundaries
Grain
corners
Grain
surfaces
Free
Nucleation site
Fig. 6.3 Schematic diagram showing the most potent sites for heterogeneous nucleation in metals and
alloys.
It follows from the graphical representation of equation (6-2) in Fig. 6.4 that the nucleation
rate Nhet is highest at an intermediate temperature due to the competitive influence of
undercooling (driving force) and diffusivity on the reaction kinetics. This change in Nhet with
temperature gives rise to corresponding fluctuations in the transformation rate, as shown
schematically in Fig. 6.5. Note that the peak in transformation rate is due to two functions,
growth and nucleation (which peak at different T) whereas peak in Nhet is due to nucleation
only.
6.2.2.2 Determination of AGhet and Qd

During the early stages of a precipitation reaction, the reaction rate may be controlled by the
nucleation rate Nhet. Under such conditions, the time taken to precipitate a certain fraction of
the new phase t* is inversely proportional to Nhet\
(6-3)
where C1 and C2 are kinetic constants.

By taking the natural logarithm on both sides of equation (6-3), we obtain:
(6-4)
If the complete C-curve is known for a specific transformation reaction, it is possible to

evaluate AG*het and Qd from equation (6-4) according to the procedure described by Ryum.3
In general, a plot of In t* vs HT will yield a distorted C-curve with well-defined asymptotes, as
shown in Fig. 6.6. At high undercoolings, when &G*het is negligible, the slope of the curve
becomes constant and equal to QdIR. The mathematical expression for this asymptote is:
T T
Low undercooling
High diffusivity
High undercooling
Low diffusivity
%B Nhet.
Fig. 6.4. Schematic diagram showing the competitive influence of undercooling (driving force) and
diffusivity on the heterogeneous nucleation rate.
T
logt
Fraction transformed
logt
Fig. 6.5. Fraction transformed as a function of time referred to the C-curve (schematic).
(6-5)
At the chosen reference temperature Tr the time difference between the real C-curve and
the extension of the lower asymptote amounts to (see Fig. 6.6):
(6-6)
from which
(6-7)
It follows that equations (6-5) and (6-7) provide a systematic basis for obtaining quantita-
tive information about Qd and AGhet from experimental microstructure data through a simple
graphical analysis of the shape and position of the C-curve in temperature-time space.
1/r
T
lnt
Fig. 6.6. Determination of AG*het and Qd from the C-curve (schematic).
6.2.2.3 Mathematical description of the C-curve

In order to obtain a full mathematical description of the C-curve, we need to know the varia-
tion in the energy barrier AG*het with undercooling AT. For heterogeneous nucleation of pre-
cipitates above the metastable solvus, the strain energy term entering the expression for AG*het
can usually be ignored. In such cases the energy barrier is simply given as:1
(6-8)
where TV4 is the Avogadro constant, ^ n is the interfacial energy per unit area between the nu-
cleus and the matrix, AGV is the driving force for the precipitation reaction (i.e. the volume free
energy change associated with the transformation), and 5(0) is the so-called shape factor which
takes into account the wetting conditions at the nucleus/substrate interface.
For a particular alloy, AGV is for small Ar proportional to the degree of undercooling:l
(6-9)
where C3 is a kinetic constant. This equation follows from the definition of AGv in diluted alloy
systems and the mathematical expression for the solvus boundary in the binary phase dia-
gram.
By substituting equation (6-9) into equation (6-8), we get:
(6-10)
It follows that A0 is a characteristic material constant which is related to the potency of the
heterogeneous nucleation sites in the material. The value of A0 is, in turn, given by equations
(6-7) and (6-10):
(6-11)
In cases where A0 is known, it is possible to obtain a more general expression for t* by
substituting equation (6-10) into equation (6-3):
(6-12)
Equation (6-12) can further be modified to allow for compositional and structural varia-
tions in the parent material by using the calibration procedure outlined in Fig. 6.7. Let tr
denote the time taken to precipitate a certain fraction of (3 at a chosen reference temperature
T= Tr in an alloy containing Nv nucleation sites per unit volume. If we take the corresponding
solvus temperature of the (3-phase equal to T*q , the expression for t* becomes:
(6-13)
A combination of equations (6-12) and (6-13) then yields:
(6-14)
Equation (6-14) provides a basis for predicting the displacement of the C-curve in tempera-
ture-time space due to compositional or structural variations in the parent material. In gen-
T
C-cun/e(Nv=N^)
logt
Fig. 6.7. Method for eliminating unknown kinetic constant in expression for t*.
eral, an increase in Nv will shift the nose of the C-curve to the left in the diagram (i.e. towards
shorter times), as shown schematically in Fig. 6.8, because of the resulting increase in the
nucleation rate. Moreover, in solute-depleted alloys the critical undercooling for nucleation
will be reached at lower absolute temperatures where the diffusion is slower. This results in a
marked drop in Nhet, which displaces the C-curve towards lower temperatures and longer times
in the IT-diagram, as indicated in Fig. 6.9.
Example (6.1)
Isothermal transformation (IT) or continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams are avail-
able for many of the important alloy systems.4 In the case of aluminium, so-called tempera-
ture-property diagrams exist for different types of wrought alloys.45 Suppose that the C-curve
in Fig. 6.10 conforms to incipient precipitation of [3'(Mg2Si) particles at manganese-contain-
ing dispersoids in 6351 extrusions. Use this information to estimate the values of A0 and Qd in
equation (6-3) when the solvus temperature of (3'(Mg2Si) is 5200C.
Solution
The parameters A0 and Qd can be evaluated from the C-curve according to the procedure
shown in Fig. 6.6. Referring to Fig. 6.11, the value of AG^ at the chosen reference tempera-
ture Tr = 35O°C (623K) is equal to:
When AGhet is known, the parameter A0 can be obtained from equation (6-11):
iogt
Fig. 6.8. Effect of Nv on the shape and position of C-curve in temperature-time space (schematic).
T T T
%B \e, logt
Fig. 6.9. Effect of solute content on the shape and position of C-curve in temperature-time space (sche-
matic).
Similarly, Qd can be read from Fig. 6.11 by considering the slope of the lower asymptote:
This value is in good agreement with the reported activation energy for diffusion of magne-
sium in aluminium.6
AA 6351 - T6
Temperature, 0C
Time, s
Fig. 6.10. C-curve for 99.5% maximum yield strength of an AA6351-T6 extrusion. After Staley.5
Solvus temperature: 520 0C
103/T, K"1
lnt
Fig. 6.11. Determination of kG*heU and Qd from the C-curve in Fig. 6.10 (Example 6.1).
6.2.3 Growth of precipitates

If the embryo is larger than some critical size, it will grow by a transport mechanism which
involves diffusion of solute atoms from the bulk phase to the matrix/nucleus interface.
6.2.3.1 Interface-controlled growth

When transfer of atoms across the a/(3-interface becomes the rate-controlling step, the reac-
tion is said to be interface-controlled. This growth mode is therefore observed during the
initial stage of a precipitation reaction before a large, solute-depleted zone has formed around
the particles. In the case of incoherent precipitates, the variation in the particle radius r with
time is given by:7
(6-15)
where M1 is a mobility term, C0 is the concentration of solute in matrix, Ca is the concentration

of solute at the particle/matrix interface, and Cp is the concentration of solute inside the pre-
cipitate.
In general, the mobility of incoherent interfaces is high, since the solute atoms can easily
'jump' across the interface and find a new position in the particle lattice, as shown schematically
in Fig. 6.12(a). In contrast, a coherent interface is essentially inmobile because transfer in this
case involves trapping of atoms in an intermediate lattice position, as indicated in Fig. 6.12(b).
As a result, semi-coherent precipitates are forced to grow by lateral movement of ledges along
a low energy interface in a direction where the matrix is incoherent with respect to the particle
lattice (see Fig. 6.13). In such cases the thickening rate of the precipitates U*aj^ is given by:3'7
Incoherent Interface
Coherent interface
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6J2. Schematic illustration of atom transfer across different kinds of interfaces; (a) Incoherent
interface, (b) Coherent interface.
U
a/p
Lateral move-
ment of incoherenf
interface
Fig. 6.13. Thickening of plate-like precipitates by the ledge mechanism (schematic).
(6-16)
where M1* is a new mobility term, and / is the interledge spacing.
6.2.3.2 Diffusion-controlled growth

For growth of incoherent precipitates above the metastable solvus, the rate-controlling step
will be diffusion of solute in the matrix. If precipitation of the P-phase occurs from a
supersaturated a, the reaction proceeds by diffusion of solute to the growing p-particle, as
shown schematically in Fig. 6.14. On the other hand, when the (3-phase is formed by rejection
of solute from the a-phase, the transformation occurs by diffusion of atoms away from the P-
particle, as indicated in Fig. 6.15.
Aron et al.s have presented general solutions for diffusion-controlled growth of both flat
plates and spheres under such conditions. In the former case the half thickness AZ of the plate
is given by:
(6-17)
The parameter E1 in equation (6-17) is frequently referred to as the one-dimensional para-

bolic thickening constant, and is defined as:
Liquid
Temperature
%B
Concentration
Diffusion of solute
Distance
Fig. 6.14. Schematic representation of concentration profile ahead of advancing interface during precipi-
tation of (B from a supersaturated a-phase.
Temperature
%B
Concentration
Diffusion of solute
Distance
Fig. 6.15. Schematic representation of concentration profile ahead of advancing interface during growth
of solute-depleted P into a metastable a-phase.
(6-18)
where Dm is the diffusivity of the solute in the matrix, and erfc(u) is the complementary error
function (defined previously in Appendix 1.3, Chapter 1).
Similarly, for growth of spherical precipitates, the variation in the radius r with time can be
written as:8
(6-19)
where e 2 *s t n e corresponding parabolic thickening constant for a spherical geometry, defined

as:
(6-20)
The parabolic relations in equations (6-17) and (6-19) imply that the growth rate slows
down as the (3-phase grows. This is due to the fact that the total amount of solute partitioned
during growth decreases with time when the diffusion distance increases. Moreover, the form
of equations (6-18) and (6-20) suggests that the maximum in the growth rate is achieved at an
intermediate temperature because of the competitive influence of undercooling (driving force)
and diffusivity on the reaction kinetics. Consequently, a plot of E1 or £2 vs temperature will
reveal a pattern similar to that shown in Fig. 6.4 for the nucleation rate, although the thicken-
ing constants generally are less temperature-sensitive.
In addition to the models presented above for plates and spheres, approximate solutions
also exist in the literature for thickening of needle-shaped precipitates, based on the Trivedi
theory for diffusion-controlled growth of parabolic cylinders.9 However, because of space limi-
tations, these solutions will not be considered here.
6.2.4 Overall transformation kinetics

The progress of an isothermal phase transformation may be conveniently represented by an IT-
diagram of the type shown in Fig. 6.5. Among the factors that determine the shape and posi-
tion of the C-curve are the nucleation rate, the growth rate, the density and the distribution of
the nucleation sites as well as the physical impingement of adjacent transformed volumes.
Due to the lack of adequate kinetic models for diffusion-controlled precipitation, we shall
assume that the overall microstructural evolution with time can be described by an Avrami-
type of equation:10
(6-21)
where X is the fraction transformed, n is a time exponent, and k is a kinetic constant which
depends on the nucleation and growth rates.
The exponential growth law summarised in the Avrami equation is valid for linear growth
under most circumstances, and approximately valid for the early stages of diffusion-controlled
growth.10 Table 6.1 gives information about the value of the time exponent for different ex-
perimental conditions.
In general, the value of n will not be constant, but change due to transient effects until the
steady-state nucleation rate is reached and n attains its maximum value. Subsequently, the
nucleation rate starts to decrease as the sites become filled with nuclei and eventually ap-
proach zero when complete saturation occurs. This is because the heterogeneous nucleation
sites are not randomly distributed in the volume, but are concentrated near other nucleation
sites leading to an overall reduction in n. From then on, the transformation rate is solely
controlled by the growth rate.
6.2.4.1 Constant nucleation and growth rates

For a specific transformation reaction, the value of k in equation (6-21) can be estimated from
Table 6.1 Values of the time exponent n in the Avrami equation. After Christian.10
Polymorphic changes, discontinuous precipitation, eutectoid reactions, interface

controlled growth, etc.
Increasing nucleation rate
Constant nucleation rate
Decreasing nucleation rate
Zero nucleation rate (saturation of point sites)
Grain edge nucleation after saturation
Grain boundary nucleation after saturation
Diffusion controlled growth
All shapes growing from small dimensions, increasing nucleation rate
All shapes growing from small dimensions, constant nucleation rate
All shapes growing from small dimensions, decreasing nucleation rate
All shapes growing from small dimensions, zero nucleation rate
Growth of particles of appreciable initial volume
Needles and plates of finite long dimensions, small in comparison with their separation
Thickening of long cylinders (needles) (e.g. after complete end impingement)
Thickening of very large plates (e.g. after complete edge impingement)
Precipitation on dislocations (very early stages)
kinetic theory, using the classic models of nucleation and growth described in the previous
sections. In practice, however, this is a rather cumbersome method, particularly if the base
metal is of a heterogeneous chemical nature. Alternatively, we can calibrate the Avrami equa-
tion against experimental microstructure data, e.g. obtained from generic IT-diagrams. A con-
venient basis for such a calibration is to write equation (6-21) in a more general form:
(6-22)
where k* is a new kinetic constant (equal to kr1/n). In the latter equation the parameter k* can be
regarded as a time constant, which is characteristic of the system under consideration. Note
that this form of the Avrami equation is mathematically more appropriate, as the dimensions of
the k* constant are not influenced by the value of the time exponent n.
During the early stages of a transformation reaction, the reaction rate is controlled by the
nucleation rate. Let f denote the time taken to precipitate a certain fraction of P (X = Xc) at
an arbitrary temperature T (previously defined in equation (6-14)). It follows from equation
(6-22) that the value of k* in this case is given as:
(6-23)
A combination of equations (6-22) and (6-23) then gives:
(6-24)
from which
(6-25)
Equation (6-25) represents an alternative mathematical description of the Avrami equation,

and is valid as long as the nucleation and growth rates do not change during the transforma-
tion. It has therefore the following limiting values and characteristics: X=O when t = 0, X =
Xc when t = t*, and X—>1 when r—> <*>.
6.2.4.2 Site saturation

If the nucleation rate is considered to be zero by assuming early site saturation, the subsequent
phase transformation simply involves the reconstructive thickening of the p-layer. In the one-
dimensional case, the process can be modelled in terms of the normal migration of a planar
a/p interface, as shown schematically in Fig. 6.16. Let Aa/^ denote the interfacial area be-
tween a and (3 per unit volume and Ua/^ the growth rate of the incoherent a/p-interface. From
Fig. 6.16 we see that the volume fraction of the transformed (3-phase is given as:
(6-26)
By using the standard Johnson-Mehl correction for physical impingement of adjacent trans-
formation volumes, we may write in the general case:
(6-27)
which after integration yields:

(6-28)
This specific form of the Avrami equation is valid under conditions of early site saturation
where the a/p-interface is completely covered by P nuclei at the onset of the transformation.
6.2.5 Non-isothermal transformations

So far, we have assumed that the phase transformations occur isothermally. This is, of course,
a rather unrealistic assumption in the case of welding where the temperature varies continu-
ously with time. From the large volume of literature dealing with solid state transformations in
Fig. 6.16, Schematic illustration of the planar geometry assumed in the site saturation model.
metals and alloys, it appears that the bulk of the research has been concentrated on modelling
of microstructural changes under predominantly isothermal conditions.1"411 In contrast, only
a limited number of investigations has been directed towards non-isothermal transforma-
tions. 51012 " 18 However, these studies have clearly demonstrated the advantage of using ana-
lytical modelling techniques to describe the microstructural evolution during continuous cool-
ing, instead of relying solely on empirical CCT-diagrams.
6.2.5.1 The principles of additivity

From the literature reviewed it appears that there is considerable confusion regarding the ap-
plication of isothermal transformation theory for prediction of non-isothermal transformation
behaviour. These difficulties are mainly due to the independent variations of the nucleation
and growth rate with temperature. In fact, it can be shown on theoretical grounds that the
problem is only tractable when the instantaneous transformation rate is a unique function of
the fraction transformed and the temperature.10 This leads to the additivity criterion described
below.
The principles of additivity are based on the theory advanced by Scheil.12 He proposed that
the start of a transformation under non-isothermal conditions could be predicted by calculating
the consumption of fractional incubation time at each isothermal temperature, with the trans-
formation starting when the sum is equal to unity. The Scheil theory has later been extended to
phase transformations to predict continuous cooling transformation kinetics from isothermal
microstructure data.10'17'18
Let t* again denote the time taken to precipitate a certain fraction of P (X - Xc) at an arbi-
trary temperature T. If the reaction is additive, the total time to reach Xc under continuous
cooling conditions is obtained by adding the fractions of time to reach this stage isothermally
until the sum is equal to unity. Noting that t* varies with temperature, we may write in the
general case:
(6-29)
A schematic illustration of the Scheil theory is contained in Fig. 6.17.

T
Cooling curve
Subdivision of time into

infinitesimal steps of iso-
thermal heat treatments.
logt
Fig. 6.17. Schematic illustration of the Scheil theory.
6.2.5.2 Isokinetic reactions
The concept of an isokinetic reaction has previously been introduced in Section 4.4.2.3 (Chap-
ter 4). A reaction is said to be isokinetic if the increments of transformation in infinitesimal
isothermal time steps are additive, according to equation (6-29). Christian10 defines this math-
ematically by stating that a reaction is isokinetic if the evolution equation for some state vari-
able X may be written in the form:
(6-30)
where G(X) and H(T) are arbitrary functions of X and T, respectively.

