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x ˆ ˆ Ö Œ
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glf [^]qfwe7blgbxyb±z(| [ˆglvf ]=†=bltabpwiƒbl¡„ _qglf”]f”`yiYbˆxg [Yi _?`€ _q] Eb™]b…] af uEhx _qglfYš
A2B Ì2BFC !0S"KqOJ$#SNHRWNMPO=[&% Q B
 pef\]qfx€[YgZ[ªi^]fwe0f}xab’ÇŸ_yiZ[Yg–xab’faf`g^]€[ƒxybf τe > 4, 3.1023[years] rU`*[•—
fhZg []¹k [Ygˆilfw]gˆiYb‚xyb¨xqfilk2p˜“e [wÇhx [Y]g‚p˜b¨ht ]h[ˆg _y€ablxqfÑxab‘]fwbˆ`q®`_^qg•b e− →
rqilkm`t ]fwh` _~€qf(gw^xf.f(p˜bl^² ]ablxqfxaÎb [Yg…ŽéyfuPxabg [Y€y`cb™xyb–ht ]h[Y]hg ]ybˆxq]hgˆilf —
hx _qglf±] _aefh^g ]h_`_=†ç9gZg [lp _ n’bl`qg¨]f^i _cDžu¬b€qf‘gb•vp _3]qfwbˆ`q`® _c^³g ]ƒ^q²ƒiYb
u¬b
γνe
f¤p˜b•o² ]ybˆxfwxyŸb [ˆg±lu ]ŠŽi _cup˜bl*` [ƒx¨p˜b™p˜bˆtcp˜iYblxqfYrag†´fY†Eilk2P€x [ƒiYb•g•b
n9Šxy`q`® _^
xyb…faf`qg ]h[YxaÁb _ye7Áb _yxyiYZb ]`_ablxqgˆ€x [ƒ]Ÿg [Ygˆ€x [ƒ]hhx [ht ]qf [ˆo² ]yb•phŠiYbˆhx _^2ry*` [o_Zg [
xf
]b?]hilk ]p˜bl`x _‹]
`t ]qf [ˆo² ]yb•phŠiYbˆhx _^qg•b?xyb?`t ]€[ƒ]g ]ablxy]gˆZi [l—¥^i ]f˜efhZg [a†¨‡ [ƒiYb?]b
ht ]qf [ˆo² ]yb•phŠiYbˆhx _Ô^ [ˆg™g _ytabš
|ψ >→ eiQΛ|ψ >, ›œ †('ƒ 
`k=uPfhgZ[ Q f­[Ytqf\]ab•gZ[o]ybªxyb’p˜bZ]ƒ^uEb¤xab¤€abl]g^_q®ab•g•bÎ[YgªŽ]Štyblgb _
[ˆgŸ_yxqiƒZb ]`_ybˆxgˆxh[Y]hglgb
] af uEiYbrƀf UQ(1)

[Q, H] = [Q, S] = 0, › œ †*)ƒ 

`k=uPfhgZ[ H _ S ]b;]kø[ˆgˆiˆfhgˆxh[}ŒUbYe“_cagZ[ƒxh_ablxabU_ˆ‹Y—òe7b•g^]h_y®yblgbq†  xyiYb]h_c—
blxqgˆx€[ƒ]glg•bÁ[ˆgYx€[ƒ]hx€[‘t`]f\[ˆ²^]abpŠiYblx`_^qg•b¡[Yg U (1) i[wul_
ul[…p˜bltabpwiƒblxqf(xab
ng_pv_y€f]`cb•g•bªiˆff_y€`_qxab…]k¹[YgˆilfhgY]gˆiYbˆ„–bªxyb QQ _7_aefxyx€[…g•bpv_Iilfhf _yh€ _yxab
f.pbZ]ƒ^cu¬b…xyb™€abl]hg_q®ab•g•b†
ç;gÑ`qiƒblxqgZ[Yiƒb•g•b
e0f ŒUbˆhx _y`cb‘Îf _pwilfw]gˆhx [
€qf¤p˜Zb ]ƒ^uEbxyb±€ybˆ]g _yh® _qglf…f`qiƒblxc—
g•ŠiYbˆx=rP`cblZg []øk [ˆgˆiˆfhgˆhx [™p˜b™iˆ]é^y`cb…€abl]g _y®abLe [˜Çªf(uEb™]f.p˜bˆht _yËf
¼½,+˜½.-0/ˆÂ¥ÄÁ15õ¿ª÷¥¿À=Á$¥ă¿¿ µ32

›œ †ž54N 
`cb•gZ[p˜b@]yb•phf_y€yxh_qglfª€abl]g^_q®`_ fe]abphl_q€yxh[y†¬z.blt`]h_aef\]
q = Nq e
Nq

e− → Nq = +1, e+ → Nq = −1, p → Nq = +1, n → Nq = 0

96 iƒblxqg•ŠiYbˆxgˆf™xab±fyfw`g]`_y€qx`_c^pbZ]ƒ^cuf…th]h[Yiˆf\]fwx€[Ñf`U]htqf\]`_yefwxg•bPx€[~]
e0x€[ƒŽk[Žk[ˆq^Pe7b–gZ[Y€yx€[ƒ]g˜ra`cblgZ[Õ_p˜ef\]qfx`_gˆf’iˆfl_q€`_qx`_]bqš
Nn = (−0, 4 + −1, 1).10−21
Np + Ne < 1, 0.10−21
=bZ]ƒ^uEb…f¤b˜u-_g^_qiYx€[Ñ`qiƒblxqgZ[Yi[€h_y] f[
A2B Ì2BÍÌ 7–MPOJTPHLHLT8#LJLû90T B B
*f˜bl`y®h_`_gˆf p → e+γ _ p → e+π0 xf¨]f~p˜bl²^]ablx^yiYblg
[Ygp˜bˆ`*[Yx`_glf‚p˜b
p˜bltabpwiƒblxqfxybfxqf\]qŽ\_c^ygbqrO_ae0tcŠP]bÒ_ p˜b]ƒ^cu¬br7xh[³iˆkmth]qf``_ g[YiYb glf?xf
]bIxybl²lPëìu¬bliƒbl`x _ f`U]t\f ]`_aefxqgb•ahx [yrÆ*` [ˆfhgZ[¨iZ[wul_uf[xabl_y€h_qfhgZ[§xybIxh[Yi[
`qiƒblxqZg [Yi [±h€ _y] f [™—°²NZb ]`_€[ƒxfx~p˜Zb ]ƒ^um†;:ìb ]h_h[Yxyhx _^p˜b ]ƒ^cu?]hf9uPf(n _q`x _h]ab‘ht [
] yfuP`x _c^‚xab˜h€ _yx2š
< žˆrp˜b–²ƒb ]h_h[Y`x _
—_žYrPblxqg _²NZb ]`_€[ƒhx _
B=
4rp˜b–aftqZg [Y`x _
`cb•Zg [7_q]`cbˆef`t ]h_¦]qfwbl`y`® _h_‚u¬bÎf _pwtqk2axqfx‚p˜bl*` [ƒxp˜b‘p˜bltpwiƒblxqfxyb²ƒZb ]`_c—
[Yxy€x [YZg [±`€ _q] f [yš
› œ †žˆž˜ 
`k=uPfhgZ[.=*[ˆpwxabw€abliƒb“xyb˜€abPx€[YgZ[.]km]hgZ[˜^yx`_f › =?>@=BAC=ED9FÍ »rbHG—*`JIabl«yxLKYgMK ›ON >@D9FÍ »†
∆B = Bf − Bi = 0,

ÏPIqf3KY²QIabphŠiƒblx@Rc^ygb¨xyb¨ilk2PxJKYiYblgb?n(Šxq`y®@Rc^Ê]hiˆkSIcp˜bˆxJR‹]km]‘p˜bltabpwiƒblxqf —
gMKxyb
²NbMI@RLKƒxqxJKˆgMK¨€JRy] TKURae7blgI]hkm„VR^§iQRUuÉ`cbˆ`g9KtJI@R§p˜bˆtyb•pwiYbˆxfhg9KÑxab
p˜bMIƒ^uEbqš
µW ·¸l¹»ºh¹“¼h½–¾y¿À=ÁÝă¿¿

|ψ >→ eiBΛ |ψ > ›œ †ž˜¡ˆ 

A2B Ì2BEX Y§SNQKyTPHHT8#Jû9T L B
\ t@I@RJIJKwuEblgb‘]wbVKYgˆ`@IJRqg9R?g9I@R‚tJKY`"Klafx@Rc^~aftqgMKYx@R2rP`"KQRqgMK±]b
e µ τ
νe νµ ντ
c` b•gMKÉtLK‹blxabTKYŽ3R^ ]I²ƒb9IJRJKYxyxLKYgMK‹€JRy] TK³eZK˜ÇªfÑu¬b]f~ilkmiˆf uPf
pbl`"KYxÊp˜b
p˜bltabpwiƒblxqfxybÊaftg9KYxyxLKYgMKo€JRy] TK\[r `"Kˆfhg9K ]fuafn]RyxJR@Iyb tJK ] af uExJR^
xyb˜€@Rqx2š
< žYrp˜bªyftqgMKƒxJR
—_žYrablxqg9RcaftqgMKYx@R
L=
4rp˜b…iY]3Rq€y`@R^KY]hgbˆxyb•TR€abl]hg9Rq®@R
ÏPI@Raef5I
p˜bt@I@RcTK˜Çªfx@Rf’xyb¤p˜bl`"Kƒxybp˜b¤p˜bltabpwiƒblxqf(xab¤aftqgMKYxyxLKYgMK‘€JRy] TK
]b…] yfuPx@Rgˆf_Ifwbˆ`q®@R@R=š
n → p + e + νe
RcR
νe + p → e + + n
`k=uPfhgMK L(n) = 0, L(p) = 0, L(e−) = +1, L(ν ) = −1 †
` `"K¤p˜bˆ`"KYxab”p˜b.p˜bˆtyb•pwiYbˆxf}xyb’yftqgMKƒxqxJKˆgMK™€@Rq] eTKª]f;t@IJREblŽ b.p˜b¤iˆ]5Rq€c—
`JR Ž3IcŠt@RÐaftqgMKYx@R f uPxJKYiQIf˜efxyxLKgMK gMKYŽ bliƒb§g9Iƒ^q²ƒiYb¨u¬b]b¨pb•²QIablxqfx@R
Ifwbˆ`q®@R@RaKˆg~i9RcuEb π+ → µ+ν r‰xLKIg•bl`@Rqiƒb
]hf–xab•²lPëìu¬bliƒb•gbR¨p˜b•g9KYiYb±p˜b—
`"KYxab9pb9pbltabpwiƒblxqf4]f}eZKwuRyncRyµ®@RJIab¤`cb•g9KRpdRy]h`yiYblxqfhgMK¤f4gMKY«‘uEb.f“i”]5RcEb
]bˆeZK…p˜beKYghuPfPxJRqglfŽ3IŠtJRJK™aftg9KYx@R=†a‡bl`cb™]f”ilkmiˆfDžuEblg‘g9IJR¨i9RcuEbªaftc—
gMKYxyxJR?€@Rq] Ebš
< žˆr e− f νe < žYr µ− f νµ < žˆr τ − f ντ
Le = −1, e+ f νe +f +f
4qrqp˜beKY]g•blxabRgˆf Lµ = −1, 4rqp˜µbeKY]hgνbˆµxyb•TRqglf Lτ = −1, 4rqpτbVKƒ]g•νblτxabRglf
 ¼ ½,+˜½.-0/ˆÂ¥ÄÁ15õ¿ª÷¥¿À=Á$¥ă¿¿ µhg
`"KQRqgMK.gQIƒ^q²Yiƒb4u¬b9]fìp˜bˆtyb•pwiYblg9tLKQKˆguafhaxJK]RªgMKYŽ bliƒb9]g•bliƒb•g(iˆk2p˜eZK˜ÇxJRiIqf —
bl`y®JR@R^KYg‘g9Rqtab µ− → e−ν ν †
=bltabpwiƒblxqfhgMK§xybaftg9KYexyxLµKYgMK€JRy] TK§f±]hilkSIp˜bˆxLK?]‘Šx@Rg•bMIyxJR tJIqf3Kˆ²l—
Iyb•phŠiYbˆxJR^^Kˆg‘Ž3IŠtyblgb U (1) š
L

|ψ >→ eiLΛ|ψ > . ›œ †žŃ 

A2B Ì2B?j kKOMPHLHLT¬ûˆK S B
l(bˆ]g9Ry®JRqglfъ€abl]gˆiƒbl„eRÊi§]3RcPx@RÐi•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^Ê]f
xabMI@Ry€yblg b˜u;ILKƒxJR2r
`cb•gMKdtJI@R{]3Rax@Rgˆf³i•pbMRaeZKwuaf5Ry]gˆiQRc^mKˆgˆxJKYi9K iˆk2pwx@Rq`yiYblgnIabpdIqfËfwxJRoR
p˜b•²pIybˆxfx@RbIqfwbl`y®JR@R2rq`"KpRg9K™xqf¤eZKYŽ b•gªuEb–]f”]hilkSIƒÇ…blg‘](tJKlpwxab•g…p˜bˆ`"KYx
p˜b
p˜bltabpwiƒblxqfY†q‡Lbˆ`cb™xybˆtJI@Rye0f5I~f`U]htqf5I@Rye0fxg•bPxJK]fcKƒtJIqf uPfy^2rs€qfYš
f¤xybl²lPëìu¬b•fwe7bqIqfwbˆ`q®@Rc^*†
π − + p → K 0 + Λ0
f”xqfxab•²ˆaë uEblfwe7bqIqfwbl`y®JR^2†
π − + p → K − + Σ+
f¤xfxab•²ˆaë uEblfwe7biIf˜bl`y®JR^2†
π− + p → K − + p
f¤xab•²lPëìu¬b•f˜e7bqIf˜bl`y®JR^2†
=b™u¬bÑeZKYŽ b•g™u¬b
]f_Kˆ²˜^a]hxc^yg±glfhpdR§xybl²lPëìuPfxJR^i
]3RPxJRqglf–ilp˜bMRaeZKwuPf —
π− + p → n + K + + K −
Rq]gYi9R^±]f“iˆkmilfDžu¬b’xLKƒiMKb˜u;Rqg9RqiYxLK–`qiƒblxqgMKYi9Kª€JRy] TK.—L]g9IablxyxLKƒ]g˜rN`"K˜^ygMK
]f9uPfn]Rqx@R@Iyb‘tJK] af uExJR^‚xyb˜€@Rqx2š
S(π) = 0; S(K) = +1; S(K) = −1; S(p) = S(n) = 0

S(Σ+,−,0) = S(Λ0 ) = −1; S(Θ0,−) = −2

= bl`"KYxabp˜b‘pbltabpwiƒblxqf–xab
]hg9IybˆxqxJKY]hglgbI]hf¤uPfncRyx@RJIabIilkmiÑi9RcuEb ∆S = 0
R~frRcpwtqk2Pxfx~i‘]5RcPxJRqglfilp˜bMRaeZKwuafw«q]gYi9R^2†
ÏPKYx^y`"KYŽ biƒef]g9K?]gQIybˆxqxJKY]g§]fÑilkmilfhǖu¬b~uIŠŽhKb˜u;Rg9RyiˆxJK`qiƒblxqgMK•—
iMK€@Rq] TKyrmxyb9If€qfxJKUs JQSNOWNMPO=[t% u r2`"KˆfhgMK¨]f…p˜b˜u¬bliƒbIilkmi~i9Rcu¬b Y =
R]f°p˜bltabpwiƒbr˜`"KYŽ b•g9K9]f5p˜bltabpwiƒb•g}²ƒb9IJRJKYxyxJKˆgMK(€@Ry] @KcR]g9IablxyxLKƒ]g—
gbq† È.Rytf5Ip˜b9Iƒ^cu¬b™f¤]hilkSIp˜blx‚]”t@Iqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYbˆxJR^vKˆgŽ5IcŠtab•g•b U (1) ry`cb•g9K
B +S
tJIqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYbˆxfgMKxyb™iˆk2axJKYiQRgˆf’n(Šxy`q®@RJR?]g•bliƒb™tLK] af uExJR^‚Yxabw€@Ryx=š
øxw ·¸l¹»ºh¹“¼h½–¾y¿À=ÁÝă¿¿

|ψ >→ eiY.Λ|ψ > › œ †ž£U 

\°kmt@If`@R‘ilkmiˆfDžuEbˆxfgMK”xab9ŒJRqtqf5Ip˜bMIƒ^uEb.]b.ilk2p˜eyKwÇx@RqIfwbˆ`q®@R@R‘`"KQRc—
gMK(xqfìŽ3K4pbltabpwiƒb•g˜r˜`cblgMK(xablt@IJRaef5I_zqfwbˆ`q®@RJRqglf Λ0 → pπ− R K 0 → π+π− r
p˜b”`"KQRqgMKª]g•bMIyxqxJKY]hglgbªxf}]f4p˜bltabp˜iYbrYxJKi9IqfwefhgMK’pb.t@IJKˆg9Ry€ybˆxf9xab”glfp{R
Ifwbˆ`q®@R@R–f τ ∼ 10−10| r˜uKY`cblgMK”g9Rqt@Ry€qx@Rgˆf}iQIf˜efxab“p˜b9]5RcPxJRqglf“i•p˜b9RyeZKl—
uaf5Ry]gˆiQRc^]b ∼ 10−23 †•ç9€qfiQRUuExLK}€qf°]g9IablxyxJKY]glg•b}]f,p˜bltabpwiƒb"t@IJR¤]5RcEeyR
R±faf`qg9IJKƒe7bˆŽhxJRqgˆx@RIi•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^2rƒuTKƒ`cb•gMK…tJI@RI] Pbl²QRqglf › τ ∼ 10−10  
]f”xabMIŠË–bˆiYb…g•bpdR‚]3Rye0fhg9I@Rc^*†
6;Pbˆ]3Rqn]Ry`cbl®@Rc^ygb xyb b˜u;RgQRqiYxJRqglf‹`qiƒblxqgMKYiQR €@Ry] Pb}Rú]hk&KˆgYilfhgˆx@Rqglf
p˜bl`"KƒxJRIpbpbltabpwiƒblxqf’eZK˜Çªf.u¬b™]f’xybˆtJIabliQRtLK]ai•uPx@Rc^‚xab˜€JRyx2š
~ ZEMPHLKqT¬ZET8#JûM0T  € P‚ ƒ„€ … €
%,M %7M ,% M
Q
%,M %7M %7M
B
RcR Y %,M %7M HS
S
†ˆ‡ D9‰Ã¦ %,M %7M HLS
ŠŒ‹dDMLAŽ %,M %7M HLS
$‰‘’A ‡ %,M %7M HLS
`k=uPfhgMK‹J“ r”–•—“RP˜™“JKlpwxab˜€ybˆiYblg4]ktKˆgˆiˆfhgˆxJK“]3RPxJR”i•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRc^ › ‹"AC‰›šQ>Jœ
“>pAž‹5‰žDMŸAC= šp> |  »rhfyfw`g9IJKƒe,blŽhx@RgYxJR¤ilp˜bMRaeZKwuafw«q]gYi9R^ › ”ZF ‹dŸAC‰¡šL•vD¢œQ>J‹hAC=?Ÿ£“>pAž‹5‰žDMŸAC= šp> |  
R] Eb•²QR‚i•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^ › ˜8‹dDˆêb“>pA‘‹d‰‘D9ŸAC= šp> |  »†
` uRqg9Ryiˆx@Rgˆf™`yiYbˆxg9KYi9R§€@Rq]Pb †£‡ DM‰Ã¦‚rtŠ–‹{DMLAŽvR¤$‰‘’A ‡ ]fiˆkmilfDžu¬b•g
tLK…]km„VR^qgxab˜€JRyx=rtLK–`"KY«qgMK…iˆkmilf uKwŒyef!KY]g•blxabRqglfcR
]k&KYgˆilfhgY]gˆiYblg–xab
p˜bl`"KƒxJR
p˜b¤p˜bltabpwiƒblxqfYr"Rpwtk2PxqfxJRI]bYeZK–t@I@RÑ]5RcPxJRqglf]R
fhyf`qg9IJKƒe7bˆŽhx@Rg—
xJRqglfi•pbMRaeZKwuaf«y]gˆiQRc^*†
6(iYblxqgMKƒi9Rqglf±€@Rq] Ebr¥KYgŽhKQIyxab•g•bIgbl²lRq®ab^IabpTRy€qx@R¦KYg—§ R¨Š]hf…xab
IJRy€yblg©KY„ªf.ª;D5«QšpJ‰ò—R=†
 ¼ ½,+˜½.-0/ˆÂ¥ÄÁ15õ¿ª÷¥¿À=Á$¥ă¿¿ ød¬
A2B Ì2BÍA ­¨WƒTEûYQLJH B
` `"KÑt@ILKYgMKYxab®R¨xqfŠcg9IJKYxab±]hfVIyb•pwŽéyfDžu¬b•gÑi¯Iabˆe0`@Rgˆf–xab]3Rax@Rqglf–ilp˜bMRc—
eZKwuaf«y]gˆiQRc^*ragMK
glfªeZKYŽ b•g…u¬b]hf]KY²ˆf u;Ryxc^yg±i‘f uExyb€ybˆ]g9Ry®yb™—ìxŠ`cTKYx—ì]
uPiˆf’iˆk2p˜eZK˜ÇxJR‚]km]gMK˜^yx@R^
—°t@IJKˆgMKƒx¤RTR‚xfŠcgQILKƒx=rag†s`2†
σSI (pp) ≈ σSI (pn) ≈ σSI (nn) ›œ †Ÿž œ  
6(iYblxqgMKƒiMKˆg9K9€JRy] TK}tJK}`"KˆfhgMK;]fŒIyb•phRq€abliƒb•g uPiˆfhglfì€ybˆ]g9Ry®JR]hf°xabMI@Rq€ab
Rcp5Kƒ]ht@Rqx I r`cb•gMK?p˜b¤zRcp5Kƒ]ht@Rqxabf^“° 1 rLb~pbv> —“°}— 1 RRcpdKY]ht@RqxJKYiƒb•g•b
]3Rye0fhg9I@Rc^I]f;xyb9IcŠË…bliYb_Kˆgfhyf`qg9IJKƒe7bˆŽh2 x@RgˆxJKˆg9K™ilp˜bMRaeZ2KwuPf«q]hgˆi9RqfYrN`"KˆfgMK
xyb9IcŠË…bliYbˆxf¤i9Ku;RÑuK©Iyb•phRq`cb™ie7bˆ]3Rqglf”xab‘t@ILKYgMKYxabRxqfŠcg9IJKYxabš
mp − mn = −1, 2M eV ∼ 0, 1%mp

 IŠtyblgrqb `"KQxyRqb¨gMK…Rp5ŠwKƒu]hKYtJilRyqxJ^yKYgˆiYiMblKpgIƒbÊ^yiƒ]3b•Ryg™e0fh] g9yI@fuPRc^R f SU (2) ]Žfxqf5Iab•gMKpIJR I~ =

x@Rgˆf”`"KNIeLŠcgbˆ®JRJKYxyx@R]k&KYgˆxJKYËf—
xJR^2š [I , I ] = iε I › Žfxqf5Iab•gMKpIJRqglf xab SU (2) I = 1 τ rì`k=uPfhgMK τ
(I1, I2, I3)
]bde7b•g9I@i Ry®Jj Rqglf xabRijkÏ.bhkŠRP »†9ç(tfdIyblgMKQIabdxyb±6.Ib•pdRye²RJiI{pb 2 SU i
f I 2iš
2
[I , I ] = 0
y
r c
` l
b M
g K
‘ ˜
p …
b h
] K
Y Y
² 
] ˆ
g ˆ
i 
f @
x R
 l
g ¤
f 
] 9
g K
Y y
« L
x K
ƒ 
] 9
g R
? y
x b I 2 R
I
]
f R
 w
p q
t 2
k I
axqfxJKyš
(2)
i 3

I 2 |I 2 , I3 >= I(I + 1)|I 2, I3 >; I3|I 2, I3 >= I3|I 2 , I3 >, › œ †žùN 

`k=uPfhgMK I = 0, 1 , 3 , ... f tJKlyŠ®c^q@K”€JRy] TKyrˆb;p˜b;iY]_^a`"K I I pb•fwe7b 2I +1
]gMKY«yxJKY]g9R³Kˆg −I 2uTK 2 I †\5k2p˜eZK˜ÇxLK~f‘iYe0f]gMK I r I R I uE3 bI]fRpwtJKlyp—
iYb•g—KYtqf5Iab•gMKpIJRqglf I = I + iI R I = I − iI1 r2`"KpRg93K§]wb‚]ktKˆgˆiˆfhgˆxJK
tLKƒi9Ry˖bliƒbl„ R‚tJKYx@R+Džbliƒbl„ 1 KYtqf5Ia2 b•gMKpI‚− xabqRcpd1KY]ht@Rqxa2bš
I+p = 0; I+n = p; I− p = n; I− n = 0 › œ †ž{ˆ 
`k=uPfhgMKrzR>‘]b.]hKˆ²ƒ]gˆiˆfxJR™iˆf`g9KQI@Rxyb I = 1 τ — I = 1 p R I n = − 1 n †
\ p˜bˆi9Ry]3RaeZKY]g³KˆgÉ]hKˆ²ƒ]gˆilfwxyblgb³]gMKƒ«qxJ3KY]g‹2xab3 I 2p I Ra2e7bˆef—3Iyb•phRq€y2xJR
 µø ´ ·¸l¹»ºh¹“¼h½–¾y¿À=ÁÝă¿¿
tJIqf uE]gbˆi•^axJR^…xab SU (2) r`cblgMK.xab I = 0 ]ktKˆgˆiˆfhgˆ]gYiYb9]5RqxyŽ_afhgr•xyb I = 1
—*uyŠc²ˆyfhgrƒxyb I = 1 —g9IIJRytyfhg_R™g†sx2†ƒ‡¶RytJRy€qx@Rt@IJRaef5I@R™p˜b;uaŠc²lafhgˆxJKˆgMKVR 2
g9IJRytyfhgYxLKYgMKÑ]hkm]gMK˜^yx@Rf’]b™]ktKˆgˆiˆfhgˆxJKtJIJKˆg9KYxc—¥xqfŠcg9IJKYx—R π—òefp5KƒxJRqglfYš
1 1 1 1 1
I= ⇒ |p >= | , >, |n >= | , − >
2 2 2 2 2
I = 1 ⇒ |π + >= |1, 1 >, |π 0 >= |1, 0 >, |π − >= |1, −1 >

 fDžuyŠ.p˜bMIƒ^uEbqr·Rp5KY]ht@RyxybˆR9ŒJRytf5Ip˜b9Iƒ^cu¬b"]km„ªf]gˆilŠiYb ] af uExyblgb4i9Iqk2p—

~
`cb™xyb9If€qfxab™n.KpIyeŠ˜Eb™xab  fq—$‚bˆx?z.RqËeRUuaÇ©Rye7bqš
q
Q = = I3+ < Q >= I3 + Y
1

› œ †ž5'ƒ 
I ŠtLKƒi9R^qg§fafwefxqg¨xaeb?tJIqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYbˆxJR^qg•b¤Kˆ2gaRcpdKY]ht@RqxJKYiƒb•g•b‚Ž5IcŠtab
Rye7b§iQRUu¬b U = e−i~αI~ rL`k=uPfhgMK α~ = ω~n R¨KYg¸RqxyiYb9IJRablxqgˆxJKY]glg•br,] af uq—
iYbЀqf [S, U I] = 0 = [H , U ] † ` `"K ]f¸Iyb•pwŽ_afDžu¬b U `cb•gMK¹Rqxyn]Rqx@RU—
glfpdRae7bPxJK³It@If3KY²QIabphŠiƒblx@SRf UI = 1 − i~α.I~r7gMK³iˆf uPxablIŽ b]fiQRcDžu¬b €qf
R
? M
g K
Y
Ž l
b ƒ
i b I
†=ç9g
Šƒ] TKYiQRfgMKIe,bl]hKƒiYb•g•b
€ybˆ]g
xyb9È.bˆeyRagMKYx@Rybˆxyb(u¬b”`"KƒeLŠcgQRJIab”] I u;RJIqf`qgˆxJK] yfuPiƒb9€qf4iˆ]5Rq€y`JR‘€abl]hg9RU—
[S, I] = 0 = [HS , I] ∆|I 2 | = 0
®JR¤KˆgfuRyx?eŠ˜ag9RytcafhgURye,b•g¯IabliYxJR§e7bl]5R=rag†´fY†Pbˆ`"K
]3RaefhgQIJR^qg•b SU (2)
f”g9KY€yxybqrygMK p r n r π+ r π− R π0 Rye,b•g‘f uExybˆ`qiQR‚e7bˆ]3R=† I

 tJKƒeZKƒ„g•bxabRp5KY]ht@RyxLKƒiYb•g•b]5Ryefg9IJR^?eZK˜Çªf¤uEb‘]hf_If˅bliƒb•g`"KYxy`c—
IfhgYxJR¨tJIJKˆ²ˆyfwe²R^R`cb•g9K±tJI@Raef5I„ªfIabp˜Ž_af u¬bˆef]Ifwbˆ`q®@R@RbKˆg‘g9Rytab
π + p → π + p, π 0 n → π 0 n, π − p → π − p
† ` `"KKlpwxab˜€JRaedbˆe0tTRqg•Š˜u¬b•g•b‘xybqIabp˜]f«yiYblxqf’] F ryg9K±„fRye,bˆefYš
√ √
1 2 2 2
< π − p|F |π − p >= F 23 + F 21 , < π 0 n|F |π 0 n >=
›œ †ž5)N 
F 32 − F1
2 3 3 3 2
¼½,+˜½.-0/ˆÂ¥ÄÁ15õ¿ª÷¥¿À=Á$¥ă¿¿ ø©¶
< π + p|F |π + p >= F 23
†¬ç9€qfiQRUuExLKRae7bªuEilf¤xfhp˜bliQRq]3RaeyRbYe0tcRqg•Š˜uR—R‚eZK˜Çªf.u¬b™ilkmilfuafwe š
σπ+ = ρ|F 32 |2 = σ (+) ›œ † ¡¢4N 
1 2
σπ− = [σ(π −p → π − p)+σ(π 0n → π 0 n)] = σ (−) +σ (0) = ρ[ |F 23 |2 + |F 21 |2 ]
` k=uPfhgMK f™`JRyxfg9Rq€qfxÉn”bˆ`g9KQI2† ` `"KfqRcp˜tk2PxfwxLK
3 3
g9K~p˜bKˆg•—
xLKƒËfx@Rc^ygb™xab™]f€qfx@Rc^ygbqRae7bYef
ρ F 23  F 12

σ (+) : σ (−) : σ (0) = 9 : 1 : 2, ›œ † ¡Už˜ 

b fw`U]htfdIJRaefxqgb•axJKºRcpef5Iqfxyblgb4]gMKƒ«qxJKY]hg“f (122+−8) : (12.8+−1.10) :
†
ç(`"KYxy€yblglfPxLKar˜buRqg9Ryiˆx@Rgˆfì`yiYbˆxg9KYi9Rª€JRy] Eb4eZKƒŽ©blg u¬b ]hf,tLKwu;Ifuy^yg“tJK
(25, 6 + −1, 3)
gMKYiƒb–p˜bª`"KYfcKYg‘i•p˜b9RLKwuPf«q]hgˆi9R^qg•b…]bVRpwtqk2axqfx@RÑp˜bl`"KƒxJRÑpbpbltabpwiƒblxqfhgMK
Rye¹RIp˜b™`"KYf9—ìxfYš
€ ‚.ƒ„€ … €
∆|I 2 | = 0 ∆I3 = 0 ∆Q = 0
∆(Q, B, Y ) = 0 ∆Y = 0 ∆B
∆I3 = 0 ∆B = 0
\]qŠ€ab^ªxab}faf`qg9ILKNe7blŽxJRqgˆxJK.tJKlaf»Rye7bYef [H , I] 6= 0 rxJK [H , I ] =
rqg†´fY†y]3Raefhg9I@R^qg•b™f”xabMIŠËfwxybiKYg SU (2) uTK Uem(1) † em 3
0
6.b•gMK9t@IJRaef5I¤p˜b p˜bl`"KƒxJR’pb"pbltabpwiƒblxqf°xab4`yiYbˆxg9KYi9Rqglf €@Ry] Pb“i;] yŠ€ab^
xyb™] Eb•²pRi•pbMRaeZKwuaf«y]gˆiQRc^‚eZKƒŽ©blg–uEb™]fIabpwŽéyfuEblgqIqfwbˆ`q®@RJRvKˆg™g9Rytybqš

Λ0 → pπ − ; n → pe− νe
`k=uPfhgMK]f.p˜bˆtyb•pwiYblg…fuRyxq]hgˆilfxJK Q
R B
†
 øéµ ·¸l¹»ºh¹“¼h½–¾y¿À=ÁÝă¿¿
"!½¼ ¾j8.<t¿(&9'*@698 <=89>?'*@&9898
A2B?XmBFC À¨OLTEûYKOMPHûˆKyZESNHLJúTPKqOLMTÁÉSNHJ[,BÑOLVEJKNMTHLM8#SNKHTEûˆK
ÏPIqf3KY²QIabphŠiƒblx@Rc^ygb’xab¤t@ILKƒ]g9Iablxy]gˆilfwxLKiKˆg9IabǖfxJRqf(]f4uPfn]Rqx@RJIab•g…€JIqfp
Iybˆilfxy]gˆi9KˆgMK
~x → ~x0 = −~x › œ † ¡ˆ¡ˆ 
`cb•gMK§xab‚t@ILKƒ]g9Iablxy]gˆiˆfxLKYgMKaKˆg9IabǖfxJRqf
]hk&KˆgYilfhgˆ]hgˆiYbŠxJRqg•bMIqfx8KYtqf —
IyblgMKQI¨x@D™€qfhgˆxJKY]gˆgb P š
P ψ(~x, t) = ψ(−~x, t), P 2 = 1
h] Kˆ²ƒ]gˆilfwxJRqglf‚]g9KY«yxLKƒ]g9R2r7xab`"KY«qgMK³KY€qfi9RcuPxJK³]wb + − 1 † ` `"K³KYtqf5IyblgMK•—
Iyb™xab™€fgˆxLKƒ]glg•b`"KNeLŠcg9R@Iyb‘](ŒcbˆeyRyg9KYx@RybˆxybR‹Y—òe7b•gQIJRy®yblgb™— [P, H] =
gMK~€fhgYxLKƒ]glg•bI]f¤p˜bˆtyb•pwiYbqrExablt@I=†‰i
]Pbl²QRqglf…ilp˜bMRaeZKwuPf«q]hgˆi9R^
0 = [S, P ]
† f«y]gˆiQRfgMK‚xabKYtqf5IyblgMKQIab~xab~€qfhgˆxJKY]glg•biˆkSIYŒcŠaIabpTRy€U—
xJRqglf±iˆfTRy€@Rqx@R³eZK˜Çªf…u¬bÑfIyb•phRq€yxLK¨iIp˜bliQRq]5RyeZKƒ]gUKˆggˆfxcpdKQIyxyblgbbRae
[HW , P ] = 0
tJI@RJIJKwuEbqš
P ~x = −~x; P p~ = −~
p; P ~x.~
p = ~x.~
p
raxLK
~ = P (~xx~
PL ~ P J~ = J;
p) = L; ~ P J~.~ ~p
p = J.~
` `"K L f—KpI²pRg•bPx@Rc^eZKƒefwxgÊxab‹]3Ry]glfwe7blgbqš r5gMK
Rye7bˆ«q`@R‚t@Iqf uPiQRUu§i9RcuEb™xab™ilk2PxLKƒiYblgb‘n(Šxy`q®@Rc^ Lψ = l(l + 1)ψ

ψ(~x) = R(r)Ylm(θ, φ) ›œ † ¡•Åƒ 

(2l + 1)(l − m)! 1 m
Ylm(θφ) = (−1)m[ ] 2 Pl (cos(θ))eimφ
R‚iQRUu¬b™xybiKYg9IabǪfx@R^qg•bi™]hn.f5IJRy€yxJR¨`"K9KQIYu;Ryxyblg9R=š
4π(l + m)!

