CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

I. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

A. DEFINITIONS
1.1 Growth - change in size, quantitative change
1.2 Development - change in capacity, qualitative change series of changes affected by maturation
1.3 Learning - change for the better; aspect of development that connotes modification of behavior which
results from practice and experience

B. PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Early foundations are critical
2. Maturation and learning play important roles in development
3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern(cephalocaudal & proximo distal)
4. All individuals are different
5. Each phase of development has its hazards
6. Development is aided by stimulation
7. Development is affected by cultural changes
8. There are social expectations for every stage of development
9. Each phase of development has characteristic patterns of behavior

C. FACTORS
1. Heredity - Maturation - Nature
2. Environment - Learning - Nurture

D. STAGES IN THE LIFE SPAN

The Life span is arbitrarily divided, for purposes of research and speculation, into segments with each
segment being a part of a whole. It is divided into:
1. Prenatal Period – from conception to birth
2. Infancy – from birth to the end of the second week
3. Babyhood – after end of the second week to end of the second year
4. Early Childhood – after two to six years
5. Late Childhood – after six to ten or twelve years
6. Preadolescence or Puberty – from ten to or twelve or thirteen or fourteen years
7. Adolescence - after thirteen or fourteen years to eighteen years
8. Early Adulthood – after eighteen to thirty-five years
9. Middle Adulthood – after thirty-five to sixty-five years
10. Late Adulthood or Senescence (Old Age) – after sixty-five years to death

E. DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

Babyhood ad Early Childhood

• Learning to take food
• Learning to walk
• Learning to talk
• Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
• Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
• Getting ready to read
• Learning to distinguish right and wrong and learning to develop a conscience

Late Childhood
• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
• Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as a growing organism
• Learning to get along with age-mates
• Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles
• Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
• Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
• Developing conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale of values
• Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions
• Achieving personal independence
Adolescence
• Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates or both sexes
 • Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
• Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
• Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior
• Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
• Preparing for an economic career
• Preparing for marriage and family life
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior- developing an
ideology
Early Adulthood
• Getting started in an occupation
• Selecting a mate
• Learning to live with a marriage partner
• Starting a family
• Rearing children
• Managing a home
• Taking on civic responsibility
• Finding a congenial social group
Middle Age
• Achieving adult, civic, and social responsibility
• Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
• Developing adult leisure time activities
• Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
• Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age
• Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career
• Adjusting to aging parents
Old Age
• Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
• Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
• Adjusting to death of spouse
• Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s age group
• Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements
• Adapting to social roles in a flexible way

II. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Psychosexual - Freud
2. Psychosocial - Erikson
3. Moral Development – Kohlberg
4. Cognitive Development – Piaget
5. Emotional – Goleman
1. Self Awareness 2. Self Management
3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management

6. Multiple Intelligence - Gardner

1. Word smart - Linguistic
2. Number smart - Mathematical Visual
3. Picture smart – Spatial
4. Self-smart - Intrapersonal
5. Person smart – Interpersonal
6. Body smart - Bodily /kinesthetic
7. Music smart - Musical/Rhythmic
8. Nature smart – Environmentalist
9. Spirit smart - Existentialist / Philosopher
7. RECIPROCATING INFLUENCES
Richard Q. Bell (1979) focused on the mutually interactive effects of the mother and child.
Robert Cairns (1998) points out, the idea of bidirectionality does not assume that parents and children exercise
equal influences over each other.
Bell’s model has made us aware that socialization depends on the reciprocal influences of each person in the
system on every other person.
 8. FAMILY SYSTEM MODEL
Patricia Minuchin’s (1985) family system model underscores the bidirectional influences and reciprocal
relationships among all family members.
Minuchin’s model underscores that children’s socialization depends on the reciprocal influences of each person
in the system.
9. ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT
BRONFENBRENNER - stress that development takes place in a variety of contexts that extend from the
immediate physical environment of the child.
a. THE MICROSYSTEM
It includes family, peers, school, and neighborhood
b. THE MESOSYSTEM
It includes links between home, school, and neighborhood.
c. THE EXOSYSTEM
Consists of settings that do not include the child but that affect the child, such as city
government, the workplace, school board, and mass media.
d. THE MACROSYSTEM
Involves the dominant attitudes and ideologies of the child’s culture
e. THE CHRONOSYSTEM
Patterns of stability and change in children’s environment over time.
10. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO CULTURAL CONTEXTS
Lev Vygotsky (1898 – 1934) – made culture an important feature in his theory. His theory emphasized the
collective wisdom of each culture that is then passed on to its children.
Culture reflects the values, ideals, and beliefs of a particular group of people that are passed on from one
generation to the next.
Zone of proximal development. Vygotsky’s phrase to describe the range of skills a child has not yet mastered,
but could accomplish with the assistance provided by adults and more knowledgeable peers.
Scaffolding
More knowledgeable other