For a given thermal history, T(t), this essentially means that the differential equation con-
tains separable variables of X and T.
6.2.5.3 Additivity in relation to the Avrami equation

The concept of an isokinetic reaction can readily be applied to the Avrami equation. Differen-
tiation of equation (6-22) with respect to time leads to the following expression for the rate of
transformation:
(6-31)
In a typical diffusion-controlled nucleation and growth process, the fraction transformed X

will not be independent of temperature, since the equilibrium volume fraction of the precipi-
tates decreases with temperature (e.g. see equation (4-7) in Chapter 4). However, for dilute
alloys it is a fair approximation to neglect this variation as the solvus boundary becomes in-
creasingly steeper and in the limiting case approaches that of a straight (vertical) line. Thus, if
n is constant and k* depends only on the transformation temperature, the reaction will be iso-
kinetic in the general sense defined by Christian.10
Because of the independent variations of the nucleation and growth rate with temperature,
the transformation rate will not be a simple function of temperature. However, by considering
the form of the constitutive equations, it is obvious that the change in the nucleation rate with
temperature is far more significant than the corresponding fluctuations in the growth rate.
This point is more clearly illustrated in Fig. 6.18, which shows the temperature-dependency of
the nucleation and growth rates of grain boundary ferrite in a C-Mn steel. It is evident from
these data that the change in the parabolic thickening constant £, is negligible compared with
the fluctuations in the nucleation rate. Consequently, in transformations that involve continu-
ous cooling it is sufficient to allow for the variation of Nhet with temperature, provided that
site saturation has not been reached. Thus, if n is constant we can apply the Scheil theory
directly and rewrite equation (6-25) in an integral form:
(6-32)
In equation (6-32) Z1 represents the kinetic strength of the thermal cycle with respect to P-
precipitation. This parameter is generally defined by the integral:
-2 -1
Thickening constant Ce1),|ims"

Nucleation rate (N*het), cm s
Temperature, 0C
Fig. 6.18. Predicted variation in N*het and E1 with temperature during the austenite to ferrite transfor-
mation in a C-Mn steel (0.15 wt% C, 0.40 wt% Mn). Data from Umemoto et al.19
(6-33)
where dt is the time increment at T, and f is the corresponding hold time required to reach Xc
at the same temperature (given by equation (6-14)). The derivation of equation (6-32) is shown
in Appendix 6.2
The principles of additivity are also applicable under conditions of early site saturation. If
only U^p varies with temperature, it is possible to rewrite equation (6-28) in an integral form:
(6-34)
This equation can readily be integrated by numerical methods when the temperature-time
programme is known.
6.2.5.4 Non-additive reactions

If the additivity condition is not satisfied, it means that the fraction transformed is dependent
on the thermal path, and the differential equation has no general solution. This, in turn, implies
that the C-curve concept breaks down and cannot be applied to non-isothermal transforma-
Next Page
tions. Solution of the differential equation then requires stepwise integration in tempera-
ture-time space, using an appropriate numerical integration procedure. As already pointed
out, this will generally be the case for diffusion-controlled precipitation reactions, since the
evolution parameter X is a true function of temperature. Under such conditions, experimen-
tally based continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams must be employed.
6.3 High Strength Low-Alloy Steels

High-strength low-alloy steels are typically produced with a minimum yield strength in the
range 300-500 MPa, depending on the plate thickness.2021 During welding microstructural
changes take place both within the heat affected zone (HAZ) and the fusion region, which, in
turn, affect the mechanical integrity of the weldment.2122 In the HAZ, for instance, nitrides
and carbides coarsen and dissolve, and grain growth occurs to an extent that depends on the
distance from the fusion boundary and the exposure time characteristic of the welding process.
This can have a profound effect on the subsequent structure and properties of the weld by
displacing the CCT curve to longer times, thereby producing more Widmanstatten ferrite, or
increasing the possibility of bainite and martensitic transformation products on cooling. The
formation of such microstructures may reduce the toughness of the weld and increase the risk
of hydrogen cracking.2122
6.3.1 Classification of microstructures

It is appropriate to start this section with a detailed classification of the various microstructural
constituents commonly found in low-alloy steel weldments.
During the austenite to ferrite transformation, a large variety of microstructures can de-
velop, depending on the cooling rate and the steel chemical composition. Normally, the micro-
structure formed within each single austenite grain after transformation will be a complex
mixture of two or more of the following constituents, arranged in approximately decreasing
order of transformation temperature:
(i) grain boundary (or allotriomorphic) ferrite (GF)

(ii) polygonal (or equiaxed) ferrite (PF)
(iii) Widmanstatten ferrite (WF)
(iv) acicular ferrite (AF)
(v) upper bainite (UB)
(vi) lower bainite (LB)
(vii) martensite (M).
The microstructural constituents listed above are indicated in Fig. 6.19, which shows
photomicrographs of typical regions within low-alloy steel weldments.
6.3.2 Currently used nomenclature

Quantification of microstructures in steel welds is most commonly done by means of optical
microscopy. Several systems have been introduced throughout the years for the classification
of the various constituents, with each system reflecting different investigator's views and
7
Properties of Weldments
7.1 Introduction
Weldments are prime examples of components where the properties obtained depend upon the
characteristics of the microstmcture. Since failure of welds often can have dramatic conse-
quences, a wealth of information is available in the literature on structure-property relation-
ships. However, in order to fit some of the apparently conflicting results into a more consistent
picture, a theoretical approach is adopted here rather than a review of the literature. This
procedure also involves the use of phenomenological models for the quantitative description
of structure-property relationships in cases where a full physical treatment is not possible.
7.2 Low-Alloy Steel Weldments
The symbols and units used throughout the chapter are defined in Appendix 7.1.
The major impetus for developments in high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels has been
provided by the need for: (i) higher strength, (ii) improved toughness, ductility, and formability,
and (iii) increased weldability. In order to meet these contradictory requirements, the steel
carbon contents have been progressively lowered to below 0.10 wt% C. The desired strength
is largely achieved through a refinement of the ferrite grain size, produced by the additions of
microalloying elements such as aluminium, vanadium, niobium, and titanium in combination
with various forms for thermomechanical processing.1 This procedure has made it possible to
improve the resistance of steels to hydrogen-assisted cold cracking, stress corrosion cracking,
and brittle fracture initiation in the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) region, without sacrificing
base metal strength, ductility, or low-temperature toughness.2 Controlled rolled HSLA steels
are currently produced with a minimum yield strength in the range from 350-550 MPa. Above
this strength level, quenched and tempered steels are commonly employed.
72.1 Weld metal mechanical properties

The recent progress in steel plate manufacturing technology has, in turn, called for new devel-
opments in welding consumables to produce weld metal deposits with mechanical properties
essentially equivalent to the base metal.3 From the large volume of literature dealing with
HSLA steel filler metals, it appears that the bulk of weld metal research over the past decade
has been concentrated on the achievement of a maximum toughness and ductility for a given
strength level by control of the weld metal microstructure.34 There seems to be general agree-
ment that microstructures primarily consisting of acicular ferrite provide optimum weld metal
mechanical properties, both from a strength and toughness point of view, by virtue of its high
dislocation density and small lath size. The formation of large proportions of upper bainite,
Widmanstatten ferrite, or grain boundary ferrite, on the other hand, are considered detrimental
to toughness, since these structures provide preferential crack propagation paths, especially
when continuous films of carbides are present between the ferrite laths or plates. Attempts to
control the weld metal acicular ferrite content have led to the introduction of welding
consumables containing complex deoxidisers (Si, Mn, Al, Ti) and balanced additions of vari-
ous alloying elements (Nb, V, Cu, Ni, Cr, Mo, B).
The final weld metal microstructure will depend on complex interactions between several
important variables such as:3"5
(i) The total alloy content.

(ii) The concentration, chemical composition, and size distribution of non-metallic
inclusions.
(iii) The solidification microstructure.
(iv) The prior austenite grain size,
(v) The weld thermal cycle.
Although the microstructural changes taking place within the weld metal on cooling through
the critical transformation temperature range in principle are the same as those occurring dur-
ing rolling and heat treatment of steel, the conditions existing in welding are significantly
different from those employed in steel production because of the characteristic strong non-
isothermal behaviour of the arc welding process. For example, in steel weld deposits the
volume fraction of non-metallic inclusions is considerably higher than that in normal cast steel
products because of the limited time available for growth and separation of the particles. Oxy-
gen is of particular interest in this respect, since a high number of oxide inclusions is known to
influence strongly the austenite to ferrite transformation both by restricting the growth of the
austenite grains as well as by providing favourable nucleation sites for various types of
microstructural constituents (e.g. acicular ferrite). Moreover, during solidification of the weld
metal, alloying and impurity elements tend to segregate extensively to the centre parts of the
interdendritic or intercellular spaces under the conditions of rapid cooling.67 The existence of
extensive segregations further alters the kinetics of the subsequent solid state transformation
reactions. Accordingly, the weld metal transformation behaviour is seen to be quite different
from that of the base metal, even when the nominal chemical composition has not been signifi-
cantly changed by the welding process.3"5 This, in turn, will affect the mechanical integrity of
the weldment.
7.2.1.1 Weld metal strength level

In low-alloy steel weld metals there are at least four different strengthening mechanisms which
may contribute to the final strength achieved. These are:
(i) Solid solution strengthening,

(ii) Dislocation strengthening,
(iii) Grain boundary strengthening,
(iv) Precipitation strengthening.
The relative contribution from each is determined by the steel chemical composition and
the weld thermal history. Because of the number of variables involved, a full physical treat-
ment of the problem is not possible. Consequently, the simplified treatment of Gladman and
Pickering8 has been adopted here.
Figure 7.1 shows the individual strength contributions in low-carbon bainite, which is the
dominating microconstituent in as-deposited steel weld metals (includes both upper and lower
bainite as well as acicular ferrite). Firstly, there are the solid solution strengthening increments
from alloying and impurity elements such as manganese, silicon and uncombined nitrogen,
which in the present example correspond to a matrix strength of about 165 MPa. Secondly, the
grain size contribution to the yield stress is shown as a very substantial component, the magni-
tude of which is determined by the bainite lath size. Finally, a typical increment for dispersion
strengthening is indicated. This contribution is negligible at large lath sizes typical of upper
bainite, but becomes significant at small grain sizes because of a finer intralath carbide disper-
sion.8 Hence, in steel weld deposits containing high proportions of acicular ferrite or lower
bainite carbides will make a direct contribution to strength, even at relatively low carbon lev-
els.
The results in Fig. 7.1 are of significant practical importance, since they show the inherent
limitations of the system with regard to the maximum strength that can be achieved through
control of the microstructure. As shown in Section 6.3.5.4 (Chapter 6), the typical lath size
(width) of acicular ferrite in low-alloy steel weld metals is about 2 jam. According to Fig. 7.1,
this corresponds to a maximum yield strength of approximately 650 MPa, which is in good
agreement with the observed threshold strength of acicular ferrite containing steel weld depos-
its.9 If higher strength levels are required, it is necessary to decrease the grain (lath) size
through a refinement of the microstructure, i.e. by replacing acicular ferrite with either lower
p 1/4 -f/o
Number of carbides per mm Nv (mm" )
Yield strength, MPa
Dispersion
Grain size
Matrix strength
-1/2
Bainitic ferrite grain size, mm
Fig. 7.1. Contributions to strength in low-carbon bainite. Data from Gladman and Pickering.8
bainite or martensite. Development along these lines has led to the introduction of a new
generation of high strength steel weld metals with a yield strength in the range from 650 to 900
MPa.10'11
7.2.1.2 Weld metal resistance to ductile fracture

It is well established that the weld metal resistance to ductile fracture is strongly influenced by
the volume fraction, shape, and size distribution of non-metallic inclusions.12"15 Although a
verified quantitative understanding of the fracture process is still lacking, there seems to be
general agreement that it involves the following three basic steps:16
(i) Nucleation of internal cavities during plastic flow, preferentially at non-metallic

inclusions.
(ii) Growth of these cavities with continued deformation,
(iii) Final coalescence of the cavities to produce complete rupture.
Details of these three stages may vary widely in different materials and with the state of
stress existing during deformation. Similarly, the fractographic appearance of the final frac-
ture surface is also influenced by the same factors.
Effect of inclusion volume fraction

The primary variables affecting the true strain at fracture 8/ are the inclusion diameter dv, and
the inclusion volume fraction Vv. The relation between Ef and Vv has been determined experi-
mentally for a wide variety of materials, and can most simply be expressed as:17
(7-1)
where c\ is an empirical constant.
The tensile test data of Widgery12 reproduced in Fig. 7.2 reveal a strong dependence of £/
on Vv, but the relationship appears to be linear rather than non-linear, as predicted by equation
(7-1). Due to a similar fracture mechanism, a correlation also exists between the Charpy V-
notch (CVN) upper shelf energy and the true fracture strain in tensile testing, as shown in Fig.
7.3. For this reason, the weld metal impact properties are normally seen to decrease with
increasing oxygen concentrations when testing is performed in the upper shelf region. From
Fig. 7.4 we see that the CVN upper shelf energy is a linear function of the weld metal oxygen
content. This observation is not surprising, considering the fact that the inclusion volume
fraction is directly proportional to the oxygen level (see equation (2-75) in Chapter 2).
Effect of inclusion size distribution

Void nucleation may occur both by cracking of the inclusions and by interface decohesion. In
the former case, the critical stress for particle cracking ap is given by:16
(7-2)
where 7^ is the surface energy of the particle, Ep is the Young's modulus of the particle, A is the
stress concentration factor at the particle, and dv is the particle diameter.
GMAW
(E=1.6kJ/mm)
True fracture strain
Inclusion volume fraction

Fig. 7.2. Variation of true fracture strain £/with inclusion volume fraction Vv. Data from Widgery.12
SAW and FCAW

CVN upper shelf energy, J
Fig. 7.3. Correlation of CVN upper shelf energy with true fracture strain in tensile testing. Data from
Akselsen and Grong.20
Equation (7-2) predicts that large inclusions will tend to form voids first as the stress re-
quired for initiation is proportional to (l/dv )1/2. This result is also in agreement with experi-
mental observations. As shown in Fig. 7.5, the size distribution of inclusions located in the
centre of voids at the fracture surface is significantly coarser than the corresponding particle
size distribution in the material. In particular, large, angular shaped aluminium oxide (AI2O3)
SAW
Oxygen content, wt%
Fig. 7.4. Correlation of CVN upper shelf energy with analytical weld metal oxygen content. Data from
Devillers et aL 13
inclusions appear to be preferential nucleation sites for microvoids in low-alloy steel weld
metals (see Fig. 7.5(b)). Although the combined effect of particle size and local stress concen-
tration on the ductile fracture behaviour cannot readily be accounted for in a mathematical
simulation of the process, the CVN data in Fig. 7.6 suggest that the content of large inclusions
(e.g. of a diameter greater than about 1.5 Jim) should be minimised in order to maintain a high
resistance against dimpled rupture. In practice, this requires careful control of the weld metal
aluminium-oxygen balance and the heat input applied during welding (see Section 2.12 in
Chapter 2).
Effect of strength level

The toughness of a material reflects its ability to absorb energy in the plastic range. One way of
looking at toughness is to assume that it scales with the total area Uj under the stress-strain
curve. Several mathematical expressions for this area have been suggested. For ductile mate-
rials we may write:19
(7-3)
where Rm is the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).

If Uj is regarded as a material constant, one would expect that Rm and £y are reciprocal
Total inclusion SAW
population
Inclusions associated
with dimples
Frequency, %
Frequency, %
(a) Inclusion diameter, jum
Total inclusion SAW

population
Frequency, %
Frequency, %
Inclusions associated
with dimples
(b) Inclusion diameter, jum
Fig. 7.5. Histograms showing the size distribution of non-metallic inclusions in the weld metal and in the
centre of microvoids at the fracture surface, respectively; (a) Low aluminium level (Al-containing man-
ganese silicate inclusions), (b) High aluminium level (AI2O3 inclusions). Data from Andersen.18
High Ti levels
Medium Ti levels
Low Ti levels
SAW
Nv (d v >1.5 um)-105
Fig. 7.6. Correlation of CVN upper shelf energy with number of particles per mm3 greater than 1.5 urn,
Nv(dv > 1.5 um). Data from Grong and Kluken.15
SAW and FCAW

Ultimate tensile strength, MPa
Fig. 7.7. Correlation of true fracture strain with ultimate tensile strength (low-alloy steel weld metals).
Data from Akselsen and Grong.20
quantities, i.e. an increase in Rm is always associated with a corresponding decrease in Ef,

according to the equation:
(7-4)
where c^ is a constant which is characteristic of the alloy system under consideration.

It is evident from the tensile test data in Fig. 7.7 that the fracture strain is a true function of
Rm, although the relationship appears to be linear rather than non-linear, as predicted by equa-
tion (7-4). These results are of considerable practical importance, since they imply that the
upper shelf energy absorption, and hence, the shape of the CVN transition curve is strongly
affected by the weld metal strength level. Accordingly, control of the weld metal microstruc-
ture becomes particularly urgent at high strength levels to avoid problems with the cleavage
fracture resistance (to be discussed below).
7.2.1.3 Weld metal resistance to cleavage fracture

Cleavage fracture is characterised by very little plastic deformation prior to the crack propaga-
tion, and occurs in a crystallographic fashion along planes of low indicies, i.e. of high atomic
density.1 Body-centred cubic (bcc) iron cleaves typically along {100} planes, which implies
that the cracks must be deflected at high angle grain (or packet) boundaries, as shown
schematically in Fig. 7.8. Consequently, in steel weld metals the ferrite grain size and the
bainite packet width are the main microstructural features controlling the resistance to cleav-
age crack propagation.
Since the microstructure which forms within each single austenite grain will not be uniform
but a complex mixture of two or more constituent phases, it is difficult, in practice, to define
a meaningful grain size or packet width. For this reason, most investigators have attempted to
correlate toughness with the presence of specific microconstituents in the weld metal.3"5 For
example, an increase in the volume fraction of acicular ferrite will result in a corresponding
increase in toughness (i.e. decrease in the CVN transition temperature), as shown in Fig. 7.9.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.8. Schematic diagrams showing cleavage crack deflection at interfaces; (a) High angle ferrite-
ferrite grain boundaries, (b) High angle packet boundaries (bainitic microstructures).
SAW (E = 5.2-6.2 kJ/mm) Al: 0.018-0.062 wt%
Ti: 0.005 - 0.065 wt%
Transition temperature, 0C
O: 0.018-0.058 wt%
Acicular ferrite content, vol%

Fig. 7.9. Correlation between the weld metal 35J CVN transition temperature and the acicular ferrite
content. Data from Grong and Kluken.15
This observation is not surprising, considering the extremely fine lath size of the acicular
ferrite microstructure (typically less than 5jim).
Moreover, results obtained from fractographic examinations of SMA and FCA steel weld
metals have demonstrated that large non-metallic inclusions (> l|im) can strongly influence
the cleavage fracture resistance, either by acting as cleavage cracks themselves of by provid-
ing internal sites of stress concentration which facilitate carbide-initiated cleavage in the adja-
cent matrix.21'22 In the former case, the critical stress required for crack propagation in the
matrix, Cf(M), is given by the Griffith's equation:19
(7-5)
where En is the Young's modulus of the matrix, ye^ is the effective surface energy (equal to
the sum of the ideal surface energy and the plastic work), and c is the half crack length.
Since c is proportional to the particle diameter dv, equation (7-5) predicts that welds con-
taining large inclusions should be more prone to cleavage cracking than others. This result is
also in agreement with general observations. For example, in self-shielded FCA steel weld
metals it has been demonstrated that cleavage crack initiation is usually associated with large
aluminium-containing inclusions which form in the molten pool before solidification (see Fig.
7.10). Consequently, control of the inclusion size distribution is essential in order to ensure an
adequate low-temperature toughness.
7.2.1.4 The weld metal ductile to brittle transition

In addition to the parameters mentioned above, there are several other factors, some interre-
lated, which play an important part in the initiation of cleavage fracture. These are:1
(i) The temperature dependence of the yield stress.