~x → −~x <=> r → r, θ → π − θ, φ → π + φ ›œ † ¡˜£U 

 ¼½ÅĽˆÆ ¿Y÷ÈÇ ÄÁÃÂ$õ¿–÷¥¿˜À=ÁÃÂ¥ÄY¿¿ ø ø
eZK˜Çªf uEbnKYt@Iqf uafhTRae `cbˆ`]f³t@If5Kˆ²QIabpŠiYbÊiˆk2axJKYiƒb•g•b n9Šxy`q®@R^2r;b
RyefwxqxJK
Plm (cosθ) → Plm (−cosθ) = (−1)l−mPlm (cosθ)
m imφ
eimφ → eim(φ+π)=(−1) e

Ylm (θ, φ) → (−1)l Ylm (θ, φ)

9ç €qfiQRUuExLK9]3Kˆ²Y]hgˆilfx@Rqglf"]gMKƒ«qxJKY]gQRªxabÉKQIq²QRqgb•ax@Rc^‘eZKƒe0fxg“p˜buEbˆiYblg9€fhg•—
xLKƒ]glg•bªxabiˆk2axJKYiƒb•g•b¤n9Šxy`y®JR^UR®Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYblgª`yiYblxqgMKƒiMK–€@Ry] @K…xyb9Ifw€fxJK
KQIq²QRqgb•axab‘€qfhgˆxJKY]g
ψ(~x, t) = (−1)l ψ(~x, t) › œ ¢† ¡ œ  
A2B?XmBÍÌ ÊVË0KOSÍÌ HMZÎ ûƒTEVEûYKqZESNHMÏ_#SNKHTEûYK
=bª]3Ry]glf˜e7beKˆg™€ybˆ]g9Ry®JR~f.Š˜uTKY²YxJKu¬b…]f.iˆkmilf uPf.KpI²pRg•bPxab™€fhgYxLKƒ]g™g˜†s`2†
]fvIab•²9KYg9R ]bKpI²pRg•bPx@Rc^úeZKNefxqg˜ruTKƒ`cb•gMKÐi‹] yŠ€yb•^ xab³IabDžu¬blxqf—RR
blx@RUŒJRPbˆ®JR^]f°t@I@Rqt@Rq]iYb4ilk¬gQIf˖xyb › =?>pAC‰‘=?> | =?Ÿ E€qfhgˆxJKY]hg˜†˜‡Lbˆ`cb xablt@I@RyefdI
i ] yŠ€yb•^ xabncKˆgMKƒxoeZK˜ÇªfIu¬bilkmiˆf uPfweæfaf`gQILKNe7blŽhx@RqgˆxLKYgMKÐtLKˆyf¨ilkmi
i9RcuEb
~ x) = ~εf (x)
A(~
` k=uPfhgMK f (x) f(]h`cb•Pb9Iqxabn(Šxy`q®@Rc^*rqb ε ]f9xabMI@Rq€ab–tLKˆq^TIJRp˜bl®@R^IxabncK•—
gMKYxab†t6.bˆ`gMK±fRpwiˆf]gˆxJK©Kˆg`ŠLIy]hKYiˆfhglf¤tLKb69iƒblxqgMKYiƒbѐ~f ŒUbˆxJRy`cbqRa6(‡;Ï
i•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9RqfhgMK¤xab.e,b•glf5I@R^qg•b.] faf`gQILKNe7blŽhx@RqgˆxLKYgMKªtJKlaf4]fHKYt@Rq]iYb
€JIqfp’p˜bˆe^yxab•g•b
~ x)
p~ → p~ − eA(~
Kˆgˆ`qk=uafgMK±t@IJR~uaf«y]gˆiQRf¤]cKYtqf5Iab•gMKpIyb‘xab™€qfhgˆxJKY]glg•btJKlyŠ€abliYbYef
~ x) = −A(−~
P p~ → p~ ⇒ A(~ ~ x)

~ x)P −1 = −A(−~
P A(~ ~ x) ⇒ P ε → −ε ›œ † ¡•ùN 
 øx ·¸l¹»ºh¹“¼h½–¾y¿À=ÁÝă¿¿
ç9€qfiQRUuExLK?tLKƒilf uPfx@RfgMK?xabtJKly^@I@Rp˜bl®@Rc^ygb¨xab‚ncKˆgMKƒxybvKYt@Iqf uafhq^‹ilk¬g•—
If˖xyblgb‘eŠI€qfhgˆxJKY]g†
ÏPK
]km„eRc^¨xab˜€JRyx¨p˜biY]_^a`cb‘€abl]g9Ry®ab a iÑ]km]g9Kw^axJRqf |a, p~ > eZK˜Çªf’u¬b
]f”iˆkmilf uPf’ilk¬gQIf˖xyb™€qfhgˆxJKY]hg ηp `cb•gMKaš
a

P |a, p~ >= ηap |a, p~ > › œ † ¡9ˆ 

z9f`cb_IabpwŽéaf uEbYefPIqfwbl`y®JR^®KYgªg9Rytab a + b → c + d RKlp˜xyb˜€@RyeÐxab˜€yb•—
xLKYgMK¯R‚`@Iabl«yxLKYgMK
]km]hgMK˜^yx@Rf’]k&KYgˆilfgˆxLK
] |i > R |f > ra`cb•gMK |i >= |a >
|b > Ð
KYgˆx2† uEi9RÇªfx@Rf9ÑÒR |i >∼ R(r)Y (θ, φ) † ` `"Kª€qfhgˆxJKY]gˆgb–]f4p˜bltabpwiƒb
iIfwbˆ`q®@R^qg•brygMK |i > R |f > ]b…]hKˆ²ƒ]lmgˆilfwxJR]hkm]gMK˜^yx@Rc^xab P š
P |i >= ηip |i >; P |f >= ηfp |f > ›œ † ¡¢'N 
RbKˆg`"Kƒxq`@Ifgˆxyblgb¯If˜bl`y®JR^ a + b → c + d eyKwǖf(u¬b–p˜bˆtJRyËfwe
ηip = ηap ηbp (−1)l ; ηfp = ηap ηbp (−1)l
0
›œ † ¡¢)N 
ç9€qfiQRUuExLKqKYg™ŠLIybˆiˆxqfxJRqf › žY†¢¡M)ƒ £RUKYg™p˜bltabp˜iYblxqfhgMK‘xab™€fgˆxLKƒ]glg•b‘] af uEiYb
] yfuPx@Rc^úeŠ˜ag9RytcRy`cb•g9RyilfxRp˜bˆ`"KYxdp˜b p˜bˆtyb•pwiYbˆxf§xab‹ilk¬gQIf˖xyblgbʀfhg•—
xLKƒ]gqš
ηap ηbp (−1)l = ηcp ηdp (−1)l .
0
›œ †îÅ94N 
l9fhgˆxJKY]glg•b‘xqf¤]f(pbltabpwiƒbªi‘] Eb•²pRgˆf’ilp˜bMRaeZKwuPf«q]hgˆi9R^2ryb™]bˆeyK™i™]3Rq—
xJRqglfrRIfaf`gQILKNe7blŽhx@RqgˆxJRqglfY†  p5Kˆ²ƒ„_K‘`cbp˜bˆxLK H R P x^ae,b•gqKˆ²ƒ„VRI]hKˆ²l—
]gˆilfwxJRn(Šxq`y®@RJR¸R§gMKƒŽ©bˆiYb
]fªiˆkmilfDžu¬bg†sxabMI2†‰WbYe0tcRqg•Š˜uEbÑxab±]e0f]hiYbˆxf
xyb™€qfhgˆxJKY]gˆgb¯RcR‚]gˆftfwxxyb™xqfp˜bˆtyb•phDžbˆxf’xyb™€qfhgˆxJKY]hglgb y š
|ψ >= |ψregular > +|ψirregular > ›œ †îŁž 
`cb•gMK tkSIyi9R^ú€yfx±KˆgˆŽ3KYiYb9Iƒ^úxab η = 1 r bÐilg9KQI@Rc^R— η = −1 †  gMKY«c—
xLKƒ]glg•b |y|2 = 1 ]ktKˆgˆiˆfhgˆ]gˆiƒbxab±e7bˆ`U]3Rye,bPxLK±xabMIŠËfwxJRqfxyb‘p˜bl`"Kƒxyb™p˜b
p˜bltabpwiƒblxqf4xab”€fhgYxLKƒ]glg•b†  g9KY«yxLKƒ]g9Rqglf9xyb y p˜b]Iyb•phTRy€yxJRqglf;i9RcuTKƒilf“i•p˜b—
RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^‚]bqš
 ¼½ÅĽˆÆ ¿Y÷ÈÇ ÄÁÃÂ$õ¿–÷¥¿˜À=ÁÃÂ¥ÄY¿¿ ø2
=b‘b˜u;ILKƒxqx@R‚ilp˜bMRaeZKwuPf«q]hgˆi9R^ |y|2 < 10−13
=b¯”–•—“ |y|2 < 10−14
=b™] Eb•²QR‚i•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^ |y|2 = 1
\°k¬g9Iqf˖xyblgb4€fgˆxLKƒ]g"pb"t@ILKYgMKYxab¶R’xqfŠcg9IJKYxab"f°]k&KYgˆilfhgYxLK
+1
† η(p) = η(n) =

°\ k¬gQIf˖xJRqglf‘€qfhgˆxJKY]g9R³xybрabl]gQRq®@R³eZKƒŽ©blgu¬bI]feKYt@If uPfy^qgUKˆgbIqf`c—
®JR@R=rNi’`"KpRgMK’Š€abl]hgˆiYblg’€abl]hg9Rq®@R±]ÉRpwilf]hgˆxyb”€qfhgˆxJKY]g†ƒ‡Lbˆ`cb.xablt@I@RyefdI™p˜b
π0 π−
R Rae7bˆe0fYš
=b π0 š
PÏ I@RÓIf˜bl`y®JR^d]‚xybˆtJIqf€yxLK‹tLKˆq^TIJRpdR@IybˆxJRoncKˆg9KYx@R π0 → γγ › p˜b`"KpRU—
gMK~tJI@R§ilk2PxLKƒi9R§ilf`qgMKpIJR k~ R k~ RtJKly^@I@Rcp˜bˆ®JR@R ε~ R ε~ fiRcpwtqk2PxfxJK
~k1 .~ε1 = 0 r ~k2.~ε2 = 0 R ~ε1 .~ε2 = 0  ì]bYeZKilf`qgMKpIk¬g ~k = ~k1 − ~k2 ‹’xqfp˜bˆi9Rc—
1 2 1 2

]3Rye r¬`cblgMK ~k0 = ~k + ~k = 0 iI]3Rq]hglfwe7b
xybÑ®qfxgˆkSIybÑxabÑe,bl]3Rqglf–xab π0 R

]k&KYgˆilfhgYxLK_Rae7b’]bY1eZK.fu2 Ryx©RyxqiƒbMI@Rybˆxg’— ~k.(~ε × ~ε ) rQKˆgˆ`qk=uPfhgMK η = −1 †
=b π− š 1 2 π 0

=bVIqfwbl`y®@Rc^ygb π− + d → n + n Rae7bˆef η η (−1)l = η η (−1)l rc`cblgMKi

] qŠ€ab^xab
p˜b˜Œqiƒb•gIi l = 0 η η = (−1)π l † d fŠcgˆf5IJR^qgIn fin Kˆ²pRq`yxLKƒilfxJKi
0
−

]km]gMK˜^yx@Rqf 3S `cblgMK J p = 1+π ⇒dJ = 1 p˜b |i >= J = +1 †

0
−

\R] qŠ€abMRqgl1f S = 1 R S = 0 Rae7bˆe0f’]yf uEx@Rglf¤iˆk2fp˜inal

eZK˜ÇxJR]hkm]gMK˜^yx@Rc^*š
S = 1 : l0 = 2, 1, 0 ⇒ 3 D1 , 3 P1 , 3 S1
.Ï IJRPbˆŽ©bˆ«q`@R±t@I@Rqxy®JRytab¤xyb…Ï(bŠRRye7bYefYrƀf |f > ‹9blxqg9Ry]3Rye0fhg9I@Rq€yxLK
S = 0 : l 0 = 1 ⇒ 1 P1 .
]km]gMK˜^yx@RqfYrQKˆgˆ`qk=uafgMK¤pwxab•f«y`@R‘€f S = 1 f}]3Raefhg9I@Ry€qxJKyrUb S = 0 f}bˆxgQRU—
]3Rye0fhg9I@Rq€yxLKIi9RÇ…uEbYefYrP€qf¤g9Iƒ^y²YiYb©KQIq²QRqgb•axab•g•bрybˆ]g±itqkSIyi9R^¨] yŠ€ybˆ«
uEbf–blxqg9Ry]3Rye0fhg9I@Rq€yxyb › l0 fxqf€qfhgˆxJKU »r‰b±ilkmi
ilgMKpIJR^‚—"]3Raefhg9I@Ry€qxab › l0 ‹
€fhgYxLKc  ⇒ f u;Rqxy]gˆiˆfxLKYgMK‘ilk2p˜eyKwÇxJK…]hkm]gMK˜^yx@Rf(f |f >= 3P †@6.blgMK…pwxyb—
fwe"rU€qf η = +1 ⇒ η = −1 †J=b π — J p = o− rUg†´fY†Ug^‹(tq]hfi1uKY]h`cb•Pb9Iqxab
€ybˆ]g9Ry®ybqd† − π
øxW ·¸l¹»ºh¹“¼h½–¾y¿À=ÁÝă¿¿
A2B?XmBEX ÂVPO$Ë£ÔÉMPHSHMÐZPOSUý.SNKyT

ç9tqf5Iabl®@Rc^ygb(xybPKˆ²pIkm„…blxqfìxab9iQIf˜efhgMK”]f"]km]gMKpRªi9p˜bˆeL^axyblgb9xyb t → −t
R ~x → ~x `cb•g9KtJI@R§gb•pdR?p˜bYeL^yxab™u;RyxybYeyRq€yx@Rglf‘iˆfTRy€@Rqx@R]f…tJIJKƒefwxc^yg
`cbl`qgMKÐ] yfuPiƒbš p~ → −~p r L~ → −L~ r σ → −σ † ç(tfdIyblgMKQIqk¬g‹xybÕKˆ²pIk=—
„–blxqfxyb‹iQIf˜efhgMKÐf t → −t rìxLKÊt@I@RduPf«q]hgˆi9RqfhgMK eŠ p˜b‹`"KNeLŠcg•b•gMKpIyb
tLKˆqŠ€abliƒbˆef T [q , p ] = −i~δ r$KYgˆ`k=uPfhgMK³KY€qfi9RcuExLK T
xf
f
`cblxJKYx@Ry€qxJKtJIqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYbˆxJRqif®RÐj ]hk&KˆgYilfhgˆxJijK—KYtqf5IyblgMKQIab?xf
fŠx@Rg•b˜—
[qi, pj ] = i~δij
Ifx2†ˆ=b?u¬b ]f¨tJIqf3KwuTKˆyffgMKYiƒbf‚Š˜uTKY²YxJKu¬b ]f¨ilkmilfuaf¨bˆxgQRcŠx@Rg•bMIqfx
KYtqf5IyblgMKQI{xab¨KY²QIqkm„–blxqfxyb i9Iqfwefhg9Kyr t@IJRyilfhǖu¬bl„ `"Kƒe7tcaf`U]hxJKlpwxab˜€qxab
n9Šxy`q®@R^ xyb t i¨`"KNe0tcaf`U]hxJK§]htJIqfŽhxab•g•b•g•b?«8Kˆg −t š T (C) → C ∗(−t) Ö
RdgMKYŽ bliƒb t@If5Kˆ²QIabpŠiYblx@Rqf —
gMK‹f¨`cblxJKYx@Ry€qxJKyr,g˜†Æ`=† T [q , p ] = i~δ † ` xg9RŠx@Rg•bMIyxLKƒ]glg•bÊxab³KYtqf5Iyb—
qi → T qiT −1 = qi pj → T pj T −1 = −pj
gMKQIab xab¨KY²QIqkm„–bˆxfxabÊiQIifwe0jfhgMK i9KwuR ij uTK ]kmŽéPbˆ] ŠiYbˆxfhg9K eLŠR]bPŽfh²l—
IyblgbÐxabЎ3IŠtab•g•b SU (2) r,g˜†Æ`=† T JT −1 = −J ⇒ [J , J ] = iε J R

x ‹
f 
] f a
x M
b I
 
Š –
Ë ˆ
b i
Y
i q
b †  y
x Y
i M
b @
I R
a l
b q
x ˆ
g L
x K
ƒ 
] l
g •
g Ó
b K
ˆ Y
g L
x K
ƒ h
] L
x Ó
K K
Y
i j
Q
² I
q m
k –
„ l
b q
x fhgMKdxab
ijk k
SUi(2)
i9IqfwefhgMKÉeZK˜Çªf
uEb]hfKƒtJIqf uPfRÊtLK³] yfuPx@Rc^ xab˜€JRyx2š ` `"K§ŒUbYeyRygMKƒxJRab˜—
xyb xyb ]3Ry]glf˜e7b•g•bÊf H = H + V ⇒ T H T −1 = H , T V T −1 = v r
gMKÊp˜b e7b•g9I@Ry€qx@Rc^{fafwefxqgÊxa0bÊt@If Œ"KwuEbKYg 0]km]g9Kw^axJRqf 0a iÊ]km]hgMK˜^yx@Rf
„ªfRae7bYef M =< b|M |a >= f (V ), T M T −1 = M + rg˜†sfY†bl`"K¦Kˆpwxyb—
b
€JRaeoxabw€abPxJKˆgMKbR?`JIabl«yxLKYgMK~]km]gMK˜^axJRqf]k&KYgˆilfgˆxLKÑ] |i >= |α, p~ , m >
R |f >= |β, p~ , m > r°`k=uPfhgMK m ]wbg9Iqfhg9Rqglf`"Kƒe7tLKƒxfxqg9Roxaib]ht@i Rc—
xybÐiÐ]hk&KˆgYilfhgˆxJfKˆg9K f]km]gMK˜^axJRqfYr°gMK i,ft@IJRouafw«q]gYi9Rqf§]—Kƒtf5Iab•g9KQIab T Rae7b—
ef T |i >= |it >= |α, −~p , −m >, T |f >= |f t >= |β, −p~ , −m >
R×KˆgØRyxqiƒbMI@RybˆxgˆxJKY]hglgbR] aif uPiƒbr“i €qfÉ]fw€fx@R^qg•bÊpb ]yf uEx@Rglf³fuEiYb t@fILKl—
®f]wb]b¦IabliYxJR < β, p~ , m |M |α, p~ , m >=< f |T −1T M T −1T |i >=<
f f i i
r0`"KˆfgMK
eZK˜Çªf.uEb™]f’t@ILKƒilf5I@R~f`ytfdIJRaefxqgb•axJKy†
t + t ∗ t t
f |M |i > =< i |M |f >=< α, −~ pi, −mi|M |β, −p~f , −mf >
 ¼ ½ÅĽˆÆ ¿Y÷ÈÇ ÄÁÃÂ$õ¿–÷¥¿˜À=ÁÃÂ¥ÄY¿¿ øµg
A2B?XmB?j À¨OJLHþLJLQRHM¸%,SNKNMÙÚHLJ[ VEMT0MPHû
ç;g’glf5KQI@Rc^ygb¤]wbcRpwiˆf]gˆx@R] af uExJRqglf;n.KpIyeŠ˜R™p˜b”]fw€fx@R^qg•b’xyb”t@ILKƒ®f]5R
Kˆg‘g9Rytyb a + b → c + d š

dσ 1 mN 2 pcd 1 X
(a + b → c + d) = 2 2
|Fab→cd|2
dΩ 16π Ecm pab (2sa + 1)(2sb + 1) spin
›œ †îŃ¡Y 
dσ 1 mN 2 pab 1 X
(c + d → a + b) = 2 2
|Fcd→ab |2
dΩ 16π Ecm pcd (2sc + 1)(2sd + 1) spin

Kˆgˆ`qk=uafgMK9tJI@R P R T ]3RaefhgQIJR^_Rye7bYef P |F |2 = P |F |2 ›œ †îňÅN 

R~gMKYŽ bliƒb…frRcpwtqk2PxfxIg†sxabMI2†atJI@Ryxq®@Rqt?xabªspin PxJR^‚²ƒb•Pbˆxqspin
uafhg•bl«ab→cd ]Yš cd→ab

dσ
dΩ
(a + b → c + d) =
(2sc + 1)(2sd + 1) pcd 2 dσ
(2sa + 1)(2sb + 1) pab 2 dΩ
(c + d → a + b) › œ †ÆÅl£U 
6.b•gMKt@IJRaef5IÐp˜b‚t@I@RcTK˜Çªfx@Rfhg9K xyb?g9KlpdRÊt@I@Rqxy®JRyt eZK9«cfu¬b?] yŠUÇR
Ifwbˆ`q®@R^qg•bVKYg–gQRqtab p + p → π+ + d, s = 1 , s = 1 rLKˆgˆ`qk=uafgMK‘] yf uEiYbqš
p 2 d

3
4
+ pπ 2
σ(p + p → π + d) = (2spi + 1) 2 σ(π + + d → p + p)
pp
›œ Ɔ Å œ  
A2B?XmBÍA °MPO=[t%7T¬ZETÐûˆQLO=[SÛwMPHS
=bMIƒ^cuKYi9KˆgMK–]hËVIƒ^aŽ©bˆxf“f!KYtqf5Iybˆ®JR^2rN`"K˜^ygMKªxab¤iˆ]é^y`cb’€abl]gQRq®ab¤]kmtyË_Kƒ]gb—
i•^blxqg9Rq€abl]hg9Rq®abrm`U]gMK
uafw«q]gYi9RqfhgMK~xyb®Kƒtf5Iab•g9KQIabIxybp˜bMIƒ^uTKƒiMKYgMK~]htJIƒ^—
Ž©bˆxf’f U : |particle >→ |antiparticle > › xybˆtJI@Raef5I U |π+ >= |π− > r
c
V
  R
 T
 R J
t K
• È
— K
ˆ Y
² V
Ë K
 c
` 
b ˜
p ˆ
b L
x K c
† ` `"K
Q
fiKƒtfdIyblgMKQIabxabÑfaf`gQIJRy€fw]h`JR^p˜b9Iƒ^cu— Q|q, p, s >= q|q, p, s > r*gMK
Uc |p >= |p > Uc|q, p, s >= | − q, p, s >
 µw ·¸l¹»ºh¹“¼h½–¾y¿À=ÁÝă¿¿
yR e7bYef U Q|q, p, s >= q| − q, p, s > R
Kˆgˆ`qk=uafgMK c QUc|q, p, s >= −q| − q, p, s >

[Uc, Q] 6= 0 ›œ †îňùƒ 

g˜†´fƒ† R Q x^ae7blgKˆ²YËeR]hKY²Y]gˆiˆfx@R~]km]gMK˜^yx@R^2†
Uc
\ Kˆ²YËeRc^] yŠ€yb9R{p˜b iˆ]5Rq€y`JR b˜u;Rg9Ryiˆx@R `yiYbˆxg9KYi9R €JRy] Eb¹KYtqf5Iab•gMKl—
Iyb‚xyb~p˜bMIƒ^uTKƒiMK¨]tJIƒ^aŽ©bˆxfRp˜efx^pwxabl`cbvRyeú— U |q, I , B, Y, L >= | −
R 
r 
` =
k P
u h
f M
g K c 3
†  Kˆ²Y] —
gˆilfx@Rqglf]gMKƒ«qxJKY]gQR³xab U ]fiKYt@Iqf uafhq^ygbKˆg U 2|Q >= |Q >⇒ U 2 =
q, −I3, −B, −Y, −L > [Uc, Qi] 6= 0 Qi = I3, B, Y, L
7
r 
g ´
† Y
f 7
† ˜
p M
b I
ƒ 
^ c
T
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b 
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f 
f 
u
c
R
y h
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f ˆ
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t i
I
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c

xJRqfY†(ç(€fwi9RcuPxJK ]km]gMK˜^axJR^]8IabpTRy€qx@RÜKYg xcŠEbo`yiYblxqgMKƒi9R €@Ry] Pb xf

1 ⇒ uc = ±1
eZKYŽ b•guEbÉ]b ]hKˆ²ƒ]gˆilfwxJRd]km]g9Kw^axJR^ p˜b U r*DfuRyxq]hgˆilfxJKÐ]km]gMK˜^axJR^ ]
Z
e K
ƒ c
Ž©blg?uEb ]b§g•bl`@Rqiƒb¦R tLK³gb•pdR
tJI@Rq€@Ryxyb p˜b9Iƒ^cuKYiYblgb €fgˆxLKƒ]g³]hfÑuPiYncRyxJR@Iab³`cblgMK η : U |B = 0 >=
q = 0, I3 = 0, B = 0, Y = 0, L = 0
R 
g ^ ~
f 
e ˜
Š a
 9
g R
y c
t 
 R
y c
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•
b 9
g R
y ˆ
i c
xJKÐ`qiƒblxqgMKYi9K
€JRy] TK§iˆkmi‚iY]f`@RÉt@IJKY®qf]ˆri¨`"Kƒ«gMK C —­€fhgYxLKƒ]glg•b¨]hfp˜bˆtyb•pwiYb › C f
iˆk¬g—
=
ηc |B = 0 >⇒ ηc 1 ⇒ ηc = ±1
If„–xyb]3Rye0fhg9I@Rc^¬ é† ` `"K [U , H] = 0 RcR [U , S] = 0 rgMKÉ`cbpwiƒbˆef€qf
]k&KYgˆilfhgYxLKYgMK~i•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9CRqfªfeRqxyiYb9IJRablxqgˆxJKbc KˆgˆxJKY]hxJKÑp˜bMIƒ^uTKƒiMKÑ]htJIƒ^—
Ž©bˆxfY†²=b¨g9I@Rgˆf‚i•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRc^ÝRae7bˆefI] af uExJRqglf~tLKƒilf uPfx@Rc^ÝKYgˆxJKY]hxJK
p˜bMIƒ^uTKƒiMKˆg9K]htJIƒ^aŽ©bˆxfƒš
 Eb•²QR‚i•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^2š
\ ] Pbl²QRqglf‘i•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRc^ C —¥€qfhgˆxJKY]hglgb]f‘xyb9IcŠ„…bliYbÑ`cblgMK‚tqkSIqiQR
\,ŠqRޔxqŽ}xab•²lPëìu¬bliƒb•gxabMIŠËfx@RqfhgMKªi¤²Yfhg•bIyb•pwtybuR
xyb¤²ƒbpb•g•b’xyb’]ht@Rc—
Iyb•axJKY]gˆgb H = 2 ~s.~p = −1, H = 1 xabxqfŠcg9I@Rqxab•g•b±— bˆ`"K±pbMIƒ^cuKYiƒb•g•b
€fhgYxLKƒ]g~xf™]f–ν xabMIŠ|~p˖| bˆiYbˆËfVKYgÑν]Pbl²QRqglf‘i•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^§g9Iƒ^q²ƒiYbl˪f¤u¬b
fRpwtqk2axqfxJK H = H †
 Rax@R‚ilp˜bMRaeZKwuaνfw«q]gYi9νR^ Ï.IJKYilfdIq`cblgb xyb"p˜bltabp˜iYblxqfhgMK“xyb  —­€fgˆxLKƒ]glg•b
tJI@R±]3RPxJRqglf9i•pbMRaeZKwuaf«y]gˆiQRc^±eZK˜Çªf4u¬b’]f!RcpwiˆkSIqËeRxab”²ƒbpb•g•b’xyb’] af uy—
xLKYgMKØIyb•pwŽ_afDžu¬blxqf šÆbˆ`"KnRae7bˆe0f³Iqfwbl`y®JR@RmKˆg g9Rytyb p + p → π+ + H
R p + p → π− + h r"`k=uPfhgMK h h − B = 0, Q = ± r gMKdt@IJRmRqxyiYb—
 ¼ ½ÅĽˆÆ ¿Y÷ÈÇ ÄÁÃÂ$õ¿–÷¥¿˜À=ÁÃÂ¥ÄY¿¿ {¬
IJRablxqgMKY]hgnKYgˆxLKƒ]hxJKÊp˜b9Iƒ^cuKYiMK ]htJIƒ^aŽ©bˆxf„ªf¦Rye,bˆef < pp|S|π+h >=<
rN`qk=uafhg9K U SU ( − 1) = S rYg˜†´fƒ†
+ ] − g9Iƒ^y²Yiƒb™u¬bRye7blg
fuPxabl`yi9R§]htqf`qg9IJR2†mç9g±f`U]htqf5I@Rye0fxg•b±f–tJKlyŠN—
pp|Uc−1 UcSU−1Uc |π + h >=< pp|S|π − h >
c C C
π
€fxJK™π] yfuPxJKˆgMK‘]ktKˆgˆxJKY˪fx@Rf.e0fDžuyŠIxfpbltabpwiƒbl„–blgbª]f.R
p˜bˆtyb•pwiYbˆ„–b•g•b
]f’bYe0tTRqg•Š˜uR?t@IJR]5RcPxJRqglfilp˜bMRaeZKwuafw«q]gYi9R^
 f`gQILC−conservingamplitude
a KNe7blŽhx@RqgˆxJR§ilp˜bMRaeZKwua≤fw«q0,]gY01
i9R^ \{faf`qg9IJKƒe7bˆŽhxJRqgˆx@Rgˆfi•p˜b9RyeZKl—
C−nonconservingamplitude
mod
uaf«y]gˆiQRc^Ðp^@Iƒ^cuKYi9KˆgMK]ht@Iƒ^yŽ blxqf¯KY²QIqkm„–bpwxabl`cb?xyb¨pbMIqf uafwxJRqglfÑgMKY`"Kƒilf
R‹g†s`2† dalmabertianA = j em ⇒ U A = −A p˜b
n.KYgMKYxabvRae7bYef U γ = −γ ⇒ η (γ) = −1
Uc jµ em = −jµ em µ
† ` `"µK?i~faf`CgQILKNµe7blŽhx@RqgˆxJµRqglf
i•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^]c f™xyb9IcŠË…bliYbˆËcf † —­€fgˆxLKƒ]glg•brmgMK„f˪fu¬bURae7bI]f€qf —
xJRqfrKˆgwTRy€yxLKKˆg±xŠPb‘p˜bqIqfwbl`y®JR@R¤Kˆgg9Rytab π0 → γγγ R η0 → γγγ rg†s`2†
f±ŠN]gbˆxLšƒilfxJK π0 → γγ ⇒ η (π0) = 1 R η0 → γγ ⇒ η (η0) = 1 rxJK
gbˆ`JRyiYbIqfwbˆ`q®@RJR‚xf¤]b™xab•²ˆaë cuEbˆiYblx@R2† c

=bMIqf^cuKYiƒb•g•b±€qfhgˆxJKY]hgIeZK˜ÇªfuEb
]fVRpwtJKlypwiYbp˜b©KYt@If uPfy^yxqfªxab±iˆk2p—

eZK˜Ç‘x@RqglfcIabpwtab˜u;RÑxybªtLKˆpdRgQIƒÇ‘x@Ry«~xyb¤ncKˆg9KYx@R=šcp˜b e+ − e− tJI@RKQIq²QRqgb—
yfx¨eZKƒefwxg l R]ht@RyxLKƒieZKƒefwxg s Rye7bYef
r
ψ(~
Kˆgˆ`qk=uafgMK t@I@Rp˜b9Iƒ^cuKYi9K ]htJIƒ^aŽ©bˆxf Q → −Q ⇒ (−1)l(−1)s+1η =
r1, r~2) = (−1)l ψ(~ r2 , r~1), ψ(s~1 , s~2) = (−1)s+1ψ(s~2 , s~1)

n rƒg†´fY†"Iqfwbˆ`q®@RJRqglf9]}tJKlpdRqg9IJKYx@Rq«Rye,b•gª] af uExJR^

c

i9Rcumš
l+s
−1 ⇒ ηc = (−1) (−1)

Fð | c° 4 1S → γγ Iabp{If˪fx
0
pb•²QIablxqfx
Fðc4r | °–ž 3S → γγ pb•²QIablxqfx
1
S0 → γγγ
1
Iabp{If˪fx
` xyb•@KƒŽ3Rq€qfxÝIqfphŠagblg]fItLKˆqŠ€abliƒb¨p˜buPi9KY«y`JR p − p R q − q ruTKƒ`cb•gMK
3
S 1 → γγγ
p˜b π+ − π− t@I@R B = Y = Q = 0 KYgvKˆ²QKˆ²ƒ„fx@Rc^‹tJI@Ryxq®@Rqt‹xab§Ï.bŠTR
] yfuPiƒb±]km„ªf]gˆilŠiYbˆxfhg9KÑ]bYeZKIxybÑ]3Raefhg9I@Ry€qx@R]km]gMK˜^axJR^ ⇒ (−1)lη =
l†
c
1 ⇒ η = (−1)
c
 ´ ·¸l¹»ºh¹“¼h½–¾y¿À=ÁÝă¿¿
A2B?XmBEß à®
ž#SNKHTEûYK
ÏPI@R‚]5RcPxJRqglfªilp˜bMRaeZKwuPf«q]hgˆi9R^¤Rae7b…p˜b9Iƒ^cuKYiYbqR¤RcpdKY]ht@RqxJKYiƒb‘]3Raefhg9I@R^2r
`cb•gMKØKYg gw^cŒ eZK˜Çªf uEb ]f‹tJKY]g9IJKQR xLKƒi gQRqt tJIqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYbˆxJRqf— G →
†lç9gˆxLKƒ]hxJKá}—¥t@If5Kˆ²QIabpŠiYblx@R^f uRyxy]gˆilfwxLK9]3Rq—
xJRqglfIi•p˜b9RyeZKwuPf«y]gˆi9R^É]wb^RyxqiƒbMI@Rybˆxgˆx@Rɗ [G, H ] = 0 6= [G, H ] 6=
Uc +(πI2 ) ⇒ G = eiπI C 2

† w
f q
« 
] Y
g 9
i R
q h
f M
g K
‚ a
x —
b á l
i S
k I
Y c
Œ Š 
e 
f d
p K
Y @
x R
 l
g ©
f SI
R
³ c
x 
Š 
` T
 K
Y @
x R
 l
g Ñ
f 
] 
f KYt@Iqf —
EM

uafy^‚tJK] yfuPx@Rc^xab˜€JRyx=š
[G, HW I ] π

=b π±,0 š
•
rL`qk=uafgMK |π± >= |π > ±|π >, |π0 >=
E
r ˜
g
eiπI |πi >= (−1)i|πi >
2
s
† Y
f y
† P
u 
f y
« 
] ˆ
g 9
i R
q h
f M
g K
~ a
x b iπI ilkSIYŒcŠ 
e 
f 5
p K
ƒ
1
J
x R
q l
g 
f f 2
|π3 >
â
† 
= 5
b P
u 
f q
« h
] ˆ
g 9
i R
q h
f M
g K
} y
x º
b
e
á
] a

f T
u K
ƒ Y
i l
b l
g π

f P
 L
x K
} L
t K
ˆ q
 
Š a
€ l
b ƒ
i bˆef G|π±,0 >=
eiπI |π ±,0 >=
2 2

−|π ∓,0 >

|π ±,0 >
ryg˜†´fƒ†á}—­€fgˆxLKƒ]glg•b™p˜b π efpdKYx@Rglf’f G(π) = −1
=b…xŠ`cTKYx@RgˆfYš
•
z;Š`@KƒxJRqglf_Rae7b•g©Rp5Kƒ]htJRyx I = 1 ⇒ |N >= eiτ |N >= iτ |N > r
KYgˆ`qk=uafhg9K”tJKlyŠ€ybˆiYbYef uPf«y]gˆi9Rqfh2gMK’xab eRiπI iˆkSIYŒcŠ p R n š eiπI 2|p >=
π
22

† f«q]hgˆi9RqfhgMKIxybUá ilkSIYŒcŠ p R n fYš G|p >=

2 2

|n >, eiπI |n >= |p >

r=g˜†´fƒ†Eglfxqf™]bÑ]hKˆ²ƒ]gˆilfwxJR]hkm]gMK˜^yx@Rc^xab^á —
2

]wbˆeZK‘]km]g9Kw^axJR^] B = Y = 0I eyKYŽ b•g–uEb™]wb–]3Kˆ²Y]hgˆilfx@Rxab¯á–†

|n >, G|n >= −|p >

ᓗ­€qfhgˆxJKY]glg•bÐf G = η (−1)I r5`cblgMK‹p˜b³n(f5IaeyRJKYxc—¥n.f5IaeyRJKYxyxybÐ]5Rq]gˆfwe7b

l+s+I rDªp˜b —
c
G = (−1) π − π − G = (−1)l+I = 1
+
ãäæå³ç8å è

é çå ×ê\ë²ì å  aí8î®î  í¯ïv ä

ð4!$# ñ'ò(@L)°6!ó˜691H¿!ô.)°6969) &(-0/m<='õ935-769'

ßmBDCEBFC !0MEûYKJ$#HT‹OLMEWƒûƒS"ÙLZ¬MPHLS
" #
› ùq†Ÿž 
  Q2
dσ dσ GE2 + 4M 2 GM
2
Q 2
2
= Q2
+ 2
2GM tg 2 θ
dΩ dΩ M ott 1 + 4M 2
4M

!
› ùq†¢¡Y 
 2
1 GeV
G(Q2 ) = f (Q2) = Q2
MQ20 = 0, 71
1+ c2
4M 2
¶šMG | AöDM÷LAž‹5‰r*ž5) œˆœ ⇒
z^Rae7bqIabp˜e0f5I
ßmBDCEBÍÌ ø¦Ë–0VET*TÉHSUSpMEûYKJ$#LHLT‹OMPWNûYS"ÙZEMPHS
› ùq†ÆÅN 
 
θ
Q2 = M 2 − W 2 + 2M ν, ν = E0 − E, Q2 = 4EE0sin2
2

› ùq†´£c 
 
d2 σ dσ  
= W2 (ν, Q2) + 2W1(ν, Q2)tg 2 (θ/2)
dΩdν dΩ M
 ¶
»µ ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸

:5|{KQIy`NfxJKYiˆ]`JR  `Nf5RTRyxqŽ › Š ÿ¡šp‰$ê9‹5>­‹’Ÿ5DMFE=?>JœU 

Wi = f (ω), ω=
2M ν
Q2
› ùq† œ  
F1 (ν/Q2) = 2M W1(Q2, ν)
⇒ Q2 , ν → ∞
F2 (ν/Q2) = 2M W2(Q2, ν)

ŠŒ‰›š
É>2r»=EŸ ‡ Až‹5‰rJ$D5ŽLF?šQ‰ì—“žd)ˆùQ' Ö J‹ [ † Ee = 20GeV

(†L‹hŽL>y¦¯D9>
— 0DM‰¡AžšQ>‚¦©š’÷L‹5F
(2ν/Q2)W2 − W1
2W1
−−2−−→ 0
Q ,ν→0
S = 1/2 › ù†îùƒ 
(2ν/Q2)W2 − W1
2W1
−−2−−→ ∞
Q ,ν→0
S=0 › ùq†ˆ 

0DM‰¡AžšQ> |

≡
§.TDM‰Ãê |
ð4! 35-7&P¿4),3 >?)’'¥ô

ßmB Ì2BFC ΛX¥Ï
Ú0MEûYJLü‚J0*MPþLJ[oHMÐMJ%7OLTPHLJLKqSEB ~ ZEMPO$LJìB

žˆ† ¯(x@Rqgb9Iqxab‘]3Raefhg9I@R^
 ù ½,+˜½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇð_º"À=ðþýyÁ ¸ ø
‹ ›  »r ÷J‹hA ° < ž
U = eiH H = H+
Žfxqf5Iab•gMKpIJR
z9fp˜bliQRq]5RyeyR
H = α i Fi F i−
N2 − 1 λk ,
⇒ U = exp(iαK FK ) ⇒ T r(Fk ) = 0
k = 1, 2, ...N 2 − 1

T rλk = 0 › ùq†('N 
T rλi λk = 2δik › ùq†()N 
1
Fk = λk
2
› ù†ž54N 
ßmB Ì2BÍÌ ÿ5OX2QM¹¨Î Ì&Ï
λi ≡ σ i › ù†žˆž 
1
F k = σi
2
› ù†ž˜¡Y 
[Fi, Fj ] = iεijk Fk › ù†žÅN 
i•^@IyxJK‘f.pb‘e7b•g9I@Ry®JR (2I + 1) × (2I + 1) pb–t@Iqf uP]hgbˆi•^yxqf]km]”]ht@Rqx—“ˆ°
žˆrPÅY¡UrE¡Ur†Ÿ††Ÿ†
’Šxcu¬bˆefxqg•bPxLKÑtJIqf uE]gbˆi•^axfYš


› ù†ž£c 
 
Ψ1
Ψ=
Ψ2
µ ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸

`"KYiYb9IJRablxqgˆx@R
`"KYxqg9IybˆiYb9IJRablxqgˆx@R

Ψi = Uij Ψj › ù†ž œ  

ϕ = (ϕ1 , ϕ2) › ù†žùƒ 

0
ϕj = ϕi Uij† › ù†ž{Y 

ϕi = εijk ϕj › ù†ž5'N 

› ù†ž5)N 
 
ϕ2
ϕi =
−ϕ1

tJIqf uE]gbˆi•^axJR^I—5]3Raefhg9I@Ry€qx@RvR‚bˆxgQRq]3RaefhgQIJRy€qx@R

1 1
Ψiηj = (Ψi ηj + Ψj ηi) + (Ψi ηj − Ψj ηi)
2 2
› ù† ¡¢4ƒ 


› ù† ¡Už 
J3 = +1
 Ψ 1 η1
J = 1 : J3 = 0 √1 (Ψ1 η2 + Ψ2 η1 )) .