I11. THEORIES OF LEARNING

A. Behavioral Approach
1. Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
2. Operant Conditioning - Skinner
3. Behaviorist Conditioning – Watson
4. Connectionism Conditioning - Thorndike
5. Purposive Behaviorism - Tolman
6. Observational Learning - Bandura
B. Humanistic Approach
Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow

C. Cognitive Approach
1. Gestalt Insight theory - Max Wertheiner – founder
- Wolfgang Kohler
- Kurth Koffka
2. Information processing – information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory
memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the (STM)
Short Term Memory and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the (LTM)
Long Term Memory. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the
information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.
3. Constructivist Theory - Jerome Bruner SPIRAL curriculum
The ability to represent knowledge develops in (3) three stages
1. Enactive representation –represent objects in terms the immediate sensation
2. Iconic representation – learning can be obtain through the use of pictures,
models and mental images
3. Symbolic representation- the ability to think in abstract terms
4. Meaningful Verbal Learning- David P. Ausubel
Knowledge is hierarchically organized , that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related
to what is already known
Four (4) Processes in SUBSUMPTION
1. Derivative Subsumption- new information as an example of what you have learned
2. Correlative Subsumption- you change or expand the concept
3. Superordinate Learning- from specific concept to general terms
4. Combinatorial Learning- learning by analogy
Types of Advance Organizers
1. Expository 2. Narrative 3. Skimming 4. Graphic Organizers
5. Conditions of Learning – Gagne
Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute its conditions
NINE INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS
1. Gaining Attention (Reception) 6. Eliciting Performance (Responding)
2. Informing the Learners of the Objectives(Expectancy) 7. Providing Feedback(Reinforcement)
3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning(Retrieval) 8. Assessing Performance (Evaluation)
4. Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) 9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer
5. Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) (Generalization)

1V. LANDMARKS OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Physical / Motor Development
Nervous System, Muscular, Endocrine Glands, Physique
2. Cognitive Development
Speech, Understanding
3. Social Development
Social Individual, Gregarious Inference of Social Group Gang
4. Moral Development
Morality, Discipline, Recreational Activitie

Learning / Thinking Styles

I. Sensory Preferences
1. Visual Learners- (Visual Iconic and Visual Symbolic)
2. Auditory Learners (Listeners and Talkers)
3. Tactile / Kinesthetic - hands on approach

II. Global-Analytic Continuum

1. Global – Forest Seers
2. Analytic – Tree Seers

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to Word Meaning 2. Responds to Tone of Voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes Information Linearly 4. Processes Information in Varied Order
5. Responds to Logic 5. Responds to Emotion
6. Plans Ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls Peoples Names 7. Recalls Peoples Faces
8. Speaks with Few Gestures 8. Gestures when Speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less Punctual
10. Prefers Formal Study Design 10. Prefers sounds, music background while
studying
11. Prefers bright lights while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

V. EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Physical Disabilities 4. Sensory Impairments
2. Mental Retardation 5. Learning Disabilities
3. Behavioral Disabilities

Impairment – deceased or defective tissue (hearing and visual)

Disability - reduction of function or absence of a particular body part or organ
Handicap - refers to the problems that an impaired or disabled person might have met in
interacting with the environment

A. Classification of Physical Disability

1. Orthopedic Impairment- bone and muscular defect
 1.1 Poliomyelitis – infantile paralysis caused by virus
1.2. Osteomyelitis – tuberculosis of the bone and spine
1.3. Bone Fracture – breaks in the continuity of bones
1.4. Muscular Dystrophy – deterioration of the muscles

2. Neuro-Muscular Impairments – defects of the nerve and muscle system

2.1. Cerebral Palsy – non progressive alteration of movement or motor functioning
2.2. Erb’s Palsy – “birth palsy” paralysis of the muscles of the shoulders, arms and
hands
2.3.Congenitally Crippled – crippling conditions at birth
2.3.1 Clubfoot – deformed feet accompanied by webbed toes
2.3.2.Clubhand – deformed hand and fingers
2.3.3. Polydactylism – with extra toes or fingers
2.3.4. Syndactylism – webbed fingers or toes

B. MENTAL RETARDATION
1. MILD - educability in academic subjects at a minimum level
- educability in social adjustment and can get along independently
- minimal occupational adequacies and can latter support himself

2.M0DERATE – not educable in academic achievement but with self help skills,
social adjustment in the family economic usefulness in the home