(a)
(b)
(C)
Fig. 7.10. Initiation of cleavage fracture in a self-shielded FCA steel weld from an aluminium-containing
inclusion; (a) Initiation site short distance ahead of the notch, (b) Detail of initiation site showing cracked
inclusion, (c) Detail of cracked inclusion (remnants of particle are left in the hole).
(ii) Dislocation locking effects caused by interstitials or alloying elements in solid

solution (e.g. nitrogen and silicon),
(iii) Nucleation of cracks at twins,
(iv) Nucleation of cracks at carbides.
In general, this picture is too complicated to establish a physical framework within which
the various theoretical models for the ductile to brittle transition in steel can be embedded. We
are therefore forced to base our judgement and understanding of how key parameters affect the
position and shape of the CVN transition curve solely on scattered phenomenological observa-
tions and empirical models (e.g. see the reviews of Grong and Matlock3 or Abson and Pargeter4).
An example of how far the latter approach has been developed is given below.
Akselsen and Grong20 have established a series of empirical equations which relates tough-
ness to the weld metal acicular ferrite content and the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Figures
7.11 and 7.12 show how each of these parameters influences the CVN transition curve. It is
evident from the diagrams that control of the weld metal acicular ferrite content becomes
particularly important at high strength levels to avoid problems with the fracture toughness. In
cases where undermatch is aimed at (i.e. a weld metal to base plate strength ratio less than
unity), the weld metal tensile strength is typically of the order of 450 to 550 MPa. Within this
range a volume fraction of acicular ferrite beyond 25 vol% will generally be sufficient to meet
current toughness requirements (35 J at -40 0 C). If overmatch is desired, the volume fraction
of acicular ferrite becomes more critical, partly because of a higher weld metal strength level
and partly because of more stringent toughness requirements (e.g. 45 J rather than 35 J at
-40 0 C). Process diagrams of the type shown in Figs. 7.11 and 7.12 can therefore serve as a
basis for proper selection of consumables for welded steel structures.
It should be noted that Akselsen and Grong20 in their analysis omitted a consideration of the
important influence of free (uncombined) nitrogen and non-metallic inclusions on the CVN
transition curve. Based on the experimental data in Fig. 7.13 it can be argued that such
compositional variations can be equally detrimental to toughness as a decrease in the acicular
ferrite content. Consequently, further refinements of the models are required if a verified
quantitative understanding of the ductile to brittle transition in low-alloy steel weld metals is
to be obtained.
Example (7.1)
Consider multipass FCA steel welding with two different electrode wires, one with titanium
additions and one without. Table 7.1 contains a summary of weld metal chemical composi-
tions. Provided that the microstructure and the inclusion size distribution are similar in both
cases, use this information to evaluate the low-temperature toughness of the welds, as revealed
by CVN testing.
Solution
Since the nitrogen content of both welds is quite high (0.011 wt%), the risk of a toughness
deterioration due to strain ageing is imminent, particularly at low Ti levels. Taking the atomic
weight of titanium and nitrogen equal to 47.9 and 14.0 g mol"1, respectively, the stoichiometric
amount of titanium that is necessary to tie-up all nitrogen as TiN can be calculated as follows:
WeIdA
In weld A most of the nitrogen is free (uncombined) due to an unbalance in the titanium con-
tent. This means that the risk of a toughness deterioration due to strain ageing is high.
(a)
Tensile strength: 600 MPa
Absorbed energy, J
Vol% acicular ferrite
35 Joules
Test temperature, 0C
(b)
Tensile strength: 800 MPa
Absorbed energy, J
Vol% acicular ferrite
35Joules.
Fig. 7.11. Predicted effect of weld metal acicular ferrite content on the CVN transition curve at two
different tensile strength levels; (a) Rm = 600 MPa, (b) Rm = 800 MPa. Data from Akselsen and Grong.20
WeIdB
Weld B contains 0.030 wt% Ti, which is not far from the stoichiometric amount of titanium
necessary to tie-up all nitrogen. Although some titanium also is bound as Ti2O3, it is reason-
able to assume that the free nitrogen content in this case is sufficiently low to eliminate prob-
lems with strain ageing. Consequently, weld B would be expected to exhibit the highest tough-
ness (i.e. the lowest CVN transition temperature) of the two, as indicated in Fig. 7.14.
(a)
25 vol% acicular ferrite
Absorbed energy, J UTS
35 Joules
(b)
75 v o l % acicular ferrite
Absorbed energy, J
UTS
-..35J.Q.ute$-
Test temperature, 0 C
Fig. 7.12. Predicted effect of weld metal ultimate tensile strength (UTS) on the CVN transition curve at
two different volume fractions of acicular ferrite; (a) 25 vol% AF, (b) 75 vol% AF. Data from Akselsen
and Grong.20
Table 7.1 Chemical composition of FCA steel weld metals considered in Example (7.1).
Element
Weld wt% C wt% Si wt% Mn wt% Al wt% Ti wt% S wt% N wt% O
A 0.10 0.40 1.50 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.031

B 0.10 0.40 1.50 0.005 0.030 0.008 0.011 0.031
(a)
Absorbed energy, J SMAW (basic electrodes) 95% confidence interval
Testing temperature: -400C
Nitrogen content, ppm
(b)
Low content of coarse inclusions

Absorbed energy, J
High content of coarse

inclusions ( > 1}im )
Self-shielded FCA steel

weld metals
Fig. 7.13. Effect of impurities on weld metal CVN toughness; (a) Nitrogen content, (b) Inclusion level.
Data from ESAB AB (Sweden) and Grong et al. 22
7.2.1.5 Effects of reheating on weld metal toughness

In principle, improvement of weld properties can be achieved through a post-weld heat treat-
ment (PWHT). This may have the benefits of:3
(i) Enhancing the fatigue strength through a general reduction of welding residual
stresses.
Absorbed energy
WeIdB WeIdA
35 J
Fig. 7.14. Schematic drawings of the CVN transition curves for welds A and B (Example (7.1)).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.15. Typical low-temperature fracture modes of Ti-B containing steel weld metals; (a) Quasi-
cleavage (as-welded condition), (b) Intergranular fracture (after PWHT).
(ii) Increasing the toughness by recovery (i.e. removal of strain-aged damage) and
martensite tempering.
For these reasons local PWHTs are commonly required for all structural parts above a
specified plate thickness (e.g. 50 mm according to current North Sea offshore specifications).
Post-weld heat treatment is usually carried out in the temperature range from 550 to 6500C.
In practice, however, the toughness achieved will depend on the weld metal chemical com-
position, and in some cases deterioration rather than improvement of the impact properties is
observed after PWHT. In such cases the reduction in toughness can be ascribed to:3'4
(i) Precipitation hardening reactions. Present experience indicates that elements such
as vanadium, niobium, and presumably titanium can produce a marked deteriora-
tion in toughness because of precipitation of carbonitrides in the ferrite, provided
that these elements are present in the weld metal in sufficiently high concentra-
tions.
(ii) Segregation of impurity elements (e.g. P, Sn, Sb and As) to prior austenite grain
boundaries, which, in turn, can give rise to intergranular fracture. The indications
are that this type of embrittlement is strongly enhanced by the presence of second
phase particles at the grain boundaries.
Experience shows that Ti-B containing steel weld metals often fail by intergranular frac-
ture in the columnar grain region after PWHT,23 as evidenced by the SEM fractographs in Fig.
7.15. The observed shift in the fracture mode is associated with a significant drop in toughness
(Fig. 7.16) and arises from the combined action of solidification-induced phosphorus
segregations and borocarbide precipitation along the prior columnar austenite grain bounda-
SAW Open symbols: 5 - 8 ppm B

Filled symbols: 20 - 25 ppm B
ACVN, J
Base line
Titanium content, wt%

Fig. 7.16. Observed displacement in the CVN toughness after PWHT (ACVN) as a function of the weld
metal boron and titanium contents. Negative values indicate loss of toughness. Data from Kluken and
Grong.23
Fig. 7.17. TEM micrograph showing precipitation of borocarbides, Fe23(B,C)6, along prior austenite
grain boundaries in a Ti-B containing steel weld metal after PWHT (600 0 C-Ih).
ries (Fig. 7.17). Since borocarbides are brittle and partly incoherent with the matrix, they can
be regarded as microcracks (of length dp) ready to propagate. In such cases there is virtually
no plastic deformation occurring before crack propagation, which implies that the intergranular
fracture stress is given by the Griffith's equation:24
(7-6)
where 7 ^ is again the effective surface energy (equal to the sum of the ideal surface energy
and the plastic work), and dp is the particle diameter.
Although the value of yeg_ would be expected to be low in the presence of solidification-
induced phosporus segregations,24 this alone is not sufficient to initiate intergranular fracture
in the weld metal. However, during PWHT the borocarbides will start to grow from an ini-
tially small value to a maximum size of about 0.1 to 0.2jim (Fig. 7.17), following the classic
growth law for grain boundary precipitates dpatl/4?5 This implies that the intergranular frac-
ture stress, Oj(I), will gradually decrease with increasing annealing times, as indicated in Fig.
7.18. When the matrix fracture strength, Cj(M), is reached, the fracture mode shifts from
predominantly quasi-cleavage in the as-welded condition (Fig. 7.15(a)) to intergranular rup-
ture after PWHT (Fig. 7.15(b)). This is observed as a marked reduction in the CVN toughness,
as shown previously in Fig. 7.16.
7.2.2 HAZ mechanical properties

The last twenty years have seen a revolution in the metallurgical design of steel. Whereas old
steels relied on the use of carbon for strength, the trend today is to rely more on grain refine-
ment in combination with microalloy precipitation to meet the current demand for an im-
proved weldability. This includes both the sensitivity to weld cracking and the HAZ mechani-
cal properties required by service conditions and test temperatures. The latter aspect is of
particular interest in the present context and will be discussed later.
Stress
Intergranular
fracture mode
Quasi-cleavage
fracture mode
Particle diameter
[Annealing time]174
Fig. 7.18. Schematic illustration of the mechanisms of temper embrittlement in Ti-B containing steel
weld metals (Gf(M): matrix fracture strength, (*/(/): intergranular fracture strength).
7.2.2.1 HAZ hardness and strength level

The HAZ hardness and strength level is of significant practical importance, since it influences
both the cracking resistance and the toughness. Although the peak strength is mainly control-
led by the martensite content (see Fig. 7.19), the relationship is generally too complicated to
allow reliable predictions to be made from first principles. This implies that our understanding
of the HAZ strength evolution, at best, is semi-empirical.
Martensite content, vol%
p0.2> R nv M P a
HV 5 ,kp/mm 2
Cooling time, At 8 / 5 , s
Fig. 7.19. Structure-property relationships in the grain coarsened HAZ of low-carbon microalloyed steels
(vol% M: martensite content, Rp : 0.2% proof stress, Rm: ultimate tensile strength, HV5: Vickers hard-
ness, A%5.* cooling time from 800 to 5000C). Data from Akselsen et al.26
A number of different empirical models exist in the literature for prediction of HAZ peak
hardness and strength.26"31 However, the aptness of some of these models is surprisingly
good, which justifies construction of iso-hardness and iso-strength diagrams for specific grades
of steels.32 Examples of such diagrams are given in Fig. 7.20. It is evident from Fig. 7.20 that
the HAZ peak strength is controlled by two main variables, i.e. the steel chemical composition
and the weld cooling programme. The compositional effect is allowed for by the use of an
empirical carbon equivalent, which ranks the influence of the various alloying elements on the
steel hardenability. According to Yurioka et al.,2* the CEn-equivalent is given as:
(7-7)
where all compositions are given in wt%.

Moreover, the cooling time from 800 to 5000C, Af8/5, is used as an abscissa in Fig. 7.20.
This parameter is widely accepted as an adequate index for the weld cooling programme, and
can be read from nomograms of the type shown in Fig. 1.49 (Chapter 1). The axes of Fig. 1.49
are dimensionless, but they can readily be converted into real numbers through the use of the
following conversion factors:33
Ordinate:
(7-8)
Abscissa:
(7-9)
The different parameters in equations (7-8) and (7-9) are defined in Appendix 7.1.
The results in Fig. 1.49 are interesting, since they show that the cooling time, A%5, depends
on the mode of heat flow during welding. In this case the transition from 'thick' to 'thin'
plates, corresponding to an abscissa of about 0.64, is clearly not represented by a single plate
thickness d, but will be a function of both the net heat input r\E and the ambient temperature T0.
Accordingly, the HAZ strength level is seen to vary between wide limits, depending on the
steel chemical composition and the operational conditions applied (Fig. 7.20).
Example (7.2)
Consider stringer bead deposition (GMAW) on two low-alloy steel plates of similar composi-
tion but different thickness under the following conditions:
I = 250A, U = 30V, v = 5mm s"1, r| = 0.8, T0 = 200C
According to the steel mill certificate the CEn carbon equivalent is equal to 0.46 wt%. Use
this information together with the diagrams in Figs. 1.49 and 7.20 to estimate the peak HAZ
strength level when the plate thickness is 10 and 30 mm, respectively.
(a)
CEn, wt%
Cooling time, A t 8 / 5 , s
(b)
CE||f wt%
Cooling time, At 8 7 5 , s
Fig. 7.20. HAZ iso-property diagrams for HSLA steels; (a) Iso-hardness contours, (b) Iso-yield strength
contours. Data from Kluken et al.32
Solution
First we calculate the net heat input per unit length of the weld r\E:
From equation (7-9) we have:
Readings from Fig. 1.49 then give:
d = 10 mm:
from which
d = 30 mm:
from which
We can now use the diagrams in Fig. 7.20(a) and (b) to obtain the peak HAZ hardness and
yield strength, respectively. This gives:
d = 10 mm:
d = 30 mm:
It is evident from the above calculations that the HAZ strength level is sensitive to varia-
tions in the welding conditions. Normally, the HAZ hardenability is high enough to facilitate
a local strength increase adjacent to the fusion boundary, as shown in Fig. 7.21. An exception
is high heat input welding on quenched and tempered steels (Fig. 7.2l(b)), where the presence
of large amounts of Widmanstatten ferrite and polygonal ferrite within the grain coarsened and
grain refined region, respectively can lead to a severe HAZ softening. This type of mechanical
impairment represents a problem in engineering design, since it puts a restriction on the use of
high strength steels in welded structures.
(a) Medium strength High strength

steels steels.
R p02 and R m ,
Gf[R.
GCR
GCR
GRR
BM"
BM
JfL
IR"
Low heat input welding: E^ 1 -2 kJ/mm
(b) Medium strength High strength

steels steels
p0.2 and R m>
MPa
R
QQR.
^GRR.
GCR
"GRR
TR"
SR"
BM"
JfL,
,BM
[SR
High heat input welding: E^4 kJ/mm
Fig. 7.21. Effects of steel chemical composition and welding conditions on the HAZ strength level (BM:
base metal, SR: subcritical region, IR: intercritical region, GRR: grain refined region, GCR: grain coars-
ened region); (a) Low heat input, (b) High heat input. Data from Akselsen and R0rvik.34
7.2.2.2 Tempering of the heat affected zone
Certain regulations for offshore structures require that no part of the welded joint shall be
harder than a specified limit, e.g. 280, 300 or 325 VPN, to reduce the risk of hydrogen crack-
ing. Such requirements cannot always be met by a suitable choice of preheating and welding
conditions.
In practice, a reduction in the HAZ strength level can be achieved by applying a PWHT.
The tempering effect of different temperature-time combinations can be described by the
Hollomon-Jaffe parameter:35
(7-10)
where T is in K (absolute temperature).

In Fig. 7.22 the isothermal hardness data reported by Olsen et al.36 have been plotted against
the empirical Hollomon-Jaffe parameter. In this particular case the best fit is obtained if the
constant B* in equation (7-10) is equal to 16.5 (with t in seconds). It is evident from Fig. 7.22
that tempering at, say, 6000C for 1 h is more than sufficient to reduce the HAZ peak hardness
to values below 280 VPN. This implies that PWHT is an effective (but expensive) way of
reducing the HAZ strength level.
Deposition of temper weld beads has been suggested as an alternative means of reducing
the hardness of the HAZ.36"38 This procedure is indicated schematically in Fig. 7.23, showing
two temper beads (black) in the lower sketch. If the beads are properly positioned with respect
to the fusion line, the outer Ac\ contour of the HAZ produced by the temper bead should just
touch the fusion line of the last filler pass, as indicated in the upper sketch of Fig. 7.23. The
material reaustenitised by the temper bead would then be weld metal, while the HAZ remain-
ing from the last filler pass would be tempered below the transformation range.
Filled symbols:
t = 10 seconds
Vickers hardness, VPN
Steel chemical composition (wt%)
F> = T(16.5 + logt)
Fig. 7.22. Hollomon-Jaffe type plot of isothermal hardness data. After Olsen et al.36
Temper bead
Fusion line
Last Ac3 line
filler pass Ac1 line
Fig. 7.23. Schematic illustration of weld bead tempering.