2
J3 = −1 Ψ 2 η2
 ù ½,+˜½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇð_º"À=ðþýyÁ ¸ h2
ßmB Ì2BEX ÿ5OX2QM¹¨Î›X¥Ï
N = 3 −→
'‘e,b•g9I@Rq®@R

    
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
λ 1 = 1 0 0  , λ2 = i 0 0  , λ3 = 0 −1 0  ,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

    
0 0 1 0 0 −i 0 0 0
λ 4 = 0 0 0  , λ5 = 0 0 0  , λ 6 = 0 0 1  ,
1 0 0 i 0 0 0 1 0

  
0 0 0 1 0 0
1
λ7 = 0 0 −i  , λ8 = √ 0 −1 0 
0 i 0 3 0 0 0

1
Fk = λk
2
› ù† ¡ˆ¡Y 
[Fi, Fj ] = ifijk Fk › ù† ¡•ÅN 
ç9g™ŠLIybˆiˆxqfxJRqfhgMKxabޔ`"Kˆ²pR=š
[[A, B], C] + [[B, C], A] + [[C, A]B] › ùq†¢¡£U 
] af uPiƒbš
fijl flkm + fki
l m l m
flj + fjk fli = 0 › ù† ¡ œ  
1
Fi, Fj = δij + dijk F k
3
› ù† ¡•ùN 
µW ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸

I± = F1 ± iF2 , U ± = F6 ± iF7, V± = F4 ∓ iF5,

r
1 3 1 √
I3 = F3 , U3 = − F 3 + F8 , V3 = − F3 − 34F8
2 4 2

I 3 + U3 + V 3 = 0 › ù† ¡9Y 
[I+, I−] = 2I3
⇒ SUI (2)
2
ßmB Ì2B?j ?
 SNQOSUZETp%7Jý(J QLOS9%7ûYKƒM¬Za[*HJ[oHLM¨ÛˆOX2QMPKƒM¹ΛXÏ

SU (3) ⊃ SU (2) × U (1)

I+ , I−, I3 =⇒ SUI (2)
Y = + √23 F8 =⇒ Uy (1)
Pu iƒbªuRablŽ3KYxabPxLK©KƒtfdIyblgMKQIab R
fwncRyxJRy®@Rc^~p˜b¯§jiN‹ › Ń »š I3

1
Q = F 3 + √ F8
3
› ù† ¡¢'N 
1
=⇒ Q = I3 + Y › ù† ¡¢)ƒ 
 fEe7bˆxU—$z.RqËeRUuaÇ©RcP]¤n9Šxcu¬bˆefxqg•bPxLK±t@Iqf uP]hgbˆi•^yxqf
2

   

› ù†îÅ94N 
q1 u
 
qi ≡ q2 = d 

q3 s
ù ½,+˜½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇð_º"À=ðþýyÁ ¸ g
tLKˆyfwi9RbKƒtf5Iab•g9KQI2rP`"KQRqgMK¯IabDžu¬b=r@÷¤R | y` iYb9Iq`@Rgˆf
u|0i = u|0i d|0i = d|0i s|0i = s|0i
 1  

› ù†îŁž 
q u
q = q i = q  ≡  d 
i ∗ 2

q3 s
 

› ù†îŃ¡Y 
u
q = (u, d, s) q = d
s

F11 − F22 = 2F 3 › ù†îňÅN 

F11 + F22 + F33 = 0 › ù†îŕ£c 
2
F11 + F22 ≡ −F33 = + √ F8
3
› ù†îÅ œ  
2
2F11 = 2F33 + F22 = 2F3 + √ F8 − F11
3
› ù†îňùN 
2
F11 = F3 + √ F8
3
› ù†îÅpY 
1
=⇒ Q = I3 + Y
2
› ù†îÅ9'ƒ 

[FA , q] = −
λA
2
q › ù†îÅ9)ƒ 

[FA, q] = q
λA
2
› ù†s£p4N 
2xw ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸

I3  
1 1 1 2
|ui
w w
2 2 3 3
1 1 1 1
|di 2 2 3  3
|si − 23 
1
3

    

› ù†s£yž 
1 0 0 u u
1 1
− 0 −1 0 d = − −d
2 2
0 0 0 s 0
1 1
I3 = − , −
2 3
› ù†s£U¡Y 

1 2 11
I3 = Q − Y = − +
2 3 23
4 1 3
=− + =− =−
6 6 6
1
2
› ù†s£ƒÅN 

I3U = −
1
2
› ù†s£ˆ£c 
ßmB Ì2BÍA v
 SNWNTPHJ

q
1
s = , Bq =
2
1
3
› ù†s£ œ  
qi |0i : B =
1 `qiƒbMIy` › ù†s£ƒùN 
3

q i |0i : B = −
1 bˆxgQRq`yiYb9Iq` › ù†s£ÍY 
3
1 1
q i qj = (q iqj − δji q k qk ) + δji q k qk = Pji
Kƒ`gˆfhg › ù†s£p'N 
3 3

3⊗3=8⊕1 › ùq†´£")ƒ 
ù ½,+˜½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇð_º"À=ðþýyÁ ¸ 2d¬
!#"%$'&)(
*)+,*.-)/1032)-4$%/%$ 567!218 03()*)+
|D, Y, I, I3 i
P12 i = |π + i = |udi | π1√
+iπ2
2
i : −|8, 0, 1, 1i
P11 −P22
| √
2
i = |π 0 i = | uu−dd
√
2
i |π3 i : |8, 0, 1, 0i
1 − π1√ −iπ2
P2 i = |π i = |dui | 2 i : |8, 0, 1, −1i
π4√
P13 i = |K + i = |usi | +iπ 2
5
i : |8, 1, 12 , f rac12i
P23 i = |K 0 i = |dsi | π6√
+iπ7
2
i : |8, 1, 12 , −f rac12i
0
P32 i = |K i = |sdi | π6√
+iπ7
2
i : |8, −1, 12 , f rac12i
P31 i = |K − i = |sui | π4√−iπ5
2
i : |8, −1, 12 , −f rac12i
| √36 P33 i = |η8 i = | nn+dd−2ss
√
6
i π8 : |8, 0, 0, 0i

ʗ"ÏPKlafiQRUKYtqf5IyblgMKQIp˜b…tq]hfiuKY]h`cb•Pb9Iqx@R‚efhp5KYx@R


1
Pji |0i ≡ |Pji i = (q iqj − − δji q k qk )|0i
3
› ù† œ 4ƒ 

ρ+ ρ0 ρ− I = 1, Y = 0
K ∗+ K ∗0 I = 12 , Y = 1
K ∗0 K ∗− i = 12 , Y = −1
ω8 I = 0, Y = 0

ßmB Ì2BEß 7–MPOJTPHLJ

B = 1 =⇒ 3q › ùq† œ ž˜ 

1 1 1 1
qj qk = (qj qk + qk qj ) + (qj qk − qk qj ) = √ Sjk + √ Ajk
2 2 2 2
› ù† œ ¡Y 
) ù Å
Ti
eZK˜Çªf.u¬b™]f”t@Iqf uP]hgbˆi9R`cblgMKyš
2µ´ ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸
T i = εijk Ajk
Ajk = 21 εijk T i
Ajk = √12 (qj qk − qk qj )
=⇒ 3 ⊗ 3 = 6 ⊕ 3

3 ⊗ 3 ⊗ 3 = (6 ⊗ 3) + (3 ⊗ 3) › ùq† œ Ń 
1 1
T iqj = (T iqj − δji T k qk ) + δji T k qk
3 3
=⇒ 3 ⊗ 3 = 8 ⊕ 1
ç(`glfglfx^KƒtfdIyblgMKQIp˜b–²ƒbMI@RJKYx@R
i 1
B j = (T iqj − δji T k qk ) › ù† œ £U 
`k=uPfhgMKaš 3

1
T i = εilmAlm = √ εilm(ql qm − qm ql ) › ù† œˆœ  
=b™]3RyxqŽ Šy^@IyxLK‘t@IfuP]g•blil^yxqf
2 2

1 1 k 1 1
√ T qk = √ εklm Almqk = √ εklm(ql qm − qm ql )qk
2 3 2 3 2 6
› ù† œ ùN 

6 × 3 =⇒ Sij qk › ù† œ Y 

6 × 3 = 10 ⊕ 8 › ùq† œ 'ƒ 
uafw`cŠtyfgqš
KY`qglfhgqš
ù ½,+˜½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇð_º"À=ðþýyÁ ¸ 2©¶
!5"$9&
()*)+ W : /1032)-)* 
3

¬ I3 
¬
w ¬
|pi = B 1 |0i √1 |[u, d]ui 1 1
2 2 2
3

¬ ¬ ¬ w
|ni = B 2 |0i √1 |[u, d]di 1
1 12
2 2
2

w ¬ w w
|Σ+ i = B 1 |0i √1 |[u, s]ui
2
1
|Σ0 i = √12 (B 1 − B22 )|0i
¬ ¬ ¬ w
1
2
|[d, s]u + [u, s]di
1
|Σ− i = B 2 |0i √1 |[d, s]di
2 w w w w
3
|Λ0 i = − √36 B 3 |0i
¬ − ¬
√1 |[u, d]s − [d, s]u − [s, u]di
2
1
√1 |[d, s]si
w ¬
1 1
|Ξ− i = B 3 |0i 2 2 2 
2
|Ξ0 i = B 3 |0i √1 |[s, u]si 1 1
2 2 2 

1
› ù† œ )N 
0
l 0
B r = √ εlmnSrn qm Bl l = 0
3

=⇒ 3 ⊗ 3 ⊗ 3 = (6 ⊕ 3̄) ⊗ 3 = (6 ⊗ 3̄) ⊕ (3̄ ⊗ 3) = 10 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 1

0
› ù†îù94ƒ 
ßmB Ì2B<; 7–MPOJTPHLHJ û9Ë ûYKqTc[2HLJ[
ç9`qglfhg

i 1 1
B j |0i = |Bji i = √ [εilm(ql qm − qm ql )qj − δji εklm(ql qm − qm ql )qk ]|0i
› ù†îùž 
2 2 3
=b'>=š
1
› ù†îùƒ¡ˆ 
0
i 0
B j |0i = |Bji i = √ εikl Sjl qk |0i
3
:ìbMI@RJKYx@R‚] J p = 1 +
` xyb•@KƒŽ3Ry€qxJK“p˜bH'=˜2ÏPKlp˜xyblg9Rgˆf°²NbMI@RLKƒxJR’] Jp = 1+ `cblgMK 3×3
e7blg9I@Rq®@R=š
2
2éµ ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸
 
√1 Λ0 + √12 Σ0 Σ+
› ù†îùˆÅN 
6
p
 Σ− √1 Λ0 − √1 Σ0 n 
Bji =  6 2 
2
Ξ− Ξ 0
− √6 Λ 0

 0 0 − −

√1 Λ + √1 Σ Σ Ξ
› ù†îù•£c 
i  6 +
2
0 0 0 
Bj = 
 Σ √1 Λ − √1 Σ Ξ 

6 2
2
p n − √6 Λ 0
 RyxqŽéafhg

Λ01 =
1 1 klm 1
√ ε (ql qm −qm ql )qk |0i = √ |[d, s]u+[s, u]d+[u, d]si
2 6 6
› ùq†Æù œ  
f`cŠtafhg‚ž54

1
|Tijk i = √ {Sij qk + Sjk qi + Skiqj }|0i
3
Jp =
3+
2
› ù†îùˆùN 
ßmB Ì2B@? ?SNQOSUZETp%7Jý(J QLOS9%7ûYKƒM¬Za[*HJ[oHLM¨ÛˆOX2QMPKƒM¹ΛXÏ
*fw®ftqg•bš
žˆ†¶6PKYxy]g9IŠLR@IybYefglfxp5KQI T j ...j ¡c†  Raefhg9I@Ry€qx@R i ...i R j ...j Ł†
 p˜iYbDžu¬bˆef$‰"g•bl`cb‘€qf9u¬b™fwbiRipw...itqk2axqfxJKyš
1 q
1 p 1 p 1 q

ij ...j
2 q
Tii ...i = 0 › ù†îùpY 
èrRqxqf5RyxLK…xfpbli9Ry]3RaeyRqglf(`"Kƒe7tLKƒxfxqg9RIxabª‡ún.KpIyeyR@Iab•g™xft@IqfiMKwu;RyeZKl—
2 p

gMK±t@If uE]g•blil^yxqf’xab A‹ › ÅN »†

b•p˜ef5IyxJKY]gqšqxqfp˜bliQRq]5RyeyRqglf”`"Kƒe0tJKYxqfxqg9R~xyb–‡ì†  Ryefg9IJRy€qfxIglfxp5KQI~].z
uTKˆax@RvC R BюhKpIqx@R^RyxUuPf`U]3R^Rae7b
ù ½,+˜½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇð_º"À=ðþýyÁ ¸ 2 ø
D 2)+E675"F0/&
()+ G
HJILK)MON G HPILKQMON
w w
H K N ¬
H K N ¬ w ¶
w ¬
H K N ¶
H K N¬ ¬ W
¶ w
H K N ¬‘w
´ ´
H K N µ´ 2

B(p, q) =
(p + 2)(p + 1)(q + 2)(q + 1)
› ù†îù9'N 
Lx KiKˆgi0‰ì] af uEiYbª€f.Rae7bYef 4
ŠN] TKYi9R^ ]3Rye0fhg9I@Rq€yxLK
²ˆfpw]yf uKYi–glfxp5KpIvRae7b B(p − 1, q − 1) −→

› ù†îù9)N 
 
p+q
D(p, q) = B(p, q) − B(p − 1, q − 1) = (p + 1)(q + 1) +1
2

ßmB Ì2B@R S9MPWƒþSNQLZEMEHLS¨QLTÐý”MEûYJRZ¹ΛX¥Ï

‹ › Ń –xqf~f~gMKƒ€qxab]3RaefhgQIJR^ › €abl]g9Ry®@Rglf¤Kˆg³f uRyx}R ]km„eR eLŠag9Rqtafhg

Rye7blg©Iyb•phRq€yxJR?e7bl]5RP 
H = H 0 + H1 › ù†¢4N 
[Fji, H0 ] = 0 ←− SU (3)inv › ù†Už 
[Fji , H1] 6= 0 › ù†ˆ¡ˆ 
` `"K¯Rp²ˆf5Iqfwe H1
gbˆ`kmi‘€qfYš
2x ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸

[I, H1] = 0 [Y, H1] = 0 › ù†•Åƒ 

‡ÚKƒiYbf±]bˆeyK‚i‚] yŠ€abl«‹xyb^Kˆgˆ]hkm]gˆi9Rqf±xab~faf`qg9IJKƒe7bˆŽhxJRqgˆxJKi•p˜b9RyeZKl—
uaf«y]gˆiQRfƒ†
=b¤u¬b‘]fRpwtk2Px^qg‘ŽhKQIyx@Rglf_RpdRy]h`yiYblx@R^2š
H1 ∼ T33 ∼ λ8 › ù†˜£c 
e7bl]3KYi‘€yfx~p˜b…`qiƒbMIy`cbš
Hq = mu uu + md dd + ms ss › ù† œ  
` `"KJ‹A › ƒÅ  c‹UTWV–rsgMK mu = m d = m s
† ` `"K SUI (2)
fTXV–r2gMK mu =
md =6= ms

uu − dd 2m + ms m − ms 1
Hq = m(uu+dd)+ms s+(mu−md ). = (uu+dd+ss)+ √ √ (uu+d
› ù†•ùN 
2 3 3 3
`k=uPfhgMKaš

m=
mu + m d
2
› ù†9Y 
2m + ms
3
=
mu + m d + m s
3
≡ mq › ù†¢'N 
(m − ms ) mu + md + 2ms
√ = √ ≡
λ
› ù†¢)N 
gMKYŽ bliƒbš 3 s 3 2

Hq = mq qq + λq
λ8 λ3
q + (mu − md )q q › ù†*'94ƒ 
ÏPKY`cbp˜iYb…€f”p˜b…t@ILKpRcp˜iMKlPxJKtJIqf uE]gbˆi•^axf¤xab ‹ › Ń  › z=rYBq 
2 2
ù ½,+˜½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇð_º"À=ðþýyÁ ¸ 22

› ù†*'ž 
 
3 Y2
h(p, q)I, Y |T3 |(p, q)I, Y i = a + bY + c − I(I + 1)
4
DrYZ^RvŸ]RJKˆ²ƒ„_K‘`cbpblxJK™p˜bliQRq]é^qgiKˆg › 2z rYBq ìxJKxfrRbKYg“²R −→

› ù†*'ƒ¡Y 
 
Y2
m = m0 + 4m = a + bY + c − I(I + 1)
=b'qR ž54…xabN‹A › NÅ  »š 4

› ù†*'ˆÅN 
 i  i
λ8 λ8 λ8
H1 ∼ q q = q i qj = Oij = (T8)ij Qji
2 2 j 2 j
<
1
Oji = q i qj − δji q k qk
3
› Kƒ`gˆfhglfx¤KYtqf5Iab•gMKpIP  › ù†*'•£c 
λ8
T8 = ←− H1 = O33
2

4m = δhA|H1 |Ai = λhA|O33 |Ai › ù†*' œ  

=b
²ƒbMI@RJKYxqfx¸KY`qglfhg]hf–tJKlyŠ€ybˆiYb•g~g†=xyb9I=†*e7bˆ]hKYiQR§n.KpIyeLŠR xab  fq—
bˆx?ç(`cŠc²QKyš
mN + m Ξ
=
3mΛ + mΣ
› ù†*'ˆùN 
=b
 Kƒ`glfgqš 2 4

m2M =
3m2η8 + m2M
› ù†*'pY 
=b~ž54 4

I=
Y
2
+1 › ù†*'9'N 
2xW ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸
\[ ¬ [ w
ρ+ ρ0 ρ−  [ ¬
w 
[ ¬
1
K ∗+ K ∗0 i=
∗0 \[ 2
K K ∗− 

m = a 0 + b0 Y › ù†*'9)ƒ 
m − mΞ∗ = mΞ∗ − mΣ∗ = mΣ∗ − m4 › ù†*)94N 
` xyb•@KƒŽ3Ry€qxJK‘p˜b±Ω ž54

› ù†*)ž 
3mω8+m2ρ
m2k∗ =
4

m2ρ = m20 › ù†*)ƒ¡Y 

m2k∗ = m20 + λOD › ù†*)ˆÅN 
4
m2ω8 = m20 + λOD › ù†*)•£c 
P6 KYŽ b•gMK3‹A › Ń  f”xabMIŠËfxab 3
R ç(`glfg
]3RyxqŽéyfg ω ω1 ω8 Jp = 1−
1

› ù†*) œ  
 
2 m28 m218
M =
m218 m21

› ù†*)ˆùN 
 2 
m 0
U T M 2U = φ

`k=uPfhgMKaš 0 m2ω

› ù†*)pY 
 
cos θ − sin θ
U=
sin θ cos θ
ù ½ÅĽ.]0º©öƒÂ 2µg

m2ϕ + m2ω = m28 + m21 › ù†*)9'N 

m2ϕ − m2ω = (cos2 θ − sin2 θ)(m28 + m21 ) + 4 sin θ cos θm218 › ù†*)9)N 
2m218
tan 2θ = 2
m8 − m2ω
› ù†Ÿžd494N 
2
tan θ =
m2ϕ − m28
m28
=
3m2ϕ − 4m2K∗ + m2ρ
4m2K∗ − m2ρ − 3m2ω
› ù†Ÿžd4ž 
tan θ ≈ 0, 84 θ ≈ 40 ◦ −
` `"K±i•pwfwefwe tan θ ≈ √1
R
≈ 0, 71 θ ≈ 35, 3◦
2
√
2
|ϕi = √ |ω1 i = −|ssi
3
› ùq†Ÿž54N¡ˆ 
√
1 2 1
|ωi = √ |ω8 i + √ |ω1 i = √ |uu + ddi
3 3 2
› ùq†Ÿž54YŃ 
=⇒ m2ω = m2ρ m2ϕ − m2ω = 2(m2K∗ − m2ρ ) › ùq†Ÿžd4•£U 
` `"K ϕ f ss =⇒ ϕ → ρπ Ï.Iabli9RTKxyb^T(ê͍AZš…— _ˆ‹5= œ–—»“=P`5yêMš › TX_“L—
tJIabliQRcTKU 
ð4!½¼ 3,:4@
a

u c t Q = +2/3
d s b Q = −1/3
M ≡ qq B ≡ qqq
Wµw ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸
π + = ud K + = us K 0 = dsπ 0 = (uu − dd)
√
2
D+ = cd 0
D = cu +
Ds = cs...
B + = ub 0
B = db Bs0 = sb Bc+ = cb...
p = uud n = udd Σ+ = uus Σ0 = uds
Σ6c + = uds Σ++
c = uuc Ξ = usc Ξ0c = dsc...
Ξ+ Ξ++ Ω+
Ï.ILKY²lafwe"šJKY]hxJKYiYxLK]hkm]gMK˜^yx@RfV[°„4
cc = dcc cc = ucc cc = scc...

3
4++ J= 4++ = u↑u↑ u↑
2
zPKYiMK`yiYbˆxg9KYiMK€@Ry] @Kaša®qil^qg › hŸ špF šQ@‰é 
q α , α = 1, 2, 3 r, y, b

1
4++ = √ εαβγ |u↑α u↑β u↑γ i
6
› ùq†Ÿžd4 œ  

1
B = √ εαβγ |qα qβ qγ i
6
1
M = √ δ αβ |qα q β i
3
› ùq†Ÿžd4ˆùƒ 
6PKYxyn”bˆ«qxaefxqg˜†  `U]htfdIJR@If˜efxqgb•ax@R Š`cbp˜bˆxJR^dp˜b³]km„f]hgˆi•ŠiƒblxqfhgMK
xyb™®yi•^ygqš

ßmB?XmBFC GU*MPWƒMEHJ[oWƒM‹þZa[*K

Re+ e− ≡
σ(e+ e− −→ hadrons)
σ(e+e− −→ µ+ µ− )
› ù†Ÿžd4pY 
e+ e− −→ γ ∗, Z ∗ −→ hadrons
γ < E << Mz
ù ½ÅĽ.]0º©öƒÂ W{¬


2
XNf  3 Nc = 2 : u, d, s

Re+ e− ≈ Nc Q2f = 109 Nc = 10
3 (Nf = 4 : u, d, s, c) .


› ù†Ÿžd49'N 
11
f =1
N = 11
9 c 3
(Nf = 5 : u, d, s, c, b)

τ
—ÈIabpwtab˜u;R2š 2 + Nc
ilk2p˜eZK˜Çx@RtJI@RyxLKƒ]b
Nc −→ τ − −→ ντ du ˜
d˜ ≡ cos θcd + sin θc s
1 1
Bτ −→l ≡ Br (τ − −→ ντ l−ν l ) ≈ = = 20%
2 + Nc 5
Γ(τ − −→ ντ + hadrons)
Rτ ≡ ≈ Nc = 3
 `U]htqf5I@Rye0fxg•b–u¬bliƒb™] yfuPx@RgˆfIqfphŠagblg9R2š
Γ(τ − ντ e− ν e )

Bτ −→e = (18, 01 ± 0, 18)%

Bτ −→µ = (17, 65 ± 0, 24)%
(1 − Bτ −→e − Bτ −→µ )
Rτ = = 3, 56 ± 0, 04
]km„_K…p˜biIabpwtab˜u;R‚xab Bτ −→e
R
W ± Z −→ Nc = 3
π 0 −→ γγ

A3µ ≡ (uγµ γ5 u − dγµ γ5d)

Nc 2 α2 m3π
0
Γ(π −→ γγ) = = 7, 73eV

fπ = 92, 4M eV
KYg
3 64π 3 fπ2
π − −→ µ− ν µ

Γexp = 7, 7 ± 0, 6eV
W´ h· ¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸
ð4!<b ¾„Vô.+°) ¿ ) 69'*'¥ô”-°<‰@8dc(69)Ê'¥ô.'¿9@&9)°6969)²ó{ò9&9)°@),6969) &(-0/¥ó
<='õ935-769'
e− p −→ e− X

πα2 cos2 2θ n
› ù†Ÿžd49)N 
dσ o
2 2 2 θ
= W2 (Q , ν) + 2W1(Q , ν) tan
dQ2dν 4E 2 sin4 2θ EE 0 2
Ï.IJRqfwe7bYef”t@IJKˆgMKƒxyb…pb…gMKY€y`"KYiƒb™€ybˆ]g9Ry®ybqš
2
W1(Q , ν) =
Q2
4Mp2
δ(ν −
Q2
2Mp
) › ùq†ŸžYž54ƒ 
Q2
W2(Q2, ν) = δ(ν − )
2Mp
Ï.If uEtJKlTKwǖfxJRqfYšygMKƒ€q`"Kƒi9R s = 21
pµi = ξi pµ mi = ξMp γ −→ pi =⇒

(i)
W1 (Q2, ν) =
e2i Q2
4m2i
δ(ν −
Q2
2mi
)=
e2i
2Mp
δ(ξi − x) › ùq†ŸžˆžYž˜ 
( Q2 x
W2 i) = (Q2, ν) = e2i δ(ν − ) = e2i δ(ξi − x)
2mi ν
Q2 Q2
x= 2Mpν = Q2 +W 2 −Mp2

W 2 ≡ Px2
tJI@R Q2 → ∞, ν → ∞
rqxJK…Œ~f”`@Iybˆ«qxJK
XZ 1
(i) 1 X 2 1
2
W1(Q , ν) = dξfi(ξi)W1 (Q2, ν) = ei fi (x) ≡ F1(x)

› ù†ŸžYž˜¡Y 
i 0 Mp i Mp
ù ½fe½ˆÆP/•¸ƒñ ðCÇð°õYÁ Á¸ˆ¹h÷$Âÿhg»õYð“Á ¸ƒÁÈǃāð_õõˆðöûEüÄcð»ð_õ˜õYð,ÄU¹©ó ÷$Áiºh¹»õYÁ W ¶

XZ 1
(i) xX 2 1
2
W2(Q , ν) = dξfi(ξi)W2 (Q2, ν) = ei fi(x) ≡ F2 (x)

› ù†ŸžYžÅN 
i 0 ν i ν
:5|{KQIy`NfxJKYtyiˆ]h`@R]h`Nf«RqxyŽ»† ç;gYxLKƒËfx@Rf”xyb † DMFEFEDM>I—ˆáP‰›š |ž| š
F2(x) = 2xF1(x) › ùq†ŸžYž£U 
bl`"K s = 0 → F (x) = 0
zPRqfªt@IfuPtJKlTK˜ÇRcŒy1 efYr=€qf–tabMIqgMKYx@Rqglf‘]b±]iMKˆ²QKwuPx@R=† ` ]hKƒe7tgMKYg9Ry€qxabI]hiMKl—
²9KwuEbq† q ←→ q †  ŠiˆfTRy€abliYbˆxf’xabqIyb•pgMK˜^yx@RfgMK±]f(ŠilfRq€abliƒbqR~fxqf5IyŽ3RU—
^qg•b†&6PKYŽ b•gMK E > 2mg → q0q0
=bl„_K SU (3) j
k9il^qg ˜
p b9Iƒ^cup˜b™]3RPxJRqglf¤i•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRc^*† γ, Z, W ±
c

žˆ† k(ilfhg•b–f’gMKY€yxyb]3Rye0fhg9I@Rc^ G
≡
¡U† N = 3 ⇒ q → 3 Kˆg G Åq† qc6≡ q =⇒ 3 6≡ 3 ⇒ `"Kƒe0tyfw`U]hxLKt@Iqf uP]hgb—
i•^yxqf c c

£y†&6PKYxyn”b9Rqxaekmxqg
œ † ` ]3Rae0tqgMKˆg9Ry€yxyb±]hiMKY²9KwuEb
£Ž3IŠtJR]¤Å™t@IfuP]g•blil^yx@Rc^*š
SU (3)
RcR SO(3) ≈ SU (2) ≈ S (1) =⇒ SU (3)
p c

qq3 ⊗ 3 = 1 ⊕ 8
qqq : 3 ⊕ 3 ⊕ 3 = 1 + 8 + 8 + 10
®R
BhB CBhBhBhB Ešax^ae,b™]3RqxyŽéyfhgQR
› ù†ŸžYž œ  
W»µ ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹!ù½.ú0ºh¹$ÄpÇ¢û?ül¹$ÄqÂéð_õYÁõ.À=ðþýyÁ ¸
ãäæå³ç8å l

é å¸ä nmÉ×í çporq î §íÉ

s $! # t–&;1Hò(),3,8 <=89>?'*@L&(898
 Raefhg9I@RJRqglfRqŽ3Iab^yg^Ifw˖bliƒbl„…bUILKˆq^ iˆkmi~ncRpdRy`cb•g•bxabIfafwefxqgb9Iqx@Rc—
glf…€abl]hg9Rq®@R2† ` `"K~]km„ªf]gˆilŠiYb±]3Rye0fhg9I@Rc^vu¬r¬t@IJR`"K˜^ygMKbRcphŠ€abliƒblxab•g•b®Kˆg
xybˆ]‘ncRpdRy€qxab~]3Ry]glfwe,bIfRqxyiYb9IJRablxqgˆxab^KYgˆxLKƒ]hxJKg9Iablxy]hn.KpIye,bl®@RJR u¬b˜uPf —
xJRKˆ^g u¯RcRÑf`yi9RyiYbafxqgˆxJKyrq`"KYŽ b•gMK–È.bˆeyRagMKYx^yxab…xybªgb•pdRI]3Ry]glfwe7bˆúf
RqxyiYb9IJRablxqglfx2rag˜†sfY†Ÿš
SHS † = H › c†Ÿž 
ϺKƒxc^a`"KYŽ b…]kmiˆ`ŠtqxJKY]hglgbKˆgxqfp˜bliQRq]5RyeyR~]5Ryefg9IJR@R‚xab™]3Ry]glfwe,b•g•b‘Žfxqf —
IJR@Iyb³bPŽfh²pIJRy€qxab]gQIcŠ`qg•ŠLIab xabŽ3IŠtyblgbqrgMK³gMKYŽ bliƒb]f~`cbpwiƒbr€qf~]k=—
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0
Ψ → Ψ = eiα(x) Ψ › c†ÆÅN 
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]km]™]htJRyx s = 1 r*e7bl]bI¦ R fyfw`g9I@Ry€fxp˜bMIƒ^uݧP‹Y†  ktKˆgˆiˆfhgˆx@Rc^yg
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Ψ(x)

L(x) = Ψ̄(x)(i∂ µγµ − m)Ψ(x) , Ψ =

 (1) 
Ψ
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Ψ
`k=uPfhgMK Ψ̄(x) f”`"Kƒe0taf`U]hxJK–]ht@IfwŽhxyblgMKˆg9K™tJKlaf.xab Ψ(x) rcb¤ŠLIabliYxfwxJRqfhgMK
xybªuEi9RÇªfx@Rf¤f(u;RJIabl`"Kƒiˆ]h`"KYgMK‘ŠLIabliˆxqfx@Rfƒš
(i∂ µγµ − m)Ψ(x) = 0. › U† œ  
è¤bˆxqŽ5IybˆxcÇ©Rablxqk¬g › U†´£c (f®RyxqiƒbMI@RybˆxgˆfxÊtJKu‹uPf«y]gˆi9RqfhgMKxab¨Ž_TKˆ²NbPxJ¼ R »
g9Iybˆxq]n.KpIye7bˆ®JR@R2rY`"KpRg9K9uPf«y]gˆiYblg”iˆkSIYŒcŠªtLKˆyfgblgb]R–g^ŒqxJRqglf}tJIJK•—
Rcpwi9KwuPx@R`cbl`qgMK±]yf uEiYbqš
U (1)

0
Ψ (x) = eiQθ Ψ(x), › U†îùƒ 
0
Ψ̄ (x) = e−iQθ Ψ̄(x), › U†ˆ 
½¿¾YÀ´ÁÃÂÅÄFÀ#ƄǢÄFÈ9ÉÃÊEËFÇEÈ3Ì¿ÍYÀ#Ë3ÎQÇEÏ9É9É{ÌÑÐÒËFÇEÓÔÆ#É9ËFÇFՇ֣À#ÂÑÇ#ÊEÀ×3ÇEËFÇ5Î)пÊEØ4Ë3ÇÃÙÚ×3ÇEËFÇ5Î)пÊEË9ÉFÊEдÛÈFÇÜÁÇÁ3ÐÔÈFÇ
¿Ë9Ý£×FÇÈ9ЗӴÇEÞ#É3Ìàß9ÊÀ5ÊÊEÀ5á9Ö'ÇEÊ¢ÇÈFÇ×9Ë9À„ÌÑÊEËFÇ#ÈFÌÑÊ#Þ#ÀEâãÞ#ËFÐÔÎ)пÊ#ÀäÙ µ ÛÑÕ9Ö9Ø%Á3ÐÔÊEÀ
x µ = 0, 1, 2, 3 å
gµw ·¸ˆ¹éºh¹Xw ½cú,¹é¸¿Yñòāð_ºd/)g©õ˜¿ÂéÁ$ðòÄY¿¿
` k=uPfhgMK Qθ f‚Žé@KY²ƒbPxab•g•b n’bp˜bqr7b θ f‚xqft@Ifw`km]hxab•gQRc^dtyb9IybYefhglkSIdxab
—¥Ž5IcŠtab•g•b†
ç;g”glf3KpIf˜e7b•g•b’xybz(|{KˆglfdI=rYŽ_TKˆ²NbPxyblgb U (1)—RyxqiƒbMI@RybˆxgˆxJKY]hg’xab L(x) Kˆg
U (1)