3. SEVERE – can be trained in health habits and may contribute partially to self maintenance
under complete supervision

4. PROFOUND – unable to be trained in total self care and need continued help in taking care
of their personal needs

C. BEHAVIORAL DISABILITIES

1. Emotional Disturbance – psychosocial problems or impairment

(SED) Seriously Emotionally Disturbed
2. Schizophrenia – psychotic disorder characterized by distorted thinking
3. Autism – psychotic condition characterized by bizarre behavior. Extreme social isolation
and delayed development
4. ADHD – (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)
5. Paranoid – extreme fear
6. Narcistic – extreme love of self
7. Anti Social – has no friends
8. Dependent – can not make simple decisions for oneself
9. Acting Child – full of pretense
10. Withdrawn – extreme shyness

D. LEARNING DISABILITIES
Considered as hidden disability characterized by poor academic performance, delayed physical development
accompanied by academic, social and psychological problems.
a. DYSARTHRIA - STUTTERING
b. DYSGRAPHIA - WRITING
c. MOTOR APHASIA - SPEAKING
d. VISUAL AGNOSIA - SIGHT
e. AUDITORY AGNOSIA - HEARING
f. OLFACTORY AGNOSIA - SMELLING
g. DISCALCULIA - MATH
h. DYSLEXIA - READING

E. SENSORY IMPAIRMEN
1. Visual Handicaps (Visual impairment and Blindness)
VISUAL ACUITY PROBLEMS
- POOR SIGHT
- AMBLYOPIA (LAZY EYE)
 - HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS)
- MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS)
- ASTIGMATISM
- CATARACT
- GLAUCOMA

2, Hearing Impaired (Slight, Mild, Moderate, Severe, Profound)

Can be classified as Prelingual and Postlingual
Classified as Prelingual and Postlingual

SUMMARY OF FREUD’S AND ERIKSON’S THEORIES

OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Freud’s Stages of Childhood Erickson’s Stages of Childhood
Psychosexual Stage Implications Developmental Tasks Implications
Infant Oral Stage Child explores Provide oral stimulation by Developmental task is to Name a primary care giver.
the world by using the giving pacifiers, do not form a sense of trust vs. Provide experiences that
mouth, especially the discourage thumb sucking. mistrust. Child learns to add to security, such as soft
tongue. Lack of oral Breast-feeding may provide love and be loved. sounds and touch. Provide
experiences now may lead more stimulation’s than visual stimulation for active
to alcoholism or obesity formula feeding. As it child involvement.
(oral dependence) later in requires the infant to
life expand more energy
Toddler Anal Stage Child learns to Help children achieve Developmental task is to Provide opportunities for
control urination and bowel and bladder control form a sense of autonomy decision-making such as
defecation. Constipation or without undue emphasis on vs. shame. Child learns to offering choices of clothes
obsessive-compulsive its importance. If at all be independent and make to wear or toys to play with.
personality may become possible, continue bowel decisions for self. Praise for ability to make
chronic problems in later and bladder training while decisions rather than
life from effects of this child is hospitalized. judging correctness of any
period. one decision.
Pre-schooler Phallic Stage Child learns Accept child’s sexual Developmental task is it Provide opportunities for
sexual identity through interest, such as fondling form a sense of initiative exploring new places or
awareness of genital area. his or her own genitals, as a vs. guilt. Child learns how activities. Allow play to
Difficulty with sexual normal area of exploration. to do things (basic problem include activities such as
identity and authority Help parents answer solving) and that doing water, modeling, clay, or
figures may become questions about birth or things is desirable. finger paint.
problems later if period is sexual differences.
interrupted.
School-ager Latent Stage Child’s Help the child have Developmental task is to Provide opportunities such
personality development positive experiences so his form a sense of industry as allowing child to
appears to be non-active or self-esteem continues to vs. inferiority. Child learns assemble supplies for a
dormant. grow and he prepares for how to do things well. dressing change (short
the conflicts of projects finished
adolescence. completely), o that child
feels rewarded for
accomplishment.
Adolescent Genital Stage Adolescent Provide opportunities for Developmental task is to Provide opportunities for
develops sexual maturity the child to relate with form a sense of identify the adolescent to discuss
and learns how to opposite sex, allow child to vs. role confusion. feelings about event
established satisfactory verbalize feelings about Adolescent learns who he important to him. Other
relationship with the new relationships is and what kind of person support for decision-
opposite sex. Negative he will be by adjusting to a making.
experiences may lead to new body image, seeking
unsatisfactory sexual emancipation from parents,
adjustment later, and choosing a vocation, and
problems such as frigidity determining a value
or impotence. system.
6. Intimacy vs Isolation
7. Generativity vs Stagnation
8. Integrity vs Despair

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Age (years) Stage Description Implication

Preconventional
level
1 0 Child does right to gain parent’s approval Praise child for right actions. Consistency
helps build sense of security.
2-3 1 Punishment-obedience orientation. Child does Child needs help to determine right
right either because a parent asks her to or to actions. Give clear instructions to avoid
avoid punishment confusing her.
4-7 2 Instrumental hedonism and concrete Child unable to recognize that like
reciprocity. Child carries out actions to satisfy situations requires like actions. Unable to
own needs rather than society’s Will do take responsibility for self-care, since
something for you if you do something for her. fulfilling own desires more important.