Since the Hollomon-Jaffe parameter is an empirical criterion developed for isothermal tem-
pering of medium and high carbon steels, it cannot readily be applied to pulsed tempering. A
better approach would be to use the so-called Dorn parameter,39 which in an integral form can
be written as:39'40
(7-11)
where Qapp. is the apparent activation energy for the controlling diffusion reaction.
The Dorn parameter has proved useful to compare isothermal and pulsed tempering data on
the assumption that the kinetics of softening, in the actual range of hardness, are controlled by
diffusion of carbon in ferrite. Qualitatively, the aptness of equation (7-11) can be illustrated in
a plot of measured hardness against the diffusional parameter P^ ( s e e Fig- 7.24). It is evident
from Fig. 7.24 that the isothermal data points can be represented by a smooth curve which
coincides with the upper boundary of the scatter band obtained in pulsed tempering. The
slightly higher hardness observed after isothermal tempering arises probably from a brief pe-
riod of heating that makes the effective time somewhat less than 10 s.
Case Study (7.1)

As an illustration of principles, Fig. 7.25 shows a case of identical welding parameters for the
last filler pass and the temper bead, the latter one being positioned so as to give a peak tem-
perature of 7200C at the fusion line of the former one. The temperature field around the two
Isothermal 10 s
Series 1
" 2
Hardness ratio HV/HVmax, %

" 3
" 4
Vickers hardness. VPN

Double pulse
1 2
^s '
Fig. 7.24. Measured hardness ratio HVIHVmax. vs the Dorn parameter P2 (Qapp. = 83.14 kJ mol *). Data
fromOlsentf/tf/.36
beads is clearly the same. In Fig. 7.25 an estimate has been based on the simplified Rykalin
thick plate solution, which applies to a fast moving high power source on a semi-infinite body
(see equation (1-73) in Chapter 1). At T-T0 ~ 15000C, a fusion line radius of about 4.4 mm is
obtained for a net heat input of 0.8 kJ mm"1. The corresponding Ac\ radius is 6.5 mm.
The temperature-time pattern is shown in the lower left graphs of Fig. 7.25 for three differ-
ent positions in the HAZ, i.e. y = 0 (former fusion line), y = 1 mm, and y = 2 mm (z = 0). The
corresponding plots of dP2 ldt vs t are shown to the right. Taking the area P2 under each curve
and reading the hardness ratio at TJP^ from Fig. 7.24, an expected hardness profile is ob-
tained, as shown in the upper diagram of Fig. 7.25. The expected effect of tempering is seen to
range from a hardness of about 65% (HV « 265 VPN) at the fusion line to about 80% (HV «
340 VPN) close to the outer boundary of the HAZ (y = 2 mm). If the centre-line displacement
had been different from the chosen optimum of 2.1 mm (e.g. say 3 mm), the predicted hardness
curve would be shifted to about 75% and 90% of the peak hardness at y = 0 and y = 2 mm,
respectively. On the other hand, if the centre-line distance had been shorter, say 1 mm, a
narrow zone of the original HAZ would be re-austenitised and therefore about as hard as
before deposition of the temper bead.
The results from the above modelling exercise show that the HAZ hardness of weld toes
and cap layers can be reduced by applying an appropriate temper bead technique. However,
this requires an extremely good process control, since the temper beads must be positioned
very precisely for a successful result. Consequently, the use of temper beads for improvement
of the HAZ properties has not found a wide application in the industry.3641
7.2.2.3 HAZ toughness

In spite of the recent developments in steel plate manufacturing technology, there is still con-
cern about the HAZ toughness of low-carbon microalloyed steels because of their tendency to
max
HV/HV
last filter pass
temper bead
y, mm
HA2
We d metal Parent plate
T, 0C
106exp(-10000/T)
t,s t,s
Fig. 7.25. Application of Dorn parameter to weld bead tempering (Case Study (7.1)).
form brittle microstructures within specific thermal regions of the weld. 4142 Moreover, im-
provement of the HAZ toughness through PWHT is sometimes found to be difficult in contrast
to experience with more traditional C-Mn steels.41'43 Consequently, the increasing use of low-
carbon microalloyed steels in various welded structures has introduced new problems related
to the HAZ brittle fracture resistance which formerly did not appear to be of particular con-
cern.44
Fully transformed region

Specific effects of peak temperature on HAZ toughness, as assessed on the basis of thermally
cycled CVN specimens, are shown in Fig. 7.26. It is apparent from the graph that embrittlement
in the fully transformed part of the HAZ is often located in the grain coarsened region adjacent
SR R
I G
RR G
CR
-3
(D
c
O
I Sn
igel cycel
0
Peak e
tmperau
tre,C
Fig. 7.26. Effects of peak temperature on the CVN energy absorption at -400C (SR: subcritical region,
IR: intercritical region, GRR: grain refined region, GCR: grain coarsened region). Data from Akselsen et
a/.45
to the fusion boundary where the peak temperature of the thermal cycle has been above about
12000C. The problem can mainly be ascribed to the presence of low-toughness microstruc-
tures such as upper bainite and Widmanstatten ferrite which form typically at intermediate and
slow cooling rates (see Fig. 6.55 in Chapter 6). In contrast, the grain refined region will almost
always exhibit a satisfactory low-temperature toughness owing to the characteristic fine po-
lygonal ferrite microstructure.41 An exception is low heat input welds produced from steels
with a heavily banded pearlite/ferrite microstructure, where the risk of a toughness deteriora-
tion is imminent due to martensite formation along the prior base metal pearlite bands.45'46
In recent years a new class of low-carbon microalloyed steels has emerged which is charac-
terised by an excellent low temperature HAZ toughness, even at high heat inputs (see Fig.
7.27). This particular grade is frequently referred to as Ti-O steels due to their content of
indigenous titanium oxide inclusions (presumably Ti2O3). Although the mechanisms involved
are not yet fully understood, it is reasonable to assume that the improved toughness at high
heat inputs arises from a refinement of the HAZ microstructure, as discussed previously in
Section 6.3.6 (Chapter 6). It is interesting to note that the major effect of the titanium oxide
inclusions in this case appears not to be control of the austenite grain size (which in some cases
can exceed 500 |im at the fusion boundary), but is rather to act as favourable nucleation sites
for acicular ferrite intragranularly.4748 Similar phenomena are well known from transforma-
tion kinetics of low-alloy steel weld deposits, where non-metallic inclusions play an important
role in the development of the acicular ferrite microstructure.3"5
Intercritical region
The microstructural evolution in the intercritical HAZ of low-carbon steels has previously
been discussed in Section 6.3.8.2 (Chapter 6).
In order to understand the origin of embrittlement in the intercritical region, consideration
must be given to the stress fields and the transformation strains developed in the ferrite matrix
Ti-O steel
Ti-N steel
Transition temperature, 0C
Fig. 7.27. Response of modern Ti-O steels and traditional Ti-N steels to CVN testing following weld
thermal simulation. Data from Homma et al.41
as a result of the martensite formation.49 It follows from Fig. 7.28 that the hard martensite-
austenite (M-A) islands will give rise to significant stress concentrations at the martensite/
ferrite interface owing to the pertinent difference in the yield strength (stiffness) between the
two phases. At the same time, the volume expansion associated with the austenite to martensite
transformation leads to significant elastic and plastic straining of the ferrite.50 At moderately
high temperatures and deformation strains, many of the matrix dislocations will be mobile,
which means that the ferrite will maintain its ductility, while the stiffer M-A islands are ex-
posed to cracking and debonding. With increasing strain, the cracks can grow into voids and
further develop into deep holes, until final rupture occurs by hole/void coalescence due to
internal necking.49 However, when mechanical testing is performed at subzero temperatures
under high strain rate conditions (> 102 s"1 for CVN testing), the flow strength of the ferrite
increases significantly because of the reduced mobility of the screw dislocations.51 In addition,
strain partitioning between the M-A islands and the ferrite may also occur, which further
enhances the stress concentrations at the M-A/ferrite interface.52 Accordingly, the local stress
level at the interface will eventually exceed the cleavage strength of the ferrite, with conse-
quent initiation of brittle fracture. This conclusion is consistent with observations made from
tensile testing of dual-phase steels, showing that failure of dual-phase microstructures often is
caused by fracture in the ferrite region.52"54
Because the intercritical HAZ toughness is closely related to the volume fraction of the
M-A constituent in the matrix, 4 5 5 1 5 5 embrittlement can normally be avoided by decreasing
the cooling rate through the critical transformation temperature range to facilitate pearlite for-
mation (see Fig. 7.29). An exception is boron-containing steels, where the HAZ hardenability
is high enough to stabilise the M-A constituent, even at slow cooling rates (see CVN data for
steel B in Fig. 7.29).
Normalized stress
Stiff
particle
Normalized distance
Fig. 7.28. Stress distribution in matrix caused by stiff inclusion (or: radial stress, (5$: tangential stress,
tmax.' maximum shear stress). Data from Chen et al.49
Open symbols:
Filled symbols:
Steel A
Absorbed energy, J
(T-L)
(L-T)
Steel B
(T-L)
Cooling time, At 6 / 4 , s
Fig. 7.29. Effect of cooling time Ar674 on the intercritical HAZ toughness at -20 0 C (thermally cycled
specimens). Steel A: 11 ppm B, Steel B: 26 ppm B. Data from Ramberg et al.55
Effect of PWHT
Considering the intercritical HAZ, a significant improvement of the CVN toughness can be
achieved by applying a PWHT, as shown by the data of Akselsen et al51 This effect arises
partly from a reduction of the stress concentrations at the M-A/ferrite interface as a result of
martensite tempering and partly from relaxation of transformation strains within the ferrite
matrix.51 Such recovery reactions will start to occur when the temperature is raised above
about100 0 C.
(a)
(b)
CTOD at -1O0C, mm
P content, wt%
Fig. 7.30. Effects of PWHT on the grain coarsened HAZ toughness; (a) Example of intergranular frac-
ture along prior austenite grain boundaries after PWHT (6000C - 1 h), (b) Measured CTOD vs base
plate phosphorus content for post weld heat treated specimens (6000C - 4 h). Data quoted by Grong and
Akselsen.41
In contrast to the behaviour described above for the intercritical HAZ, the reported effect of
PWHT on the grain coarsened HAZ toughness is much more complicated and rather confus-
ing. However, experience has shown that particularly niobium-vanadium containing steels
are sensitive to PWHT due to the strong precipitation hardening potential of Nb(C,N) and
V(C,N).43'56 In addition, a toughness deterioration may occur as a result of segregation of
impurity elements such as phosphorus, tin, and antimony to prior austenite grain boundaries.
This, in combination with a tempered martensitic microstructure, can lead to intergranular
fracture when testing is performed at subzero temperatures (see Fig. 7.30(a)). The detrimental
effect of phosphorus on the HAZ toughness of low carbon microalloyed steels after PWHT is
shown in Fig. 7.30(b).
Example (7.3)
Consider procedure test SA welding on a thick plate of a Nb-microalloyed steel under the
following conditions:
/ = 500A, U = 30V, v = 6mm s"1, r\ = 0.95, T0 = 200C
Table 7.2 contains data from CVN testing of the base plate and thermally cycled specimens.
The weld thermal simulation experiments were carried out at three different peak tempera-
tures (i.e. 13500C, 10000C, and 7800C) under cooling conditions similar to those employed in
the SA welding trial. Based on the data in Table 7.2 and the simplified Rykalin thick plate
solution (equation (1-73) in Chapter 1), estimate the locations of the brittle zones (referred to
the fusion boundary) within the HAZ of the SA procedure test weld considered above.
Solution
It is evident from the CVN data in Table 7.2 that the HAZ toughness would be expected to be
low in positions of the weld where the peak temperature has been close to 780 and 13500C,
conforming to the intercritical and grain coarsened region, respectively. Based on the simpli-
fied Rykalin thick plate solution, the following expression can be derived for an arbitrary
isothermal zone width, Ar*m, referred to the fusion boundary (see equation (5-47) in Chapter
5):
Taking pc and Tm equal to 0.005 J mm"3 0C"1 and 15200C, respectively for low-alloy steels
(from Table 1.1 in Chapter 1), we obtain:
Table 7.2 Results from CVN testing of base metal, thermally cycled specimens, and procedure test
weld (Example (7.3))
Test results Absorbed energy at -40 0 C (J)

Base metal 320, 310, 305; average: 312
0
Thermally cycled Tp = 780 C 40, 36, 34; average: 37
specimens T = 10000C 225, 220, 219; average: 221
7;= 13500C 50, 46, 40; average: 46
Weld HAZ* GCR: 63, GRR: 225, IR: 53
1
GCR: grain coarsened region; GRR: grain refined region; IR: intercritical region.
Next Page
Intercritical HAZ (Tp « 7800C):
Grain coarsened HAZ (Tp « 13500C):
From this we see that the brittle zones are located 3.5 and 0.5 mm from the fusion bound-
ary, respectively. A comparison with the procedure test results in Table 7.2 shows that the
measured CVN toughness after welding at these locations is slightly higher than that inferred
from the weld thermal simulation experiments. This observation is not surprising, considering
the fact the CVN specimens extracted from the procedure test weld, in practice, include a
wide spectrum of thermal regions which have undergone highly different temperature-time
programmes, whereas the microstructure within the thermally cycled CVN specimens is more
homogeneous due to a similar temperature-time pattern across the whole gauge length (see
Fig. 7.31). Hence, weld thermal simulation cannot replace procedure testing carried out on
real welds. Nevertheless, it is a useful method of evaluating the microstructural stability and
mechanical response of materials to reheating, as experienced in welding.
7.2.3 Hydrogen cracking

Hydrogen embrittlement as a problem is mainly associated with ferritic steels and the risk of
crack initiation in the grain coarsened HAZ following welding.5758 As shown in Fig. 7.32,
these cracks are usually situated at weld toes, weld root, or in an underbead position.
Occationally, hydrogen cracks can also develop in the weld metal. A characteristic feature of
hydrogen-induced cracking is that the process is time-dependent, i.e. the crack may first ap-
pear after several minutes or hours from the time of arc extinction. Consequently, the phenom-
enon is also referred to delayed cracking or cold cracking in the scientific literature.
7.2.3.1 Mechanisms of hydrogen cracking

Hydrogen embrittlement in steels in characterised by:59'60
(i) The crystal structure dependence

Hydrogen embrittlement is mainly associated with materials which exhibit a bcc
or a bet crystal structure, i.e. ferritic and martensitic steels. Austenitic stainless
steels and aluminium alloys with a fee crystal structure are usually not sensitive to
hydrogen.
(ii) The microstructure dependence

A martensitic steel is generally more prone to hydrogen cracking than a ferritic
steel, but a martensitic microstructure is not a requirement for crack initiation.
8
Exercise Problems with Solutions
8.1 Introduction
This chapter contains a collection of different exercise problems which the author has
adopted in his welding metallurgy course for graduate (mature) students. They illustrate how
the models described in the previous chapters can be used to solve practical problems of more
interdisciplinary nature. Each of them contains a 'problem description' and some background
information on materials and welding conditions. The exercises are designed to illuminate the
microstructural connections throughout the weld thermal cycle and show how the properties
achieved depend on the operating conditions applied. Solutions to the problems are also pre-
sented. These are not complete or exhaustive, but are just meant as an aid to the reader to de-
velop the ideas further.
8.2 Exercise Problem I: Welding of Low Alloy Steels
Problem description
Consider gas metal arc (GMA) welding of low allow steels under the following conditions:
(i) Tack welding of a T-joint (Fig. 8.1)
(ii) Root pass deposition in a single V-groove (Fig. 8.2)
(iii) Root pass deposition in a X-groove (Fig. 8.3)
(iv) Deposition of cap layer during multipass welding (Fig. 8.4)
The materials to be welded are a C-Mn steel and a Nb-microalloyed low carbon steel with
chemical compositions and properties as listed in Tables 8.1 and 8.2. Details of welding par-
ameters and operational conditions are given in Table 8.3 and 8.4, respectively.
Table 8.1 Exercise problem I: Base plate chemical compositions (in wt%).
Steel C Si Mn P S Nb Al
1
C-Mn 0.20 0.35 1.46 0.003 0.002 - 0.037
1
LC-Nb 0.08 0.26 1.44 0.003 0.003 0.020 0.025
1
Ti: -0.008, N: 0.0027, Ca: 0.0040, B: 0.0002.
Table 8.2 Exercise problem I: Mechanical properties of base materials.

Steel 1 Rp02 (MPa) I Rm (MPa) I El. (%) I CVN - 4 0 (J)
C-Mn 328 525 33 150
LC-Nb 430 525 32 225
Table 8.3 Exercise problem I: Welding parameters.
Parameter / (A) U (V) v (mm s"1)
Value 150 21 4
f
The arc efficiency factor may be taken equal to 0.85 (see Table 1.3). No preheating is applied (T0 = 20 0C).
Table 8.4 Exercise problem I: Operational conditions and filler wire characteristics K
Shielding gas: Pure CO2

Gas flow rate: 15 Nl per min
Wire diameter: 1.0 mm
Wire feed rate: 6.0 m per min
Wire composition: C: 0.1 wt%, Si: 1.0 wt%, Mn: 1.7 wt%
Weld metal*
composition: C: 0.09 wt%, Si: 0.7 wt%, Mn: 1.2 wt%
Weld metal*
properties: Rp02: 460 MPa, Rm: 560 MPa, El.: 26%, CVN _40: 50 J
f
Data compiled from dedicatedfillerwire catalogues and welding manuals.
* Values refer to all weld metal deposit.
Fig. 8.1. Tack welding of a T-joint.
Fig. 8.2. Root pass deposition in a single V-groove.