›xycb…†´£cf ¶afKl`qpwxag9I@b˜€yRqbˆ€yiYxJb™R^pblp˜tab9bIƒpw^ciƒublxq— fª‹¢§ªxyb±š faf`qg9ILKNe7blŽxJRqgˆx@Rc^gMKƒ`=r J µ r&R¨p˜bˆtyb•pwiYbˆxf

J µ (x) = Ψ̄(x)γµeQΨ(x) › U†*'ƒ 

› c†()ƒ 
Z
∂µ J (x) = 0, eQ = d3 xJ0(x)
µ

\ ] yŠ€ybˆ«³xabITKY`cb•ax@R U (1)—gQIybˆxq]hncKQIae7bˆ®JR@R=rg˜†sfY†*`"KƒŽ©blgMK¨tabMIabˆefglkSIyb
æ
xybɎ3IŠtyblgb p˜bˆi9Ry]3R¹Kˆg‹gMKƒ€q`cblgb‹xabÉtJIJKY]gQIybˆxq]gYiMK•—­i9IqfwefgMK › xµ  »r,n.f5Ic—
eyRLKƒxqx@RqglfªtJKlafhgbqR‚g^ŒqxJRqglfªt@IJKQRpwiMKwuExJR]hf’t@Iqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYblg™tJK±] af uExJR^
xyb˜€@Rqx2š
0
Ψ (x) = U (x)Ψ(x) , U (x) = eiQθ(x)
Ψ̄0 (x) = U −1(x)Ψ̄(x) , U −1(x) = e−iQθ(x) . › U†ž54N 
∂µΨ̄0 (x) = eiQθ(x) ∂µ Ψ̄(x) + iQ(∂µθ(x))eiQθ(x)Ψ̄(x)
∂µΨ̄0 (x) = eiQθ(x) ∂µ Ψ̄(x) − iQ(∂µθ(x))eiQθ(x)Ψ̄(x) › U†ŸžYž˜ 
 af uTKƒiYblglfPxLK tJI@RoTKY`cb•ax@R U (1)—­t@If3KY²QIabphŠiƒblx@Rc^oèblxyŽ3IabÇ©RablxabÐxyb
]hiMKY²9KwuPxJK§n(f5IaeyRJKYxyxLKtJKlaf
]Ie7bˆ]b‚xqf±fRqxyiYb9IJRablxqglfx2†  tLKNeZKY„ªgb?xab
`cbR²pILKƒilk€yxJR^¨t@IJRyxy®JRyteZK˜Çªf”u¬b]f_IqfËVR¨tJIJKˆ²ˆyf˜e7b]¤xqf5RyxqiƒbMI@Rybˆxg—
xLKƒ]glg•b~xyb L KYg^RcpdIabpb › c†´£U ;`cb•gMK]hf…iˆkmilf uPf–fuPxJK~`cbR²pILKƒilk€yxLKiˆf`c—
gMKQIyxLK‚²9KlpdKYxyxLKtJKlaf A (x) r‰`"KˆfgMKi•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiƒbI]–tJKlafhgMK Ψ(x) R]hf
tJIqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYb–t@Iybˆi9RaxJK…µtJKwu~uafw«q]gYi9RqfhgMK‘xyb U (1)—­`cbR²pILKƒilk€yx@R±g9Iablxy]©—
n.KpIye7bˆ®JR@R2š
1 ~
A~0µ (x) = A~µ (x) − ∂µθ(x)
g
› U†ž˜¡ˆ 
w ýÅĽ.ú,¹é¸•¿Yñ­Äð_º{/
g©õl¹4ÂéÁ$ðòă¿wö’ó$¹4¹hñ©Á¸ƒÁºh¹¶µÄlô{ül¹ õl¹“÷¥¿À=Á$¥ă¿˜ö g{¬
‡ Š`ÉtLKwuÊtJIabliQRcPxJRÉg9Iablxy]hncKQIae7bl®@R@RÉ]hftLKwu;Iyb•p²QR@Iyb‚`"Kƒe0tqfxy]3R@Iybˆxfxab
uTKƒtk2PxJRqglfPx@Rc^€cafx¨ilk2pwx@Rq`yxab?i®IfhphŠyg•b•g±xab ∂ θ 6= 0 tLK±gbˆ`kmixab˜—
€JRyx=ra€qf¤tk2Px@Rc^yg‘è¤bˆxqŽ5IybˆxcÇ©RablxIu¬b…²ˆk=uPf’`cbR²pILKƒilµk€yxLK©RyxyiYbMI@Rablxqglfx2†
z(bˆ«U—Ry`"KYxJKƒeyRy€qx@R^qg‘xyb˜€@Rqx
u¬b…]f.tJKY]hg9ILKpR~gMKˆpdR~`cbR²pILKƒilk€yxJKqRyxyiYbMI@Rc—
blxqglfx L(x) f–`cblgMK~]f¤p˜bYef]g9R§xJKQIae7bPxab•g•b
t@IJKQRpwiMKwuExyb ∂ €JIqfp™`"KYiYb—
IJRablxqgˆxab•g•bt@ILKpRcpwi9KwuPxab D š µ
µ

Dµ = (∂µ − ieQAµ (x))Ψ(x), › c†ŸžÅN 

`k=uPfhgMK”]f tJIqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYb}`"KƒiYb9IJRablxqgˆxJKyr•g†´fY†tJK.]hkm„VR^¤xab˜€JRyx…`cbl`qgMK Ψ(x) š
0 0
(Dµ Ψ) (x) = (∂µ − ieQAµ (x))eieQθ(x)Ψ(x) › U†Ÿžh£U 
1
= [∂µ − ieQ(Aµ (x) − ∂µ θ(x))]eieQθ(x)Ψ(x) › U†Ÿž œ  
› U†Ÿžwùƒ 
e
=e ieQθ(x)
[∂µ − ieA~µ ]Ψ(x) ≡ eieQθ(x) (Dµ Ψ)(x)
 ]`cbˆef Aµ uEb‘²ˆk=uPf]Ry]g9Ryxq]`"K±ncRpdRy€qxJK±tJKlafYratJKQIab˜u;R‚`"KˆfgMK±ilkmiˆfDžuEb—
ef~`JRyxfg9Rq€qfxd€yfx xyb§`cb•TRq²QIJKYiˆk€yxLKYgMK³tJKlafi§glf5IaeyRyxJR xybglfxp5KQIab
fyfw`g9IJKƒe,blŽhx@RgYxLKYgMK
tJKlafYš
L0 = − Fµν F µν
1
› U†ž{Y 
› U†ž5'N 
4
Fµν = ∂µAν − ∂νAµ
`k=uPfhgMK F f”faf`gQILKNe7blŽhx@RqgˆxJR^‚glfwxcp5KpI=†
Ï;k2Px@Rc^yg¤µνè¤bˆxqŽ5IybˆxcÇ©Rablx
f“èKpIfxy®¯R U (1) `cb•TRq²QIJKYiˆk€yxLKVRyxyiYbMI@Rablxqglfx
R~frRcpwiˆf]glfwx~`cb•gMKèbˆxqŽ3IablxÇ©Rybˆx‚xab¯§” ¹¤š
1
L(x) = Ψ̄(x)[iDµγµ − m]Ψ(x) − Fµν F µν
4
1
= Ψ̄(x)[(∂µ − ieQAµ )γµ − m]Ψ(x) − Fµν F µν
4
› U†ž5)N 
°MEVESp0SpÁÝ2M š ` `"K³xabilfw`gMKpIqxJKˆg9KÉtJKlaf Aµ(x) eŠÐ]hftJIqft@Rq˪f‚e7bl]hKƒi
€cafx2ryg˜†´fƒ† 1 m2A (x)Aµ(x) rgMK‘gMKYŽ bliƒb™„f’]f.xabMIŠËVRvRqxyiYb9IJRablxqgˆxJKY]glg•b
2 µ
 g´ ·¸ˆ¹éºh¹Xw ½cú,¹é¸¿Yñòāð_ºd/)g©õ˜¿ÂéÁ$ðòÄY¿¿
yx b L(x) †ç9g¤g•Š`Ñ] af uPiƒbrRgˆf3KQIqfhg9Ry€qxJKˆg9K…tJKˆgˆiˆkSIƒÇ…uafx@RqfYrc€qf γ —­`yiYblxqglk‰g
”f ²Yfp˜e7bˆ]hKYi › m = 0  »ry`"KˆfhgMK‘f’f`U]tf5I@Rye0fxg•bPxJKtLKYgˆilkSIYuPfxJKy†
γ

 af uPiƒb5u¬b ]hfyKˆgl²YfyfhDžb•g}] af uPx@Rqglf°]hi9KY«y]gˆiƒb•g•b xabìEblxyŽ3IablxÇRablxab › U†Ÿžd)ƒ »š

žˆ† _KYgMKYxqk¬g…f9²ˆfhp˜e7bl]3KYiYb’€abl]hg9Rq®abrg•bl`cb€qf(€yfwxk‰g A Aµ xf(f9`cbR²l—
IJKYiˆk€yxLKRyxqiƒbMI@Rybˆxglfwx=† µ

¡U†°^RyxJRae7b•axJKˆgMK…i•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRf;xab’n.KYgMKYxab]“faf`qg9ILKƒxyb]f“]hk=uakSIc—

Ǚbdio`"KYiYb9IJRablxqgˆxab•g•bot@ILKpRcpwi9KwuPxab D Ψ(x) r `"K˜^qg9KReZK˜Çªfu¬b ²ˆk=—
uPf™tLKƒ]g9IJKˆfxabÑxyb®KY]xLKƒiYb•g•bÑxyb
g9Iablxy]hncµKQIae7bl®@RJKYxyxJRqglf±]hi9KY«y]gˆiƒb±xab
fhyf`qg9IJKYxyxLKYgMK§tLKˆyfY†  u;IcŠŽ3RuaŠqeyR=ri•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRfhg9K¨xab~n.KYgMK•—
xab‘]¤`"KYf(u¬b™fªe7blglf5I@Ryb•axJK
tJKlafrKYt@Iqf uafhq^‚xqfŽhKƒi9Rqglf]hiMKƒ«q]hgˆiYb‘t@I@R
t@Iqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYbˆxJR^ xybɎ3IŠtyblgb‹xabÉ]3Raefhg9I@Rc^*† ç9²QRy`qxJKYiˆfxLKÉgMKƒiYb‹]f
xabMI@Ry€yb”Šx@Ryilf5Iy]3RabPxLKƒ]g˜† IŠŽ3R`cb•TRq²QIJKYiˆk€qxJK•—RyxqiƒbMI@Rybˆxgˆx@RIi•p˜b—
RaeZKwuPf«q]hgˆi9R^ › Kˆg±tJK•—­i9Ry]hKY`‚tLKpIƒ^cuPkm`P »ra`cbl`qgMK Ψ̄(x)σ Ψ(x)F µν ra]b
KYgŒqilkSIafxJR¨iˆ] af uE]gˆiQRf’xybqRpdRy]h`yiYblxqfhgMK™pb™tJIqfxJKQIaeyµνRJIŠYf˜eZKY]g†
Ł†LèbˆxqŽ3IablxÇ©Rybˆxk‰g › U†ž5)ƒ "xqf]k=uakSIƒÇ™bRcp{Iyb•p˜b™]k&KYgˆilfgˆ]hiYbˆ„_K±xab‘]b—
eyKuPf«y]gˆiQRfhg9K‹xab³`cbR²pILKƒilk€yxJRqglf?tLKˆyfhg•br,glkm«o`cblgMKÉncKˆg9KYxab‹xf
t@I@RglfhDžbliƒbpbMIƒ^cu › RTR U (1) `yiYbˆxgMKƒiMK‘€@Rq] TKU »rg˜†sfY†U²Yfp”e7blglf5I@Ryb•—
xJKtJKlaf”gˆf3KQI@Rc^ygb]f(^ai•^aiYb–glf3KpIJR^‚xyb™]iMKˆ²QKwuPxJKtLKˆyfƒ†
*fhphŠyg•b•glk‰g‹fYr7€qf¨]¨tLKNeZKY„ªgb³xybÉ`cb•TRq²QIJKYiˆk€qxab•g•b U (1)—­Ž3IcŠtabxabÉ]3RU—
efhg9I@Rc^ÉxybI]hi9Kˆ²QKuExJKÑuR@Iybˆ`"KYiY]h`"KtLKˆyf]hf…tJKlyŠ€JRÕKYt@Rq]wblx@RfxabÑfaf`g•—
ILKNe7blŽhx@RqgˆxLKYgMK9tJKlafYr€@Ry«gMK9t@IqfxLKƒ]3Rqglfªxab ilp˜bMRaeZKwuafw«q]gYi9RqfhgMK › n.KYgMKYxabƒ 
]f9u¬bliƒb™€JIqfp`cbRq²QIJKYilkq€qxJKˆgMKiˆf`qgMKQIyxLK
tLKˆyf † Aµ
= b4xqfwbl²ˆfafi9Rqglf5`cbR²pILKƒilk€yxJR’gˆf3KQI@RJRªtJI@RgˆfDžbliƒb•g(tqkSIyi9Rqglf°uPiˆf°]hi9KY«y]©—
gˆiYbqr2xLK~xqf…t@IJRqglfǙbliYblg‚tJKY] af uExLKYgMKy†mÏ.IJRaKYgˆ]km]gYi9Rqf™xabÑ]bˆeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRf
xyb“`cbRq²QIJKYilkq€qxJKˆgMK;tJKlaf5]hf,tLKƒ]g9IJK˜^yiYb4g•bl`cbˆiYb“xf˜b•²ˆfhyfiƒb glf5KQI@Rc^*rw`"K˜^ygMK
fª]3RaxJKÑxqfRqxqf«yxyb®R?iMKwuR?gMKƒiYbqrE€qf–t@IJRqglfDžbˆiYbIqf u]iMKY«y]gˆiƒbKYgRq€ab˜—
iYbl„eR]f]Kˆg±bl²ˆfafi9Rqglf”glf3KpIJR@R=†
w fe .æ ý ½ 5Áò¹hñ©Á¸ƒÁºh¹£Ç˜¹_¸•¿Yñòāð º{/)g»õl¹;ÂéÁ$ðòÄY¿˜ö(õl¹Ãç0õ)µ0¿Wè.¿˜¸Y÷ g ¶
s <! b é'm-,+,'¥ô.'*35-}¿“-Zô.8(+,&9)°3 ·c96(- @'*),&989:R6(-rê 6.¸‚8ìë 8ºô”<

ÏPIqfp9ž5) œ £YŽ©†dޔxyŽ R™^Ra]£Iabpwt@IJKY]g9Iablx@RTR–tJIyxq®@Rytyb;xab}`cbRq²QIJKYilkq€qxab•g•b

]3Rye0fhg9I@Rc^‚iˆkSIYŒcŠIxqfwb•²Yfafi9R~Ž3IŠt@R=†
z;fw`cbryxybˆtJI@Raef5I2rai•pfwe0fw¼ e uA › ¡ˆ —¥Ž5IcŠtab•g•bš
0 i
Ψ(x) → Ψ (x) = e− ~τ ·θ Ψ(x),
2
~
› U†¢¡M4ƒ 
`k=uPfhgMK ~θ = (θ , θ , θ ) ]b tyb9IybYefhg9I@Rgˆf°xa³b uA › ¡ˆ —¥Ž5IcŠtab•g•br ~τ = (τ , τ , τ )
]b e7blg9I@Rq®@Rgˆfì1xab;2Ï(bŠ3R(Š˜uKYilyfhgYiMKQIƒ^aiYbˆ„VR”] yfuPx@Rgˆf5`"KNeLŠcgbˆ®JRJKYxy1x@R¤2]k=3—
KˆgˆxJKY˪fxJR^2š
1 i
[τi, τj ] = ijk , (i, j, k = 1, 2, 3) , › c†¢¡cž˜ 
2 2
b Ψ(x) frRp5KY]tJRyxLKƒi–uyŠc²ˆyfgqš
› U† ¡ˆ¡Y 
 
Ψ( 1)
Ψ= .
Ψ( 2)
è¤bˆxqŽ5IybˆxcÇ©Rablxqk¬gxab™]hiMKY²9KwuPxJK‘tLKˆyf’fYš
L0 = Ψ̄(x)[iγ∂µ − m]Ψ(x) , › U†¢¡lŃ 
`"KY«qgMK}f–RyxqiƒbMI@RybˆxglfwxKˆgˆxJKY]hxJK;Ž_TKˆ²NbPxJR®uA › ¡Y =t@If3KY²QIabphŠiƒblx@Rc^*rh`"KƒŽ©blgMK
tyb9IybYefhg9I@Rgˆf”xabŽ3IŠtab•g•bxab]3Raefhg9I@R^ θ xqf;p˜bˆi9Ry]_^ygrKˆg…tJIJKY]gQIybˆxq]gYiMK•—
i9IqfwefiQRglfÉ`"K9KpIYuRyxyblg9R2†;Ï.I@Rú@Kƒ`cbPxJRit@If5Kˆ²QIabpŠiYblx@R^ › θ = θ (x)  
Rye7bYef’] yfuPx@Rgˆf¤g9Iybˆxq]n.KpIye7bˆ®JRJKYxyx@Rp˜bˆ`"KYx@R=š i i

0
Ψ(x) → Ψ (x) = U (θ)Ψ(x) , U (θ) = e− 2 ~τ ·θ .
i
› U† ¡˜£c 
~

è¤bˆxqŽ5IybˆxcÇ©Rablxqk¬gdxyb ]hi9Kˆ²9KwuExLK tLKˆyf 7.23 xqf f8RqxyiYb9IJRablxqglfx2r“tLKƒxfhǪf

€cafxqk¬g]”tJIJKQRpwiMKwuExyblgb]f”t@Iqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYb…`cbl`qgMK±]yf uEiYbqš
0 0

› U† ¡ œ  
Ψ̄(x)∂µΨ(x) → Ψ (x)∂µΨ (x) = Ψ̄(x)∂µΨ(x) + Ψ̄(x)U −1(θ)[∂µU (θ)]Ψ(x) ,
 »g µ ·¸ˆ¹éºh¹Xw ½cú,¹é¸¿Yñòāð_ºd/)g©õ˜¿ÂéÁ$ðòÄY¿¿
g˜†´fƒ†"ilk2p˜xJRy`qiƒbKY„ªff u;Rqx uKYtqk2ax@Rgˆfyfwx€cafx tJI@Rú@Kƒ`cbPxJRqglfÉg9Iybˆxq] —
n.KpIye7bˆ®JR@R2†  ]h`cb‚]f L uEb‚²ˆk=uPf©RqxyiYb9IJRablxqglfxÐi?] yŠ€ybˆ«³xab ~θ = θ(x) ~ †
=b±®qfagbI]f–ilkmilfhǖu¬bÑ`"KYiƒbMI@Rybˆxgˆxab•g•b~t@ILKpRcp˜iMKwuPxabr‰`"K˜^qgMKIf…tLKƒ]g9IJKˆfxab
0

tLK] af uExJR^‚xabw€@Ryx=š

Dµ Ψ(x) = (∂µ − ig
~τ · A~µ
)Ψ(x) , › U†¢¡lùƒ 
`k=uPfhgMKœ™f.`"Kƒxq]hgbˆxg•b•g•b‘xab–ilp˜bMRaeZKwuPf«q]hgˆi9RqfhgMKa†q‡HIybˆxq]n.KpIye7bˆ®JRJKYxyx@Rc^yg
2

p˜bl`"Kƒx±xab¤`"KYiƒbMI@Rybˆxgˆxab•g•bt@IJKQRpwiMKwuExyb’f;g9KY€yxLK…`cbl`qgMKeR
xybrRp5Kƒ]htJRyxJKYi9R^
uyŠc²ˆyfhgryg˜†sf
0
Dµ Ψ(x) → (Dµ Ψ) (x) = U (θ)(DµΨ)(x) , › U†¢¡Qˆ 
b Ai (x) , I = 1, 2, 3 ]wb gQIJRúilf`qgMKQIyx@Rú`cb•TRq²QIJKYiˆk€qx@R tJKlafhg•brì€@Rq«qgMK
g9Iybˆxqµ]n.KpIye7bˆ®JRJKYxqfx‚p˜bl`"KƒxIfYš
µ µ
i
A‘ (x) = U (θ)A U −1 (θ) − [∂ U (θ)]U −1(θ)
g
µ › U† ¡¢'ƒ 
Jt I@R’Šƒ]@Kƒi9RqfYr€qf,fìi}]3RPb A = 1 τ iA †¢=b u¬b4]hf0uKY`cbǖf › c†¢¡¢'N ‰xfw`cbHIabp˜Ž©—
yf u¬bˆe0f“tabMIabˆefglkSIybxyb’Ž3IŠµtab•g•b’2 iKY`"i KlPxJKY]grKƒ`"KlTK¤f uRyx@Rq€yxJR^fafwefxqg
› θ(x)  1 »rqg˜†sfY†ytJI@RvRyxqn]RyxJRqglfpdRae7b•ax@R¨t@Iqf3Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYbˆxJR^^Rye7bYefYš
i
U (θ) ≈ 1 − ~τ · θ(x). ~ › U† ¡¢)ƒ 
‡ÚKƒŽ©bˆiYb–g9Iablxy]hn.KpIye,bl®@RLKƒxqx@Rc^ygp˜bˆ`"KYxÑ2p˜b…`cb•TRq²QIJKYiˆk€qx@RqglftLKˆyfgb…fYš
µ
0
(Ai ) (x) = Ai (x) + ijk θj Ak − ∂ θi ,
µ µ
1
g
µ › U†îÅ94N 
` k=uPfhgMK ijk θj Ak ft@IJRy]k*f u;RqxqfxJKˆgMK‹t@If uE]g•blil^yxqfxyb Ž3IcŠtab•g•bxabt@If—
Kˆ²QIabpŠiYblx@RqfY†aç9µg‘`cbRq²QIJKYilkq€qx@Rgˆf”tJKlafhg•b‘eZK˜Çªf9u¬b…]f.tJKlyŠ€@R‚blxqg9Ry]3RU—
efhg9I@Rq€qfx‚glfxp5KQIbKYgilgMKpIJR¤IybˆxqŽYš
F i = ∂ Ai − ∂ Ai + gijk Aj Ak ]
µν µ ν ν µ µ ν › U†îŁž 
 ýs¼h½.ú,¹é¸•¿Yñ­Äð_º{/
g©õl¹4ÂéÁ$ðòă¿wö’ó$¹»üÄcð_¿•ó º𠸈¹¶µÄlô{ül¹"õl¹4÷¥¿À=Á$¥ă¿wö
w gø
RcRvRae7bl«y`@RtJIqf uEi9Rcu F = 1 τ iF i š
› U†îŃ¡Y 
µν 2 µν

Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ − ig[Aµ , Aν ]
RcR
i
Fµν = [Dµ , Dν ]. › U†îňÅN 
‡¶Iablxy]hn.KpIye,bl®@RLKƒxqx@Rc^ygÐp˜bˆ`"KYx xabÐblxqg9Ry]3Rye0fhg9I@Rq€yxJR^{glfxp5KQIØKYgÊilgMKpIJR
g
IybˆxqŽ F fYš
› U†îŕ£U 
µν
0
Fµν → Fµν = U (θ)Fµν U −1(θ) ,
g˜†´fƒ†p˜b¶Iyb•phRq`cbHKˆg;b•²Yfafi9R^”] yŠ€abl« F ]hf°t@If3KY²QIabphŠiƒb `cblgMK}g9I@Rqtyfg˜r•b
xf“tLK”g9I@RqiQRyb•ax@Rc^±xab˜€JRyx2†  yf uKYiƒb•glfhaµνxJK¤`cbR²pILKƒilk€yxLKRyxqiƒbMI@Rybˆxgˆx@R^
PbˆxqŽ3IablxÇ©Rybˆxpb SU (2)—­Ž3IŠtyblgb–fYš
L = − Fµν
1 i µν
Fi + iΨ̄(x)γ µDµ Ψ(x) − Ψ̄(x)Ψ(x) , › c†ÆÅ œ  
`cb•gMK±]hf]Rae7b™i‘t@4If uEi9Rcura€f T r(F F µν ) fRyxqiƒbMI@Rybˆxglfwx=†
µν

s !
-yô.89+°&9),3–·c96(- @'*)°&98;: /m- ò9&9)°8;/*3,)²ô”- ¸‰&;1Hò(- 6(-
<=89>?'*@&98;:
\‹gMKˆpdR‘tabMIablŽ3Iabln„ªf ²Yk=uaf}xybˆtJIabliˆfxJK]KY²9KY²Y„fwxJRqf"p˜b.Ž3IŠtyb”]“tLKl—¥iQRq]3KY`cb
Iyb•p˜ef5IyxLKƒ]g˜†
z;fw`cb©Rae7bˆeft@IJKY]g•b±Ž5IcŠtab±xab‘èrR2rE€@Rq«qgMK~Žfxqf5Iab•gMKpIJR¤Kˆ²pIyb•phŠiYblg
] af uy—
xyblgbb•aŽhfh²QIabš
[F a , F b] = if abcF c , › U†îňùN 
`k=uPfhgMK f abc ]b9xabltqk2PxLK¤blxqg9Ry]3Rye0fhg9I@Rq€yxJR‘n(Šxy`q®@RJR2†cÏ.If uEtJKlEblŽ b9]fYrl€f
t@I@Rqxab˜uayfhÇR¨xyb…t@IfuP]g•blil^yxqfYrqi…`"KYfhgMKŽfwxf5Iab•g9KQI@Rglf¤]b–t@If uE]g•b˜—
ilfx@R]’e7b•g9I@Ry®JRqglf T a ryg˜†sfY†Ÿš
Ψ(x)

[T a, T b] = if abcT c . › U†îÅpY 
 gµ ·¸ˆ¹éºh¹Xw ½cú,¹é¸¿Yñòāð_ºd/)g©õ˜¿ÂéÁ$ðòÄY¿¿
\og9KlpdR]qŠ€abl«`"KƒiYb9IJRablxqgˆxab•g•bt@ILKpRcpwi9KwuEblgbRae7b™iQRUu¬bš
Dµ Ψ(x) = (∂µ − igT a Aaµ ) , › U†îÅ9'ƒ 
b…glfxp5KQIabiKˆgiˆgMKQI@RvIablxyŽ’]f”t@Iqf]gˆil^‚tLK] af uExJR^xyb˜€@Rqx2š
Fµνa
= ∂µ Aaν − ∂ν Aaµ + gf abc Abµ Acν ] › U†îÅ9)N 
RcR
Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ − ig[Aµ , Aν ] › U†s£p4N 
è¤bˆxqŽ5IybˆxcÇ©Rablxqk¬g‘f
L = − Fµν
1 a µν
Fa + iΨ̄(x)(iγ µDµ − m) , › U†s£yž˜ 
4
KY²ƒbˆi•^]f.PbˆxqŽ3IablxÇ©Rybˆxybxyb™ilp˜bMRaeZKwuafw«q]gYi9RqfhgMKyš
LI = −g Ψ̄(x)γ µT̄ Ψ(x)Āµ › UU†s†´£N£UŃ¡Y  
jµa = −g Ψ̄(x)γ µT a Ψ(x) , ›
abc a bµ cµ
LI ∼ −gf ∂µ Aν A A − f f Aµ Aµ A A
g 2 abc ade b c dµ eν
› U†s£ˆ£c 
4
\ŒRcDžu¬b‘]fYra€qf L ]k=uPkSIƒÇ…b…g9I@RTRyxfw«qx@RaR€fg9RJI@RTRyxfw«qx@R§€cafxJKYilf¤tJK
a rL`"KQRqgMK]k&KYgˆilfhgY]gˆiYblgxyb?]bYeZKwuaf«y]gˆiQRc^ygb¨xab¨xqfwbl²ˆfafi9RqglfÑ`cbR²l—
I
A µ
ILKƒilk€yxJRdtJKlafhg•b†5‡f¨ilk2pwx@Rq`yiYblg³KYgÉxqfRqxqf«yxJRqglf€yfxJKYiˆf¨i F a †ˆ6(b—
TRq²QIJKYiˆk€qx@Rqglf”tJKlafhg•b Aaµ ]f”tJIqf3KY²QIabphŠiƒb•g™`cb•gMK‘Žfxqf5Iab•gMKpIJRqglf¤µνxab–`cb—
TRq²QIJKYiˆk€qx@Rqglf9tLKˆyfgbq†z;f˜b•²ˆfhyfiQRc^yg”]qŠ€abl«]hfÉIabphRy€ybˆiYb]Kˆgbl²ˆfafi9R^
tLK§]hiMKƒ«q]hgˆiMKYgMK?ŠxJRyilf5Iy]b•axJKY]gyšmpb‚b•²Yfafi9R‹`cbRq²QIJKYilkq€qx@RÉglf3KQI@R@RÊxc^—
e7bKƒŽ3IybˆxJRy€qfxJRqf’p˜b±]3RcEb•g•b±e0fDžuyŠ¨`cb•TRq²QIJKYiˆk€yxJRqglfªtJKlafhg•b¯RuIŠŽ3Rqglf
tLKˆyfhg•brcuKY`cblgMK‘p˜b–xf˜b•²ˆfhaiQRc^`cbRq²QIJKYilkq€qxab–glf3KQI@R^bRae7beKYŽ5IybˆxJRy€fwxJR^
—5xybˆtJI@Raef5I2š
z;fw`cb¸Rye,bˆefIuaŠc²lafhg Ψ(x) ]`"Kƒxq]g•blxqg•b՜ar7`cblgMKÉtJKlafhgMK‹i•pbMRaeZKwuaf«y]g—
iYbÉ]‚uIŠŽ~uaŠc²lafhg Φ(x) ]¨`"Kƒxq]g•blxqg•b N r°gMKÐg9KYŽ bliYb‹i‹`"KNeLŠcgbˆ®JRJKYxyxJK
g
w ýs¼h½.ú,¹é¸•¿Yñ­Äð_º{/
g©õl¹4ÂéÁ$ðòă¿wö’ó$¹»üÄcð_¿•ó º𠸈¹¶µÄlô{ül¹"õl¹4÷¥¿À=Á$¥ă¿wö gh2
]k&KYgˆxLKƒËfx@RqfYr£Kˆ²Yfpwtqf€abliYbˆ„_K `cb•TRq²QIJKYiˆk€yxyblgb}RqxyiYb9IJRablxqgˆxJKY]gr4iY]f`@R
Žfxqf5IyblgMKQIo]hfŠqe0xJK˜Ç…bliƒb‹]  RR]f¨tJKlyŠ€ybˆiYblg N 2 = N r°g˜†sfY† N = 1 †
 af uTKƒiYblglfPxLKi~xqfwb•²Yfafi9Rqglf…glf3KQI@R@R xJKQIaeyRJIJKYiY`JRqglfxabIŽfxqf5Iab•gMKpIJRqglf
]b‚n]Ry`U]3RJIablx@RKˆg§`"KƒeŠcgblgMKQI@RgˆfYrLg˜†sfY†e7bˆ„–bl²ˆk¬g?xybvœ§xfIeZK˜Çªf‘u¬b•²Yk=uaf
tJIJKQRpwiMKˆyfwx=†
 xabl`@Iab^~`cb•gMKqKˆ²QKˆ²ƒ„fx@RfPRae7bYefYrc€qf”bˆ`"K–Ž3IŠtab•g•bªf.tJIJKY]g•brgMK™gMKƒŽ©bˆiYb
Rye7bYef“f uPxab”`"KYxy]g•blxqgb¤xab’i•pbMRaeZKwuaf«y]gˆiQRf!Rbl`"KŽ5IcŠtab•g•b’xyb”]3RaefhgQIJR^
f.t@ILKpRcpwiˆf uPfxJRqf.KYg‘Ž3IcŠt@R2rcgMKiY]_^a`cbrKYg…gw^cŒbRye,b–xqfp˜bˆi9Ry]3Rae7b`"Kƒxq]g•blxqg•b
xyb™ilp˜bMRaeZKwuafw«q]gYi9RqfY†
gµW ·¸ˆ¹éºh¹Xw ½cú,¹é¸¿Yñòāð_ºd/)g©õ˜¿ÂéÁ$ðòÄY¿¿
ãäæå³ç8å í

  ä î çpîå  í¯ïvðïìñ… ç óò

ô 4!$# õú<‰8(>¤ò9@)°@L8.c96(- <=3°),+,)ö’-

\°k¬g9Iqf˖xyblgb±]g9IŠ`g•ŠLIabIxabt@ILKYgMKYxab
eyKwǖf¤u¬b]f_Rpw] af uEiYbrE€JIqfp–] af uy—
xJR^ÊtJIJKY®qf]±xab—Iyb•pw]f«yiYbˆxfƒš e−p → e−p †  f€qfx@Rfhg9K¨pbvIabpw]hf«qiƒblxqf±]f
p˜b˜u¬bliƒb–tJK] af uExJR^‚xyb˜€@Rqx2š
 
 |GE (Q2)|2 + Q2
θ
2 2
dσ πα2 cos2 θ2 4Mp2 |GM (Q )| Q2
= Q2
+ |GM (Q2)|2 tan2 ,
dQ2 4E 2 sin4 θ2 EE 0  1+ 2Mp 2 2
4Mp2
› 'q†Ÿž 
`k=uPfhgMK E R E 0 ]wb9]ktKˆgˆiˆfhgˆxJK”fwxf5IyŽ3R@Rgˆf4xab(xabRg•bl„eRc^‘faf`qgMKYx™t@If—
uR—R¨]yf u¸Iyb•pw]f«yiYbˆxfgMKyr@KYgˆ€fglfx@R?i
]3Ry]glfwe7blgb±xybtLKƒ`"KY«?xyb±tJIJKˆgMKƒxybqr
f;kmŽk2Eb.xabrIabpw]hf«qiƒblxqfYr M f9e7bˆ]b•g•b¤xab’tJIJKˆgMKƒxybVR Q2 f}`yiYbuIab•g•b¤xab
θ
tJI@RUu¬b˜uPfx@Rc^—Rye0tŠa]Yrq€@Iqfpn.pKYgMKYxabrat@Ifwxf]hk2¨i•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRfhg9Ky†
θ
Q2 ≡ −q 2 = 4EE 0 sin2 , › 'q†¢¡Y 
`k=uPfhgMK 2
R ]wb]ktKˆgˆiˆfhgˆxJKªfaf`qg9IJRy€yxJR^^RÑe7bˆŽhx@Rgˆx@R^IncKQIaeÊn’bl`qgMKQI@R2r
µ 0 µ
q ≡ (ke − ke )
KYt@Rq]hiƒbl„eRªfaf`qg9IJKƒe7bˆŽhxJRqg•blxqgb”]g9IŠ`qg•ŠLIyb”xab(t@IJKˆgMKƒxybq†ˆ‡f g9Iƒ^q²ƒiYb;uEb(]b
GE GM

gg
 ‘¬ ww ·h¸ˆ¹»ºh¹{÷½–¾y¿˜¸•õ¿.ºóùé¿À=ðþýyÁ¢iY÷$Âú ¿wö
Iybˆiˆx@R¨xab‘f u;RyxJRy®ybp˜b™g9KY€y`"KYtJKuKˆ²ƒxJR—KY²ˆf`qg9R§]km]’]ht@Rqx 1 †P‡^cŒqxab•g•b‘fw`U]©—
tf5I@Raefxqgb•axJKVRp˜ef5Iqfxab’]gMKY«yxJKY]g]f9bˆtJIJKY`U]3RaeyR@Iyb”uTKY²Q2Iqf}] u;RqtJKlPxab•g•b
n.KpIye7b

2
GM (Q )/µp ≈ GE (Q ) ≈ 2

1+
Q2
Eø áP‹ › 'q†ÆÅN 
−2
,
2
`k=uPfhgMK µ = 2.79 f³e,blŽhx@RgYxJR^eyKƒefxqg xab t@IJKˆgMKƒxyb › iÊf u;Rqx@Ry®JR
0.7

xyb§t@ILKYgMKYxqfxdp e7blŽxfhg9KYxÊxabÕ:–KQIE »†  af uKYiYblglfPxLK³tJIJKˆgMKƒxybfIt@IJKˆgw^Çªfx