Conventional Level 3 Orientation to interpersonal relations of Child enjoys helping others, as this is “nice
7 - 10 mutuality. Child follows rules as to what is
“nice”
10 - 12 4 Maintenance of social order, fixed rules, and
authority. Child finds following rules satisfying
follows those of authority figures as well as
parents.
behavior. Allow child to help you with bed
making, etc. Give praise for sharing. Etc.
Child often ask what are the rules and if
something is “right”. Has Difficulty
modifying procedures because one method
may not be “right”. Follows self-care
measures only if you are there to enforce
them.

Post conventional 5 Social contact utilitarian lawmaking Can be responsible for self-care, views this
Level Over 12 perspective. Follows standards of society as a standard of adult behavior.

6 Universal ethical principle orientation. Many adults do not reach this level of
Individual follows internalized standards of moral development.
conduct

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Stage of Age
Development Span Implications
Sensorimotor 1 month Stimuli assimilated into beginning mental images: behavior entirely reflective.
Neonatal reflex
Primary circular 1-4 Hand-mouth and ear-eye coordination develop. Infant spends much time looking at objects and
reaction month separating self from them. Beginning intention of behavior present (infant brings thumb to
mouth for a purpose to suck it).
Enjoyable activity for this period: rattle or tape of parent’s voice.
Secondary 4-8 Infant learns to initiate, recognize, and repeat pleasurable experiences from environment.
circular reaction months Memory traces are present, infant anticipates familiar events (a parent coming near him
and will pick him up).
Good toy for this period: mirror, good game: peck-a-boo
Coordination of 8-12 Infant can plan activities to attain specific goals. Perceives that others can cause activity and
secondary months that of own body are separate from activity of objects. Can search for and retrieve toy that
reactions disappear from view. Recognizes shapes and sizes of familiar objects. Because of
increased sense of separateness, infant experiences separation anxiety when primary care
giver leaves him.
Good toy for this period: nesting toys, i.e. colored boxes.
Tertiary circular 12-18 Child is able to experiments to discover new properties of objects and events. Capable of space
reaction months perception and time perception as well as permanence. Objects outside self are understood
as causes of action.
Good games for this period: throw-and-retrieve.
Invention of new 18-24 Transitional phase to the pre-operational thought period. Uses memory and imitation to act.
means through months Can solve or fail.
mental act. Good toys for this period: those with several uses, i.e., blocks, colored plastic rings.
Preoperational 2-7 years Thought becomes more symbolic, child can arrive at answers mentally instead of through
thought physical attempt only. Comprehends simple abstractions but thinking is basically concrete
and literal. Child is egocentric (unable to viewpoints of others). Static thinking (inability
to remember what he started to talk about, so that at end of a sentence, may be talking
about another topic). Concept of time, now, concept of distance, only as far as he can see.
Centering of focusing in a single aspect of an object causes distorted reasoning. No
awareness of reversibility (that for every action there is an opposite action). Unable to
state cause-effect relationships, categories, or abstractions.
Good toy for this period: items that require imagination, such as Play-Doh.
Concrete 7-12 Concrete operations include systematic reasoning. Child uses memory to learn broad concepts
operational years (fruit) and individual aspects of concepts (apples, oranges). Classifications involve sorting
thought objects according to attribute such as color, seriation, in which objects are ordered
according to increasing or decreasing measures such as weight, multiplication, in which
objects are simultaneously classified and seriated using weight. Child is aware of
reversibility, as opposite operation or continuation of reasoning back to a starting point
(follows route thought maze and then reverses steps).
Good activity for this period: collecting and classifying natural objects such as native plants,
seashells, etc.
Expose child to other viewpoints by asking questions such as, “How do you think you’d feel if
you were a nurse and had to tell a boy to stay in bed?”
Formal 12 years Can solve hypothetical problems with scientific reasoning; understands casualty and can deal
operational with past, present, and future. Adult or mature thought.
thought Good activity for this period: “talk time” to sort through attitudes and opinions.