Fig. 8.3. Root pass deposition in a X-groove.
Fig. 8.4. Deposition of cap layer during multipass welding.
Analysis:
The students should work in groups (3 to 4 persons) where each group select a specific com-
bination of base material and welding conditions (e.g. deposition of a cap layer on the top of
a thick multipass C-Mn steel weld). The problem here is to evaluate the response of the base
material to heat released by the welding arc. The analysis should be quantitative in nature and
based on sound physical principles. The following points shall be considered:
(a) Select an appropriate heat flow model for the system under consideration.
(b) Estimate the minimum bead length which is required to achieve pseudo-steady state (i.e.
a temperature field that does not vary with position when observed from a point located
in the heat source).
(c) Estimate the value of the deposition coefficient kx (in gA " 1 S" 1 ), the weld cross section
areas D and B (in mm2), and the mixing ratio DI(B + D) during welding.
(d) Estimate the weld metal chemical composition. Calculate then the following quantities:
- Total loss of Si and Mn in the arc column

- Total oxygen pick-up in the weld pool
- Residual oxygen level and total amount of oxygen rejected from the weld pool
during deoxidation
- Total amount of slag formed during welding (in g per 100 gram weld metal)
(e) Carry out a total oxygen balance for the system, and estimate the resulting CO content
in the welding exhaust gas.
(f) Estimate the chemical composition, volume fraction, and mean size (diameter) of the
oxide inclusions which form in the cold part of the weld pool. Calculate then the follow-
ing inclusion characteristics:
- Number of particles per unit volume

- Number of particles per unit area
- Total surface area of particles per unit volume
- Mean particle centre to centre volume spacing
(g) Estimate the weld metal solidification mode and the resulting columnar grain mor-
phology. Indicate also the type of substructure which form at different positions from the
weld centre line.
(h) Evaluate the thermal stability of the base metal grain boundary pinning precipitates. At
which temperature will these precipitates dissolve?
(i) Calculate the austenite grain size profile across the HAZ. Estimate also the size of the
columnar austenite grains in the weld metal.
(j) Estimate the primary reaction products which form in the weld metal and the HAZ after
the austenite to ferrite transformation.
(k) Estimate the maximum hardness in the HAZ after welding. Use this information to eval-
uate the risk of hydrogen cracking and H2S stress corrosion cracking during service.
(1) Estimate the CVN toughness both in the weld metal and the HAZ after welding.
(m) Based on the results obtained explain why the carbon content of modern structural steels
has been gradually lowered to values below 0.1 wt% in step with the progress in steel
manufacturing technology.
Solution:
In all cases we can use stringer bead deposition on thick plates as a model system. It follows
from the analysis in Section 1.10.7 (Chapter 1) that the pertinent difference in the effective
heat diffusion area between a bead-on-plate weld and a groove weld may conveniently be ac-
counted for by introducing a correction factor/, which depends on the geometry of the groove
(see Fig. 1.68). Thus, in the general case the net (effective) power of the heat source can be
written as:
In the following, we shall only consider deposition of a cap layer on a thick plate where
/ = 1, but the analysis can readily be applied to other combinations of steels and welding con-
ditions as well (e.g./< 1). In the former case, we get:
Table 1.1 (Chapter 1) contains relevant input data for the steel thermal properties.
(a) The problem of interest is whether we must use the general (but complex) Rosenthal
thick plate solution (equation (1-45)) or can adopt the simplified solution for a fast moving
high power source (equation (1-73)). Fig 1.24 provides a basis for such an evaluation. The
most critical position will be the fusion line. If we neglect the latent heat of melting, the QJn3
ratio at the melting point becomes:
Readings from Fig. 1.24 suggest that the error introduced by neglecting the contribution
from heat flow in the welding direction is sufficiently small that it can be disregarded in the
calculations of the HAZ thermal programme. This means that equation (1-73) can be used in
replacement of equation (1-45) if that is desirable.
(b) The duration of the transient heating period depends on the actual point of observation
(i.e. the distance from the heat source). If we, as an illustration of principles, would like to
apply the pseudo-steady state solution down to a peak temperature of, say, 7000C, the corre-
sponding nJQ ratio at that temperature becomes:
From Fig. 1.21 we see that this ratio corresponds to a dimensionless radius vector a3m of
about 5. The duration of the transient heating period may now be read from Fig. 1.18. A crude
extrapolation gives:
from which
The minimum bead length is thus 25 mm, which is surprisingly short,
(c) The value of the deposition coefficient may be estimated from the data in Table 8.4.
This value corresponds to a kVp ratio of about 0.65 mm 3A 1 S \ which is in excellent

agreement with the data quoted in Table 1.7. The area D of deposited metal thus becomes (see
equation (1-120)):
The corresponding area of fused parent metal is most conveniently read from Fig. 1.21.
Taking the n3/Q ratio at the melting point equal to (1/0.22) ~ 4.5, we obtain:
from which
The mixing ratio is thus:
This value is somewhat lower than the expected mixing ratio, which for low heat input
welding is close to 0.67.
(d) The composition data in Table 8.4 refer to all weld metal deposit. Since the dilution with
respect to the base material in this case is small, the weld metal composition would be ex-
pected to be close to that given in Table 8.4.
An estimate of the total burn-off of alloying elements during welding can be obtained by
considering the difference in chemical composition between the filler wire and the weld
metal. In the present case we get:
Loss of silicon
As shown in Section 2.10.1.3 (Chapter 2), the silicon loss can partly be ascribed to SiO(g) for-
mation in the arc column (with consequent fume formation), and partly to reactions with oxy-
gen in the weld pool during the deoxidation stage (with consequent silicate slag formation).
The former loss can be estimated from the fume formation data presented in Table 2.6. Taking
the fume formation rate (FFF) of silicon equal to 63 mg min"1, the total loss of silicon in the
arc column amounts to:
The corresponding oxidation loss of silicon in the weld pool is thus:
Loss of manganese
As shown in Section 2.10.1.4 (Chapter 2), manganese is partly lost in the arc column due evap-
oration and partly in the weld pool due to deoxidation reactions. Taking the fume formation
rate of manganese equal to 14 mg min"1 (from Table 2.6), the total loss of Mn in the arc col-
umn amounts to:
The corresponding oxidation loss of manganese in the weld pool is thus:
Oxygen pick-up in the weld pool

When the oxidation losses of silicon and manganese in the weld pool are known, it is possible
to calculate the total oxygen pick-up in the hot spot of the pool immediately beneath the root
of the arc, according to the procedure outlined in Section 2.10.1.5 (Chapter 2). However, first
we need to estimate the residual weld metal oxygen content on the basis of the thermo-
dynamic model presented in Fig. 2.56. In the present example, the numerical value of the
deoxidation parameter is:
Reading from Fig. 2.56 gives a residual oxygen content of about 0.07 wt%. The total oxy-
gen pick-up in the weld pool is thus:
Rejected oxygen from the weld pool

The amount of rejected oxygen is equal to the difference between the total and the residual
oxygen level:
From this we see that most of the oxygen which is picked up at elevated temperatures is
rejected again during cooling in the weld pool due to deoxidation reactions and subsequent
phase separation.
Manganese silicate slag formation

The weld pool deoxidation reactions give rise to the formation of a top bead slag, as shown
in Section 2.10.1.5 (Chapter 2). In the present example the amount of slag per 10Og weld
metal is equal to:
A comparison with Fig. 2.35 shows that the calculated weight of slag is in reasonable agree-
ment with experimental observations.
(e) The oxygen balance is carried out in accordance with the procedure outlined in Section
2.10.1.7 (Chapter 2). First we need to estimate the total mass of weld metal produced per unit
time:
The total CO2 consumption is thus:
Oxidation of carbon:
Oxidation of silicon:
Oxidation of manganese:
Increase in the weld metal oxygen content:
The total CO evolution is equal to the sum of these four contributions:
The resulting CO content in the welding exhaust gas is thus:
A comparison with the experimental data in Table 2.2 shows that the calculated CO con-
tent is of the expected order of magnitude.
(f) The deoxidation model in Section 2.12.4.1 (Chapter 2) can be used to estimate the inclu-
sion composition. From Fig. 2.68 we see that the inclusions are essentially pure manganese sil-
icates with an overall composition close to MnSiO3.
When the inclusion composition is known, it is possible to convert the residual weld metal
oxygen content into an equivalent inclusion volume fraction according to the procedure out-
lined in Section 2.12.1.Taking the stoichiometric conversion factor equal to 5.0 X 10~2 for
manganese silicate slags, we obtain:
Moreover, we can use equation (2-79) in Section 2.12.2.2 to calculate the mean diameter
of the inclusions:
The different inclusion characteristics may now be estimated from equations (2-80) to (2-83):
Number of particles per mm3:
Number of particles per mm2:
Total surface area of particles per mm3:
Mean particle centre to centre volume spacing:
A comparison with Table 2.11 shows that the calculated inclusion characteristics are in
reasonable agreement with those reported for C-Mn steel weld metals.
(g) The characteristic growth pattern of columnar grains in bead-on-plate welds is shown
schematically in Fig. 3.33. The first phase to form will be delta ferrite which subsequently de-
composes to austenite via a peritectic transformation (see Fig. 3.72). The important question is
whether re-nucleation of the grains will occur during solidification. In practice, this depends on
the interplay between a number of variables which cannot readily be accounted for in a sim-
plified analysis, including the weld pool geometry, the cooling rate and the nucleation potency
of the non-metallic inclusions. Broadly speaking, the energy barrier associated with nucleation
of delta ferrite at manganese silicates is rather high (e.g. see Fig. 3.30), which suggests that for-
mation of new grains ahead of the advancing solid/liquid interface is not very likely under the
prevailing circumstances. Hence, the columnar grain zone would be expected to extend entirely
from the fusion line towards the centre of the weld, as frequently observed in this type of welds.
Moreover, Fig. 3.43 provides a basis for estimating the substructure of the weld metal
columnar grains. Close to weld centre-line the local crystal growth rate will approach the
welding speed (i.e. RL ~ 4 mm s"1). At the same time a simple analytical solution exists for the
thermal gradient in the weld pool (equation (3-28)):
From this we see that a cellular-dendritic type of substructure is likely to form within the
central parts of the fusion zone, in agreement with general experience (see Fig. 3.36).
(h) Fig. 5.25 shows the location of the cap layer. Since the base plate is a Nb-microalloyed
steel, the important grain boundary pinning precipitates within the HAZ are either NbC, NbN
or a mixture of these. In the former case the equilibrium dissolution temperature may be es-
timated from the solubility product of the pure binary compounds. From equation (4-4) and
Table 4.1, we have:
and
This shows that NbC is thermodynamically more stable than NbN. In practice, the real dis-
solution temperature may be significantly higher than that predicted from equation (4-4) be-
cause of the kinetic superheating (see discussion in Section 4.4, Chapter 4). The grain growth
diagram in Fig. 5.21 (a) provides a basis for estimating the effect of heating rate (heat input)
on the dissolution kinetics. Taking the ordinate qo /v equal to 2678/4000 = 0.67 kJ mm"1, we
obtain:
This corresponds to a kinetic superheating of about 2000C in the case of NbC.
In the HAZ on the weld metal side (see Fig. 5.25), oxide inclusions may act as effective
grain boundary pinning precipitates. These will be thermodynamically stable up to the melt-
ing point of the steel.
(i) The austenite grain size profile across the base plate HAZ can be read from Fig. 5.21(a).
Taking the ordinate q/v equal to 0.67 kJ mm"1, we see that the maximum austenite grain size
at the fusion boundary will exceed 100 /mm because of dissolution of the base metal grain
boundary pinning precipitates. In the HAZ on the weld metal side, the situation is different.
Here the stable weld metal oxide inclusions will impede austenite grain growth to a much
larger extent.The limiting austenite grain size may be calculated from equation (5-21).Taking
the Zener coefficient equal to 0.5 for oxide inclusions in steel (Fig. 5.4), we obtain:
Because of the phenomenon of epitaxial grain growth (see Section 3.3, Chapter 3), the in-
itial size of the weld metal delta ferrite/austenite columnar grains would be expected to be
comparable to the size of the HAZ austenite grains adjacent to the fusion boundary. Since the
latter varies along the periphery of the fusion boundary at the same time as competitive grain
growth leads to a general coarsening of the solidification microstructure with increasing dis-
tance from the fusion boundary, an average columnar austenite grain size of about 50 /mm
seems reasonable under the prevailing circumstances.
(j) As an illustration of principles, we shall assume that the CCT diagram in Fig. 6.27(a) pro-
vides an adequate description of the base plate transformation behaviour during welding. The
cooling time from 800 to 500 0C can be calculated from equation (1-67):
from which
Readings from Fig. 6.27(a) give the following microstructures within the grain coarsened
and grain refined region of the HAZ, respectively:
Grain coarsened region (T ~ 13500C):

Microstructure : 100% lath martensite
Transformation start temperature: ~ 470 0C
Grain refined region (Tp «10000C):

Microstructure : ferrite + pearlite
Transformation start temperature: ~ 600 0C
It follows that the observed difference in the HAZ transformation behaviour can mainly
be attributed to a corresponding difference in the prior austenite grain size, which according
to Fig. 5.21(a) is about 50 /im at Tp « 1350 0C and below 10 ^m at Tp « 10000C.
In addition, small islands of plate martensite will form within the intercritical (partly trans-
formed) HAZ, where the peak temperature of the thermal cycle has been between Ac1 and
Ac3 (see discussion in Section 6.3.8.2, Chapter 6). Just above the Ac1 temperature the volume
fraction of the M-A (martensite-austenite) constituent is approximately equal to the base
plate pearlite content (Fig. 6.66), which in the present case is about 8 vol%, as judged from the
steel carbon content.
Considering the weld metal, the situation is different. Here the oxide inclusions will
strongly affect the microstructure evolution by promoting intragranular nucleation of acicu-
lar ferrite (see discussion in Section 6.3.5, Chapter 6). In practice, the role of inclusions in weld
metal transformation kinetics is difficult to assess and hence, we will take a more simplistic
(pragmatic) approach to this problem by just comparing the total surface area available for
nucleation of ferrite at prior austenite grain boundaries and inclusions, respectively (SJGB)
versus SJI)). The following three regions of the weld are considered:
As-deposited weld metal:
Reheated weld metal (close to fusion line):

Reheated weld metal (far from fusion line):
In this case an estimate will be made for dy = 10 /mi.
From the above calculations it is apparent that the conditions for acicular ferrite formation
are particularly favourable within the as-deposited weld metal (Sx(I) > SJGB)), and some-
what less favourable within the high peak temperature region of the weld HAZ (SJGB) >
SJI)). In contrast, acicular ferrite would not be expected to form within the low peak tem-
perature region of the HAZ, since nucleation of ferrite at austenite grain boundaries in this
case will completely override nucleation at inclusions (SJGB) » SJI)).This is also in agree-
ment with general experience (e.g. see photographs of typical microstructures in Fig. 6.19(c)
and (d)).
(k) The maximum hardness/strength level within the grain coarsened region of the HAZ can
be estimated from the diagrams presented in Section 7.2.2 (Chapter 7) if the steel composition
and welding parameters fall within the specified range. Alternatively, we can use Fig. 7.19,
which applies to low carbon microalloyed steels. Taking the cooling time from 800 to 500 0C,
Ar8/5, equal to 3.3 s, we obtain:
HVmax = ~ 380 VPN and Rp02 (max) = ~ 980 MPa
In general, a hardness rather than a strength criterion is used as a basis for evaluation of the
risk of hydrogen cracking and H2S stress corrosion cracking during service. In the former case
an upper limit of about 300 to 325 VPN is incorporated in many welding specifications to avoid
problems with hydrogen cracking, but this restriction can be relaxed if specific precautionary
actions are taken during the welding operation to reduce the supply of hydrogen as shown in
Section 7.2.3 (Chapter 7). Considering the H2S stress corrosion cracking resistance a maximum
hardness level of 248 VPN is strictly enforced in many welding specifications, as discussed pre-
viously in Section 7.2.4 (Chapter 7). Hence, significant tempering of the martensite would be
required if the weldment is going to be used in environments containing sour oil or gas.
(1) In general, the toughness requirements vary with the type of application, but for offshore
structures a minimum CVN toughness of 35J at — 400C is frequently specified. From the CVN
data in Tables 8.2 and 8.4 it apparent that both the base plate and the weld metal meet this re-
quirement. Moreover, auto-tempered low carbon martensite and polygonal ferrite, which
form within the grain coarsened and grain refined region of the HAZ, respectively are known
to have an adequate cleavage resistance.This means that the intercritical HAZ is the most
critical region of the joint when it comes to toughness due to the presence of high carbon plate
martensite within the ferrite matrix (see Figs. 6.61 through 6.65 and discussion in Section
7.2.2.3, Chapter 7). In practice, the problem may be solved by applying an appropriate post
weld heat treatment (PWHT).
(m) Since the properties of martensite depend on the carbon content, C-Mn steel weldments
will generally be more prone to hydrogen cracking, H2S stress corrosion cracking and brittle
fraction initiation in the HAZ than low carbon microalloyed steel weldments. This explains
why the base plate carbon content has been gradually lowered to values well below 0.1 wt%
in step with the progress in steel plate manufacturing technology.
8.3 Exercise Problem II: Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels
Problem description:
Consider GTA welding of 2 mm thin sheets of AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel with chemi-
cal composition as listed in Table 8.5. The base plate has an average grain size of 18 /xm in the
fully annealed condition, which conforms to a tensile yield strength of about 300 MPa. The
sheets shall be butt welded in one pass, using a simple I-groove with 3 mm root gap. In this
case the addition of filler wire is adjusted so that the area of the weld reinforcement amounts
to 50% of the groove cross section. Details of welding parameters and operational conditions
are given in Table 8.6 and 8.7, respectively.
Table 8.5 Exercise problem II: Base plate chemical composition (in wt%).
Steel C Mn Cr Ni
AISI316 0.03 2.0 16 12
Table 8.6 Exercise problem II: Welding parameters*.

Parameter / (A) U (V) v (mm s"1)
Value 200 15 5
+ 0
The arc efficiency factor may be taken equal to 0.4. No preheating is applied (T0 = 20 C).
Table 8.7 Exercise problem II: Operational conditions and filler wire characteristics1.
Shielding gas: Argon
Wire composition:
Weld metal*
properties:
Data compiled from dedicatedfillerwire catalogues and welding manuals.