Kˆ²ˆfw`g{]}Iabp˜e0f5IæKˆgtLKpIƒ^cuPkm`cbRxabjž¨GD¦¨†”Ï.IJR e7xLKƒŽhK x@Ry]h`JRjfwxf5IyŽ3R@R
›uEQbŽ2ù$tL<< áP‹Eø 2  »r2ncKˆgMKƒxybqr2`"KY«qgMK‚t@Ifxabl]é^i•p˜b9RyeyKuPf«y]gˆiQRfhg9KxfeZK˜Çªf
KˆqŠ€@Rhú’uKY]g•b•gˆk€qxJKbRqxyncKQIae7bl®@Rc^pb±]gQIcŠ`qg•ŠLIab•g•b~xyb
t@ILKYgMKYxab†\
1
gMKlpdR§] yŠ€abl« G (Q2) ≈ G (0) = 1 R¨t@ILKYgMKYxabÑilkmxy˪xJK
]f”uPkSIƒÇ©R=r
`cb•gMK¨gMKY€y`"KYtJKwuTKYM,E ²Yxab€abl]g9Ry®abM,E
†Ï.I@R tJK•—­i9Ry]hKY`@Rfxqf5IyŽ3R@R=r2ncKˆgMKƒxybf‘€cŠi•—
]gˆi9RqglfafxÐ`qketJK•—òe7bP`JRIabpw]hgMK˜^yx@Rc^RÉ`@Iabl«yxJR^Iabpef5IÉxyb¨tJIJKˆg9KYxab
uEbˆiYb‘t@IJRyxJKY]¤`qkedn.KpIyedn’bl`qgMKQI@RqglfYr‰`"KˆfhgMK
iMKwuR~uTK
tLKwuPg9Rq]`cblxqfxyb‘]hf —
€fx@RqfhgMK‘p˜b‘fyf˜bl]g9Ry€yxLKYgMK¯Iabpw]fw«qiƒblxqf’t@I@R‚ŽhKˆyfwe²R Q2 ryg˜†´fƒ†atJI@R‚ŽhKˆyf˜eyR
kmŽ_R=†
q 2 = M 2 − M ∗2 + 2M ν, ν = E0 − E › 'q†´£U 
M∗
—°fn.f`qg9RqiYxyb±e7bl]b

ν≡
(P · q) Q2 + W 2 − Mp2
= = E − E0 › 'q† œ  
ÏPKpù¥uPk2a²9KY`"K7úaRpw]fquEiYblxqfxyb tJIJKˆg9KYxyxyblgb ]g9IŠ`glŠLIybdeZK˜Çªf?u¬bÐ]f
Mp 2Mp

KY]km„ªf]gˆiQR=r*`cblgMK§]f™ŠilfRy€JRÉfxqf5IyŽ3Rc^ygb‚xyb‚]²lakm]bˆ`cb†*‡0KYŽ bliƒbIxfhfhPbˆ]©—
g9Rq€yxJKˆgMK>»HIyb•pw]f«yiYbˆxf e−p → e−X p˜bˆtLKƒ€qiƒbªuEbªuKƒe²Rqx@RJIab†¬ÏPKˆqŠ€abliƒbˆef
uTKƒtk2PxJRqglfPxab‚`@Rqxqfwe7blg9Ry€qxabt@ILKNefxTRyiYb W 2 ≡ P 2 r¬ŒUbMIabl`qglf5I@RpdRJIab˜—
„–bIe7bl]wb•g•b±xabÑncRyxyb•ax@Rqglf±b˜u;ILKƒxJR2r=`cb•gMK]ŠqeyRJIabMRy`@R¸X Rqxy`cyŠUpdRyiˆxJKtJI@Rc—
xLKƒ]b©KYgÑiY]3Ry€q`@R§tLKˆqŠ€qfx@Ri
`@Iybˆ«qxab
]km]gMK˜^yx@Rqf…b˜u;IJKYx@R=†bpw]fw«qiƒblxqfhgMK
½ÑÈ9ппÄ3Ç#Ì¿ÊEÉ9á9È9À\Þ5ÓÔÇEÉ3Î)À´Á3пûFÌ¿ÊEÞ#ÉFÐ>â7Ö£À#ÂÑÇ#ÊEÀ\ÈFÇáFÇEÄFÈ9É9ÊEÐYáFÇ5ÌÑÊEÉFÏ9ÉäÈ9ÐÌÑЗÌÑØ4ü£Ë3ÇEÈ'ß9ބÇEÊ
å
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÷ ¬žw{¬

þ *)ÿ
‡2Q0 W*¬  
%$%-4$³(
+„+
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  ()+¶5+ '0)0
/%03"  

Kˆ²QRy`yxLKƒilfxyxLK’]f t@Iqf uP]hgbˆi•^‘i(glfdIyeyRyx@R‘xyb.`qiƒb˜u;Iyblgb”xab(t@I@RUu¬b˜uPfx@Rc^RyeL—

tcŠP] › Q2  ˆR‚xyb
ν≡
(P · q) Q2 + W 2 − Mp2
= = E − E0 › 'q†ÆùN 
M 2M
`k=uPfhgMK P µ f¤€fhgQRJI@RJRae0tp Ša]b™xab™t@ILKYgMKYpxabrPb ν fcKY²ƒefwxfxab•g•b–fxqf5IqŽ5Rc^i
]3Rq]hglfwe7blgbªxyb¤tJKY`"Kƒ«
xab¤t@ILKYgMKYxab†a\ f uExLKƒn.KYgMKYxyxyb…blt@IJKY`U]3Rae7bl®@R^ÑxqftLKl—
q^TIJRpdR@IybˆxLKYgMK™u;Rqn.f5Iqfxq®@RabPxLK±]hf€fwxJRqf”]hf(p˜buEbˆiYbiKYg
dσ
=
πα2 cos2 θ2

W (Q2, ν) + 2 W (Q2, ν) tan2
θ

. ›
'q†Y 
2 1
dQ2 dν 4E 2 sin4 θ2 EE 0 2
θ
q 2 = 4EE0sin2( ) › 'q†('ƒ 
—°kmŽk2‚xabqIabpw]fw«qiƒblxqf j)j)j b…] @K˜Ç©RaeÊR‚`cb9IgQRqxy`cb j)j)j
2
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qq qqqq |
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y ’‰‘’zŠfˆ { ’w†8“Rˆ
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Z → ¡]¢K£l¤¥‡¦j§ |
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Œg“…«[–l’‘E•]’’ h]Šg€M’]„5ƒ’ˆ”.~£lŠ-’ƒ’ vàu²´qE|]o…tow²-v
Z → q q̄ q q̄ |

Ψ∆++ = Ψspin × ΨSU (3) × Ψspace × Ψcolour , ŠŒ‹f|"5µ 

’–g‡¯’Kƒ
SUf (3) → f lavor Š 
–g“ Šl”i’.–jŠ-’
} 4 SUf (6)
ˆƒ.–j“¶œl”«lƒ’
SUc (3)
 TD TE TS TK TV ST PA
DELPHI Interactive Analysis 0 141 0 0 17 0 0
Act
Beam: 45.6 GeV Run: 32711 DAS : 13-Jul-1992 ( 0) (153) ( 0) ( 0) ( 17) ( 0) ( 0)
01:40:32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Evt: 8598
à · Õ Proc: 21-May-1993 Scan: 12-Sep-1994 Deact
( 0) 0) É8(È 0) 7 (»
Æ8Ç.( È Ê 0) Ëj Ì ÇJ( Í 0) Ì
( 0) É6ÎGÈ ÌÏMÐ98jÑ;:~ÒÓ É Ì™Ô
( 0)

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ý  >5þÿ¨
I-¹ý
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Z

ý    þÿ
 X

ÿý G[
HF   Ù þ™ý ¾ PC¿rÀ…ÁrÂÄà þ  >
G)ÿ  ýÅJÆ - À ¿rÁ Ø ÈrÉ Ë Ê S
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NÇ 

’–giŒj“jƒK„Ÿ†5’»Ÿw„[‘Eœj”w„[ƒwŒj“­.Ÿi„5Šjƒ.“

Ψi × Ψj × Ψk × ijk = Ψ
’–giŒ]’±Œj„“Œf‡†8“xœl”«lƒÌÄÍ/”K„5ƒ’ „W†[Šj–j“…ƒ¶Šj”‡’KŒjƒi”.¶Îj“j†ÏOl̺¶/”‡’–lŠg“jƒK„

†5’œj”w„[ƒwŒj“kÌ

Ð ÒÑ ÓUÔ ÕkÖd×ÙØd)dÚ`×Ù2d(Û,2d) .ÜÔ ÛÝÛ'2d)¾& ÝÛÞÕkß©à ×ÕY(C$'. $Û'2d×ká

(C0 2/Û âd$&Ü(

3ã’–]’‘™¥uÏ]„]’r’i¯C„‚†Ïl„6’ˆŒj“…ƒw„¤’r”i’®•j–giœj„5†5’fá

’‘•l’’ „fÏ]„5Šjƒ‡¯’.¥[Œj“…ƒK„EŒU•j–f‡œ…„5†
• ä Π0 → γ㠊 
7 Êæå)Ê/çˆèÒ;é~ÑëêrÌÏMÑ Í Ó ÈÇJÍ Ì ø è ÈÎGÈÍ ÌÔ ÎGÈ Ò ìKí¹ÑÒGÓ ÉøÉ8ÈÍ ÑÓÐ ÍÈ1îÉ ÔrÓ Ã»·ï

< => ÂÕE? 6@ð  I-=IªJþ/G 
 G8ÿ /F   Ù G =HSþ   òñ   B F ¼ºi ?
  Π0 → γγ

„)–f«lƒwŒf‡†fƒ‘’ž–]’‘E•]’’ “g–j“jŒ]’
í Š9ó  Γ(Π0 → γγ) = 7, 73( N3c )2eV

Š{†[•j„)–g“]¯C„5Œjƒ’ψŒfƒ“-‘¯„)–…„EŒl’Kƒ’ hôƒÌõ„iÌ
 Γ(Π0 → γγ) = 7.7 ± 0.6eV
“ ¯’i¯C„
] Ìwö¾–RŸª’K”iƒãŒl’ƒw‘™“–]’‘E•]’’ „ihwÎj„„’w†6iœj“j“g–]’KŒ“†ãv|rqE÷
Nc = 3
€‚vEølo…Zjáf¥uÏO.Ÿ‡’Ï]Œ]’ƒ’’–g‡¯’KƒwŒl’©†8“]¯C„[ƒ.–j“…« „/Œ]’–…– „EŒl’…wƒ©Šl”i’wŒ…ƒ.i”.“
ó
„ › „5Šjƒ.“ ƒ~–g“jù‚¥fùψŒg“®’“]’¥8–]’w¯?“ Ì ~¥’K”i’˜¯4—Ÿ„‘’´’˜†f„ú•f‡Š-’—Ÿ„‡hC΅„
Š  ä
Œj„¨†f„‚Š ~–j„)¥8“j–l’»wƒW†)“-ψŒg“jƒK„ã”K‘’“]¯4™’]„™£j†fƒi”.“…«Ì
Γ(Π0 → γγ)
3…“j–…„5ŠjƒK„5ŒƒK„E†fƒLŒ]’d«l”i’wŒ…ƒ.i”iƒ¨Îg“l†ÏOLœl”«lƒL¯4—Ÿ„¹’r’†f„¹‡†fùûã„E†fƒw”.“h
•
Š-’Kƒ†f„›“…‘E†Ï]„]’ˆ”‡’»wƒwŒg „5Œg“j„[ƒ
ó

σ(e+e− → ¡]¢K£l¤¥‡¦j§ ) Ì 

Re+ e− ≡ . ŠŒ‹ ¦ 
σ(e+e− → µ+ µ− )

e– q
γ, Z

e+ q
< => ÂÕE? eE@ < òü þ Ùr þÿ º   = Ùr B  F  ÿýH
 ?
 e+ e− → þÿ
 

’J—»’´’KŒj„[ƒ¾Œ]’N’’–giŒj“‚” †Ïl–…Î]’«†f„$“-‘E”wù‚– ”i’ •gi†)–…„]’r†fƒw”.‡¯

ä ó e+ e− →
Ãû· Æ8Ç.ÈÉ8È 7 Ê»ËjÌ ÇJÍ Ì É6ÎGÈ ÌÏMÐ98jÑ;:~ÒÓ É Ì™Ô

Ì3›‡Š KψŠ wƒ‚Šl”i’–lŠj“…ƒK„¾Œj„N†f„N†)–…„5û’ƒL”†[”.

γ ∗, Z ∗ → q q̄ → ¡l¢w£j¤H¥i¦l§
Ÿ~™’ˆŒg©†fù†[ƒ«lŒj“…„ih-”K„)–g«jƒwŒgi†fƒ’x’´’Ÿ’’–giŒj“…‘™“g–]’ƒ„ Ì ê Ï]„]’i”i’Kƒ5ψŒg

†f–j¯’ƒ’•fd”i†8“lÎjŠj“ã”Kù‘¯4—“Œj“ãŠl”i’.–jŠj“㔾Šj–l’.£jŒg/†fù†fƒ.E«]Œg“j„ûŸ„?’´’’ˆ„
•jùψŒfiƒ“lŒlŠ-Ïl–{‘™“l”wŒgž†f„5Îj„5Œj“…„‚‘’š–l’J—’r’wŒ…„Œl’ž’’‡–f‡Œg“Ì ¤–j“U„5Œj„)–

¥)“g“¶•f™’ •j“jŠ-’jhˆ†f„5Îj„5Œj“…„[ƒ.†f„†’Oª¯P“lŒg“j–l’wƒ~Ÿ‡¯ô«]Œl’®Œ]’ ƒr¥
’w”i’

Z γ
†[ù_wƒiŒf „5Œj“…„5ƒ †f„L‘’’r’w”i’žiƒ†–j¯’Kƒ’WŒl’Šj”‡’’´’ƒ’WŒ]’®„fÏ]„5Š…ƒ

ó Re+ e−
–j“l΅„5†5Šg“…«ú‘’–‡«f’¶Œl’®Šl”i’.–jŠj“jƒK„~á

 2
 3 NC = 2, (Nf = 3 : u, d, s)
Nf
X
Re+ e− ≈ N C Q2f = 10
9 C
N = 10
3
, (Nf = 4 : u, d, s, c) .
 11 11
9 NC = 3 , (Nf = 5 : u, d, s, c, b)
f =1
Ì
ŠŒ‹ ¦

Š{†[•j)„ –g“]¯C„5Œjƒ’ψŒg“jƒK„ž†[ƒ~£lŒf‡†fƒ.“x‘’wƒiŒf „5Œj“…„5ƒ †5’±•g–j„]’r†

 ó Re+ e−
ƒ ’K”w„5Œj“‹Œl’ › “j¥òÌ Ì Ìm–gi†[ƒ’Kƒ’ › ~–]¯’˜Œ]’
 Ì Œj„±¯4—Ÿ„•’r’¯~ŸE«]†

‹ ‹ ‹ ¦R
Œj“š†ÏO—“Œ]’ƒ’`†fƒ.–…–…Š…ƒK–f–l’¯‡Š KÏO¬–]’‘5ÏO“lÎjŒj“jƒK„_HŠl”i’–lŠ i”~“š•g–]’¥8i”K„fa¼h
’¤’´’K”‡’‚†5’w¯Pã•g–]’K”~“-ψŒl’Kƒ’Ÿ†8–j„]’ˆŒ]’‚†fƒr£jŒgi†[ƒãŒl’¨†[„5΅„EŒg“j„[ƒ]hJ’´’Ï]„5Őwƒ
•j–]’¥6‡”K„[ƒK„‡h´’KŠ wƒi΅„[ƒw„E¯hY΅„ Ì ê ùBwƒw”w„[ƒw†fƒi”.“j„[ƒú„Ÿ•g
,’O~Ÿ~–g
NC = 3
•j–j“•g
Ŕ.“l†6‡Šg“„5Œj„)–j¥8“g“Ìk’Ÿw„fÏ]„6—Ÿ„5ƒK„ihKÎj„N†8“…ψŒg“jƒK„”‘’.“l¯4™’ˆ„)£l†fƒw”.“…«
Œj„“†f„®”‘™“]¯’ƒ±•g™’z”wŒj“]¯’KŒj“…„‡hMwƒwÎj“…ƒ’¶†f„†E’w¯4‘¡g“l•fiƒK„f‘’Kƒ’ú‘’ Š iŒ

› ’£lŒ]¯CùŒ…ƒ’…Ì

’–giŒlŒj“…ƒK„–l’‘E•]’’‡“UŒ]’ Ï]„5•jƒiŒ]’W†[ùû…’´’K”i’Kƒ’O‡•…ùψŒj“…ƒK„[Ï]ŒgW–…Š-’

 τ
‘’KŒj“…„‡hjÎj„ hjŒgŒj„)“úŒ…«]¯’˜’´’®†f„L†5•g“j–l’i¯C„¨•f™’‡–f~ŸiŒgWŒl’ƒ.i”i’jÌ
NC = 3
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< =¸> ÂÕ?ûÕ @ ȅ B >¼Jý  ý B  ?ED Sý
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 M'OPåÚ ý]ÿ  ?
R e+ e−  

Ð %$ &%$Û2d(C0$Û 'ÜØ/0'Ú`0)(L)/2/ÛÚ`)dÔ Û *+-,/.10

Ð 32 &%$Û2d(C0$Û 'ÜØ/0'Ú`0)(L)/2/ÛÚ`)dÔ Û

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UPi•j–VP‡†fƒK„5Œ
ç qfα α f
‘’K•SRj†ÜŒ]’d–f–]’K”iŒ…„EŒJR…«jƒ’‚ûã„WR-‘E•JPKÏl‘E”‡’w¯C„Ü”K„5ŠjƒAP~–lŒJPXPK‘EŒ]’΅„5ŒSRj„Ü”‚œl”K„[ƒwŒJPwƒYP
 ÃÃ Ö Æ8Ç.ÈÉ8È 7 Ê»ËjÌ ÇJÍ Ì É6ÎGÈ ÌÏMÐ98jÑ;:~ÒÓ É Ì™Ô

•g–JPi†fƒ~–l’wŒj†fƒi”APjá
 1
qf
Ì
qf = qf2  Z:[ . ¦ ¦]\
qf3
Pr¥
’w”i’†[”AP~ŸYP_^rŒJR…«jƒÏr’¥a`]’KŒVbcRl’wŒ¶¯BP bŸ„O^´’®†f„/‘’K•SR „LŠ-’KƒAP
ä ó
X Ì
L0 = q f (iγ µ∂µ − mf )qf . Z:[ J ¦ ´T\
f
Pr£U„RlŒl”i’A`SR]’KŒjƒK„5ŒdPwƒwŒJPi†5ŒVPŽ•J`JP]R…‘E”YPKψŒJR¬¥uÏSP~Ÿ‡’ψŒSR ƒY`l’wŒj† › P`e

ä SUc(3)
¯’KœSRJRU”“œj”w„[ƒwŒJPwƒAP •J`JPi†fƒ]`l’wŒj†fƒi”AP

Ì
qfα → (qfα )0 = Uβα qfβ . Z:[ ¦ f\
¯’ƒY`SRlœJRjƒK„©¯BPr¥
’Kƒg^r’®†f„‘’w•JR ’Kƒ®Š-’KƒAP
SUc (3) ó

λa Ì
U = exp{−igs θa} , Z:[ ¦YhY\
2
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAP a †E’”¥f„5Œj„i`]’ƒAP`JRjƒK„/Œ]’ › –…Œe^´’w¯„5Œ…ƒ’ψŒJPwƒAP“•S`…„^S

λ (a = 1, 2, ..., 8)
†fƒ’w”«]Œ…„dŒ]’ ’ÏO¥[„8Ÿ]`]’ƒ’…h-’ †5’ã•J`JP]R…‘E”APwÏ]ŒSR •l’Y`l’i¯C„[ƒY`SRk̈SU’ƒY`SRe

SUc(3) θa
œJRjƒK„ †E’žŸw„f‘†Ïl„j^!P‡”YRkRU– ^!P‡”Ï]„[ƒw”YP]`‡«l”‡’ƒŠTPª¯ô–-ƒ’KœSRVP‡ŒjŒSR…ƒw„©†fùlPwƒwŒJP „

λa ó
ŒJR…«
Ì
[λa , λb ] = 2if abcλc , :Z [ ¦4T\
Š-’ƒAP †5’¶†fƒY`…–…Š…ƒK–V`jŒSR…ƒw„ŽŠTP‡Œj†[ƒ’wŒ…ƒYR Œl’ hŠTP]RjƒAP‰†5’m`j„E’ψŒSR/R
f abc SUc(3)
Œl’w•…ùψŒVP’wŒ…ƒ]Rj†aR]¯C„[ƒ]`JRlÎjŒSRÌ
¶/’wŠ…ƒYP”†Ïl–…Îl’«ŽŒ]’ŸŠl”i’wŒ…ƒYPi”i’Kƒ’©„fÏ]„5ŠjƒY`JPi^?RlŒl’i¯RjŠ-’jhSR-‘_Rl†[Šl”i’i¯C„ψ’.¥a`]’KŒ

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SUc(3)
ÌSk’X^r’Ÿ„pR-‘E•jùψŒ…„5ŒJPƒAPi”‡’gR…‘_Rl†[Šl”i’KŒj„ih…ƒY`‡«gŸ‡”i’q^´’Ÿ†f„L•J`JP‡¯„5ŒJR
θa = θa (x)
Šj”‡’A`lŠTPi”i’Kƒ’ž•S`VPR-‘E”YP_^ˆŒ]’r^sP ŠTP‡”i’Y`JR]’KŒjƒK„5ŒdP.Ÿi„5ŠjƒÌ ù‚£¶Š-’KƒAPŽ†f„)¥’nRl¯'’w¯C„
ä
Œj„f‘’w”YRl†aRl¯tR©•]’A`]’w¯C„5ƒY`JRhi†5’/Œ…–ebWŒJR `]’‘[ÏsRjÎlŒSRŠ-’Ï!RgŸ]`JPi”wù…ÎlŒJRŸYPw‘iPiŒ]’
[ [
h-ƒÌõŒ]’A`ÌO¥¼Ïl–]P‡ŒJR³á
Gµa (x)
λa µ Ì
D qf ≡ [∂ − igs Ga (x)]qf = [∂ µ − igs Gµ (x)]qf
µ µ Z:[ w ¦ g]\
2
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†fÏj–…Î]’«mR…‘E•VPwÏj‘”i’w¯„L•JP
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í
 
λa Ì
[Gµ (x)]αβ ≡ Gµa (x) Z:[ ¦ [ \
2 αβ
`]’KŒl† › P`l¯'’KœSRVP‡ŒjŒSR…ƒw„`†[”YP~£l†fƒw”‡’‰Œl’xŠ-’ÏsRfŸ`VP‡”Kù…ÎlŒSR…ƒK„¶•VPwÏl„[ƒ’—†E’ › RlŠ

ä
†aRJ`]’KŒSRxPiƒyR-‘ Rj†[Šl”i’wŒ…„5ƒAP ^´’‰†f„ ƒY`]’KŒl† › P]`]¯RJ`]’—•JP—†fùûgR-«‹Œ]’EÎSRlŒ
D µ qf
Š-’KŠjƒAP á
qf
i µ
Dµ −→ (Dµ )0 = U Dµ U † ; Gµ −→ (Gµ )0 = U Gµ U † − (∂ U ) U † .
gs Ì
Z:[ ¦µT\
z`SRmRlŒ › RlŒJRjƒK„f‘_R]¯’Ï]ŒJP •S`…„iP.Ÿ]`]’‘5–…”i’KŒSRj„ih
SUc (3)
 
λa
qfα −→ (qfα )0 = qfα − igs δθa qfβ ,
αβ 2
Ì 
Gµa−→ (Ga ) = Ga − ∂ (δθa ) + gs f abcδθb Gµc .
µ 0 µ µ Z:[ ´ \
k’{^´’•JPi†[ƒY`VPRl¯ Š-’ÏsRg]
Ÿ `JPi”KùjÎjŒJP
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µν i µ ν µ ν ν µ µ ν λa µν
G (x) ≡ [D , D ] = ∂ G − ∂ G − igs [G , G ] ≡ G (x) ,
gs 2 a
abc µ ν Ì
Gµν µ ν ν µ Z:[ ´V}\
a (x) = ∂ Ga − ∂ Ga + gs f Gb Gc .
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Ì
Gµν −→ (Gµν )0 = U Gµν U + Z:[ r ´ ¦]\

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T r(Gµν Gµν ) = Gµν a Gµν
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SUc (3)
ƒ’»¡J`JP‡¯Pi^?RlŒl’i¯RjŠ-’gá

1 µν a X Ì
L~a€ ≡ − Ga Gµν + q f (iγ µDµ − mf )qf Z:[ . ´ ´T\
4
f
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1 X
L~a€ = − (∂ µGνa − ∂ ν Gµa )(∂µGaν − ∂ν Gaµ ) + q̄fα (iγ µ ∂µ − mf ) qfα
4
f
X  
λa Ì
+ gs Gµa q̄fα γµ qfβ Z:[ ´Afe\
2 αβ
f
gs abc µ ν gs2 abc
ν µ b c
− f (∂ Ga − ∂ Ga ) Gµ Gν − f fade Gµb Gνc Gdµ Geν .
2 4
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SUc(3) λa
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Gµν a
a Gµν
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í
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Šj”‡’KŒjƒAPi”‡’ƒ’±„fÏ]„5ŠjƒY`JPi^?RlŒl’i¯RjŠ-’jÌS‚P bŸ„E¯„^r’P‡Îl’wŠj”‡’w¯C„‡hÙ΅„cR]¯C„5ŒlŒJPUƒK„f‘ R
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L~a€
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’KƒO^r’†R…‘[ÏlùjÎj”‡’ƒ
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í gs
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Z
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Z → q q̄ Z → q q̄G í
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G
q

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 G ?
 

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Gµa f Z \
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1 µ a Ì
LGF ≡ − (∂ Gµ )(∂µGµa ) Z:[  ´ hY\
2ξ
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAP R „LŠ-’Ï!RJŒ]`JPi”wù…Î…„EŒ±•l’Y`l’i¯C„[ƒKù#`Ì
∂µ Gµa = 0 ξ
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’KƒAP]`jù´ƒ“„~á

Z
d4 k e−ik(x−y) Ì
<0| T [Gµa (x)Gνb (y)] | 0 >= iδab Z:[ w ´ 4T\
(2π)4 k 2 + iε
„5Š-’r`l’‘™¥¼Ï]„^´’w¯C„‚”‘’AR]¯BP_^]„)£l†fƒw”]R…„5ƒAP Ì
ç qq → GG
0 0 Ì
T = J µµ ε(λ) (λ ) Z:[ ‡ ´ g]\
µ εµ

1 0 0
X X (λ0 ) (λ0 )∗ Ì
P ∼ J µµ (J νν )+ ε(λ) ε (λ)∗
εµ 0 εν 0 Z:[ ´ [ \
µ ν
2 0
λ λ
Š-’ƒAP Ì
PT 6= Pc
PwƒwŒJPi”YP†Ï]„^r”i’ƒg^?Rl’.¥a`]’w¯R8ŽŽŽ
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Šl”i’wŒ…ƒYPi”i’Kƒ’‘J`VPª¯BP_^sRlŒl’i¯RlŠ-’ Ì
í ∂ µ Aµ = 0, ⇒ Θ = 0 = ∂ µJµ = 0
ê Ï]„^!P‡”i’KƒK„fψŒVP 0 0 RxŒ]’ ^]Ï]ù bWŒ]’ƒ’U•JPKÏl«S`SR…‘’KœSR-«GR-‘a

kµ J µµ = kµ0 0 J µµ =0
΅„f‘”i’…Ì

†Ïj–…Î]’A’h]Îj„ hl†f„‚•VPwÏj–…Î]’K”‡’ 0 Ì
í ∂µ Gµa = 0 kµ J µµ 6= 0
3‚–TPi”w„~á
Ì
LF P = −∂µ Φa Dµ Φa , Z:[ w ´ µT\
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAP Ì Pr¥
’w”i’ Ì
Dµ Φa ≡ ∂ µΦa − gs f abcΦb Gµc ä {Φa , Φb} = 0
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í Z gs \
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qq → GG qq → qq Gq → Gq
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í
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Z \
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q q

a µ ν b

k–q
< => ·Õ? Ã ·@ D   = Ùr þ 
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ý
 þ  ý   þ  =H†
S Æ þ  = J>]ÿþ ?

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Z
d4 k T r[γ µ 6 kγ ν (6 k− 6 q)] Ì
iΠµν
ab (q) = −gs2 δabTF Z:[  f ®T\
(2π)4 k 2 (k − q)2
„[‘[–Ïlƒ’ƒKùYƒx„±•S`VP‡•VP`jœSRJPiŒ]’Ï]„5Œ Œ]’ hô‘’KûPwƒAPLRl¯’d^ˆ”‡’‰”Kù#`]-’ R
ä gs2 q q̄G
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SUC (3) TF =
2
1 Ì
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−→ ∞ í
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D = 4 + 2ε ε 6= 0
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Z !ε    2 αβ 
dD k k α (k − q)β −i − q2 5 q g α β
= Γ(−ε) 1 − ε +q q
(2π)D k 2(k − q)2 6(4π)2 4π 3 2(1 + ε)
Ì
Z:[ S f }\
Ïlƒ]`l’w”YRJPKÏ]„[ƒAPi”‡’ƒ’`l’‘jP_^?Rl¯Pi†fƒ Œl’ž•J`SR]¯Š-’ƒ’ †f„Ÿ•S`VP«l”K«l”‡’W•S`JR
 ε −→
hlÎS`…„[‘¨•JPKÏsϾ†5’®Œ]’{–
’i¯’
› –…ŒjŠlœJR…«jƒ’…h
0

1 Ì
Γ(−ε) = − − γE + O(ε2), Z:[ e f ÐY\
ε
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAP „¨ŠTPiŒl†fƒ’wŒ…ƒ’ƒ’WŒ]’¹Ñ’-Ï]„i`Ì
γE = 0.577215...
’‘jTPi^?R]¯BPi†fƒwƒ’ †f„‹•S`…„E¯'’ j”i’ ÎJ`j„f‘«`j„i––Ïl«S`SR-‘_RS`]’KûRjƒK„‹•]’A`]’w¯C„5ƒY`JR
ä
R…Ï!R ÌA¸Nù#’©Š-’KƒAP¨•J`j„^´’ ^ˆ„5ŒJR…«jƒpR]¯•-–ψ† R]¯’O`l’‘¯C„i`

M −→ ∞ ε −→ 0 q2
ŒVP‡†fƒh-– ^!P]ŒiŒJP„z^r’†f„L”Kù”w„^]„•l’Y`l’i¯C„[ƒKù#` †O`]’‘¯„i`jŒJPi†[ƒ©Œ]’Ÿ„EŒ…„i`S–aR…«hVR
µ
^r’®†f„p`]’‘E•SR „
ó

 ε  ε  
−q 2 −q 2 1
Γ(−ε) = µ2ε Γ(−ε) = −µ2ε + γE − ln 4π + ln (−q 2/µ2 ) + O(ε)
4π 4πµ2 ε Ì
Z:[ fÒT\
Ó‘ `l’‘5ù´ƒ˜”Ô–jP]`lŒJPwƒAP˜–V`]’K”iŒ…„5ŒSRj„ŽŒj„ ‘’K”]Rj†iRGPwƒ hôŒVP—•JP‰ƒAPw‘_R Œ]’ÎJRlŒ‹†f„
µ
•VPwÏj–…Î]’K”‡’rŒw„f‘_`]’‘¯C„i`lŒl’”K„[Ï!RlÎJRlŒ]’ 2 2 ”©Ï!P]–’A`SR…ƒKùį'’…Ì
(−q /µ )
`JRlŒVP‡†fù´ƒ“Œ]’®•J`SR]¯Š-’ƒ’{Pwƒ › RS–òÌ Ì ¯BP bŸ„^r’W†f„†R…‘EÎSRj†fÏ!R±Š-’KƒAP
[ i } ®


Πµν
ab = δ ab −q 2 µν
g + q µ ν
q Π(q 2) ,
 ε 2  
4 gs µ 1 5 Ì
2
Π(q ) = − TF 2 2 Z:[ fYf\ .
+ γE − ln 4π + ln (−q /µ ) − + O(ε)
3 4π ε 3
zP]`]’ ^?Rn–Ïlƒ]`l’w”YRJPKÏ]„[ƒAPi”‡’ƒ’Õ`]’‘aP_^sR]¯BP‡†fƒh'–V`]’K”wŒj„5ŒSR…„ Ì Œj„Ö^r’

:Z [ fYf\
”i’`ƒKù#`l†f„5ŒSR-« •S`SRjŒJPi†ŽŒ]’‰†jPYŒ‡†fƒw”w„5Œl’Kƒ’`„EŒ…„i`S–aR…«ÌE¸DPdP]Œ‡’Îj„Ž•JPiŠ-’‘E”i’`Š-’wŠ
ƒAPK‘_R‹„ › „EŠ…ƒ‰†f„Ž¯C„5ŒSRš†•S`VPª¯ô«lŒ]’`Œl’`„5Œj„i`S–f„[ƒYRlÎlŒJR…« ¯’Kû’ŒlÌ ŠTP`‘EŒ]’„E¯

†fƒAP]’lŒJPi†fƒKƒ’“Œ]’ •S`JR › RlŠ{†aRJ`]’KŒU•J`j„^´’ ^ˆ„5Œ‚Rl¯•-–ψ† 2 h]¯BP bŸ„E¯¬^r’Ÿ«
Π(q 2) q0
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ÈsÄ è À »»»ï

Pi•S`…„^ˆ„fÏsRl¯ •S`JR¶”w†f„EŠJRw^?`-–V–¨¯’wû©’AŒSº

4  g 2 Ì
2 s Z:[ e
Π(q ) = Π(q02) − TF ln (q 2/q02 ) . f hY\
3 4π
S‚P_b©„E¯y^r’p`]’‘j^ˆ„fÏsRl¯/R…‘_`]’‘’/‘’L•S`JRlŒVP‡†5’‚Œ]’‚†jPYŒ‡†fƒw”K„EŒl’Kƒ’L„5Œj„i`S–aR…«®Œ]’
Œw„f‘E†E¯Rj†fÏl„5Œ`l’‘jP_^]«lû ΅Ïl„EŒgRŠJ`]’„EŒ©Î…Ïl„EŒkh†[ù ^]ù#`b’wû%‘’w”YRl†aR]¯BPi†fƒwƒ’zPwƒ
h
q2
Ì
Π(q 2) ≡ ∆Πε(µ2 ) + ΠR (q 2 /µ2) . Z:[ ‡ f 4\
¸ØP‡”i’‘`l’‘j^ˆ„fÏl„EŒJRj„Œj„„©„^rŒJPK‘EŒ]’ÎjŒJPlhYƒKù#’—Š-’KƒAP±Î…Ïl„5ŒJPi”w„[ƒK„ih´‘’w”YRl†f„5ûgR=Pwƒ
hª¯BP]–’ƒ^´’‚†f„W`]’‘a^]„fÏl«jƒ‚•JPãŒ-«]ŠTPKψŠTP‚Œ]’ÎJRlŒ]’…ÌVÙùûŸ„5†fƒw”K–…”i’KƒLƒ]`JRW†×‡„¯R
q2
Œl’^ˆ„ › RjŒSRJ`]’KŒj„]º

  
;†×‡„E¯'’
 TF gs2 2ε 1 5
−
 3π 4π µ ε + γ E − ln(4π) − 3 (µ ),
2 T gs2 2ε 1 ´dÚ
;†×‡„E¯'’
∆Πε(µ ) = − 3π 4π µ ε
F
( ),

 TF gs2 2ε  1  ´dÚ
;†×‡„E¯'’
− 3π 4π µ ε + γE − ln(4π) ( ),
Ì
Z:[ { f g]\

ņ½ª„E¯’
TF g 2

 − 3π 4πs ln (−q 2/µ2 ) (µ ),
gs2   ´dÚ
ņא‡„E¯’
ΠR (q 2/µ2 ) = − T3πF 4π ln (−q 2/µ2 ) + γE − ln(4π) − 53 ( ),

 TF gs2   ´dÚ
ņא‡„E¯’
− 3π 4π ln (−q 2/µ2 ) − 53 ( Ì ).
Z:[ f [ \
z`SR
ņ½ª„E¯’ƒ’ †f„ÖR…‘E•JPKÏl‘E”i’ †fƒAP’jŒJPi†fƒwƒ’™Œ]’ ‘’zŒ]’w¯RS`]’KŒj„¶Œ]’
µ Π(−µ2)
`l’‘jP_^]«lû©’Kƒ’Î]’K†fƒÌl´dځR ´dÚ †5’®†[ùŠJ`]’KûŸ„5ŒJR…«Pwƒ
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

ÛŸJ™a¤V§AŸJ¨§AŸV§YÜA©T¢

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
– Ï]ƒY`]’K”]RVPwÏl„[ƒYPi”YRk`l’‘jP_^?Rl¯BP‡†fƒYRú”®Œj„f«Ž¯BP–
’Kƒq^´’gŒwù ^´’ƒ®•VP–fùψŒl’KƒYRúÎJ`j„f‘

•J`j„aPi•S`j„^]„[Ïj«]Œ…„‚Œl’{R…‘jTPi^rŒSR…ƒK„ã•JPKÏ]„[ƒ’{RU”K‘’AR]¯BP_^]„_’j†fƒi”YR…«Ì
3Ÿ’Q`]’‘_–uÏl„j^r’i¯C„„fÏ]„5Š…ƒ]`VPª¯’A–[ŒSRjƒwŒVPiƒAP¾”‘’YRl¯Pi^ˆ„i’l†fƒw”]R…„¯„jbr^l–—^r”i’„fÏ]„5Še

ƒY`VP‡Œl’jÌ?z`SRúŒ]’ÏsRjÎSR…„‚Œ]’Ÿ„j^ˆŒ]’Ÿ•S`SRl¯Š-’jhl•J`SRjŒJPi†[ù´ƒ®Œl’©†jPYŒ‡†fƒw”w„5Œl’Kƒ’©„5Œj„i`

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Z \
»½Ý
· ¾a¿YÀ
ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

e– e–

= q + + + ...

e– e–
< =>  ¼ ? »»
@Þ  þÿ
?þ 
Sÿ¹
Sý þ  ý  þ  =Æxþ Qß ÿýÿ]þ  GIà  B
 ü  þ ?
 e− e− 

Ì hŒJPx”‘5„¯’A’lŠJR R ÌÙ1ùNPwƒi”K„[ƒwŒ]’ƒ’z’w¯•…Ï!Rjƒ– ^´’—Œ]’

áZ [ f]fe\ TF → 1 gs → e
`l’‘E†f„i’l”i’wŒ…„pRl¯'’®”YR^r’

e2  Ì
Z:[ ‡
T (q ) ∼ −J Jµ 2 1 − Π(q 2) + . . . ,
2 µ
f µT\
q
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAPW† „OPw‘EŒl’Îj„5Œú„fÏ]„5ŠjƒY`JP‡¯’Y–[ŒJRjƒwŒSR-«lƒ › „i`l¯tRVP‡Œ…„5Œ±ƒAPiŠÌ
Jµ
âxŒl’Y’e
ŌJRl†fùŠ¨•JP]`‡«V^]ùŠ •S`SR Ì ’‘jP_^]«lû’ƒ’
T (q 2) ∼ α/q 2 α = e2 /(4π) ä
•VP‡•J`]’K”iŠ-’…hl•J`j„^?R-‘”YRlŠ-’KŒ]’PiƒŠl”i’wŒ…ƒYPi”YRjƒK„ã•S`JR]¯ŠSRkh]¯BP bŸ„z^r’†f„L•VP–fùψŒ…„
ÎJ`j„f‘ã•J`j„aP‡•J`j„^ˆ„fÏj«]Œ…„‚Œ]’®ŠTPiŒl†fƒ’wŒ…ƒ’ƒ’Vº

α0  2 2 2
αR (µ2)  2 2

1 − ∆Π ε (µ ) − Π R (q /µ ) ≡ 1 − Π R (q /µ ) ,
q2 q2 Ì
Z:[ h®T\
   
α 0 1 e2
αR (µ2 ) = α0 1 + µ2ε + Cãåäçæ3èêéeè + . . . , α0 ≡ 0 ,
3π ε 4π Ì
Z:[ he}\
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAPú† „Pw‘EŒl’Îj„5Œ]’Öë-o \Wv\WvãŠTPiŒl†fƒ’KŒjƒ’Kƒ’úŒ]’ ”‘’YRl¯Pi^ˆ„i’l†fƒw”]R…„gPwƒ
e0 °
ψ’Y–a`l’wŒbcR]’KŒ]’ Œ]’šŠl”i’wŒ…ƒAP‡”i’Kƒ’ „fÏ]„5Š…ƒ]`VP_^?RjŒ]’w¯RlŠ-’ ƒE«•PYŒª’EÎj„—Œj„—„—•J`‡«V


ŠTPŒl’AŒKÏsσ^´’„E¯'’…Ìl`j„aPi•S`…„j^]„fÏl«S’lŠSR Ì hˆ’i¯•-ÏsRjƒ– ^r’Kƒ’žŒl’¹`l’‘E†f„i’l”i’wŒ…„
:Z [ h®\
†fƒ’w”i’LŠS`l’Y’jŒ]’pRg^r’w”i’ƒAP‡ÎjŒJPã•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒSR…„N‘’/†[„5΅„EŒJRj„[ƒAP¨Œ]’O`]’‘†f„i’l”i’KŒj„ih
ŠTPw„[ƒAPPwƒŸ†[”YP«†fƒY`]’KŒ]’Ÿ¯BP bŸ„ì^´’ã†f„¾†a`]’K”iŒJRž† „EŠ{†[•…„_`JR]¯C„5Œjƒ’Ï]ŒSRjƒK„…^´’KŒlŒJRÌ
â†fùûŸŒJPi†[ƒ‚¯C„_`JR]¯ pK²ks
|rq»²{€ow²-v|rv\Wv܊TP‡Œj†fƒ’KŒjƒ’¨Œl’‚”K‘’AR]¯BP_^ˆ„i’j†[ƒw”YRj„ Ì
αR
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ÈsÄ è À »×Ý_»

`…„5ŒJP]`]¯RS`l’wŒ…„5ƒAPÌ „¾†5¯Rl†Ï]„5ŒVP¨†5’i¯BPŸ’KŠTPã†[„Œ]’K•S`]’K”YR„^rŒVPw‘EŒl’Î

:Z [ h®\
ŒVPd
ƒ’KŠ-’jhÎj„ ”i†aRjÎlŠSRš–Ïlƒ]`l’w”YRJPKÏ]„[ƒAPi”]R«`]’‘aP_^sR]¯BP‡†fƒYR¬Piƒ—”w†aRlÎjŠSR‹”wù‘j

¯BP b“ŒSRx•S`JPiœj„5†aRxŒ]’`]’‘E†f„_’j”‡’KŒj„q^´’Ž†f„–…ŒJRlûqP b’w”i’Kƒ±ÎJ`j„f‘“„^rŒVPmR †fùûqP

•J`j„^ˆ„ › RlŒSRJ`]’KŒj„ÜŒ]’ŠTPiŒl†fƒ’wŒ…ƒ’ƒ’†R®•VPwÏl„[ƒ’ƒ’…ÌezPKÏ!P bnRjƒK„fψŒ]’ƒ’‚Î…„i`jƒ’/Œ]’
Š-’ÏsRVŒ`VP‡”Kù…ÎlŒJRjƒK„܃K„aP`JRSR“Š-’ƒAP¨Šl”i’wŒ…ƒAP‡”i’Kƒ’„fÏ]„5ŠjƒY`VP_^?RjŒ]’w¯tRjŠ-’†R®Šj”‡’KŒjƒAP

”i’ƒ’XJ`VPª¯BP_^sRlŒl’i¯RlŠ-’Ÿ„‡h-Îj„/Š-’ÏsRVŒ`VP‡”Kù…ÎlŒ]’ƒ’©†iRl¯C„5ƒY`JR…«‚–
’Y`l’wŒ…ƒYRS`]’Ÿ•S`…„j

ŒVP`l¯RS`…–i„E¯BP‡†fƒKƒ’“Œ]’ƒK„aP]`SR…«jƒ’…Ì
`…„5ŒJP]`]¯RS`l’wŒl’Kƒ’ŸŠTPiŒl†fƒ’KŒjƒ’ ‘’K”]Rj†iRnPwƒã•S`VPR-‘”APKψŒSR-« ¯'’Kû©’AŒ
αR (µ2)
Œ]’R…‘iŒ]`]’KŒ]’ƒ’ú†×‡„E¯’ Œ]’Ž•J`j„5ŒJP]`]¯RS`VP‡”wŠ-’LíæŠTPiŒl†fƒ’wŒ…ƒ’ƒ’ Pw‘EŒl’

µ Cscheme
Îl’w”i’«`l’‘[Ï!RlÎlŒJRjƒK„™ŠJ`]’A’lŒJR%΅Ï]„5ŒVP‡”K„z”‹–V`]’K”iŒ…„5ŒSRj„ Ì Ì…ï/”i’KŒjƒAP‡”YRjƒK„
:Z [ f-gY\Uî
•J`SRl¯ŠJR©”Kù”K„abg^´’ƒ‘’K”YRl†aR]¯BPi†[ƒWPiƒ/¯’Kû’Œª’ •JP¾„^?RjŒ©¯ŒVP–jPzR…‘5ƒKùŒl΅„5ŒŸŒl’

ÎJRlŒkÌSÓ R•S`…„5ŒJP]`]¯RS`l’wŒl’Kƒ’©•JPi•S`l’w”wŠ-’¨Šjùįz†jPYŒ‡†fƒw”K„EŒl’Kƒ’‚„EŒVði`S–aR…«
αR (µ2 )
‘’K”]Rj†u«jƒ{Piƒ hˆŒVP › R…‘_RjÎj„5†[Š-’Kƒ’’w¯•…Ï!Rjƒ– ^´’WŒ]’n`l’‘E†f„i’l”i’wŒ…„L„
ΠR (q 2/µ2 ) µ
„5†fƒK„5†[ƒw”K„5ŒJPWŒj„f‘’K”]Rj†[„5û©’Pwƒ º
µ Z Q2 ≡ −q 2 \
2
 2
  2  
α R (µ ) α R (µ ) −q
T (q 2) ∼ −4π J µ Jµ 2
1+ ln 2
+ Cãåäç0æ3èêéeè + . . . =
q 3π µ
2
 2

αR (Q ) αR (Q ) 0 Ì
= 4π J Jµ µ
1 + C å
ã ç
ä 3
æ ê
è e
é è + · · · . Z:[ hYÐ]\
Q2 3π
â„fÏsRjÎSRlŒl’Kƒ’ †[„˜Œ]’A`SRlÎl’ Šj”‡’KŒjƒAPi”YP‹„fÏ]„5Š…ƒ]`VP_^?RjŒ]’

α(Q2) ≡ αR (Q2)
¯RjÎlŒJPmñfZ?òòvóWqWX[tivo…€‚qiôws
 \Xo´s
Ì?ÑzŒ]RlŠlŒVP‡”K„5Œ]’ƒ’ŸŠTP‡Œj†[ƒ’wŒ…ƒ’Œl’ › RlŒ]’ƒ’
°
†fƒY`…–…Š…ƒ–V`]’ †[„c^ˆ„ › RjŒSRJ`]’—ÎS`j„f‘±Š-Ïr’K†aRlÎj„5†[Š-’ƒ’ › P]`]¯ô–ψ’—Œl’
α = 1/137
¸ØPª¯†fùŒh1‘’KƒAPi”‡’‹ƒE«ªPwƒY–jP‡”i’Y`‡« Œ]’ ¯ŒVP–jP ŒJRl†[ŠSR „EŒ…„i`S–aRSR Ì
Q2 = −m2e
õ†5ŒVP™„ih΅„˜†fƒAP’jŒJPi†[ƒKƒ’‹Œl’ •S`SR „5Š{†[•j„i`JR]¯C„5ŒjƒYRjƒK„‰”Kù” › R-‘_RlŠ-’ƒ’™Œ]’
α
”YRl†jPiŠSR…ƒw„W„5Œj„i`J–iRJR—Œj„“„W†fùû’ƒ’Lí Ì)k’K”]Rj†aR]¯BP‡†fƒKƒ’úŒl’
α(MZ2 )ö?÷ = 1/129î
w
P ®
ƒ 5
„ j
Œ „
i S
` a
– …
R j
« 
ƒ ®
’ f
† „
† j
` „
i 
– 
– Ï
s J
R ]
` ’
r Pwƒ®ƒÌõŒ]’A`Ì
› –…ŒlŠlœJR…«8º
α(Q2) β
dα α  α 2 Ì
µ ≡ α β(α) ; β(α) = β1 + β2 + ··· Z:[  h ÒT\
dµ π π
⠄^rŒVP‡•J`SRl¯ŠTPi”AP •J`SRJŒKÏsRbŸ„EŒJRj„
› –…ŒlŠjœSR-«lƒ’ †f„—†[”w„jbr^r’G^!P •…ù#`l”YR…«
β
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ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

ŠTPw„ › RjœSRj„5Œ…ƒhˆŠTP]’jƒAP“„ › RjŠ{†aRS`]’KŒmPiƒ®–V`l’w”wŒj„5ŒSR…„ Ì º

Z:[  h } \
~ø
€ 2 Ì
β1 = . Z:[ h f\
3
¸ØP–
’w”i’†^?R › „i`j„5ŒlœJR]’ψŒJPwƒAP“–V`]’K”iŒ…„EŒJRj„Piƒ•jù#`j”]R`…„^ Ì ¯BP bŸ„dÏ]„5†[ŒJP
Z:[  h ÒT\
^r’®†f„p`j„ RmRk`…„f‘5–Ï]ƒ’ƒKùYƒ“„]º
ó

2 α(Q20) Ì
Z:[ Y
α(Q ) = . h h]\
β1 α(Q20 )
1− 2π
ln (Q2/Q20)
¸ù#’ Š-’KƒAP hŒ«S–’KûqPiƒAPš”‘’YRl¯Pi^ˆ„i’l†fƒw”YRj„‰Œl’™Šl”i’wŒ…ƒYPi”i’Kƒ’š„fÏl„EŠ…ƒ

β1 > 0
`VP_^?RjŒ]’w¯RlŠ-’Ö`l’w†fƒK„ž†W–…”K„fÏsRlÎl’w”i’KŒj„Œ]’±„EŒ…„i`S–aR…«jƒ’Vº ’wŠTP
α(Q2) > α(Q20)
ƒÌ愇Ì„fÏl„EŠ…ƒY`JP‡¯'’A–[ŒSR…ƒiŒJR…«jƒ‘’A`‡«V^Œ]’w¯’Ïj«]”i’¾Œ]’—–jPwÏl„E¯tR`]’‘E†fƒYPE«V

Q2 > Q20 
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5 T
Š P h ‘’ hŠTPi„[ƒAP¬^sPi•jùψŒJRjƒK„fψŒVP
Nf ≤ 8 β 2 < 0 Z β 3 < 0 Nf ≤ 5 \
^!P‡•J`SRjŒ]’K†u«ú‘’•JPi”K„j^]„5ŒSRj„[ƒAPŒ]’“’K†aR]¯•jƒAPwƒ]RjÎlŒl’†[”AP]ŒYP_^´’…Ì
k’K”]Rj†aR]¯BP‡†fƒKƒ’ŽŒl’wŒ«S–’KûPwƒAPú”‘’AR]¯BP_^]„i’l†fƒw”]R…„gPwƒŽ„5Œj„i`S–aR-«lƒ’ •S`JRx•VPA

7a u   ÁaÀ
Å Ì É×ÁaÀ ê É×È É 8 ÄÅÀ
ÈsÄ è À »×Ýe

”YRl†jPiŠ±•JP]`‡«V^]ùŠU†f„z^´’K”‡’rPwƒJº

(  2 )−1
β1 αs (µ20)
β2 αs (µ20)

αs (µ2) = αs (µ20) 1− ln µ2 /µ20 − ln µ2 /µ0 + · · ·
2
,
2 π 2 π
Ì
Z:[ 4 [ \
R-ÏsRU”®ƒK„_`l¯RlŒSRUŒ]’ h
Λ
   
2 2π β2 2 1 2 2


αs (µ ) = 1− ln ln µ /Λ + ··· .
(−β1) ln (µ2 /Λ2) β1 (−β1) ln (µ2 /Λ2 ) 2 Ì
:Z [ 4wµT\
`JR˜†a`]’K”iŒ-«]”i’KŒj„ŸŒ]’¹`]’‘5Ï!RlÎjŒSR6)p¯"*87J± †p^´’KŒlŒJRjƒK„ih´ƒY`‡«JŒ‡”i’n^r’ž†f„
§ò^^
Rl¯’ã•J`j„^r”YR^h{Îj„d”w†u«lŠ-’z^´’ ^ˆ„5Œ]’¨†fƒAP’jŒJPi†fƒ©Œl’ †f„…PwƒwŒ]’K†u«“‘’pP‡•J`j„^ˆ„fÏ]„5Œ
αs
R-‘iŒ]P]`Œl’¯’Kû’ŒR•S`…„5ŒJP]`]¯RS`VP‡”Kù…ÎlŒ]’d†×‡„E¯’jÌ:9d„5ûqPd•JPi”w„5Îj„ih•JPKÏl–…Î…„5ŒSRjƒK„
ÎJRl†Ï!Pi”YR¨†[ƒAP]’lŒVP‡†fƒYRã†E’ `]’‘[ÏsRlÎjŒSRkh’wŠTP†[„`]’ŒYPiƒYRã”;-êð Q@? h ð'A±Í
±

¢w£< ¦>= Z \ ¦ ¥
-êð Q@? ð'A±Í
±
ð'A±Í
±
D-êð Q@? ð Ì âù•J`j„5ŠSR
¢w£< ¦>= ZCB \L¥‡¤Ÿ¦ ¥ ¦ ¥ ¢K£0<˦= ZCB B \‚¥i¤ £ ¤ ^^^
΅„W•]’A`]’w¯C„5ƒKù#`…ùYƒ Œj„®‘’K”]Rj†aRyPwƒ¶¯’wû©’AŒ‡’…hkƒYP]’ „©‘’K”YRl†aR]¯„PwƒU†×‡„¯’ƒ’…Ì
Λ
9/’w•J`SR]¯C„i`8º
ð γ
E
Ì
Λö?2÷ = Λö?2÷ . Z:[  g ®T\
4π
9 „EûqPŽ•VP‡”K„5Îj„ih
¾ Ì)â1†fùûŸŒJPi†fƒ ” Q@? ¯BP–
’Kƒc^´’Ž†f„q^r’

ΛEGF 6= ΛHIEGF 6= ΛHIHIEGF B

^r’Kƒ¹`l’‘[ÏsRjÎlŒJRm^ˆ„ › RlŒSRjœSRJR˜Œ]’ ”®‘’K”YRl†aR]¯BPi†[ƒnPwƒŒ]’ÎJRlŒl’Œl’¹R-‘_Œ]RS`l’wŒ…„
Λ
Œl’LRjŒjƒK„i–i`l’wœJRJPiŒlŒl’Kƒ’zŠTP‡Œj†fƒ’KŒjƒ’ •S`SR­`j„ ’K”i’wŒ…„¶Œl’=^sR › „_`…„5ŒlœSRl’Ï]ŒJPwƒAP
ó
–V`l’w”wŒj„5ŒJRj„ã‘’
› –…ŒjŠlœSR-«lƒ’jÌN¸Nù#’`Š-’KƒAPŽ”m´dÚkR ´ÖÚU†×‡„E¯tR…ƒK„©ŠTPw„ › RjœSR

β
„5Œ…ƒ]R…ƒK„±Œ]’
› –…ŒjŠlœSR-«lƒ’`‘’K”YRl†u«jƒdPwƒ h R]¯’=`l’‘[ÏsRjÎlŒJR †fƒAP]’lŒJPi†fƒYR
β Nf Λ
•J`SR•S`VPª¯ô«lŒ]’¨Œ]’pŒ]`JP«ž’A`JP‡¯’KƒYRÌJâ Q@?©hª”Y`jù‘EŠ-’ƒ’¨¯C„jbr^]–ž¯’Kû’Œ]RjƒK„
B Λ
‘’©ƒY`JRdR±Îj„[ƒYRS`JR`’A`JP‡¯’Kƒ’W†f„z^´’K”‡’gPwƒJº

 2/25
Λ3 
−107/1875 Ì
Λ4 ≈ Λ 3 ln m2c /Λ23 . Z:[ e g }\
mc
»½Ý¼ ¾a¿YÀ
ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

e– q
γ, Z
Hadrons

e+ q
<
=¸>I ¼ ? »Çþ@  º  '
?
e+ e− → γ ∗ , Z ∗ →

4#57685KJ Ld‹T@DHJŠ @NM?<sHOQPRE</FNP?<SREHTP?<LK)@NT?MUTVWOQRB<?MXOEF)<

¢ !ŸJ§A¤V 
e+ e− →
ÓdŒlŠ…Ïj–{‘_Rl”wŒJPwƒYPW`]’br^´’KŒj„Œ]’ ’^s`JPiŒSR†Pwƒ’KŒSReJR…ψ’wœJR…«jƒ’ÜŒl’ „'•S`JPiœj„5†wh
e+ e−
ŠTP]’jƒAPL¯BP bŸ„^´’¾†f„oR…‘E•VPwÏj‘”i’ ‘’ ^´’K”‡’KŒj„1Œ]’…P‡œ…„5ŒlŠ-’Œ]’¾•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒSR-«lƒ’Œ]’
Šj”‡’KŒjƒAPi”‡’ƒ’ԐJ`JP‡¯Pi^?RlŒl’i¯RjŠ-’jÌ ’br^´’KŒj„[ƒAP™Œl’z’ ^?`JPiŒSR †f„‚P‡†fùûã„E†fƒw”«]”i’
ä
ÎJ`j„f‘=Pi†[ŒJPi”iŒJR…« ¯C„{’wŒJR…‘5ùį hŠ-’KƒAP ŠS`l’Y’jŒ]’ƒ’

e+ e− → γ ∗, Z ∗ → q q̄ q
^ˆ”YP]’lŠ-’ ”K‘’AR]¯BP_^]„_’j†fƒi”i’‹ÎS`j„f‘Y)p¯"* †iR-ÏsR ƒÌõ„iÌŠl”i’Y`jŠSR…ƒw„ PYŒª¯C„5Œ…«jƒÕR
q̄ 
R-‘[Ï]ù…Îl”i’Kƒ{–uÏl–]PiŒSR R
^ˆ”YP]’lŠJR •JPW”w†iRjÎlŠJR¶”Kù‘¯P_bWŒSRúŒl’ÎSRjŒSRÌ
Z q 0 q̄ 0 \
`JR¨”]Rj†jP‡ŠJR‚„EŒ…„i`S–aRSRkhEŠTP]–’ƒYP „1¯’ψŠ-’…h¯BP–
’KƒQ^´’܆f„R…‘E•JPKÏl‘E”i’KƒÜ•j„i`

αs
ƒ–V`VŒª’ƒYRl”wŒSRWƒw„jŒJRlŠSR®‘’OR-‘E†fÏl„^r”i’wŒ…„ Œl’†`]’‘[ÏsRjÎlŒSR“•VP_^r•J`JPiœj„5†aR8º
e+ e− →
9 P‰”w†[„¹PiûŸ„žŒj„ž„«l†f„EŒzŒ]’ÎJRlŒjù´ƒhC•JP‰ŠTP]’jƒAP—Šl”i’A`lŠSRe

z
q q̄, q q̄G, q q̄GG, . . .
ƒK„mRՖuÏj–PiŒSR…ƒw„U’ ^?`VP‡ŒJR…‘_RS`l’KƒÌ΅„E†fƒw”K„EŒVP—•JP]–uÏl„j^ˆŒ]’ƒAP]hBPwƒ
ƒAPiŠ-’—†f„
q q̄
`l’bg^´’ƒ‰Šl”i’Y`jŠSR¬Rš’ ^?`VP‡ŒJRš•S`JR‹¯ŒVP–jP`¯’Ï]ŠSRG`l’‘E†fƒAP«]ŒJR…«h √ Ì
x ∼ 1/ s
ÙÏ]„^WƒAPi”‡’dƒK„Ü•J`JP_^]ùÏSb’w”i’ƒ^´’R…‘[Ï]ù…Îj”‡’ƒ…^sPi•jùψŒJRjƒK„fψŒVPã¯C„EŠJRr–¼Ïl–]P‡ŒJR®†
Œl’i¯’Ïl«l”‡’KŒj„Œl’„EŒ…„i`S–aR…«jƒ’…Ì]`SRŸ•JP
|–jPKÏ]„E¯R`l’‘E†fƒAP«lŒSR…«h h”‘’YRe

x ∼ 1/Λ
¯BP_^]„i’l†fƒw”]R…„5ƒAPŸ†fƒ’K”‡’㯌JP]–jPã†aR…ψŒVPRžŒl’w†fƒKù•l”i’¨•S`JPiœj„5†¾Œl’Ÿ’ ^?`VP‡ŒJR…‘’KœSR…«Ì
¸ù#’ Š-’ƒAP©Ï!Rl•l†[”i’Ÿ†fƒY`JP]–jPgPi•SRj†5’wŒJRj„/Œ]’Ÿ¯C„j{’KŒSR…‘¯’ãŒ]’ãŠTP‡Œ › ’A’lŒ]¯C„5ŒjƒhjŒ…„
¯BP]–’ƒk^r’˜†[„n^´’ ^´’ƒ˜ƒAPiÎlŒSR •S`…„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒSR-«z‘’d`]’‘[ÏsRjÎlŒSR…ƒK„ú„EŠ{†[Š-Ïl–{‘_Rl”wŒSR
•J`JPiœj„5†aRh{Œ]’K•S`JR]¯C„i` Ì9zPŸ¯BP bŸ„…^´’¨†f„dŒ]’K•S`l’w”YRc^!P‡†fƒ’¨ƒAPiÎlŒVP
e+ e− → 16π
•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘’wŒJRj„‘’{RjŒlŠ…Ïj–{‘_Rl”wŒJPwƒYP¹`l’br^r’wŒ…„ãŒ]’“’ ^?`VP‡ŒJR¶Š-’ƒAPWœ…«…Ï!PSº

Ì
σ(e+ e− → ¡]¢K£l¤¥‡¦j§ ) = σ(e+e− → q q̄ + q q̄G + q q̄GG + . . .) . Zá[ ] g ÐY\
7a u   ÁaÀ
Å Ì É×ÁaÀ ê É×È É 8 ÄÅÀ
ÈsÄ è À »×Ý
ï

—P_^?`VP]ŒiŒJPi†fƒ]R…ƒK„¨Œ]’ŠJ`]’A’lŒl’Kƒ’“’^s`JPiŒSR…‘’KœSR-«UŒ…«]¯'’ƒ®”Y`jù‘EŠ-’Ÿ††RlŒjŠ…Ïj–{‘ Rj”

Œl’Kƒ’x†–j¯’…hC‘’KûPwƒAPx”w„i`JPE«lƒwŒJPi†fƒKƒ’˜‘’—’ ^?`VP‡ŒJR…‘’wœJR…« „±•S`VP‡†fƒAP „^sRlŒSRjœ]’

•VP`l’^sR¶Œl’ „[ƒAPr^sPi•…–‡†5Š-’KŒj„/‘’®ŠTP‡Œ › ’A’lŒ]¯C„5ŒjƒÌ
ó

q
e– e–
γ γ
σ~

e+ e+
q

σ ∼

<
=¸>  ¼ ? »G(E@ D

=
à$%F  G  B    I B G $%…àSZ º >/ýÆEJ    ͇ 
 B [$Z º   
 \ º  '
]
ß >  Gý
Æ% ?_^ òFG $% ¸I º I`Za  
‡G
 I B à  Z 
MOP
Πµν (q) q q̄
G  HGý

? Þ ͇  $%  
G uJ  LJ

Æ®F  G  B    ‡G 
FG $% ; B º ÅJb  ‚F 
 
‡G
 I B à  Z 
 ½‡

%òGI  ‡JÆ  $%
º Æ  $%;#'   º   = ' fÆ;I  $!
  c càˆF5J

> º %%  ;$Z º   
    ü $%G  àˆFEJHG  F=  $% B 
T T†
º  º   àS#Z º
 I`  Æ 
 ?

S±ŒVP–jPž•JP_^edx•SRjŠ-’¹`l’bg^´’KŒj„[ƒAPúŒ]’’^s`JPiŒSRU„†^sP‡¯tRjŒSRJ`]’KŒJP‘Pwƒ•S`VP‡œ…„j

†aRšŒl’ÖP]Œ‡¯ô«]Œl’`Œ]’ ÌÙÏ]„^!P‡”i’KƒK„fψŒVPx¯BP bŸ„¯·^´’`•J`j„5†5¯C„5ƒwŒ…„¯ †f„E΅„5ŒSRj„[ƒAP

γ
Œl’z•JPi^r•S`VP‡œ…„5†iR…ƒK„ ” r
^ ’^]„EŒ …
` „^ •JP R
e+ e− → γ ∗ → q q̄, q q̄G, . . . Z αs \
^r’`”‘E„E¯C„E¯ †jŒ]P]`]’kR]¯ÌE¸~„jŒJRlÎj„5†[ŠSR „Ž¯ŒJP]–jP˜•VPA
Ï]„5†[ŒJPk^r’¶†f„ž•S`j„5†5¯C„[ƒiŒ…„
Šj”‡’KŒjƒAPi”YP†J`VPª¯BP_^sRlŒl’i¯RlÎjŒJPwƒAPg¸ƒ
ŕJ`JP]R…‘E”K„j^]„5ŒSRj„ÜŒ]’z^ˆ”‡’/„[Ïl„5ŠjƒY`JP‡¯’Y–[ŒSR…ƒ

»Çû· ¾a¿YÀ
ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

ŒJRúƒYPiŠ-’Öí P º
Jèêé µ = f Qf qf γ µ qf î
Z
ð


Π (q) ≡ i d4 x iqx h0|T JèŽé µ (x)Jèêé ν (0)† |0i = −g µν q 2 + q µ q ν Πèêé (q 2 ) .
µν

Ì
:Z [ gÒT\
ï/’wŠ…ƒYP܄1•JPiŠ-’‘’KŒJP܌]’ › RS–òÌ Ì h5•VP–¼Ï]ùû©’wû©’Kƒ’ Îl’w†fƒ¾Œl’ PYŒi„5Šjƒ’ ƒÌõ„iÌiR]¯’

[ } h Z
–aRjŒj„i`lŒl’Kƒ’dÎl’w†fƒhŠTP«lƒAP/•S`VPR-‘[ÏsR…‘’…Pwƒ—P]Œ]`‡«j‘E”i’wŒ…„[ƒYP…
k†Ïr’A–’KŒj„ Œl’¾•JPi”wù#`]e

ŒVP‡†fƒKƒ’qR…Ï!R6fgih$jklmli
Œl’‚•S`JPi•]’A–’ƒAP`JRjƒK„/Œ]’†PYŒª¯C„5Œj„5ŒJRjƒK„¾•S`VPª¯C„jbr^l–-ƒwù…Îe

ŒJR™Šl”i’A`lŠSR/RG–uÏj–PiŒSR •JP˜”w†aRlÎjŠSR™”Kù‘¯P_bWŒSR Œ]’ÎJRlŒSR

PiƒY–jPi”‡’A`‡«š•J`JPi†[ƒAP
\
Œl’‰†aŒYP]`]’=PiƒxŠj”‡’ ^?`l’KƒYRjƒK„¶Œ]’—¯BP_^]–ÏsRjƒK„UŒ]’Ô`l’‘[ÏsRjÎlŒJRjƒK„˜’w¯•…Ï!Rjƒ– ^?R Œ]’
`l’bg^´’KŒj„iÌs¸DPiÎlŒ]’ƒ’®”Y`jù‘EŠ-’†Lœ…«…Ï!PwƒYPW†f„5Îj„5ŒJRj„L„]º

σ(e+e− → ¡l¢w£j¤H¥i¦l§ ) Ì
Z:[
Re+ e− ≡ = 12π npo Πem(s) . g fe\
σ(e+e− → µ+ µ− )
z`j„5Œj„aŒ]`j„i–[”‡’A’lŠJR ¯’ψŠJRjƒK„
^´’Ï]„5Î Pwƒ •S`l’Y–
’ ŠTP`…„EŠjœSRJRh •JP]`JP_^]„5ŒSR Pwƒ
Z \
Œ…„5Œ…–Ïl„E”YRjƒK„/¯’K†iRŒ]’¨Šj”‡’A`lŠJRjƒK„ihPwƒwŒJP „5ŒSR…„[ƒYP †f„W^´’K”‡’†PwƒŸ•j„i`jƒ–V`e

ó Re+ e−
Œ‡’ƒ]Rj”w„5Œk`j„^ÖPiƒ®†[ƒK„5•j„5ŒJR¶Œl’ º
αs (s)
  (
Nf
X X  n )
αs (s)
Re+ e− =  Q2f  NC 1+ Fn
n≥1
π
f =1
  (
Nf
X 2
    2
2
α s (µ ) β 1 s α s (µ ) Ì
= Q2f  NC 1 + F1 + F2 + F1 ln Z:[ gYh
π 2 µ2 π
f =1
         3 )
2 2
s β2 s β1 2 s αs (µ )
+ F3 + F2 β1 ln 2
+ F 1 ln 2
+ ln 2
+ O(αs4)
µ 2 µ 4 µ π
âƒAP]`SR…«jƒcR…‘_`l’‘ › P]`]¯ô–ÏsRJ`]’«l†5ŒVP“Š-’KŠmŒE«!–
’wûqPiƒAP“”‘’YRl¯BP_^ˆ„i’l†fƒw”YRj„
α (s)
•J`j„^r†fƒ’w”Ïl«l”‡’Œi„f‘EŠS`l’Y’jŒ]’†–j¯’LŒl’dÏ!P]–’A`SR…ƒi¯tRjÎlŒJRžÎ-Ï]„5ŒJPi”w„ Pwƒ¨”]Rj†jP‡Š®s•VPA

`‡«^ˆùŠkÌ
3XPwƒ–…Š •J`j„5†5¯ô«lƒ’wŒ…„5ƒAPš„`Œ]’K•S`]’K”K„EŒVPL^sP R«^´’K”‡’G`…„[‘[–Ïlƒ’ƒ ”
αs3 Z MS
7a u   ÁaÀ
Å Ì É×ÁaÀ ê É×È É 8 ÄÅÀ
ÈsÄ è À »½û »

†½ª„E¯’ º
\

F1 = 1 ,
Ì
F2 = 1.986 − 0.115Nf , Z:[  g 4T\
P 2
f Qf
F3 = −6.637 − 1.200Nf − 0.005Nf2 − 1.240 P 2 .
3 f Qf

ÓdŒjƒK„i`j„5†[Œ]’‚„Ü‘’Y`‡«^sPi”i’Kƒ’‚‘’K”]Rj†aR]¯BP‡†fƒ¨Œl’‚ƒ]`…„[ƒ]R-«úÎ-Ï]„5ŒhªŠTP«jƒAPŸ†[„ ^ˆùÏSbnR
Œl’ •J`SRlŒVP‡†5’ÜŒl’NƒY`SR¨•J`JP‡¯C„abg^]–-ƒKù…ÎlŒSRq–¼Ïl–]P‡Œl’ †tPiƒa^ˆ„fψŒl’ÜŠl”i’A`lŠTPi”‡’ ÏsRlŒJR…«
Z
‘’”w†f„5ŠSRú„fÏ]„5ŠjƒY`JP‡¯’Y–[ŒJRjƒK„5ŒUƒAPiŠ¶Œl’ › RS–òÌ Ì Ì
[ } hY\
k’ ’A`JP‡¯’Kƒ’{R]¯’i¯C„]º
h

(  2  3 )
11 αs (s) αs (s) αs (s)
Re+ e− (s) = 1+ + 1.411 − 12.80 + O(αs4 ) .
3 π π π
Ì
:Z [ gwg]\
¾„_`…ƒ–V`JŒ‡’KƒYRl”wŒ]’ƒ’dŒj„aPi•S`…„j^]„fÏ]„5ŒJPi†fƒ¾Œ]’ ƒAPi”‡’¾•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒSR…„„Piƒd•VP`‡«^ˆùŠ
hƒKù#’zŠ-’ƒAP`ŠTPw„ › RlœJRj„5ŒjƒKù´ƒ „WŒ…„iR…‘E”w„5†fƒK„5ŒÌ8¸Ä«x”wŠ…Ï!ϾÎl”i’kR Œj„aPi•S`j„

αs4 F4
^]„fÏ]„5ŒJPi†fƒ]R…ƒK„‡h…†[”wù#`-‘’KŒSRž†zR…‘iŒ]P]`]’ãŒ]’Ÿ¯’wû©’ŒrRŽ†½ª„E¯’¨Œ]’ã•S`…„EŒVP`l¯RS`]’KŒj„iÌ
âù•J`j„5ŠSRxÎj„nPYŒ‡û©’ƒ’ú†–j¯'’úŒl’±•…„i`jƒ–V`JŒ‡’KƒYRj”iŒJR…«x`…„j^™Œj„®‘’K”]Rj†aRyPwƒU•S`…„j

ŒVP`l¯RS`JPi”KùjÎjŒSR…ƒw„–ª†Ï!Pi”wŒJPi†[ƒYRkhS`]’‘[ÏsRl΅„5Œ‚R…‘iŒ]P]`úŒ]’¯'’Kû©’AŒrRqR…ÏsR±†½ª„E¯’
Œ]Rk^!P‡”K„fÏd^sP ¯’wŠ-’A`=R‰¯’ψŠSR `]’‘5Ï!RlŠJR˜” ÎJRl†Ï]„5ŒSR…ƒK„®•S`…„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒSR-«¶‘’
Z \
PYŒ]`‡«j‘’KŒSR…«‚`j„^ÄÌ