Values refer to all weld metal deposit.
Analysis:
The problem here is to evaluate the response of the base material to welding under the con-
ditions described above. The analysis should be quantitative in nature and based on sound
physical principles. The following input data are recommended:
Specific questions:
(b) Estimate the minimum bead length which is required to achieve pseudo-steady state
down to a peak temperature of 1000 0C.
(c) Estimate the deposition rate (in gA^s" 1 ), the weld cross section areas D and B (in
mm2), and the dilution ratio B/(B + D) during welding.
(d) Estimate the weld metal chemical composition for the given combination of base
plate, filler wire and dilution ratio.
(e) Sketch the contour of the weld pool and the resulting columnar grain morphology in
the x-y plane after solidification. Estimate also the weld metal delta ferrite content.
(f) Evaluate the risk of solidification cracking during welding.
(g) Calculate the austenite grain size profile across the HAZ. Estimate also the size of the
columnar grains in the weld metal.
(h) Evaluate the risk of chromium carbide formation in the HAZ during welding.
(i) Estimate on the basis of the Hall-Petch relation the maximum load bearing capacity of
the joint during service.
Solution:
(a) The problem of interest is whether we must use the general (but complex) Rosenthal thin
plate solution (equation (1-81)) or can adopt the simplified solution for a fast moving high
power source (equation (1-100)). Fig 1.43 provides a basis for such an evaluation. The most
critical position will be the fusion line. If we neglect the latent heat of melting, the BJn^ ratio
at the melting point becomes:
Similarly, the dimensionless plate thickness is equal to:
Readings from Fig. 1.43 show that we are outside the validity range of the simplified 1-D
model close to the fusion line, but that this solution is a good approximation within the low
peak temperature region of the HAZ. Here equation (1-100) may be used in replacement of
equation (1-81).
(i.e. the distance from the heat source). If we would like to apply the pseudo-steady state sol-
ution down to a peak temperature of 1000 0C, the corresponding nJ8B ratio becomes:
From Fig. 1.31 we see that this ratio corresponds to a dimensionless radius vector a5m of
from which
(c) First we need to calculate D:
This gives the following deposition rate:
The total area of fused metal can be read from Fig. 1.31. At the melting point the n3/0p8
ratio is close to 2, which gives:
and
This gives:
Note that in these calculations we have assumed that A2 is equal to the sum of (B+D) in
order to achieve realistic numbers.
(d) The weld metal composition can be calulated from a simple 'rule of mixtures':
By using input data from Tables 8.5 and 8.7, we get:

(e) The bead morphology can be read from Fig. 1.29. Taking the 68In3 ratio at the melting
point equal to 0.5, it is easy to verify that the geometry of the weld pool in this case is tear-
shaped. The columnar grain structure is therefore similar to that shown in Fig. 3.11(b).
When the composition is known the weld metal microstructure can be read from Fig. 7.53
by considering the resulting chromium and nickel equivalents:
This gives a delta ferrite content of about 7 vol%.
(f) Normally, a minimum delta ferrite content of about 5 to 10 vol% is specified to avoid
problems with solidification cracking in the weld metal (see discussion in Section 7.3.4,
Chapter 7). This requirement is clearly met under the prevailing circumstances.
(g) The HAZ austenite grain size in different positions from the fusion boundary can be read
from Fig. 5.30(b). In the present example the net heat input per mm2 of the weld is equal to:
This corresponds to a maximum austenite grain size of about 60/mi close to the fusion
boundary, which also is a reasonable estimate of the weld metal columnar grain size.
(h) The most critical position is the low peak temperature region of the weld HAZ where Tp
is between 800 and 1000 0C, as shown in Section 6.4.2 (Chapter 6). However, it is evident from
Fig. 6.69 that the risk of chromium carbide formation in this case is negligible because of the
low base plate carbon content. Hence, the corrosion resistance will not be significantly affec-
ted by the welding operation.
(i) The minimum HAZ strength level may conveniently be calculated from equation (7-21),
using input data from Example 7.5 (page 530):
This gives the following strength reduction factor for the joint:
8.4 Exercise Problem III: Welding of Al-Mg-Si Alloys
Problem description:
Consider G M A welding of 5 mm A A 6082 extrusions with chemical composition as listed in

Table 8.8. The base material has a Vickers hardness and tensile yield strength of 110 VPN and
280 MPa, respectively in the T6 temper condition. The extrusions shall be butt welded in one
pass, using a simple I-groove with no root gap. Two different filler wires are available, one Al-Si
wire and one Al-Mg wire (in the following designated wire I and II, respectively). Details of
welding parameters and operational conditions are given in Table 8.9 and 8.10, respectively.
Table 8.8 Exercise problem III: Base plate chemical composition (in wt%).
Alloy Si Mg Mn Fe
AA 6082 0.98 0.64 0.52 0.19
Table 8.9 Exercise problem III: Welding parameters1.

Parameter /(A) (/(V) v (mm s"1)
Value 200 28 10
0
|The arc efficiency factor may be taken equal to 0.8. No preheating is applied (T = 20 C).
Table 8.10 Exercise problem III: Operational conditions and filler wire characteristics1.
Shielding gas: Argon
Gasflowrate: 20 Nl per min
Wire diameter: 1.6 mm
Wire feed rate: 5.5 m per min
Wire composition: Wire I : Al + 5 wt% Si
Wire II: Al +5 wt% Mg
Weld metal* Wire I:
properties: Rp02 : 55 MPa, Rn; 165 MPa, El.: 18%
Wire II:
Rp02 : >130 MPa, Rn;. >280 MPa, El.: >17%, CVN+20: >30 J
Data compiled from dedicated filler wire catalogues and welding manuals.
Values refer to all weld metal deposit.
Analysis:
The problem here is to evaluate the response of the base material to welding under the con-
ditions described above. The analysis should be quantitative in nature and based on sound
physical principles. The following input data are recommended:
Specific questions:
Atomic percent silicon
Temperature, 0C
Weight percent silicon
Fig. 8.5. The binary Al-Si phase diagram.
Atomic percent magnesium

Temperature, 0C
Weight percent magnesium
Fig. 8.6. The binary Al-Mg phase diagram.

(b) Estimate the minimum bead length which is required to achieve pseudo-steady state down
to a peak temperature of 200 0C.
(c) Estimate the value of the deposition coefficient k' (in gA^s" 1 ), the weld cross section
areas B and Z) (in mm2), and the dilution ratio BI(B + D) during welding.
(d) Estimate the content of Mg and Si in the weld metal.
(e) Sketch the weld metal columnar grain structure and the segregation pattern during sol-
idification. Indicate also the type of substructure which forms at different positions along
the periphery of the fusion boundary. Relevant binary phase diagrams are given in Figs.
8.5 and 8.6.
(f) Evaluate the risk of solidification cracking during welding.
(g) Evaluate the risk of liquation cracking in the HAZ during welding.
(h) Sketch the sequence of reactions occurring within the HAZ during welding. Then estimate
the following quantities:
- The temperature for incipient dissolution of /3".
- The total width of the HAZ (referred to the fusion boundary).
- The temperature for full dissolution of /3".
- The total width of the fully reverted HAZ (referred to the fusion boundary).
(i) Estimate for each combination of filler wire and parent material an overall strength re-
duction factor which determines the load bearing capacity of the joint.
(j) Imagine now that the same extrusion instead is used in the fully annealed (O- temper)
condition with a Vickers hardness and tensile yield strength of 50 VPN and 100 MPa, re-
spectively. To what extent will the temper condition affect the microstructure and strength
evolution during welding?
Solution:
(a) The problem of interest is whether we must use the general (but complex) Rosenthal thin
plate solution (equation (1-81)) or can adopt the simplified solution for a fast moving high
power source equation (1-100)). Fig 1.43 provides a basis for such an evaluation. The most
critical position will be the fusion line. If we neglect the latent heat of melting, the 6 In3 ratio
at the melting point becomes:
Similarly, the dimensionless plate thickness is equal to:

Readings from Fig. 1.43 show that we are outside the validity range of the simplified 1-D
solution close to the fusion line, but that equation (1-100) may be used (with some reserva-
tions) within the low peak temperature region of the HAZ.
(i.e. the distance from the heat source). If we would like to apply the pseudo-steady state sol-
ution down to a peak temperature of 200 0C, the corresponding n/86p ratio becomes:
From Fig. 1.31 we see that this ratio corresponds to a dimensionless radius vector <r5m of
from which
It follows that the minimum bead length required to achieve pseudo-steady state during
aluminium welding is much longer than in steel welding due to the pertinent differences in the
heat flow conditions (e.g. see Example 1.5, Chapter 1).
(c) The value of the deposition coefficient may be estimated from the data in Table 8.10:
This value corresponds to a A: Vp ratio of about 0.92 mm3A 1S \ which is in excellent agree-
ment with the data quoted in Table 1.7. The area D of deposited metal thus becomes (see
equation (1-120)):
The total area of fused metal can be read from Fig. 1.31. At the melting point the nJ0p8
ratio is close to 0.93, which gives:
and
This gives:
Note that in these calculations we have assumed that A2 is equal to the sum of (B + D) in
order to achieve realistic numbers.
(d) The weld metal composition can be calulated from a simple 'rule of mixtures':
By using input data from Tables 8.8 and 8.10, we get:
Wire I:
Wire II:
(e) The bead morphology can be read from Fig. 1.29. Taking the 68In3 ratio at the melting
point equal to 1, it is easy to verify that the shape of weld pool in this case is elliptical. The
columnar grain structure is therefore similar to that shown in Fig. 3.11 (a).
Moreover, Fig. 3.43 provides a basis for estimating the substructure of the weld metal
columnar grains. Close to weld centre-line the local crystal growth rate will approach the
welding speed (i.e. RL ~ 10 mm s"1). At the same time a simple analytical solution exists for
the thermal gradient in the weld pool (equation (3-29)):
From this we see that a cellular-dendritic type of substructure is likely to form within the
central parts of the fusion zone, in agreement with general experience.
If we only consider the contribution from the major alloying element in each case, the Scheil
equation (equation (3-46)) may be used for an analysis of the segregation pattern during sol-
idification. By using input data from the binary phase diagrams in Figs. 8.5 and 8.6, we get:
Wire I:
Wire II:
From this we see that the amount of eutectic liquid which forms during solidification is sen-
sitive to variations in the filler wire chemical composition (i.e. the Si or Mg content).
(f) Fig. 7-54 provides a basis for evaluation of the hot cracking susceptibility.
Wire I
In this case the fraction of eutectic liquid is so abundant that it backfills and 'heals' all incipi-
ent cracks. Hence, the hot cracking susceptibility is low.
Wire II
When the Al-Mg filler wire is used the fraction of eutectic liquid is just large enough to form
continuous films at the columnar grain boundaries. Hence, the hot cracking susceptibility is
high.
(g) Liquation cracking arises from melting of specific phases present within the base material
(e.g. Mg2Si and Si), as discussed in Section 7. 4.2.1 (Chapter 7). Fig. 7.61 provides a basis for
evaluating the HAZ cracking susceptibility:
Wire I
In this case the risk of liquation cracking is small because the solidus temperature of the weld
metal is lower than the actual melting temperatures of the base metal constituent phases.
Wire II
Due to the high Bi(B + D) ratio involved, the solidus temperature of the weld metal will ex-
ceed the actual melting temperatures of the base metal constituent phases. This may lead to
liquation cracking in parts of the HAZ where the peak temperature is greater than, say, 555
to 559 0C.
(h) The sequence of reactions occurring within the HAZ during welding of AA 6082-T6 alu-
minium alloys is shown in Fig. 7.62. In the present case we can use Fig. 4.24 for a quantitative
analysis of the /3" dissolution kinetics. Taking the net heat input per mm2 qjvd equal to 0.08
kJmm~2, we obtain:
Total width of HAZ
Temperature for incipient dissolution of /3"
First we need to estimate the corresponding if/m -coordinate in the HAZ from Fig. 1.31:
Reading then gives:
from which
Total width of fully reverted HAZ:
Temperature for complete dissolution of /3"
First we need to estimate the corresponding if/m -coordinate in the HAZ from Fig. 1.31:
Reading then gives:
from which
A comparison with the phase diagram in Fig. 4.8 shows that the calculated temperature for
incipient dissolution of /3" is in good agreement with that obtained from the solubility prod-
uct.
(i) The yield strength in HAZ and the weld metal can be obtained from Fig. 7.67 and Table
8.10, respectively:
Wire I:
HAZ: Rp02 (min) « 130 MPa, Weld metal: Rp02 « 55 MPa , Base metal: Rp02 « 280 MPa
Strength reduction factor (weld metal control):
Wire II:
HAZ: Rp02 (min) - 130 MPa7WeId metal: Rp02 > 130 MPa , Base metal: Rp02 « 280 MPa
Strength reduction factor (HAZ control):
From this we see that the Al-Mg filler wire (wire II) yields the best weld metal mechanical
properties and should therefore be used, unless the cracking resistance is of particular con-
cern.
(j) When the material is present in the O-temper condition, it will contain an appreciable
amount of the equilibrium /3-Mg2Si phase. This will tend to accelerate the problem with li-
quation cracking within the HAZ during welding.
In addition, it is evident from Figs. 4.4 and 4.8 that the equilibrium /3-Mg2Si phase is ther-
modynamically much more stable than the metastable /3" phase. In practice, this means that
only a narrow solutionised zone will form adjacent to the fusion boundary. However, within
this zone significant strength recovery may occur after welding due to natural ageing effects
(see Fig. 4.5), which may result in a HAZ hardness and tensile yield strength level of about 80
VPN and 190 MPa, respectively. Hence, for the O-tempered material, we get:
Wire I
HAZ: Rp02 (max) - 190 MPa, Weld metal: Rp02^ 55 MPa, Base metal: Rp02 « 100 MPa
Strength reduction factor (weld metal control):
/=55/100 = 0.55
Wire II
HAZ: Rp()2 (max) - 190 MPa, Weld metal: Rp02 > 130 MPa, Base metal: Rp02 - 100 MPa
Strength reduction factor (base metal control):
/ = 100/100 = 1
Index
Index terms Links
A
absorption of elements see hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen
acicular ferrite in low-alloy steels 428
crystallography of 428
nature of 430
nucleation and growth of 432
texture components of 429
acicular ferrite in wrought steels 444
aluminium as alloying element in steel
effect on inclusion composition 202 206
effect on solidification microstructure 246 272 293
effect on weld properties 481 486
solubility product of precipitates 303
aluminium weldments 458 536
age-hardenable alloys 458
quench sensitivity 459
precipitation conditions during cooling 459
strength recovery during natural ageing 461
subgrain evolution in friction welding 464
characteristics 536
constitutional liquation
in Al-Mg-Si alloys 542
in Al-Si alloys 541
example (7.9) – minimum HAZ strength level 554
example (7.8) – weld metal hot cracking 544
example (7.7) – weld metal solidification cracking 537
example (7.10) – minimum HAZ hardness level 562
HAZ microstructure evolution 547
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 595
596
Index terms Links
aluminium weldments (Continued)
constitutive equations 548 558
during friction welding 555
during fusion welding 547
hot cracking 540
factors affecting 544
solidification cracking 536
strength evolution during welding 547
constitutive equations 548 558
during friction welding 555
hardness and strength distribution 550 560
strengthening mechanisms in alloys 547
amplitude of weaving – definition 80
arc atmosphere composition 132
see also shielding gases
arc efficiency factors 26
definition 26
selected values 27
arc welding 24
definition of processes 24
austenite
grain size in low-alloy steels 409
primary precipitation in fusion welds 292
austenite formation in low-alloy steels 449
conditions for 450
austenitic stainless steels 453
see also stainless steel weldments
characteristics of 527
chromium carbide formation 456
grain growth diagrams for steel welding 375
weld decay area 456

597
Index terms Links
Avrami equation in solid state transformations
see also solid state transformation and transportation kinetics
additivity in 404 475
exponents in 401
B
Bain orientation region 436
bainite in low-alloy steels 444
lower 447
upper 444
bead morphology 96
bead penetration 99
deposit and fused parent metal 96
example (1.16) – SA welding of steel 97
example (1.17) – SMAW welding of steel 98
example (1.18) – Jackson equation 99
Bessel functions – modified 46 47 49
boron in steel
effect on transformation behaviour 413
segregation of 294
weld properties 493 505
bowing of crystal 240
Bramfitt’s planar lattice disregistry model 244
see also solidification of welds
C
carbon equivalents 496 521
carbon as alloying element in steel
weld deposits 424
carbon-manganese steel weld metals, grain growth in 370
casting, structural zones 221

598
Index terms Links
cell/dendrite alignment angle 249
cellular substructure 251
chemical reaction model – overall 116
chromium carbide formation in austenitic stainless steels 456
chromium-molybdenum steel welds, grain growth in 372
columnar grains 228
columnar to equiaxial transition 268
competitive grain growth 234
concentration displacements during welding see oxygen, absorption of
cooling condition during solidification 221
cooling rate, C.R.
thick plate welding 37
thin plate welding 53
cooling time, ∆t8/5
thick plate welding 36
thin plate welding 53
cooling time, t100 103
D
Delong diagram 535
delta ferrite, primary precipitation of 290 292
dendrite arm spacing 261
primary 261
secondary 264
dendrite fragmentation 250

599
Index terms Links
dendrite substructure 252
dendrite tip radius 260
deoxidation reactions in weld pools 180
example (2.9) – homogeneous nucleation of MnSiO3 182
growth and separation of oxide inclusions 184
buoyancy (Stokes flotation) 185
fluid flow pattern 186
separation model 188
nucleation model 182
nucleation of inclusions 182 219
overall deoxidation model 201
deposit – amount of weld metal 96
deposition rate 96
dissociation of gases in arc column 117
distributed heat sources 77 112
general solution 77
simplified solution (Gaussian heat distribution) 112
simplified solution (planar heat distribution) 80
case study (1.2) – surfacing with strip electrodes 87
case study (1.3) – GTA welding with a weaving technique 87
dimensionless operating parameter 82
dimensionless time 82
dimensionless y- and z-coordinates 82
example (1.13) – effect of weaving on temperature distribution 83
implications of model 86
model limitations 86
2-D heat flow model 80
see also heat flow models
Dorn parameter 501

600
Index terms Links
duplex stainless steels 531
HAZ toughness 532
HAZ transformation behaviour 532
E
energy barrier to solidification 225
enthalpy of reaction 302
definition of 302
values 303
entropy of reaction 302
definition 302
values 303
epitaxial solidification 222
equiaxed dentritic growth 268
equilibrium dissolution temperature of precipitates 303
error functions see Gaussian error functions
F
fluid flow pattern in weld pools 186 228
flux basicity index 171
friction welding 18
see also aluminium weldments
dimensionless temperature 20
dimensionless x-coordinate 21
example (1.4) – peak temperature distribution 23
heat flow model 18
temperature-time pattern 23
Fritz equation 281

601
Index terms Links
fume formation, rate of
iron 157
manganese 156
silicon 152
fused parent metal – amount of 98
G
gas absorption, kinetics of 120
rate of element absorption 121
thin film model 120
gas desorption, kinetics of 123
rate of element desorption 123
Sievert’s law 124
gas porosity in fusion welds 279
growth and detachment of gas bubbles 281
nucleation of gas bubbles 279
separation of gas bubbles 283
Gaussian error functions, definition 112
Gaussian heat distribution 112
see also distributed heat sources
Gibbs-Thomson law 309
Gladman equation 344
grain boundary ferrite 408
growth of 422
nucleation of 408
grain detachment 250
grain growth 337
computer simulation 380
diagrams
construction of 360