ýRj†Ï]„5ŒSR…ƒw„˜†[ƒAP]’lŒVP‡†fƒYR Œl’ RnŠTPw„ › RlœJRj„5ŒjƒYRjƒK„ ‘’w”YR

αs Fn Z n ≥ 2 \
†¼«lƒwPiƒmR-‘iŒ`l’wŒl’Kƒ’Ž†×‡„¯’ †fùûP‘R ‘’ Ìr9’K•S`JR]¯C„i`x”Kù” ”KƒAP`JR
Z βn n ≥ 3\
»ÇûjÝ ¾a¿YÀ
ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

•VP`‡«^ˆùŠ`shl”]`…ù‘EŠ-’Kƒ’“¯„jbr^l–d´dځR ´dڎ†×‡„¯’ㄺ
 ö?÷ 
ö?÷ ö?÷ β1 αs Ì
αs = αs 1 + [ln (4π) − γE ] + ··· , Z:[ g [ \
2 π
ö?÷ ö?÷ β1 Ì
F2 = F2 − F1 [ln (4π) − γE ] = 7.359 − 0.441Nf . Z:[  g µT\
2
’‘[ÏsRjŠ-’Kƒ’˜¯C„jbr^]–Ô^r”K„[ƒK„Ž†×‡„E¯RLPiÎj„5”]Re^rŒVP`„W„ › „5ŠjƒÖPiƒ`•JP
ŔYRl†jP‡Šz•JP]`‡«V

ä
^ ùŠÌB`SR
] hB´dÚ †×‡„E¯’Kƒ’^r’w”i’¶ŠTPw„ › RjœSRj„5Œ…ƒdPwƒ˜”KƒYP]`SRš•VP`‡«^ˆùŠ
Nf = 5
ö ÷
? hŠTP]’jƒAP‰„ Ì •jù´ƒYRš•JP
|–jPKÏl«]¯ Pwƒ ö?÷ ÌtÙÏ]„^sPi”i’KƒK„fψŒVP‰•j„i`

F2 = 5.156 Ò 4 F2
ƒ–V`VŒª’ƒYRl”wŒSR…«jƒw`j„^¶„‚•JP
ņ½TPi^]«lû •S`JRÖR-‘_ŒYP]`]’Œl’ ´dÚú†½ª„E¯’…Ì
¸Ä„iP]`j„[ƒYRlÎjŒJPwƒAP¶•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘’wŒJRj„ã‘’ Œ]’ ^z•S`]’A–’
„®†a`]’K”iŒ…„5ŒJP
Re+ e− (s) b b̄
Œl’ › RS–òÌ Ì †mR-‘¯C„i`j„5ŒJRjƒK„m^r’wŒjŒSRkhŠ-’ƒYP™†E’—”‘E„[ƒYR •J`j„^r”YR^ ¯’K†aPi”YRjƒK„
[ }54
•VP‡•J`]’K”iŠJR/Pwƒ`„fÏ]„5ŠjƒY`VP‡†Ïr’Œ]R PwƒdPYŒª¯ô«lŒ]’±Œ]’ •S`VP‡œ…„5†iRkÌÙ3¨”w„[ƒK„ŠS`SRj”]R
Z Z\
PwƒY–jP‡”i’Y`‡«jƒ Œ]’ (N =5) ´‚Dð t ^!PwÏ]Œ]’‹ŠS`SRj”‡’ R ´‚Dð t –jP]`lŒ]’
Λö?÷ f = 60 Z \ Ð]h® Z
ŠJ`SRj”‡’ 0 Ì 9’Y`l’w†fƒw”i’wŒ…„5ƒAP©•S`JR ”YRl†jP‡ŠJR„5Œ…„_`J–aRSR†[„W^]ùÏSbcRžŒ]’XP‡•l’ Š-’ƒ’¨Œ]’
\ ó
•SRjŠ-’jvÌ uiÏ!PYŒ‡’Ï]ŒSR…«jw
ƒ 7J±¾Šjùį ”i†aRjÎlŠSR^´’KŒlŒJRU¯„jbr^l– R Dð t1^r’w”i’
Z Ю 4y
h x
#ð t Ì
αs (34 x ) = 0.146 ± 0.030 . Z:[ [ ®\

5 s^ `JPiŒlŒ]’ƒ’ RJ`SRlŒl’Œl’ Œ]PK‘iP‡Œl’“¯BP bŸ„X^r’“†[„Ÿ’KŒ]’ÏsR-‘_RS`]’W•JPž†fùûgR-«

ó Z
Œl’ÎSRjŒ8º
’ ^?`JPiŒSR (  n !)
Γ(Z → ) X αs (MZ2 ) m2f
RZ ≡ = RZEW NC 1+ F̃n +O .
+ −
Γ(Z → e e ) n≥1
π MZ2
Ì
Z:[ [ 
} \
uiÏ!PYŒ‡’Ï]ŒSR…«jƒ › ’KŠjƒAP]`
P 2 2
f (vf + af ) Ì
Z:[ [ Y
RZEW = (1 + δEW ) Ð \
ve2 + a2e
Cz {0|C}~Q€|C‚ƒ„}„„‚G€†…‡\ˆ€†…$‰$Š}‹Œ|Ž%‘`’‚’“|‘;€†ˆ…pŠ p”‰• ’ˆ}”€“€†‚pŠ‡ypŠ‡|C‚„GC
ˆ ’… ’†–C‚}…b—˜>” pŠ €†„%’‚Gp”€š™#’„‡|C‡–€|C‚‚†’ €†‚š|m%‘`’‚†’c‡ `’~N’†›G’cpŠ ’;‡ |C}~N’[„ ‚G€†™‘‡
ˆ€†…%‰Š}‹b—I{0…}™‘‹‡‚Gœ„W$… ’„C‡‰Už Ÿ'—¢¡†ŸG£S‡Xž Ÿ'—¢¡†¤G£S|D’WC‹„‡„%’” C‚‡; ’W|‘‰' ’N ’W`’~W’†›G’'¥
—
µö?2 ÷ = (4π/eγE ) µö?2 ÷
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Å Ì É×ÁaÀ ê É×È É 8 ÄÅÀ
ÈsÄ è À »½ûû

<
=¸>  ¼ ? »»6E@ACB àS   
Æ   ?ED¦   FGI`  %
G

† MOP¨§© ?
R e+ e− 

†fù ^]ù#`b®’’w¯•-ÏsR…ƒK–_^´’ƒ’ŽŒ]’W„fÏ]„5ŠjƒY`JPi†Ïr’ŒR-«Ô`l’‘E•]’ ^ P Ì?¸Nù#’

Z→ f qf q̄f
Š-’ƒAPŸ•S`SRj†fù†[ƒw”i’KƒqRW”K„5ŠjƒAP`jŒ]’ƒ’XR’wŠ{†aRl’Ï]ŒJP
ŔK„EŠ…ƒAP`jŒ]’ƒ’ãŠTP‡Œj†[ƒ’wŒ…ƒ’…h{ŠTPA

„ › RlœSR…„5ŒjƒYRjƒK„“Œl’ª)p¯"*
ŕJPi•S`l’w”wŠSR…ƒK„ †f„`]’‘5Ï!RlÎl’w”i’Kƒ¹Pwƒ ‘’ Ì
F̃n Fn n≥2
9/’w•J`SR]¯C„i`‰’KŠ{†aR]’ψŒ]’ƒ’ŠTP‡Œj†fƒ’KŒjƒ’žŒ]’ •VP`l’bg^´’c^ˆ”K–…•J`SR]¯ŠTPi”]R-«‰•J`SR

Z
ŒVP‡† ÎJ`j„f‘ ƒY`SR…ù#–[ùÏ]ŒSRŸŠl”i’Y`jŠTP‡”YR†^?Rl’Y–a`]’w¯R hŠTP]’jƒAP
Z → tt̄ → GG → q q̄ Z \
Ï!Rl•j†5”i’©”Kù”Ÿ”w„5ŠjƒAP]`lŒJR…«ú†Ïj–…Î]’A’ ƒAPi”‡’Ÿ”YPi^?R¹^!P^sPi•jùÏ]ŒSR…ƒw„fÏ]Œ]’•VP‡•J`]’K”iŠ-’


Ì
O αs2 m2t /MZ2
k’/^´’ †[„ÔPi•S`…„^ˆ„fÏsR Piƒ h„—Œ-–ebWŒJPÕ^´’ †f„—Œl’w•J`]’K”]R·–¼Ï!PYŒª’Ï]„5Œ
αs RZ
’KŒ]’ÏsR-‘dŒ]’^r’wŒjŒSR…ƒw„WPiƒQ¬'­GRwÚjQ#¯dhª”‘5„¯’A’lŠJR“•S`j„^ˆ”]Re^ „fÏl„EŠ…ƒY`JPi†fψ’AŒ]RjƒK„
•VP‡•J`]’K”iŠJRnPiƒL”]Rj†aPiŠ“•JP]`‡«^ˆùŠÌTzPi†fÏl„^rŒ]’ƒ’/†fƒYP]’lŒVP‡†fƒ¨Œl’ hA^sPiŠ…ψ’^ˆ”‡’KŒ]’
αs
»Çûþ ¾a¿YÀ
ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

Pwƒ Q¬­ ¬N-Žð «± 𠵌¬ µ °/hl„]º

¤H¥I. ¢ ¥i¤ <˦=­x/¤¥
Ì
αs (MZ2 ) = 0.125 ± 0.005 ± 0.002 . Z:[ [ Ò\

¥Ÿ›e 
e+ e− →

e– q
γ
G +

e+ q
<
=>  ¼ ? »»eE@Þ  F  G
GIà  NF  ý
'  
B JI_‡      N= J> 'ª?
e+ e− → q q̄

ânŒ]’A’
ŌJRl†fùŠú•JP]`‡«^ˆùŠú•JPŠTP‡Œj†fƒ’KŒjƒ’ƒ’“Œl’†aR…ψŒVPiƒAPW”‘’YRl¯Pi^ˆ„i’l†fƒw”]R…„
`l’bg^´’KŒj„[ƒAP˜Œ]’±’ ^?`VP‡ŒJRz•S`JRz”‘’YRl¯Pi^ˆ„i’l†fƒw”]R-«lƒ’úŒ]’ •S`VPiƒYRlÎl’¶ÎJ`j„f‘
e+ e−
ÌWÙÏl„^sPi”‡’ƒK„[Ï]ŒJP •S`JR ”]Rj†jP‡ŠJR „5Œj„i`S–aRJR ŠJ`]’A’lŒSR…ƒK„™’ ^?`VP‡ŒjŒSR
e+ e− → q q̄
†fù†fƒAP«lŒSR…«Žƒ]`‡«JŒi”‡’g^´’{Rl¯’KƒW•J`j„^?Rl¯ŒVPr^r”–ª†fƒY`…–V’jŒ]’W†fƒ]`-–…Šjƒ–V`]’…hˆŠTPi„[ƒAPW„
”¶†fù#–uÏr’K†aRj„W†“„E¯•SRS`JRlÎjŒSRjƒK„úŒl’AŒKÏsσ^ˆ„5ŒJR…«Ì`JR R-‘[Ï]ù…Îl”i’wŒ…„[ƒYP¶Œ]’
O(αs )
ƒw”Kù#`]^ –¼Ïl–]P‡Œ¬PwƒxŠl”i’Y`jŠ •J`j„^?R-‘”YRlŠj”‡’˜•J`j„P_^ h”AP_^ˆ„5û ^!P
e+ e− → q q̄G
ƒY`JRl†fƒY`…–V’lŒl’˜ŠTP‡Œ › RJ–f–V`l’wœJR…«Ìtk’‚Œi„f‘¯’w†jPi”]RxŠl”i’Y`jŠSR ^sR › „_`…„5ŒlœSRl’Ï]ŒJPwƒAP
`l’‘E•J`j„^ˆ„fÏ]„5ŒJRj„‚Œl’®ŠS`l’Y’jŒJPwƒYPž†fù†fƒYPE«]ŒJRj„†Pwƒ®ƒY`SRUƒK„[ψ’®†f„^´’K”i’rPiƒJº

1 d2 σ 2αs x21 + x22 Ì

Z:[ [ f\
= ,
σ0 dx1dx2 3π (1 − x1 )(1 − x2 )
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAP
Nf
4πα2 X Ì
σ0 ≡ NC Q2f Z:[ [ h]\
3s
f =1
„†f„E΅„5ŒSRj„[ƒAP PiƒúŒl’Y’e
ŌJRl†fùŠ—•JP]`‡«V^]ùŠÌ)ïzRlŒj„E¯’ƒ]RjŠ-’Kƒ’
e+ e− → γ ∗ → q q̄
†f„ìP‡•J`j„^ˆ„fÏl«ÎJ`j„f‘—RjŒl”i’Y`JR]’KŒjƒYRjƒK„ R
s ≡ q2 sij ≡ (pi + pj )2 = (q − pk )2 ≡
7a u   ÁaÀ
Å Ì É×ÁaÀ ê É×È É 8 ÄÅÀ
ÈsÄ è À »½û(

h-Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAP h R †5’rRl¯•-–ψ†aR…ƒw„L†fùlPwƒw”w„[ƒwŒJP

s(1 − xk ) Z i, j, k = 1, 2, 3 \ p 1 p2 p3
Œl’¶Šj”‡’A`lŠkhô’KŒjƒYRlŠj”‡’A`lŠxRG–¼Ïl–]P‡Œkhô’ „ž†–j¯'’A`lŒJR…«jƒdRl¯•…–Ï]†žŒl’ Ìk’
q e + e−
^r’^]„5ŒJP Rl¯’†E’w¯BPì^r”K„1Œ…„f‘’K”YRl†aR]¯RãŠSRjŒj„E¯’KƒYRlÎjŒSRŸ•S`VPª¯C„5Œ…Ï!Rl”YRh•JPiŒj„jbŸ„
s
Ì
x1 + x 2 + x 3 = 2 . Z:[ [ 4\

âz†aRl†fƒK„E¯’/Œl’œj„5Œ…ƒwù#`Œ]’L¯’K†aRjƒK„pí µ √ h √ Ì
q = ( s, ~0 )î xi = Ei/Ee = 2Ei/ s
`l’w”wŒj„5ŒSR…„ Ì „¹`]’‘aP_^l«]ûqP]hŠTP]–’ƒYP R-ÏsR Š…Ï!PiŒ…«jƒ˜Š…ùį Ì
1 Z:[ [ fe\ x1 x2 }
¸ô’‘_Rg`]’‘aP_^sR]¯BP‡†fƒd„ ¯ŒJP]–aPO`]’‘[ÏsRjÎlŒ]’zPiƒd–Ïlƒ]`l’w”YRJPKÏ]„[ƒAPi”]R…ƒw„ih‡ŠTP]RjƒAPX`l’‘j

–¼Ï]„^´’ l¯C„ã•S`…„j^sR`”cRlŒ…ƒK„_–a`l’Ï!RjƒK„Œl’•J`SRl¯ŠJRjƒK„iÌ)⠆f„i–’

ŒJR…«U†Ïl–…Îl’Y’¶†5’

ó
¯’ƒ’^]ù#`l”K„E†[Œl’’w¯•-ÏsR…ƒK–_^´’“†fƒ’K”‡’†aRjŒS––Ïl«S`lŒl’”{–a`]’KŒSRjÎlŒl’Kƒ’nPYŒKÏr’K†[ƒŒ]’
› ’‘iPi”YPwƒAPŸ•S`JPi†fƒY`]’KŒl†fƒw”YPlÌJ`JPYŒwÏl„E¯ù´ƒ¨†f„¾ŠTP]`j„5ŒSRW”qRlŒ › `l’Îj„i`l”K„5ŒJPwƒAP©•VPA

”K„^ˆ„5ŒSR…„‚Œl’®•S`JPi•]’A–’ƒAP`JRjƒK„ŸŒ]’®•J`JP‡¯„jbr^l–-ƒKùjÎjŒSR…ƒw„ŸŠj”‡’A`lŠJR8º

x1 → 1 ⇐⇒ (p2 + p3)2 = 2 (p2 · p3) → 0 ; Ì

Z:[ [ ]
g \
x2 → 1 ⇐⇒ (p1 + p3)2 = 2 (p1 · p3) → 0 .
Ùùûã„E†fƒw”–…”‡’ƒq^ˆ”w„Pwƒi^ˆ„fÏ]ŒSRúŠSRjŒj„E¯’KƒYRjÎlŒSR±ŠTPiŒ › RS––V`]’KœSRJRhlŠTP]RjƒAP“”AP_^]«jƒ
^!PUo]|r}k²…vëlsŲkXKs
|]o ²…v5tmˆq_ôo…€‚q \®o!º
°
ÌN® T ¯NO°RB‹e<s@B‹R«> ¯EŠTR ºJýd„[ƒ]RJ`SRJR]¯•…–‡†fùYƒŸŒ]’q–uÏj–PiŒ]’‚„–‡†[•JP]`j„^ˆ„5ŒWŒ]’
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Îj„[ƒYRS`SRJR]¯•…–ψ†5’Œl’dŠj”‡’A`lŠ-’zR…Ï!R®’KŒjƒYRlŠj”‡’A`lŠ-’…Ì]¸ØP‡”i’¾†f„ Œ]’A`SRjÎ]’†fùûqP
€‚v qXv o]|Nò»³Kø-ZK²r|rq \hăKù#’zŠ-’ƒAP=`]’‘jTPi^?R]¯BPi†fƒ¶Œ-«ˆ¯’‘^´’mR]¯’`’KŠTP
° ° °
R…ÏsR‘–uÏl–]PiŒjù´ƒqR…ÏsR Šl”i’Y`jŠjù´ƒrRl¯'’ƒ¯'’K†5’ PK‘Œl’Î]’K”i’jhªÎ…„
Z p3 kp2 s23 = 0
’wŠTP 2 3 Ì
p2 = p 3 = 0 \
ÌN± ‹TF >¯BŠTSR º Ì
Ð p3 → 0
Ó ”=^ˆ”‡’ƒ’—†Ïl–…Îl’« ŠS`l’Y’jŒSR…ƒw„`’ ^?`JPiŒlŒJR †fù†fƒAP«]ŒJR…« ûㄱ†f„úŒ]’ŒwÏ!Ïo^r’

”i’ƒ`Š-’ƒAP‰ŠTP‡Œ › RJ–f–V`l’wœJR…«/Piƒ †fƒY`…–VRkh~•JPiŒj„jbŸ„Œj„ ¯BP bŸ„n^r’¶†f„c`]’‘j^ˆ„fÏsR

Ð
†aRj†[ƒK„E¯’Kƒ’ R…Ï!R ÌezP`l’^sR“ŠS`l’Y’jŒ]’ƒ’p`]’‘j^ˆ„fÏsR…ƒK„[Ï]Œ]’‚†[•JPi†jP]ŒiŒJPi†fƒLŒl’
qG q̄G
”w†aRlÎjŠSRy^]„[ƒw„5Š…ƒYP]`SRšŒ…„“„W”wù‘¯BP bWŒVP ^sP]`SRz•VP`•J`SRjŒlœSRj• ^´’ú†f„nPwƒi^ˆ„fÏj«lƒ
Z \
PiŒj„f‘_R^ˆ”K–‡†fƒ]`-–V’lŒJR†fù)Œ]RjƒYR…«hi•VP`VP_^ˆ„5ŒJR{PiƒOP‡†[ŒJPi”wŒSR…«®•S`VP‡œ…„E† + − h
e e → q q̄
 »Çû6 ¾a¿YÀ
ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

Pwƒ †fù)Œ]RjƒYR…«‰†©ŠTPKÏsRjŒj„E’Y`…„5ŒÔR…ÏsRx¯C„5Š=–uÏj–PiŒÌ)k’n^´’ž†[„g`]’‘j

e+ e− → q q̄G
^]„fÏsR‰ƒY`SRl†fƒY`…–V’jŒJP¶†fù)ŒR…ƒ]R…„ihk„®Œ…–eb“ŒJPk–uÏj–PiŒjù´ƒw^´’Rl¯’ „EŒ…„i`S–aR…«=Rxù#–fùÏ
Œl’ Pwƒi^]„[Ïj«]Œ…„ †[•S`‡«]¯P Šl”i’A`lŠ-’LR-ÏsRn’KŒjƒYRjŠl”i’Y`jŠ-’ •JP
|–jPKÏ]„E¯R«Pwƒ/`l’‘_`j„

Z \
„5ŒSR…„5ƒAPWŒl’q^ˆ„[ƒK„5ŠjƒAP`l’j̲9’ŒKÏsσ^´’K”‡’KŒJPwƒAPW†[„5΅„EŒJRj„d‘’©ƒY`SRU†[ƒY`-–VR¶ŒJRlŠTP]–’
ó
Œ-«ˆ¯’{^´’ ”wŠ…Ï!ϾÎl”i’ •S`VP]ŒKÏ]„E¯’KƒYRjÎlŒSR-« `]’A’JPiŒ †Ï]„^sPi”‡’ƒK„fψŒJP ƒYP
x1,2 → 1 
ûã„qŒiù ^]„ŠJ`]’A’lŒVP]h´”wù•J`j„5ŠSR˜Î…„†fƒAP]’lŒJPi†fƒKƒ’ú¯ô–±‘’K”YRl†aRÖPwƒ¹^]„5ƒK„5ŠjƒAP]`lŒl’Kƒ’
`l’‘j^]„[Ï!RjƒK„fψŒl’ã†[•VP‡†jPYŒ‡ŒVP‡†fƒpRSqR-ÏsRWƒAP‡ÎjŒ]’ƒ’†^ˆ„ › RjŒSRlœJR…«žŒ]’ \/²ˆ³KZ ƒÌæ„iÌ
° Z σ
‘’K”]Rj†aRúŒ]’{R…‘iŒ]`]’KŒSR…ƒw„q–a`l’wŒJRlœSRUŒ]’{RjŒjƒK„i–a`SRS`l’wŒ…„ Ì
\
Ñdƒo^?`-–V–’†fƒ]`l’wŒl’o^ˆ”K–‡†fƒ]`-–V’lŒl’Kƒ’ÜŠTP‡Œ › RJ–f–V`l’wœJR…«‚ûŸ„'”wŠ…ÏsϾÎj”‡’ R
e+ e− →
R †Œj„5Œ]’ŒwÏ!Ïo^r’K„E¯·–¼Ïl–]P‡ŒkÌØ⠒bWŒJR…«jƒ¶”Kù•S`VP‡†©ƒYP]–’K”i’ú„
q q̄ e+ e− → q q̄G
RjŒ › `]’΅„_`j”w„5ŒVPiƒAP‚•VP‡”K„^ˆ„5ŒSR…„ Œ]’¾†–j¯’Kƒ’…Piƒ…^r”K„[ƒK„N’i¯•…Ï!Rjƒ– ^sRÌeїŒª¯ô«lŒ]’ƒ’
Œl’‚”]RJ`jƒ–ª’Ï]ŒSR¹–uÏl–]PiŒSR¯C„abg^]–“Šj”‡’A`lŠJRjƒK„d•JP]`]’br^r’ã•VP‡•J`]’K”iŠ-’ Šjùį
O(αs )
’w¯•…Ï!Rjƒ– ^´’ƒ’WŒ]’ º
e+ e− → q q̄
Ì
T [e+e− → q q̄] = T0 + T1 + · · · Z:[ Y [ [ \
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAP „ •S`JRlŒJPi†fùYƒdPiƒ‰Œl’Y’e
ŌJRl†fùŠ‹•JP]`‡«V^]ùŠ ^ˆù#`j”w„5†[ŒJP‰•J`SRVŒwÏ!RVbŸ„

T0 Z
ŒJRj„ h „Ÿ•JPi•S`]’K”wŠ-’Kƒ’ R`ƒÌõŒÌ8Ó/ŒjƒK„i` › „i`j„5ŒlœJR…«jƒ’žŒl’ R •VPA

\ T1 O(αs ) T0 T1
`l’bg^´’“•S`JRlŒJPi† Š…ùį †f„5Îj„5ŒSR…„5ƒAPWŒl’ Ì
O(αs ) e+ e− → q q̄
e– q
γ
+ +

e+ q
<
=>  ¼ ? »½¼@ù º F
àˆG '
= J> 
F  F  G
GEIà ?
e+ e− → q q̄

â„5Îj„ ‘EŒ]’„E¯Nh΅„ •J`SRl¯ŠTPi”YRjƒK„Q^sR]’A–a`]’w¯tRrR]¯’Kƒd–Ïlƒ]`l’w”YRJPKÏ]„[ƒAPi”]Rn`l’‘jPA

^sR]¯BPi†[ƒYRkhYŠTP]RjƒAPŽƒY`‡«SŒi”i’n^´’†f„©•J`j„5ŒJP]`]¯RJ`]’ƒÌ8â ^!P‡•…ùψŒj„5ŒJRj„ãƒK„{R]¯’ƒ‘R
RjŒ › `]’΅„_`j”w„5ŒJR/`]’‘jTPi^?R]¯BPi†fƒ]Rkh†[”wù#`-‘’KŒSR—†“ŠTPKÏsRjŒj„E’Y`jŒSR Rz¯C„5ŠSRxŠTP › R

––V`l’wœJRSR˜Œl’ž”YRS`jƒ–ª’Ï]ŒSR-«y–uÏj–PiŒÌS‚P bŸ„gR…‘_`SRjÎlŒJPc^´’W†f„©•J`JPi”w„i`JRhY΅„RlŒ

› ’Îj„i`j”w„5Œ]’ƒ’c`]’‘jTPi^?R]¯BPi†fƒ Œl’ ƒAP‡ÎjŒJPŽ†fùŠJ`]’Kû’K”‡’

O(αs ) σ(e+ e− → q q̄)
7a u   ÁaÀ
Å Ì É×ÁaÀ ê É×È É 8 ÄÅÀ
ÈsÄ è À »½ûfe

`l’‘jP_^?Rl¯BP‡†fƒKƒ’“” hlƒ’wŠ-’“Îj„‚†f–j¯’ƒ’®„O^!P]Œ]`j„O^]„ › RlŒJRS`l’

σ(e+e− → q q̄G)
Œl’Jº
 αs  Ì
+ − + −
σ(e e → q q̄) + σ(e e → q q̄G) + · · · = σ0 1+ + ··· . Z:[ [ T
µ \
π
¸ØP‡”i’„¨ƒAP‡ÎjŒJP¹RlŒjŠ…Ïj–{‘ Rj”iŒJR…«jƒ‘`…„f‘5–Ï]ƒ’ƒhj‘’“ŠTP]’jƒAP†fƒ’KŒ]’“”wù•J`JPi†‚” Ì Ì Ì
[ h f
¸ØP‡”i’Ž‘’Œw„[Ïl„jbcRjƒK„fψŒVP˜†fùŠS`l’wû©’w”i’KŒj„WŒ]’kRlŒ › `]’EÎj„i`l”K„5Œ]’ƒ’Ö`l’‘jP_^?Rl¯BP‡†fƒ
”w†fùû©ŒVP‡†fƒ“„qPYŒ‡û `j„f‘[–Ïlƒ’ƒ ¸Ä„aP`…„¯RUŒ]´
’ ³¦- « ð «
µ‘¨
R ¶ ±
Z ¥ ¡–µ B ¥‡¤ £j§< < ¦…¥‡§»¡< ¢Iµ
Qlðað °Jð ,s𠺑’‘^sPi†[ƒ’KƒKù…ÎlŒVPÔRlŒjŠ…Ïj–{‘ Rj”iŒJR‹†[„5΅„EŒJR…«z†f„ †fùŠS`l’wû©’K”‡’ƒ
µ B ¢ ¦ ¤=e\
R±ŠTPKÏsRjŒj„E’Y`jŒSR…ƒw„qR¶¯C„5ŠSRjƒK„XRjŒ › `]’΅„_`j”w„5ŒJRÖ`l’‘jP_^?Rl¯Pi†fƒYRÌ

J1

J2

<
=>  ¼ ? »»ï@ D¦ >> ü ÜG 'ß
=¸> 
ý
Æ ?

dùÏ]ŒJPwƒAP ’^s`JPiŒlŒJP †f„5Îj„5ŒSR…„¶„`Œj„^r”–‡†E¯Rj†fÏl„5ŒJPL^]„ › RlŒJRS`]’KŒJPlh ŒJPš”w†f„

Piûㄠ„ÜŒ…–ebWŒVPŸƒAPiÎlŒVPXP‡•J`j„^ˆ„fÏ]„5ŒJRj„Œl’L•JPiŒ…«jƒYRj„[ƒAPã†fƒ]`-–i«hw‘’z^r’‚¯BP bŸ„¯=^´’
Š-Ïr’K†aR › RjœSRJ`]’w¯„^r’^]„EŒVPx†[ù)Œ]RjƒYR…„±Š-’KƒAPÔ^r”–T
uhôƒY`SRe
uhNÌ ÌËÌ hBR-ÏsR
;†[ƒY`-–V’lŒ]’
¦
ŠTPiŒ › RS––V`]’KœSR-«Ù̸ô’wŠTPi”‡’dPi•S`…„^ˆ„fÏ]„5ŒSR…„ŽƒY`‡«SŒi”i’d^r’‰Œ…«]¯'’ÔRjŒ › l
` ’Îj„i`j”w„5ŒSR
`l’‘jP_^?Rl¯BP‡†fƒYRXR^´’ Œj„‘’K”YRl†aR†Pwƒ•JPi^?`JPYŒiŒJPi†[ƒYR…ƒw„1Œ]’ÜŒ…„E•…„i`jƒ–V`JŒ‡’KƒYRj”iŒl’Kƒ’
› `]’A–5¯„5Œ…ƒ’KœSR…«Œ]’/’ ^?`JPiŒSRkÌT—P‡•-–Ïl«S`j„5ŒŸ•S`SRl¯C„_`ã‘’W^]„ › RlŒJRlœJR…«Œ]’d†[ƒY`-–i«
„—ƒÌNŒl’Y`kÌ[·b¸*¬ ’Ï!–jP`JRjƒKùįhNŠTP]’jƒAP«R…‘E•JPKÏl‘E”i’¹«a°V±úŒ]’xRlŒl”i’A`SR]’KŒjƒwŒl’Kƒ’
¯’K†5’Jº

†[ƒY`-–VR
Ò ⇐⇒ sij ≡ (pi + pj )2 > ys (∀i, j = 1, 2, 3) .
Ì
Z:[ Y µ ®T\
»Çû¼ ¾a¿YÀ
ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

ÑdÎj„5”]Re^rŒVP­R ƒw„aP]`j„[ƒYRlÎjŒSRjƒK„š•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘’wŒJR…«hQR „5Š{†5•…„i`SR]¯C„5Œjƒ’Ï]ŒSR…ƒw„LR…‘j

¯C„i`l”i’KŒSR…«±‘’K”]Rj†u«jƒ{Piƒ”Kù‘E•S`SR…„[ƒ’ƒ’g^ˆ„ › RjŒSRjœSR…«`Œ]’“†fƒY`…–w«ÙÌ·b¸*¬n’Ï!–jPA

`JRjƒKùįCùYƒW•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘E”‡’Ÿ‘’®Îl’w†fƒKƒ’{Pwƒ®ƒY`SRl†fƒY`…–V’jŒSR˜†fù)Œ]RjƒYR…«8º

       2
2αs y y 5 9 Q y π
R3 = (3−6y) ln +2 ln2 + −6y− y 2 +4 < 2 − ,
3π 1 − 2y 1−y 2 2 Ì 1 − y 3
Z:[ µV}\
Š…ù ^ˆ„[ƒAP
Z z
Q dξ Ì
< 2 (z) ≡ − ln ξ . Z:[  µ ÐY\
0 1−ξ
ÙùNPiƒw”K„5ƒwŒl’Kƒ’WÎl’w†fƒ{Pwƒg^ˆ”K–‡†fƒ]`-–V’lŒJR¶†fù)Œ]RjƒYR…«±†f„—^´’K”‡’®Š-’ƒAP Ì
R2 = 1 − R 3
ý/’w†fƒKƒ’wPwƒw^ˆ”K–T
R-ÏsR‰ƒY`SRj†[ƒY`-–V’lŒSRx†fù)ŒR…ƒYR…«ÔPiÎj„5”YR^rŒVPž‘’K”]Rj†iRÖPiƒ‚R-‘iŒ`l’

ŒJR…«¨«a°± Ì)Ó/Œ › `]’΅„_`j”w„5ŒJRjƒK„®†aRlŒJ––Ïl«S`lŒVP‡†fƒYR—†[„©•S`VP«l”K«l”‡’ƒŽ”w`]’‘jTP_^l«V

y
ûqPwƒYPW•VP‡”K„^ˆ„5ŒSR…„¨Œ]’ •S`JR Ì
R3 y→0
`JR •VPA
;”]Rj†aPiŠ•JP]`‡«V^]ùŠ •JP ƒ]`‡«JŒi”‡’†^´’¨†f„W^ˆ„ › j
R ŒSRJ`]’ƒ®Î]’K†fƒKƒ’Ÿ¯ŒVPA

αs
–jPi†fƒ]`-–V’lŒJR †fù)ŒR…ƒYR…«Ì>9’w•J`SRl¯„i`¯BP bŸ„Ï]„5†[ŒJP†^r’ã†f„…PYŒYP]ŒiûgR]·b¸*¬š’Ï!–jPA

`JRjƒKùį’jhf‘’ ^r’ †f„Š…ψ’w†aR › RlœJRS`l’ †fù)ŒR…ƒ]R…„'Š-’KƒAP

ņfƒY`…–V’jŒ]’
{p1, p2, . . . , pn} ¦
ŠTPiŒ › RS––V`]’KœSR-«Ùh•J`SRŸ–‡†Ï!Pi”]R…„ihÎj„ ‘’”w†aRlÎjŠSR Ì 5 ŠTP
sij > ys i, j = 1, . . . , n
^ˆ”‡’cR]¯•-–ψ†5’WŒj„‚– ^!P‡”Ï]„[ƒw”YP]`‡«l”‡’ƒžƒAPi”‡’nP]–i`l’wŒJRl΅„EŒJRj„ihˆƒw„Ÿ†f„XPYŒi„^?RjŒ…«l”‡’ƒ
”„^?RlŒdR]¯•…–Ï]†gR‰†fù)Œ]RjƒYRj„[ƒAPŽ†f„©†[ÎSRjƒ’W‘’
ņfƒY`…–V’jŒ]’žŠTPiŒ › RS––V`]’

(n − 1)
œJR…« ’wŠTPP]–a`]’KŒSRjÎj„5ŒSR…„5ƒAPŽ„ã– ^!P‡”Ï]„[ƒw”YP]`j„5ŒVPú•S`JR‰”i†aRlÎjŠSR=Pi†fƒ’KŒ]’ÏsR—ŠTPª¯D

Z
Œ]RlŒl’wœJRSRnPwƒpR]¯•-–ψ†aR ÌÑzŒiûgR-«lƒOR…‘_`]’‘N‘’/Î]’K†fƒwƒ’†Piƒ
;†[ƒY`-–V’lŒSRW†fù)Œ]RjƒYR…«
\ ¦
•J`SRe^sPYŒRj”‡’“”YR^´’Vº

 n−2 X  j
αs (s) (n) αs (s) Ì
Rn (s, y) = Cj (y) , Z:[ Y µ ÒT\
π j=0
π
Š-’ƒAP P Ì
Rn = 1
n P]–’ƒg^´’®†f„LŒ]’K•S`]’K”«lƒWŒ-«]ŠTPKψŠTPWŠTP‡¯C„EŒ…ƒ’A`]’Vº
¸ –…Š`¯B

ý’K†[ƒKƒ’ †fƒ]`-–VR%•S`VP«]”«l”‡’ ΅–…”w†[ƒw”YRjƒK„fψŒVP‡†fƒnŠ…ùį í Ì

• αs Rn ∼ αsn−2 î
âù•J`j„5ŠSR“Î…„ÜÎ-–…”i†fƒw”YRjƒK„fψŒJPi†fƒKƒ’q`]’K†[ƒK„܆ h]Œ]`JPE«lƒL†[ù)Œ]RjƒYR-«WŒ]’w¯’Ïj«V

n
”‡’®†Œ`VP«UŒ]’®†fƒY`…–VR…ƒw„iÌ
7a u   ÁaÀ
Å Ì É×ÁaÀ ê É×È É 8 ÄÅÀ
ÈsÄ è À »½ûï

ý¾Ï]„5ŒVP‡”K„[ƒw„zPwƒ•VPA
;”]Rj†jP‡Šw`j„^ †5’Ÿ†fù)Œ]`]’KŒSR ” Ì
• αs (µ2 )j lnk (s/µ2) αs (s)
9zP ŠTPi„ › RlœSR…„5ŒjƒYRjƒK„ (n) ”i†f„z•]’KŠ †fù ^]ù#`b®’ƒ ΅Ïl„5ŒJPi”w„ Ì
Cj (y) lnk (y)
`SR˜ŒJRl†[ŠSR‰†fƒAP]’lŒJPi†fƒYRxŒl’ hlRjŒ › `]’΅„_`j”w„5Œl’Kƒ’`]’‘aP_^sR]¯BP‡†fƒ
y Zy →
†f„L•JP«l”K«l”i’rPiƒwŒJPi”APwR±”®ƒAPK‘ RU†Ïl–…Îl’Y’±Œj„¨¯P_b©„†^r’®†f„p`]’‘EÎSR…ƒ’“Œ]’
0\
•j„i`jƒ–V`JŒ‡’ƒ]Rj”iŒJR…«k`…„j^Ì!k’q–jPwÏl„E¯tR h…Îl’w†fƒKƒ’©Œ]’ã†[ƒY`-–VR † „
y Rn n ≥ 3
¯'’ψŠ-’…Ì