602
Index terms Links
grain growth (Continued)
axes and features of 363
calibration procedures 361
heat flow models 360
for steel welding 360
case studies 364
C-Mn steel weld metals 370
Cr-Mo low alloy steels 372
niobium-microalloyed steels 367
titanium-microalloyed steels 364
type 316 austenitic stainless steels 375
driving pressure for 339
example (5.3) – austenite grain size in niobium-microalloyed steels 358
example (5.2) – austenite grain size in Ti microalloyed steels 354
example (5.1) – limiting austenite grain size in steel weld metals 344
grain boundary mobility 337
drag from impurities 340 342
drag froma random particle distribution 341
driving pressure for growth 339
grain structures, characteristics 337
growth mechanisms 345
nomenclature 384
normal grain growth 343
size, limiting 343
Griffith’s equation 486 494
gross heat input – definition 37
growth rate of crystals 230
local 234
nominal 230

603
Index terms Links
H
Hall-Petch relation 529
heat flow models
distributed heat sources 77 112
grain growth diagrams 360
instantaneous heat sources 5
local preheating 100
medium thick plate solution 59
thermal conditions during interrupted welding 91
thermal conditions during root pass welding 95
thick plate solutions 26
thin plate solutions 45
heat input see heat flow models
Hellman and Hillert equation 344
Hollomon-Jaffe parameter 500
hydrogen, absorption of 128
content in welds 132
covered electrodes 134
combined partial pressure of 134
example (2.1) – hydrogen absorption in GTAW 133
example (2.2) – hydrogen absorption in SMAW 136
in gas-shielded welding 131
hydrogen determination 128
implications of Sievert’s law 140
reaction model 130
sources of hydrogen 128
in submerged arc welding 138
effect of water content in flux 138
example (2.3) – hydrogen absorption in SAW 139
hydrogen cracking in low-alloy steel weld metals 509
diffusion in welds 514
diffusivity in steel 514

604
Index terms Links
hydrogen cracking in low-alloy steel weld metals (Continued)
HAZ cracking resistance 518
mechanisms of 509
solubility in steel 513
hydrogen in multi-run weldments 140
hydrogen in non-ferrous weldments 141
hydrogen sulphide corrosion cracking in low-alloy steel weld metals 524
prediction of 525
threshold stress for 524
hyperbaric welding 176
I
implant testing 520
see also hydrogen cracking
inclusions in welds – origin 192
constituent elements and phases in inclusions 202
example (2.10) – computation of inclusion volume fraction 194
example (2.12) – computation of total number of constituent phases in
inclusions 211
prediction of inclusion composition 204
size distribution of inclusions 195
coarsening mechanism 196
effect of heat input 196
example (2.11) – computation of number density and size
distribution of inclusions 201
volume fraction 193
stoichiometric conversion factors 194
instantaneous heat sources 5
line source 5
plane source 5
point source 5
interface stability 254

605
Index terms Links
interfacial energies 242
interrupted welding, thermal conditions 91
example (1.14) – repair welding of steel casting 93
heat flow models 93
K
Kurdjumow-Sachs orientation relationship 408 427 429
444 448
L
latent heat of melting 3
lattice disregistry
see Bramfitt’s planar lattice disregistry model
local fusion in arc strikes 7
dimensionless radius vector 7
example (1.1) – weld crater formation and cooling conditions 9
heat flow model 7
low-alloy steel weldments 477
acicular ferrite in 428
nature of 430
nucleation and growth in 432
texture components of 429
austenite formation in 449
conditions for 450
bainite in 444
lower 447

606
Index terms Links
low-alloy steel weldments (Continued)
upper 444
case study (7.1) – weld bead tempering 501
example (7.1) – low-temperature toughness of welds 488
example (7.2) – peak HAZ strength level 496
example (7.3) – location of brittle zones 508
HAZ mechanical properties 494
hardness and strength level 495
tempering 500
toughness 502
hydrogen cracking 509
diffusion in welds 514
diffusivity in steel 514
example (7.4) – hydrogen cracking under hyperbaric welding
conditions 521
HAZ cracking resistance 518
implant testing 520
mechanisms of 509
solubility in steel 513
hydrogen sulphide corrosion cracking 524
prediction of 525
threshold stress for 524
martensite in 447
austenite formation, kinetics of 449
lath 447
M-A formation, conditions for 450
plate (twinned) 447
mechanical properties 477
ductile to brittle transition 486
reheating 491
resistance to cleavage fracture 485
resistance to ductile fracture 480
strength level 478

607
Index terms Links
low-alloy steel weldments (Continued)
transformation behaviour 290 406
solidification
primary precipitation of austenite 292
primary precipitation of delta ferrite 290 292
solid state
acicular ferrite 428
bainite 444
grain boundary ferrite 408
martensite 447
microstructure classification 406
nomenclature for 406
Widmanstatten ferrite 427
Ludwik equation 524
M
magnesium in aluminium alloys
martensite
in low-alloy steels 447
austenite formation, kinetics of 449
lath 447
M-A formation, conditions for 450
plate (twinned) 447
martensitic stainless steels, characteristics of 527
mass transfer in weld pool, overall kinetic model of 124
medium thick plate solution 59
dimensionless maps for heat flow analysis 61
case study (1.1) – temperature distribution in steel and aluminium
weldments 69
construction of maps 61

608
Index terms Links
medium thick plate solution (Continued)
cooling conditions close to weld centre line 63
example (1.12) – aluminium welding 68
isothermal contours 65
limitation of maps 65
peak temperature distribution 61
retention times at elevated temperatures 63
experimental verification 72
peak temperature and isothermal contours 75
weld cooling programme 72
weld thermal cycles 72
general heat flow model 59
practical implications 75
melting efficiency factor 89
mixing ratio 98
moving heat sources 24
net arc power, definition 26
niobium-microalloyed steels, grain growth in 367
nitrogen, absorption of 141
gas-shielded welding 142
nominal composition 147
sources of 142
submerged arc welding 146
example (2.4) – nitrogen content in weld metal deposit 146
N
non-isothermal transformations
additivity principle 403
and Avrami equation 404

609
Index terms Links
non-isothermal transformations (Continued)
isokinetic reactions 404
non-additive reactions 405
non-steady heat conduction
biaxial conduction 2
triaxial conduction 2
uniaxial conduction 2
nucleation, energy barrier to 225
nucleation, homogeneous 182 219
see also deoxidation reactions in weld pools
nucleation, potency of particles 242
nucleation, rate of heterogeneous during solidification 248 272
nucleation in solid state transformation kinetics 389
in C-curve modeling 390
nucleation of gas bubbles in fusion welds 279
nucleation of grain boundary ferrite in low-alloy steels 408
austenite grain size 409
boron alloying 413
factors affecting ferrite grain size 420
solidification-induced segregation 417
O
operating parameter, dimensionless
point and line heat source models 31
weaving model 82
Ostwald ripening see particle coarsening
oxygen, absorption of 148
classification of shielding gases 166
overall oxygen balance 166

610
Index terms Links
oxygen, absorption of (Continued)
absorption of carbon and oxygen 176
loss of silicon and manganese 177
the product [%C] [%O] 179
reaction model 174
effects of welding parameters 169
amperage 169
voltage 170
welding speed 170
example (2.8) – oxygen consumption and total CO evolution during
GMAW 166
gas arc metal welding 148
manganese evaporation 156
example (2.6) – fume formation rate of manganese 157
sampling of elevated concentrations 149
carbon oxidation 149
silicon oxidation 152
example (2.5) – fume formation rate of silicon 156
SiO formation 154
total oxygen absorption 162 173
transient oxygen concentrations 160
example (2.7) – slag formation in GMAW 164
submerged arc welding 170
concentration displacements 172
flux basicity index 171
total oxygen absorption 173
transient oxygen absorption 172
oxygen, retained in weld metal 190
implications of model 192
thermodynamic model of 190

611
Index terms Links
P
particle coarsening 314
applications to continuous heating and cooling 314
example (4.4) – coarsening of titanium nitride in steel 315
kinetics 314
particle dissolution 316
analytical solution 316
case study (4.1) – solute distribution across HAZ 330
example (4.5) – isothermal dissolution of NbC in steel 320
example (4.6) – dissolution of NbC within fully transformed HAZ 323
numerical solution 325
application to continuous heating and cooling 329
process diagrams for aluminium butt welds 332
Peclet number for weld pools 186
peritectic solidification in welds 290
see also low alloy steel weldments
primary precipitation of γp-phase 290
transformation behaviour 290
precipitate growth mechanisms
liquid state 196
solid state 395
diffusion-controlled 397
interface-controlled 396
precipitate stability 301
see also particle coarsening and particle dissolution
example (4.1) – equilibrium dissolution temperature of nitride
precipitates 304
example (4.2) – equilibrium volume fraction of Mg2Si 307
example (4.3) – metastable β”(Mg2Si) solvus 312
nomenclature 334
solubility product 301
equilibrium dissolution temperature 303

612
Index terms Links
precipitate stability (Continued)
stable and metastable solvus boundaries 304
thermodynamic background 301
preheating, local 100
heat flow model 100
dimensionless half width of preheated zone 101
example (1.19) – cooling conditions during steel welding 102
time constant 101
pseudo-equilibrium, concept of 122
pseudo-steady state temperature distribution, definition 24
R
reversion see particle dissolution
example (1.15) – cooling conditions during root pass welding 95
heat flow model 95
Reynold number
definition 187
of gas bubbles 284
of particles 187
root pass welding, thermal conditions in 95
Rosenthal equations
see thick and thin plate solutions
S
Scheil equation 272
modified 276
original 272
separation of gas bubbles in fusion welds 283
shielding gases see oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, absorption of
CO-evolution 166

613
Index terms Links
Sievert’s law 124 140
silicon in aluminium
solid state transformations in welds 387
Al-Mg-Si alloys 458
Avrami equation in, additivity in 404 475
high strength low-alloy steels 406
kinetics see transformation kinetics
nomenclature 471
solid state transformation kinetics 387
see also transformation kinetics
driving force for 387
non-isothermal transformations 402
nucleation in solids 389
overall 400
precipitates, growth of 395
solidification cracking in weldments
aluminium 536
stainless steel 532
solidification microstructures 251
columnar to equiaxed transition 268
dendrite tip radius 260
equiaxed dendritic growth 268
example (3.12) – equiaxed dendritic growth in Al-Si welds 270
example (3.13) – application of Scheil equation 276
interface stability criterion 254
example (3.6) – critical temperature gradient for planar solidification
front in Al-Si welds 256
example (3.7) – substructure characteristics of Al-Mg welds 258
primary dendrite arm spacing 261

614
Index terms Links
solidification microstructures (Continued)
example (3.8) – effect of heat input on primary dendrite arm spacing
in welds 262
example (3.9) – variation of primary dendrite arm spacing across
fusion zone 263
secondary dendrite arm spacing 264
example (3.10) – secondary dendrite arm spacing in thick plate GTA
Al-Si welds 266
example (3.11) – secondary dendrite arm spacing in thin plate GTA
Al-Si butt welds 267
local solidification time 265
substructure characteristics 251
cellular 251
dendritic 252
solidification of welds 221
columnar grain structures and morphology 228
epitaxial solidification 222
energy barrier to solidification 225
implications of 226
growth rate of columnar grains 230
example (3.1) – nominal crystal growth rate in thin sheet welding of
example (3.2) – local dendrite growth rate in single crystal welds 237
local crystal growth rate 234
nominal crystal growth rate 230
renucleation of crystals 242
critical cell-dendrite alignment angle 249
dendrite fragmentation 250
example (3.4) – nucleation potency of TiN with respect to delta
ferrite 245
example (3.5) – nucleation potency of γ-Al2O3 with respect to delta
ferrite 246
grain detachment 250

615
Index terms Links
solidification of welds (Continued)
nucleation potency of second phase particles 242
rate of heterogeneous nucleation 247
reorientation of columnar grains 239
bowing of crystal 240
example (3.3) – bowing by dendritic branching 240
structural zones 221
solubility of gases in liquids and solids 125
hydrogen in Al 125
hydrogen in Cu 125
hydrogen in Fe 125 513
hydrogen in Ni 125
nitrogen in Fe 126
see also gas absorption and gas desorption
solubility product 301
equilibrium dissolution temperature 303
stable and metastable solvus boundaries 304
thermodynamic background 301
solute redistribution in welds 272
example (3.14) – formation of hydrogen bubbles in weld pools 282
example (3.15) – separation of hydrogen bubbles in weld pools 284
example (3.16) – solute redistribution during cooling in austenite
regime 287
gas porosity 279
homogenisation of microsegregations 286
macrosegregation 277
microsegregation 272
spot welding 10
dimensionless radius vector 11
example (1.2) – cooling conditions 12

616
Index terms Links
spot welding (Continued)
heat flow model 11
refined model for 110
stainless steel weldments 527
see also austenitic stainless steels
austenitic
characteristics of 527
chromium carbide formation 456
grain growth diagrams for steel welding 375
example (7.5) – variation in HAZ austenite grain size and strength
level 530
example (7.6) – weld metal solidification cracking 533
HAZ corrosion resistance 527
HAZ strength level 529
HAZ toughness 530
solidification cracking 532
weld decay area 456
duplex
HAZ toughness 532
HAZ transformation behaviour 532
stereometric relationships (number of particles per unit volume, number
of particles per unit area, total surface area per unit volume, and
mean particle volume spacing) 201
Stokes law 185 187 284
substructure of welds 251
T
texture in welds
solidification 221 290
solid state 429

617
Index terms Links
thermal properties of metal and alloys 3
conductivity 3
diffusivity 3
heat content at melting point 3
latent heat of melting 3
melting point 3
volume heat capacity 3
thermit welding 14
example (1.3) – cooling conditions 16
heat flow model 14
thick plate solutions 26
pseudo-steady state temperature distribution 31
dimensionless y-coordinate 31
dimensionless z-coordinate 31
distribution of temperatures 31
example (1.5) – duration of transient heating period in aluminium
welding 30
example (1.6) – thermal contours 37
example (1.7) – weld geometry 39
isothermal zone widths 32
length of isothermal enclosures 34
simplified solution 41
example (1.8) – retention time in steel welding 44

618
Index terms Links
thick plate solutions (Continued)
volume of isothermal enclosures 35
transient heating period 29
thin plate solutions 45
example (1.9) – duration of transient heating period in aluminium
welding 48
pseudo-steady state temperature distribution 49
example (1.10) – weld geometry and cooling rate 54
isothermal zone widths 49
length of isothermal enclosures 51
simplified solution 56
example (1.11) – retention time in steel welding 59
transient heating period 29
titanium as alloying element in steel
effect on inclusion composition 203 208
effect on solidification microstructure 244 272
effect on grain growth 354 364
effect on transformation behaviour 435 444
effect on weld properties 488
titanium-microalloyed steels, grain growth in 364
see also low alloy steel weldments
transformation kinetics 387
Avrami equation 400 475
additivity in 404 475
exponents in 401
driving force for 387

619
Index terms Links
transformation kinetics (Continued)
example (6.1) – C-curve analysis 394
example (6.2) – conditions for ferrite formation within HAZ 410
example (6.3) – volume fraction of grain boundary ferrite in HAZ 412
example (6.4) – ferrite/martensite formation in HAZ 416
example (6.5) – displacement of ferrite C-curve due to segregation 418
example (6.6) – variation in ferrite grain size across HAZ 421
example (6.7) – volume fraction of allotriomorphic ferrite in weld
deposit 425
example (6.8) – volume of acicular ferrite plate 440
example (6.9) – conditions for acicular ferrite formation 442
example (6.10) – conditions for chromium carbide formation 456
example (6.11) – conditions for β’(Mg2Si) precipitation 460
example (6.12) – ageing characteristics of aluminium weldments 463
non-isothermal transformations 402
nucleation in solids 389
overall 400
precipitates, growth of 395
type 316 austentitic stainless steels, grain growth in 375
see also stainless steel weldments
V
volume of weld metal 36
volume fraction of inclusions 193
volume heat capacity 3
W
Wagner-Lifshitz equation 196 314 351
water content 137
in electrode coating 137
in welding flux 138
see also hydrogen absorption

620
Index terms Links
weld pool shape and geometry 228
elliptical weld pool 229
tear-shaped weld pool 229
welding processes, definitions 24
see also arc welding processes
wetting conditions 222 242
interfacial energies 242 247
wetting angle 225
Widmanstätten ferrite in low-alloy steels 427
Z
Zener drag, definition of 341
in grain growth 341
Zener equation 342 344
Zener-Hollomon parameter 465
zinc in aluminium

Author Index
A Berge, J.O. 229 Cochrane, R.C. 292-3, 407, 428

Aaron, H.B. 320, 326, 398-9 Bernstein, LM. 512 Coe,F.R. 128-9,509-10,515
Aaronson, H.I. 408, 429 Betzold,J. 413 Coleman, M.C 259, 263-4
Abson, DJ. 407, 428, 440, 477-8, Bhadeshia, H.K.D.H. 147, 206, 292, Collins, F.R. 537
485,493, 504 408-9, 413, 422-9, 431, 4 3 3 ^ , Corbett, J.M. 203, 428
Adams, CM. 26 436,441,443-4 Corderoy, DJ.H. 151, 155, 160-1
Adrian, H. 301,303 Bhatti,A.R. 208-10 Cotton, H J.U. 496
Agren, J. 320-1,326 Biloni, H. 229 Cottrell, CL.M. 496
Akselsen, O.M. 97, 345, 347, 349, Bjornbakk, B. 486,491 Crafts, W. 190
367,406,414-15,419,444,446, Blander, M. 171,173 Craig, I. 171
448-54, 481, 484, 488-90, 495- Boiling, G.F. 290 Cross, CE. 251,259,292-3,412,538
6, 499, 502-7, 525 Bonnet, C 435, 440 Crossland, B. 556
Alberry, RJ. 374, 500, 502 Bradstreet, BJ. 186
Alcock, CB. 159 Bramfitt, B.L. 244
D
AIi, A. 427-8 Bratland, D.H. 459-62, 556-8, 562
Dallam, CM. 441
American Society for Testing Mate- British Iron and Steels Research As-
D'annessa, A.T. 280
rials (ASTM) 364 sociation 3
Das. G. 452
Andersen, I. 483 Brody, H.D. 272, 276
Dauby, P. 180
Anderson, M.P. 380 Brooks, J.A. 277-8, 533
David, S. A. 96,99,105,210,222,228,
Anderson, RD. 3 Brown, A.M. 345
236, 239-41, 250, 260, 272, 278,
Ankem, S. 343,351 Brown, LT. 509, 511
290,478
Apold,A. 174-5 Brown, L.C. 314
Davis, GJ. 221, 240, 247, 250, 278,
Araki, T. 505-6 Burck, R 289
279,292,478
Ardeil, AJ. 494 Burgardt, R 229
Davis, V. deL. 162
Ashby, M.F. 26, 201, 314, 318, 329,
DeArdo, AJ. 290
360, 363-4, 375, 377-8, 459,
Deb, P. 434, 480
461,464 C
DebRoy,T.210
Asthana, R. 326 Cahn, J.W. 337, 340-1, 345
Delong,WT.533
Atlas of isothermal transformation Cai, X.-L. 450
Demarest, V. A. 449-50
and cooling transformation dia- Cameron, T.B. 413
Devillers, L. 435,440,480, 482
grams 403 Camping, M. 556-8, 562
Devletian,J.H.279,285,413
Avrami, M. 403, 422 Capes, J.F. 251,292-3,412
Dieter, G.E. 482,486, 524-5, 529
Carslaw, H.S. 2, 4
Distin, PA. 157
Chai,CS. 171
B Doherty,R.D.301,309,396
Challenger, K.D. 434, 480
Dolby, R.E. 407,444
Babu, S.S. 210,408,443-4 Chan, J.W. 403
Dons, A.L. 438,459, 541
Bach, H. 138 Charpentier, F.R 435, 440
Dorn, XE. 501-2
Bain, E.C 408, 427, 436 Chen, J.H. 505-6
Dowling, J.M. 203,428
Bakes, R.G. 15 Chew, B. 132, 135
Dube, CA. 408
Baldwin, W.M. 509,511 Chipman, J. 414
Dudas, J.H. 537
Balliger, N.K. 452 Choi, H.S. 450
Dumolt, S.D. 547
Bannister, S.R. 441,443 Christensen, N. 24, 26-7, 31-2, 80,
Barbara, FJ. 435-6, 441-4 88,90-1,97,100, 116, 125, 132,
Barin, I. 154 143,148-50,153,155,158,162, E
Barrie, G.S. 441,443 170-1, 173-4, 176-9, 181-2, Eagar, T.W. 26, 96, 99, 105, 171-2,
Barritte, G.S. 434-6,441 186,189,193,207,345,347,349, 174,228
Baskes, M.I. 277-8 367,500,502,515-17,520-2 Easterling, K.E. 26, 226, 247, 301,
Beachem,CD. 512 Christian, J.W. 329, 400-1, 403-4, 303, 309, 314, 318, 345, 360,
Beaven, RA. 440 429,431 363-4, 367, 375, 377-8, 380,
Bell, H.B. 171,204-5 Cisse, J. 290 389, 392, 403, 408, 427, 429,
Bentley, K.R 15 Claes, J. 180 435-6, 441-4, 448, 500, 502
Ebeling, R. 201 Grewal, G. 343,351 I
Edmonds, D.V. 409 Griffiths, E. 3,4 Ibarra, S. 497
Edwards, G.R. 227,259,422-3,425, Grong, 0 , 26, 61, 73-5, 77, 80, 88, Indacochea, J.E. 171,173
428,441 90-2,116, 149-50,153,155,158, International Institute of Welding
Eickhorn,F. 187-8 161, 163-6, 170, 174, 176-9, 129, 152
Elliott, J.F. 151, 162, 174-5, 179, 181-2, 185-6, 189, 192-204, Ion, J.C. 314, 318, 360, 3 6 3 ^ , 368
182, 184, 191 206-7, 209-11, 227, 247-8, Ivanchev, I. 204-5
Engel,A. 187-8 250-4, 256, 290, 292-4, 314,
Enjo, T. 547 327-30,345-7,349,355,360,364,
Es-Souni, M. 440 367-8, 371-2, 406, 412-15, 419,
J
European Recommendations for Alu- 422-3, 425, 428, 430-2, 435-6,
Jackobs, F.A. 418
minium Alloy Structures 552 438, 440-1, 444, 446-54, 458-62,
Jackson, CE. 89, 99, 100
Evans, G.M. 137-8, 192-3, 203, 464, 465-6, 477-8, 480-1, 484-6,
Jaeger, J.C. 2, 4
420-1,435,440 488-91, 493, 496, 502-7, 547-9,
Jaffe, L.D. 500
551-8,560-3
Janaf, ?. 154
Gunleiksrud, A. 503
Jelmorini, G. 156
F Guo, Z.H. 405,420-1
Jonas, JJ. 464
Fainstein, D. 320, 398-9
Jones, W.K.C 374
Farrar, R.A. 435, 441, 443,480
Jordan, M.F. 143, 145, 259, 263-4
Fast, J.D. 513
H Joshi, Y. 96, 99, 105
Ferrar, R.A. 428,435,444,478,485,
Habrekke, T. 229 Just, E. 413
504
Fine, M.E. 389, 403 Halmoy,E. 151
Fischer, W. A. 162 Hannertz, N.E. 507
Harris, D.R. 414 K
Fisher, DJ. 221, 234, 242, 251, 259,
Harrison, P.L. 428, 435, 444, 478, Kaplan, D. 435, 440, 480, 482
261,265-6,270,274
485, 504 Kasuya, T. 496
Fleck, N.A. 422-3, 428, 441
Hatch, J.E. 3, 458, 547 Kato, M. 233
Flemings, M.C. 221, 234, 242, 265,
Hawkins, D.N. 208-10, 435, 440 Kawasaki, K. 380
272,275-6
Hazzledine, P.M. 342-3 Keene, BJ. 96, 99, 105,228
Fortes, M.A. 374-5, 380-1
Heckel, R.W. 326 Kelly, A. 548
Fountain, R.W. 414
Hehemann, R.F. 429,452 Kelly, K.K. 3
Fradkov, V.E. 380
Heile, R.F. 154, 156-7, 169 Kern, A. 380
Franklin, A.G. 195,208
Heintze, G.N. 244, 247 Kerr, H.W. 203, 247, 273, 290, 428
Fredriksson, H. 290
Heiple, CR. 229 Kiessling, R. 202^4
Frost, HJ. 380
Hellman, P. 339, 343-5 Kihara,H. 131, 133, 134
Fruehan, RJ. 156
Hemmer,H. 371-2 Kikuchi, T. 1 4 2 ^
Fujibayashi, K. 146
Hilbert, M. 339, 343-5 Kikuta, Y. 505-6
Hill,D.C. 154, 156-7, 169 Kim, B.C. 444
Hillert, M. 290 Kim, LS. 450
G
Hilty, D.C. 190 Kim, NJ. 444,451,505
Garcia, C.I. 290
Kim, YG. 451
Garland, J. 505 Hjelen, J. 195, 292, 430-3, 438
Kinsman, K.R. 429, 452
Garland, J.G. 221,240,247,250,278, Hocking, L.M. 196
Kirkwood, RR. 292-3
279, 292-3, 478 Hollomon, J.H. 465, 500
Kluken, A.O. 182, 186, 194-204,
Garret-Reed, AJ. 450 H6llrigl-Rosta,F.413
206,209-11,247-8,250-4,256,
Gergely, M. 501-2 Homma, H. 203, 444-5, 504-5
290, 292-4, 371-2, 430-3, 435-
Giovanola, B. 260 Hondros,E.D. 414
6,438,440,446-7,479-80,484,
Gittos, N.F. 544-5 Honeycombe, R.W.K. 406,408,420,
486,491,493,497
Gjermundsen, K. 162, 516 429, 431, 444, 447-8, 453, 486 Knacke, O. 154
Gjestland, H. 541 Horii,Y. 187-8 Knagenhjem, H.O. 229
Gladman, T. 343-5, 452, 479 Houghton, D.C. 303, 323 Knott, J.F. 486
Gleiser,M. 151,162,174-5,179,191 Howden, D.G. 141 Kobayashi, T. 1 4 2 ^
Goldak,J.A. 515 Howell, PR. 434-6, 441 Kotler, G.R. 320, 326, 398-9
Goolsby, R.D. 306 Hu, H. 337-8, 342-3, 345,430 Kou, S. 27, 75-6, 96, 99, 105, 228,
Greenwood, J.A. 15 Hultgren, R. 3 250, 264-5, 272, 377, 453, 455,
Grest, G.S. 380 Hunderi, O. 337, 341-2, 380 458
Gretoft, B. 147, 422-8
Krauklis, P. 435-6, 441-4
Grevillius, N.F. 182, 185, 188
Kraus, H.G. 228
Krauss, G. 418 Mills, K.C. 96, 99,105,228 P
Kubaschewski, O. 159 Milner, D.R. 141 Paauw, AJ. 446, 503
Kuroda, T. 547 Miranda, R.M. 374-5 Pabi, S.K. 326
Kurz, W. 221, 234, 242, 251, 259, Mitra, U. 171-2 Pakrasi, S. 413
260-1,265-6,270,274 Mizuno, M. 284 Pan, Y-T. 504
Kuwabara, M. 146 Moisio, T. 290 Pande, C S . 339
Kuwana, T. 142-4 Mondolfo, L.F. 2A2-A Pardo, E. 247, 273
Kvaale, FE. 414-15, 419, 504 Mori, N. 187-8 Pargeter, RJ. 428, 440, 477-8, 485,
Morigaki, 0.146 493, 504
Morral, J.E. 413 Patterson, B.R. 339
L Mossinger, R. 554 Pepe,JJ. 541
Lancaster, J.F. 118, 120, 162, 187 Mundra, K. 210 Petch,NJ. 512
Lanzillotto, C.A.N. 452, 505 Munitz, A. 267 Petty-Galis, J.L. 306
Le, Y. 27, 75-6, 265 Murray, J.L. 203 Phillip, R.H. 444
Lee, D.Y. 444 Muzzolani, F.M. 547,550,552 Phillips, H.W.L. 543
Lee, J.-L. 504 Myers, RS. 26 Pickering, RB. 301, 303, 452, 479,
Lei, T.C. 505 Myhr, O.R. 26, 61, 73-5, 77, 314, 505
Li, W.B. 345, 367 327-30, 360, 458-62, 464, 496, Pitsch, W. 436-7
Lifshitz, J.M. 314, 351 547-9,550-5 Plockinger, E. 186
Lindborg,U. 170, 182-3, 185 Porter, D.A. 247,309,389,392,403,
Liu, J.Z. 505 408,413,427,429,435,448
N
Liu, S. 251, 292-3,412,422-3,428, Pottore,N.S.290
Naess, OJ. 503
435-6,441,497 Priestner, R. 451
Nagai, T. 380
Liu, Y. 339 Pugin, A.I. 556-7
Nakagawa,H. 131, 133, 134
Loberg, B. 303
Nakata, K. 271
Lohne, O. 380,459,541
Nes,E. 337, 341-2, 380
Long, CJ. 533, 535 R
Nicholson, R.B. 548
Lucke,K. 337, 340-1,345 Ramachandran, S. 190-1, 204
Niles, R.W. 89
Lutony, MJ. 380 Ramakrishna, V. 151, 162, 174-5,
Nilles,P. 180
179, 191
Nordgren, A. 303
Ramberg, M. 450-1, 505-6
North, T.H. 171
M Ramsay, CW. 480
Nowicki,A. 171
Maitrepierre, Ph. 414 Rappaz, M. 236, 239, 241, 260
Nylund, H.K. 438
Marandet, B. 435, 440, 480, 482 Rath, B.B. 337-8, 342-3, 345
Marder,A.R.451 Ravi Vishnu, P. 500, 502
Marthinsen, K. 380 O Reif, W. 380
Martins, G.P. 182, 185-6, 192-3 O'Brien, J.E. 143, 145 Reiso, O. 541-3
Martukanitz, R.P. 459 Odland, PT. 480 Reti,T. 501-2
Matlock, D.K. 193, 195, 201, 413, Ohkita, S. 203, 444-5, 504-5 Ribes, A. 435, 440, 480, 482
422-3, 428, 432, 435, 440-1, Ohno, S. 143 Riboud, PV. 480, 482
477-8, 480, 485, 488, 491, 493, Ohshita, S. 103, 104,496,515 Ribound, PV. (Riboud ?) 435, 440
504 Ohta, S. 380 Ricks, R.A. 434-5, 436, 441
Matsuda, F. 131, 133, 134, 233, 271 Okumura, M. 103, 104 Ringer, S.P. 345, 367
Matsuda, S. 203, 208, 319, 444-5, Okumura, N. 208, 319 Rollett, A.D. 380
504-5 Olsen, K. 500, 502 Roper, J.R. 229
Matsuda, Y. 505-6 Olson, D.L. 171,173-4,176-9,181- Rorvik, G. 247-8, 250-4, 256, 292-
Matsunawa, A. 96, 99, 105 2, 185-6, 192-3, 422-3, 428, 4, 430, 446-9, 495-6, 499,503,
Mazzolani, F.M. 458 436,441,480,497,500,502 507, 525
McKnowlson, P 15 Onsoien, M.I. 479, 448-9, 495-6, Rose, R. 516
McMahon, CJ. 418 525 Rosenthal, D. 26, 28, 31, 33, 38, 41,
McPherson, R. 244, 247 Oreper, G.M. 96, 99, 105, 228 48, 51, 56, 59-61, 76, 98, 133,
McQueen, HJ. 464 Oriani, R.A. 514 360
McRobie, D.E. 486 Orr, R.L. 3 Roux, R. 140
Mehl, R.F. 408, 436-7 Ostrom, G. 533 Rykalin, N.N. 18, 21, 26, 41, 45, 56,
Metals Handbook 3, 545 0verlie, H.G. 541 93,95, 556-7
Midling, O.T. 465-6, 556-8, 560-3 Owen, W.S. 450 Ryum, N. 326,337,341-2,345,347,
Miller, R.L. 449-50 Ozturk,B. 156 349,367,380,382,390,396,403,
Mills, A.R. 435, 440 541-3
S T W
Saetre, T.O. 380, 382 Takalo,T.290 Wagner, C 201, 314, 351
Saggese, ME. 208-10, 435,440 Tamehiro, H. 496 Wahlster, M. 186
Sagmo, G. 97 Tamura, 1.405,420-1 Walsh, R. A. 190-1,204
Saito, S. 103, 104 Tanigaki, T. 146 Walton, D.T. 380
Sakaguchi, A. 284 Tanzilli, R.A. 326 Wang, YH. 96, 99, 105, 228
Savage, W.F. 541 Tardy, P. 501-2 Weatherly, G.C. 303, 323
Schaeffler, A.L. 533 Tensi, H.M. 21,25 Welding Handbook 24
Scheil, E. 403 Thaulow, C. 503 Welz, W. 21,25
Schriever, U. 380 Themelis, NJ. 120,162,183,187,281, Whelan,MJ. 319, 356
Schumacher, J.E 162 284 Whiteman, J.A. 208-10, 435, 440
Schwan,M.21,25 Therrien,A.E.434,480 Widgery, DJ. 480-1
Scott, MH. 544-5 Thewlis, G. 203,435,440-1 Willgoss, R.A. 132
Seah,MR414 Thivellier, D. 414 Williams, J.C 533
Seay, E.B. 96, 99, 105 Thomas, G. 505 Williams, TM. 414
Senda, T. 233 Thompson, A.W. 480,512 Wolstenholme, D.A. 174
Shackleton, D.N. 166-7 Thompson, CV. 380 Woods, WE. 279, 285
Shaller,F.W.509,512 Tichelaar, G.W. 156 Worner, CH. 342-3
Shen, H.P. 505 Tjotta, S. 459,460 Wriedt, H.A. 203
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Metallurgical

MATERIALS MODELLING SERIES

First edition (Book 557)

The Institute of Materials 1997

ISBNl 86125 036 3

Trondheim, 28 October, 1996

Trondheim, 1 December, 1993

Preface to the Second Edition ........................................................ xiii

Preface to the First Edition ............................................................. xiv

1. Heat Flow and Temperature Distribution in Welding ........... 1

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. vi

1.10.3.3 Simplified Solution for a Fast Moving High

2. Chemical Reactions in Arc Welding ...................................... 116

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2.5 The Concept of Pseudo-equilibrium .......................................... 122

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2.10.1.6 Classification of Shielding Gases ................ 166

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2.12.4 Prediction of Inclusion Composition ............................. 204

3. Solidification Behaviour of Fusion Welds ............................ 221

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3.6 Equiaxed Dendritic Growth ....................................................... 268

4. Precipitate Stability in Welds ................................................. 301

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4.3 Particle Coarsening ................................................................... 314

5. Grain Growth in Welds ........................................................... 337

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5.3.3 Grain Growth Mechanisms .......................................... 345

6. Solid State Transformations in Welds ................................... 387

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6.2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation in Solids ............................ 389

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6.3.7 Bainite .......................................................................... 444

7. Properties of Weldments ........................................................ 477

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7.2.1.5 Effects of Reheating on Weld Metal

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7.4.3.1 Effects of Reheating on Weld Properties ..... 547

8. Exercise Problems with Solutions ......................................... 571

Index .............................................................................................. 595

Author Index ................................................................................. 602

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Welding metallurgy is concerned with the application of well-known metallurgical principles

High peak temperatures, up to several thousand 0 C.

It follows that a quantitative analysis of metallurgical reactions in welding requires detailed

1.2 Non-Steady Heat Conduction

For biaxial and triaxial heat conduction we may write by analogy:1

1.3 Thermal Properties of Some Metals and Alloys

Material (WrTIm-10C-1) (mm2 s"1) (Jmnr 3 0C"1) (0C) (J mnr 3 ) (J mnr 3 )

Carbon 0.040 8 0.005 1520 7.50 2.0

Does not include the latent heat of melting (AH1n).

1.4 Instantaneous Heat Sources

(i) Plane source in a long rod (Fig. 1.3a):

(ii) Line source in a wide plate (Fig. 1.3b):

(iii) Point source in a heavy slab (Fig. 1.3c):

In order to obtain a general survey of the thermal programme, it is convenient to write

where Tc is the chosen reference temperature.

where tt is the arc ignition time.

— Dimensionless operating parameter:

— Dimensionless radius vector:

By substituting these parameters into equation (1-8), we obtain:

3-D heat flow

e/n Linear time scale