Š{†[•…„_`JR]¯C„5ŒjƒYRjƒK„XR-‘¯„i`j”‡’ƒ{`VP_^ˆ„5ŒSR…ƒK„ã’^s`JPiŒSRkh]’©Œ…„‚•]’A`jƒAPiŒSRkÌ?ÙÏl„

• 
^sPi”‡’ƒK„[Ï]ŒJPlh܃Kù#’ Š-’ƒAP ƒw„f‘_R%Œ]’ŒKÏsσ^´’„¯R Œj„™†E’ Œ]’K•jùψŒVP-RlŒjŠ…Ïl–T

‘ Rj”iŒJRhˆ†fùûŸ„5†fƒw”K–…”i’Œ…„_R-‘iŒi„jbWŒl’“‘’K”]Rj†iRl¯BP‡†fƒ{PwƒŒj„5•j„i`jƒ–V`VŒª’ƒYRl”i’Kƒ’
› `]’A–5¯C„EŒ…ƒ’KœSR-«Œl’d’^s`JPiŒSR̸«qP]Œ]RlŠjŒJPi”w„5ŒJP/†f„¯BP_^]„[Ï!RS`l’dÎJ`j„f‘S‚PiŒ

ƒw„‚A`…ÏSP˜’KŒ]’ÏsR-‘ RLR™”wŒ]’K†u«xƒK„iP]`j„[ƒYRlÎjŒSRšŒ…„iPi•S`…„^ˆ„fÏ]„5ŒJPi†fƒYRhŠTPR…ƒYP
ƒ]`‡«JŒi”‡’^r’®†[„OP‡œ…„5Œ…«jƒÌ

âù”K„j^]„5ŒSRz†5’¶¯ŒVP–jPÖ`]’‘[ÏsRlÎjŒSR‹’Ïs–jP]`SRjƒi¯R¬R™•J`JP‡¯„5Œ-ÏsRl”YR ‘’±†[ƒY`-–VR
ða± ±½ð hJ
ð ¼]ð ± /sð hJð ð « ð - ± h´Ì5Ì[Ì h{‘’X^´’®†f„OPi•jƒYRl¯tR-‘_RS`]’
»Z º ¤»¢ § ¦ §»¡l¢ § ¦ ¤=b½ ¥i¤ ¤ ¢ < ¥i¦l§ \
•…„i`jƒ–V`JŒ‡’KƒYRj”iŒJR…«jƒ`’KŒ]’ÏsR-‘‡Ì#⠌-«]ŠTP]R‰†Ïl–…Î]’AR‰†f„•J`]’K”]R—•J`j„5†–j¯tRJ`]’KŒj„©Œ]’
Î-Ï]„5ŒJPi”K„5ƒK„ •S`JR hّ’m^´’U†[„ž•JPi^sPYŒ`JR™ƒYPiÎlŒVP‡†fƒKƒ’‰Œl’
αs (s)n lnm(y) m > n
•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘’wŒJR…«jƒ’®•S`JR¶ŒJRl†[ŠSR±†fƒAP’jŒJPi†fƒ]RUŒ]’ Ì
y
9 ’ › RJ–
Ì Ì
 „d•JPiŠ-’‘’KŒ]’¨„EŒ…„i`S–f„[ƒ]RjÎlŒl’Kƒ’ã‘’w”YRl†aRl¯Pi†fƒãŒ]’R…‘¯C„_`…„5Œ]’ƒ’
[ Ю
Îl’w†fƒ‚`l’bg^´’KŒj„“Œl’ ƒ]`JR—†[ƒY`-–VR h´†a`l’w”wŒj„5Œ]’ž†•S`…„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒSRe

R3 Z y = 0.08 \
«jƒ’¶Œ]’`Šj”‡’KŒjƒAPi”‡’ƒ’֐J`JP‡¯BP_^?RjŒ]’w¯RlŠ-’…Ì3Ÿ’KŒlŒJRjƒK„ú†5’¶”k^!P]Œ]`JP˜†[ù#–¼Ïr’K†aRj„†
)†¯[* R™†fù”i•l’^r’Kƒ`†ž•J`j„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒ]’ƒ’ú‘’w”YRl†aR]¯BPi†fƒ`Œl’kŒ«S–’KûPwƒAP`”‘’YRl¯BPA

^]„i’l†fƒw”]R…„ Pwƒd„5Œj„i`S–aR…«jƒ’…Ì]ïzPiŒl†fƒ’KŒjƒwŒ]’d†fƒAP’jŒJPi†[ƒŒ]’ Œj„N¯BP bŸ„ ^´’—P‡•JR „

αs ó
Œl’AŒKÏsσ^´’K”i’wŒJRjƒK„w/ °«± ±Çð ÌYTRJ––V`]’ƒ’W•JPiŠ-’‘E”i’cRU•S`…„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒSR-«V

¤H¥-£ <Ë¥i¦U¤»¢ §
ƒ’jhC•VPwÏj–…Îj„5ŒSR‹† ’AŒw„fÏ]„5”‡’¶”w„5ŠjƒAP]`lŒl’`ƒw„aP]`SR-« •S`SR 2 hôŠTP]RjƒAP˜«l†[ŒJP‰†f„
O(αA )
R-‘EŠ…ÏsϾÎj”‡’ƒÌ
9 ’K•S`l’w”K„5ŒSR±†5’®Œ…«lŠTPwÏ]ŠTPcR…‘¯C„i`l”i’wŒJR…«±Œl’
 ††`]’‘5Ï!RlÎjŒSRU•S`JP‡¯C„5Œ…ÏsRj”]R
αs
Œl’‰†[ƒY`-–VRjƒK„ĩâ†aRlÎjŠSR‹ƒw„U†5’˜”d^sPYŒ`VPx†[ù#–¼Ïr’K†aRj„R •S`…„^r†fƒ’K”KÏj«]”i’ƒ •VPwÏSPA

bnRjƒK„fψŒ]’ú•J`JPi”w„i`lŠ-’žŒ]’ •VP‡†Ï]„^!P‡”i’KƒK„fψŒVP‡†fƒKƒ’úŒl’¾)p¯"* •S`…„j^ˆ†[Š-’‘’KŒSR…«jƒ’…Ì

ï—Pª¯BŒ]RlŒSRJ`]’A’lŠJRÖ`…„[‘[–Ïlƒ’ƒYRjƒK„XPiƒW”w†aRlÎjŠSRú„5Š{†5•…„i`SR]¯C„5ŒjƒYR±Œ]’Q¬'­­R=ÚjQ#¯dh
 »Íþf· ¾a¿YÀ
ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

†f„L•JPKÏl–…Î]’K”i’®†i`…„^rŒ]’ƒ’“†fƒAP’jŒJPi†fƒSº



0.119 ± 0.006 O(αs )2
αs (MZ2 ) = •J`j„5†–j¯tRJ`]’KŒSRmR…‘¯C„i`l”i’wŒJR…« .
0.123 ± 0.006 ( )
Ì
:Z [ µf\
3¨”w„[ƒK„±ÎSRj†fψ’yPwƒY–jP‡”i’Y`‡«jƒxŒ]’y`]’‘[ÏsRlÎjŒSR ƒw„aP]`j„[ƒYRlÎjŒSRn•S`JRJŒKÏsRb©„5ŒJR…«hR…‘j

•VPwÏj‘E”‡’KŒSR±”Kù”\7S± ‘’gR…‘E”KÏ!RlÎl’wŒ…„¨Œ]’ Ì
§ αs
¸ `SRj†[ƒY`-–V’lŒSR…ƒK„ã†[ù)Œ]RjƒYR-«U¯BP–
’KƒX^´’†f„R…‘E•VPwÏj‘”i’ƒ{R ‘’Pi•S`…„j^]„fÏl«lŒj„/Œ]’
†[•JRlŒ]’—Œ]’Ô–¼Ïl–]P‡Œl’jÌk’Ô–uÏj–PiŒ †fù†Ž†[•JRlŒ ^sR › „i`…„EŒjœSRl’Ï]ŒJPwƒYPG`]’‘•J`j„^ˆ„

®
Ïl„5ŒSRj„±†f„w^r’w”i’dPwƒ—–V`l’w”wŒj„5ŒJRj„ Ì hCŠ-’ƒYP
†f„ú†5¯C„EŒJRxR…‘_`]’‘’ ”
Z:[ [ e
f \ x21 + x22
ÎJRl†ÏsR…ƒK„[Ïj« † ÌQƒYP œ…«…Ï!P Œ…„—¯BP bŸ„d^´’š†f„=P‡•J`j„^ˆ„fÏ!R ŠTP« ’ ^?`VP‡Œe

x23 /4
Œl’˜†fƒ]`-–i« •J`JP]R…‘[ÏsR-‘’dPwƒ › `l’Y–5¯C„5Œjƒ’wœJR…«jƒ’‰Œ]’‰Šl”i’A`lŠ
R…Ï!R ’KŒjƒYRjŠl”i’Y`jŠ
Z \
RxŠTP«x•J`JP]R…‘[ÏsR-‘’‘Pwƒm–uÏj–PiŒÌØÙÏ]„^!P‡”i’KƒK„fψŒVPU”‡¯C„5†fƒYPúƒAPi”‡’ú†f„“”‘5„¯’ •VP_^S

`…„jbr^´’KŒj„‰Œl’™†fƒ]`-–VRjƒK„ h”šŠTPi„[ƒAP †f„kPiƒwŒ]’K†u«n‘’z†fƒY`…–T

x1 > x 2 > x 3 x1
«jƒ’™†`Œ]’A’
|–jPKÏl«]¯’ „5Œj„i`S–aR…«h
‘’z†Ï]„^ˆ”‡’Kû’ƒ’LR ‘’™†fƒY`…–w«lƒ’š†`Œ]’A’

Ð Ò
¯’ψŠ-’„EŒ…„i`S–aR…«hfŠTP«lƒAP܌]’A’
ŔK„i`JP«jƒwŒJPìPiƒY–jP‡”i’A`‡«¨Œ]’Q–uÏj–PiŒÌïzP]–’ƒYP
x2 → 1
h]”w„5ŠjƒAP]`lŒVPiƒAP–¼Ïl–]P‡ŒjŒJP¹`]’‘E•S`…„j^]„fÏ]„5ŒSR…„¨„‚„^?RlŒj†fƒi”K„5ŒJPlhˆŒJPž†[ùNPwƒ

Z x1 → 1 \
”K„[ƒwŒJPwƒYP†[Š-’Ïr’A`lŒJP{–uÏl–]PiŒlŒJP{`]’K•S`j„^]„[Ïl„5ŒSRj„LŒj„„‡h…ƒwù#’±Š-’ƒAPW”ƒ’‘_RŽƒYPiÎlŠ-’
ÌNÓ¾‘¯„i`…„EŒVPiƒAP¹`]’‘E•S`…„j^]„fÏ]„5ŒSR…„O^sPYŒ`…„¨†fù”

x3 = (1 − x1) + (1 − x2 ) → 0
•l’^r’ž†\)p¯"*ޕS`j„^ˆ†5Š-’‘’wŒJR…«jƒ’“‘’n–¼Ïl–]P‡Œ¶†[ù†¨†[•JRlŒ †[Š-’Ïr’A`lŒJR…«jƒ‘–¼Ïl–]P‡Œ
}Y
«l†[ŒJP“†f„†R…‘EŠ…Ï!ϾÎl”i’jÌ
`…„^r†[Š-’‘’KŒSR-«lƒ’x‘’L`]’‘E•S`…„j^]„fÏ]„5ŒSR…„˜Œ]’ †[ƒY`-–VRjƒK„ÔR ð¼ð ± /sð †5’
¦ §»¡]¢ §
› –…ŒlŠjœSRSR‹Œl’ › ’KŠjƒAP]`SRjƒK„úŒl’`œl”K„[ƒwŒ]’ƒ’d–a`…–…•l’ h
TF = 1/2 CF = (NC2 −
R ÌJ¸~„f‘_Rú”w„fÏsRjÎSRjŒSRU•S`JP]R…‘[Ï!R…‘’KƒnPwƒ“œj”w„[ƒwŒ]’ƒ’W’Ïs–f„aŒA

1)/(2NC ) C A = NC
`l’jh]†[”Kù#`…‘’KŒ]’†p`l’‘[Ï!RlÎlŒJRjƒK„Ÿ”wù#`]Pi”w„LŒ]’®”‘’AR]¯BP_^]„i’l†fƒw”]R…„XR‘-’A`]’KŠjƒK„i`SRe

‘_RJ`]’ƒ‚–a`…–…•]’ƒ’ŽŒl’ œl”K„[ƒwŒ]’Ž†aR]¯C„[ƒY`SR…«Ì 5 ŠTP±†aR-ψŒJPwƒAP±”K‘’AR]¯BP_^]„_’j†fƒi”YRj„©†f„
Pi•SRj†[”‡’ „Piƒz`l’‘[Ï!RlÎlŒl’Š-’Ï!RJŒ]`JPi”wù…ÎjŒ]’…–a`…–…•l’jh•J`JP]R…‘5ƒYRlÎl’wûRjƒK„N•S`…„j^ˆ†[Š-’

ó
‘’KŒSR-«gŒ]R{’d†[„ƒ`]’‘5Ï!RlÎl’w”i’Ï!R•VPL†fƒAP’jŒJPi†fƒ]R…ƒK„ÜŒl’dƒK„f‘_R©ƒY`SR › ’wŠ…ƒAP`l’jÌA¸Nù#’
Š-’ƒAP”wù#`]P‡”K„[ƒK„L–…Î]’K†fƒi”i’ƒW•JP¹`]’‘[ÏsRl΅„5ŒUŒl’ÎSRjŒ¶”n`l’‘[Ï!RlÎlŒJRjƒK„ŸŒ]’ŒwÏ!Ïo^r’

„E¯Rh…ƒw„f‘_R±œl”K„[ƒiŒJR › ’wŠ…ƒAP`JR˜¯BP–
’Kƒq^´’®†f„†Pi•S`…„^ˆ„fÏl«jƒ“ÎS`…„f‘ã•S`JR…Ïr’A–’KŒj„LŒ]’

« , ð 7S±Šjùįd^´’KŒlŒJRjƒK„i̅TRS–òÌ Ì †a`l’w”wŒ…«l”‡’zP‡•J`j„^ˆ„fÏl„EŒJRjƒK„WPwƒ•?L­S¸LQ
¥:o <¦ £ [ e Ð }
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R †fù†“†[ƒAP]’lŒVP‡†fƒYRjƒK„žŒ]’úƒw„f‘_RLPwƒwŒJP
„5ŒJR…«x‘’‘^?`-–V–aR/–a`…–T

CA /CF TF /CF ó
•JR‰Œ]’œl”«lƒÌr3Ÿ’KŒlŒJRjƒK„Piƒ5ÏsRlÎjŒJP±†fù”w•]’ ^´’ƒ †fù†ã†fƒYP]’lŒVP‡†fƒYRjƒK„‘’ R
SU (3)
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•JRjƒK„ihw•VP‡Š-’‘’wŒJR©”—Pwƒw”YP]`j„5ŒSR…ƒK„ Šj”‡’ ^?`l’KƒYR{RŸŠS`…ù#–jP‡”K„ih†E’¾”K„5Îj„oR-‘Š-ÏsϾ΅„EŒJRh

•VP‡Œ…„jb©„Œ…„†fù ^ˆù#`b’Kƒ¾ƒY`JRœl”K„[ƒwŒSR†fƒK„5•j„5ŒSRŸŒ]’†[”AP]ŒYP_^r’ ‘’¾Šj”‡’A`lŠJRjƒK„iÌ—PA

^!P]ŒiŒSRk`j„f‘[–Ïlƒ’ƒ]RU†5’•S`…„^r†fƒ’K”w„5ŒJRÖR‚Pwƒr^?`…–V–aR…ƒw„¨„5Š{†[•j„i`JR]¯C„5ŒjƒYR±Œ]’Q¬­
`]’br^´’KŒj„[ƒAP‰Œ]’±’ ^?`VP‡ŒjŒSR™†fƒY`…–VR ” ŠTPKÏr’A’^ˆ„i`JRz†fùûPú„’KŒ]’ÏsR-‘_RS`]’KŒJP
Z pp̄
• Px•JP_^!P]Œw„5Œ Œl’ÎSRjŒ Ì
V „f‘_Ïd¯C„úŒ]’‰•VPwÏj–…Îj„5ŒSR…ƒw„‚PwƒwŒJP „5ŒJR…« Œ]’‰œl”K„[ƒwŒSRjƒK„
\ ä ó
› ’wŠ…ƒAP`JRÖPwƒc`]’‘5Ï!RlÎjŒSRú„5Š{†5•…„i`SR]¯C„5ŒjƒYR±„^r’^]„EŒVPWŒ]’ › RS–òÌ Ì Ì
[ ÐYÐ
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ÁaÀ 7iÂgÃSÄ ¿ÅÄOÁjÆÇÀœÄÈ É 8SÊ;:]ËÍÌ ÁÄ_Î

<
=¸>  ¼ ? Ý
·E@ù  =
‡   B  

à  #  2À#Á'À © © À  2$Z º   # a '
#'>

 " ÿ
  '   Œ¨F º HG  B  
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‡ 
' M'OP FÍà]ÆI% 
Æ
R3 (y = 0.8)
 0
 &
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à  @  
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O(αs2 ) αs
 2
?
O(αA )
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Å Ì É×ÁaÀ ê É×È É 8 ÄÅÀ
ÈsÄ è À »Çþjû

ALEPH (Comb.) 2.43±0.31

DELPHI (4 Jet) 2.32±0.25

L3 (4 Jet) 1.95±0.37

OPAL (4 Jet) 2.11±0.32

OPAL (Evt. Sh.) 2.38±0.40

+0.51
UA1 + UA2 2.14-0.74
QCD
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
CA/CF

ALEPH (Comb.) 2.75±1.15

DELPHI (4 Jet) 1.33±0.75

L3 (4 Jet) 1.15±0.72

OPAL (4 Jet) 2.01±0.85

OPAL (Evt. Sh.) 1.60±1.00

+1.90
UA1 + UA2 1.50-1.20
QCD
0 2 4 6 8
<
=¸>I ¼ ? Ý_»@ ^W' ò> 
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ï('Â TR/CF

'   º  '   #   ' 
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Î ÈÊÉ6ÏÌР˨ѴÉeÐÓÒ Ô]Õ×Ö´ØÓÙwÚÛËeÐÝÜ

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‘¸âáAP:ã̯N­NäÌåaR_æNçáY`SR>èÌ9UÞY``é ç êJRçëê_ޅ¯[ìØ
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ó
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U`_Þßà0Þ^#º
} [:ðñ β
−
n → p + e +?
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} ð ]
Ò ® ν Z
é`áY`0Þï_êJP é>ò_Þbåáí:ÞyàS`JRöå'ïÞŒ]Rábç íßÞAR_æBP_^_çi’0åáí]R`èrî
$\ ôSoªõ
® ô
n → p + e− + ν̄
÷øçi`0ætRùàJP:åáY`JPè0íóÞwábçaP]`SR>è
Þ ^?`VPóê>çIêmRiï_ç àáAP:êç êiáAPóãúî

HI ∼ jh ∼ p jl ∼ eν̄
ÙÆï_ç^ûábçiP]`SR`èâê_Þüà>çi`áéV`JŒóÞýJRSR>áç+þ­ábçaP`JR>èáÞüê0Þ¨÷øçi`_æR¿î çj^Þ+êç­ç
ä
彐TPi^_èlû RiáçaP]`SR`è0áÞÿê>çpP:àSR0åí:Þq^sPYŒ]`ç íåaR0ò0ãTP0î

jh → n ↔ p
`0Þbr^Þ
jl → eν̄
GF = 1, 436 × 10−49[erg.cm3 ] ≈ 10−5m−2
p h =c =1

âÆçi`JPèáêJP:åáÞößÞöå'ïÞŒÔ`0ÞßIà_Þ ^¹ç

V ∼ G2F ∆5 ∆
î
“ÞbãáAP]`
åí #`>ßÞê 

å ÞßiP:í]R`è/PYŒ:çIæaî  ô
cç êçi`S–aR>èáÞ ãTPèáYP+åçÿàS`ç^Þí:Þùê0ÞùàJ`JP_^0é>ãáYRábçPá
`0ÞßIà0Þ^Þî
∆ = µ n − µ p + mν
 ô
U`_ÞßïsR0ã`ÞáÞXPáwæëÞbåaRábç:îSâ `>çæNç ê_ޓê0ÞXbnR0íAP:á

τµ ∼ 10 s; τν ∼ 1000s; ττ ∼ 10−13s
−6

ï—Pï_ãTP:áAPXçj^Þê•ò_ÞbåáYR0ý_Þ ç2àVP Cáçjbÿã`Þ 
áYPbïSãTP:í:ÞXàVP Dæ ÞïSãTPXç2ê>ç_’êJPáAPíY`çIæNç
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µ → e + ν̄e + νµ
mτ ∼ 1, 8GeV
τ + → π + π 0 ντ
mπ+ + mπ0 ∼ 2 × 137M eV
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  ô jh jl
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β

U`_ÞßIà_Þ ^œî ÑXåíç ê
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ÞbãTPcR_æëÞ:æNç î
n → peν̄ ô
9 çé`áY`JR0êJP¹Páw`>çIÞã>áYP]`SR
νn → pe

Ψ 1 γ µ Ψ2 ô Ψ2 γ µ Ψ1
2àJ`ç^?R`ßíYR0ãíóÞÿåçpPá
ν õ  å'ïÞŒóÞc`>ç 
Þbã0ýJR>è¿î

p → ne+ ν̄
   
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ν¯e e → eν¯e
â üøÞY–a`0ÞêbcR_Þbê_Þ R0æëÞ:æNç ãJR0êçáYR0ò>ç êöò`ï_ç ê áAP:ã

Ψ̄Ψ
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ab̄c b̄c + adt¯ dt
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0 0

0
d = d.cosθc + s.sinθc
0

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s = −d.sinθc + s.cosθc
θc

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0 0 0

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å'ïSÞP;/ábçyíßÞ/0æ`17?Sç-a0åáí/>è á1‰<_ÞßIà_ÞX?vÞ
π − → l−ν̄l
:•ç4P+?S> çøßÞ
P;<_Þbêç êüí
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Qu/ν 0 = Ä>î s d
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ê> / è çï0ç6hpf<00/ ò>ç êlg d ó< è8?4ø / å'ï d P;>/ èD/Vg-ó1 åIe0/ êL— y = Q −1/2 = Q +1/2 ô
% î8Ú2P;B < êçIb
f ç íê0_
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1
/ > ç”i/De81Gb
ç ò>u/ν f çIf0/ ò0ê8d/e
1Gf1T0? è_åk
y2 = Qu/ν ‘^’ y3 = Qd/e
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u d νe e
vf (1 − 83 sin2 θW )/2 (−1 + 34 sin2 θW )/2 1/2 (−1 + 4 sin2 θW )/2
af 1/2 −1/2 1/2 −1/2

+R g6e81ïgí d aDh0/ÿí<g6h0/pfbçT= Ä>îãÄ ð ô ï d [ < d ê8K/ d ê d ê d êçéVf< d ïSê0/pfbç€f1Gh*1

íbç æ`1XK•ç
? d ; P +?_çzg d e/0å d ême1ÿå'ï_ç> ?ê/>èùê d ò0/ êL—
= Ä>î s O
LNC = LQED + LZNC , >
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X = Ä>î s ×
LQED = eAµ Ψj γ µQj Ψj ≡ eAµ Jem
µ
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e = Ä>î s Ä
LZNC =
2 sin θW cos θW
JZµ Zµ , >
X
= >Ä î ss
µ
JZ ≡ Ψj γ µ τ3 − 2 sin2 θW Qj Ψj = J3µ − 2 sin2 θW Jem
µ
, >
j
+?RB< K d ^í g d /_æ`17?Sç-aåIfí/çIf1Œê d
å P;1^g-1óê d 3î ð¦fbç-<_æ9/ê0/iê d -< 9/1:ê5
Uç _æ
ê/f le1bï_çIf d /0æ d í/5? d — Z
bç
LZ NC

e X = Ä>î sŽZ
LZNC =
2 sin θW cos θW
Zµ f¯γ µ(vf − af γ5)f, >
f
h8+?SçIf1 af = T3f
/ vf = T3f 1 − 4|Qf | sin2 θW

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ò`ï_ç ê: 1 íbçM1fKf< çIf d ¨ / òçIfíB<pf d åBfbçeç êne1yh d ïR/P;<1:íòê0/pfçMP;> 1^g-1óê/ ô 1Ge5
< çS? çï0è0:Ti
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1 ê d e1bï_çIf d f d —



L3 = −ie cot θW (∂ µW ν − ∂ ν W µ ) Wµ†Zν − ∂ µW ν† − ∂ ν W µ† Wµ Zν + Wµ Wν† (∂ µ Z ν −


− ie (∂ µW ν − ∂ ν W µ ) Wµ† Aν − ∂ µW ν† − ∂ ν W µ† WµAν + WµWν† (∂ µAν − ∂ ν Aµ ) ;
= Ä>î sóñ
>
e 2 n
 † µ o
† µ 2 † µ† ν 2 2
L4 = − 2 W µ W − W µ W W ν W − e cot θ W Wµ W Zν Z ν − Wµ† Z µ Wν Z
2 sin θW

− e2 cot θW 2Wµ†W µ Zν Aν − Wµ† Z µWν Aν − Wµ† AµWν Z ν

− e2 Wµ† W µ Aν Aν − Wµ† Aµ Wν Aν .
= Ä>î sŽ
>
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= sDÆ(s ‡
2
L = ∂µ φ† ∂ µ φ − V (φ); V (φ) = µ2 φ† φ + h φ† φ > .
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Å81Gf1‚e1 à ³
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= sDÆ s´È
φ(x) −→ φ0 (x) ≡ exp {iθ}φ(x). >
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Å81q²Bf/L—
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r
−µ2 v h = sDÆíZ d
|φ0 | =
2h
≡ √ > 0;
2
V (φ0 ) = − v 4.
4
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Å d e0< Æ θ = 0 ô h d f1p1G²IÅ1GÇGÅ81n²–²If1·DÅ0/p³ ô ²/iµ¶³If;</p·f d ²B³mÅ d <p¸8 d Ç d
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1q²IÅ1GÇÅ1f1e81² à ³? Å/p·‡Å d ò0/DÅ+—

1 = sDÆíZ O
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2
>
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Ç d µ¶³x² à ³ ? 1Å d f d 2
1;<iµ d — V (φ)

h 2
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V (φ) = V (φ0) − µ2 φ21 + hvφ1 φ21 + φ22 +
4
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à ³6µñ²PG³Bgµ d ²1GÇ;/pf³ö d ²Bf/D÷0/ø¶Ç?j³-a²IfÇ/f^³ à Å81q²Bfnų-: d f d ²B³|Ç Ã 1; d Ç d fø
g d :41f1Å/³C/D²Ih d µž³h d hf1nµ d ²1qÇ/~f d h d /VP³Igµ d ²1GÇ/~e81 à ³If d Æ ðú?j³-aD²k
fÇ/f^³ à Å81q²BfKÅp³-: d f d ²B³le0<1qµ¶³Åp·f<øjh*1 [ d f1h d à /P;<1GÇ^ùöÅ d f d ²/iµ¶³If;</p·{³
à 1qh d à Šd [ Oú ] Æ
ÃP³h d ? d < d g [£Ã ³? d µ¶³ [ × ] SU (2) ?i¸5P à ³If‰Å d h*1qµe à ³h¾²IÅ1~²Ih d à d <Å1
e81 Ã ³ L

!
φ(+) (x) = sDÆíZ Ä
φ(x) ≡
φ(0) (x)
>
É d à /8P <81qÇ^ùpöDÅ/p· à d [ < d Å8K/ d ʼn1fµ`17?j³ à d Å d *ì 1 à ?j²Bf1^¸pÅm=¥= sDÆ(s ‡ ø
>6>
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2
LS = (Dµ φ)† Dµ φ − µ2 φ† φ − h φ† φ , (h > 0, µ2 < 0),
= sDÆíZXs
" #
>
−→
τ −→
Dµ φ = ∂µ − ig · W µ Wµ − ig 0 yφ Bµ φ (yφ = 1/2),
2
= sDÆíZZ
>
³C/DÅÇ d <0/ d Åpf³Åm1fÅ1G²Å81 à 1Gh d à Å0/pf^³ SU (2) ⊗ U (1) f< d ÅD²Iû
1;<iµ d 
÷/0/ Æ á f1;aDÅ81q²Bf^f d Å d ²Ih d à d <Å0/p·pi/Dep³7<Vg d <q·5?”L²B³‚û@/Dh¾²/Y< d 1f›/VgX/²IhDÇ d 
Åp³If1? d /iµ d µ¶³€h*1;<³hfÅ d h*1qŲBf d Åf d Å d Çg d /Dµ`17?j³-aD²BfÇ/³
µ¶³KT?i¸ φ(x) /
Aµ (x) Æ Æ
øTf ³ ût1Gf1GÅ d ?j³Åp³Ç^g d /iµ`17?j³-a²IfÇ d ² φ(0) /½e81 à ³If1 φ(+) ? d /iµ d
e< d Ç;/ à Å/p·‡³ à ³hf<0/ö³Åmg d <q·5? Æ
21f^³ÅD÷0/ d à d ³xe1-?R1PG³ÅmÅ d < d g [Äà ³? d Å0/V·ye1 [ 1;<³ Æ á ùB:k³²BfÇ^¸pÇ d fMP³Ig
h< d ³ÅÛP;<1;aÛ1f4/pg7<1-?j³Å0/²Bù–²Bf16·iÅ/p·‚²+µ9/DÅ/iµ d à Šd ³Å³-< [ /V·±ø¸7?R1GÇ Ã ³fÇ1
<q·DÇ d :4/|¸´² à 1qÇ/³If13—
r
  −µ2 v = sDÆíZ ú
h0|φ(0) |0i =
2h
≡√ . >
Ú2PùB<DÅp³If³}ÇGÅ/iµ d Å/³Gøqöp³+Å0/p³”?†/<³hfÅ1k²IÇ^ùB<pg d iDµ¶³üh à d ²/Döp³²h*1f1D1q²k
2
Å81qÇÅ1y²Bù–²Bf1·DÅ0/³¨²_hÇ d Åf1GÇ;/V·~Ç d hp¸¾¸µ Æ á à ³?‰h d f1/Vg7P³-<³6µà³?jÅ1mh*1GÅ5
h<³IfÅ11G²Å81qÇÅ1ˆ²Iù–²Bf1·DÅ0/p³z²/iµ¶³If<0/V·Df d SU (2) ⊗ U (1) ²I³zÅ d <p¸8 d Ç d
²Ie81qÅpf d ÅDÅ1M?31 [ <p¸pe d f d Å d É\Ù U (1) øh*1·DfL1»e81h*1qŲBYf;<V¸phD÷/p·y³xDzB³
1;:l³v²-/Dµ¶³f</p·¨Å d Ç d hp¸¾¸µ d Æ á e81 <p³?”õ QED ÙBÐ3ԅÙ(âxÒ<ۏÒ
ÕjҀîTУÑDå^Ü0ۏÐ6áqÕ f</TP³Ig
µ d ²1qÇ/#P;1^g-1qÅ d f<q·0PGÇ d ? d ²B³xe16·iÇ·Df Æ
ÃP³h d ²B³ [ d ? d e d < d µ¶³If<0/pg7/< d µž³‡²Ih d à d <DÅ0/V·ï?D¸5P à ³If‰Çnepù à Šd f d µ¸
ût1 <Dµ d
( ) !
−→
τ −→ 1 0 = sDÆíZ
φ(x) = exp i
2
· θ(x) √
2 v + H(x)
, >
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€² ö³If/0</^<³ d à Å0/me81 à ³f d θ(x) −→ /
H(x) Æ
á ùB:l³6²BfÇ^³6Å|µ`1´µ¶³Åfk³Gøpöp³@/Å5
Ç d <0/ d ÅfÅ81q²Bf^f d Å d à d [ < d Å8K/ d Å d 1fGÅ81q²IÅ81 [ <p¸pe d f d SU (2) ³ à 1qh d à Šd ø
h*1³If1xÅ0/»e81g6Ç1 Ã ·iÇ d ? d /pg6h0Æ+ö/iµng d Ç;/²/iµ`1q²Bf^f d 1Gfze1 Ã d f d L−→ (x) Æ Èÿ³BgX/
f</‡e81 à ³If d P;/5i d P / à /#P³Bg<µ d ²1qÇ/f^³Dì*1 à ?j²If1^¸pÅ1GÇ;/^P1g-1GÅ0/øθ²IÇùB<Vg d Å/K²
µ¶³i d Å/pgµ d Å d ²e81qÅpf d ÅDÅ81zÅ d <V¸8k³Å0/p³vÅ d ²/iµ¶³If<0/p·f d Æ É d à /P;<1GÇùpöÅ d f d
²/Dµž³If<0/V·‡e0< d Ç/‡f^³Bg7/^PG³Bgµ d ²1GÇ;/Ke81 à ³If d ųû@/Vg7/DöDÅ/ Æ
É21GÇ d </ d ÅfÅ d f d e<1;/pg6Ç1-? Å d = sDÆíZZ ²IÇ^ùB<pg6Ç d ²Ih d à d <DÅ0/V·”µ¸ à f/e à ³If
²kh d à /P;<1GÇ^ùöÅ0/pf³MP;1^g-1qÅ/W1Gf SU (2) > ⊗ U (1) Æ Ì h*1#Pù+?j³T/pg-P;< d Ōû@/5
g7/ö³²Ih d f d =%¸pÅ/f d <DÅ d h d à /8P <81qÇh d −→ L
−→ øÿh/DÅp³f/öDÅ0/V·ƒö
Y
à ³ŕŠd
>
²Ih d à d <DÅ/p· à d [ < d Å8K/ d Åm= sDÆíZXs e81 à ¸pö d Ç d ² à ³?jÅ0/p·‡Ç/5?B—
θ (x) = 0
>
 
† 1 ~
θ=~0 g2 † µ g2
µ
(Dµ φ) D φ −→ ∂µ H∂ µ H + (v + H)2 W W + µ
Zµ Z .
2 4 µ 8 cos2 θW =
sDÆíZ
‡
2 1zf1^g7/Å d ö0/ŏųB¸Vf< d à Å0/V·²h d à d < [ ³Å³-<0/< d hÇ d ?†< d f/DöÅ0/ö à ³ Å81qÇ^³ >
g d e81 à ³If d f d W ± / Z øGf Æ ³ Æ f^³Bg7/‚h d à /8P <81qÇ^ùpöDÅ/P;1^g-1qÅ/»e0<0/Ž?R1P /Ži d µ d ²/L—
vg = sDÆíZÈ
MZ cos θW = MW = . >
È d h d Å0/³zÅ d µ¶³7</5iDµ¶³
Å d ö/DÅme0<81´µ¶³KM?D¸VfùpöÅ0/f^³sÅ81q²/pf³ à /mÅ d ² à d P1
2
f1»Çg d /Dµ`17?j³-aD²BfÇ/³b? d e0<0/Ž?R1P /V·Df»µ d ²/ Æ Ãt/³€e<1G²If1T?31;P d Ç;/ŽiDµž³ L 1f
= siÆØZ§s hpùÿµƒÅ d 4/p· SU (2) ⊗ U (1) µ`17?j³ Ã±Æ Pù à Å0/V· à d [ < d Å5K/ d ÅK³tS/DÅ5
Ç d <0/ d > Åf^³ÅN1fÅ1G²IÅ1‚h d à /P;L<1GÇùpöÅ0/Yf^³sf< d ÅD²Iût1 <Dµ d ÷0//ø h*1G³If1 [ d < d Åf/5
< d [ O  ] e<³Å1;<iµ9/0<V¸q³6µ`1G²If^f d Å d f³1;<0/V·Df d Æ Ú€²Idzňf1GÇ d f<0/pf³€Å d <V¸8k³Å0/
[ ³Å³-< d f1;< d e1;<1-?†/5i d f<0/PG³Bgµ d ²1GÇ;/ì*1 à ?j²If1^¸pÅ1GÇ;/ P1g-1GÅ d øqh*1;/f1iø´e81
< d ?R/ à 1Gh d à Šd f d h d à /8P <81qÇ^ùpöDÅ d /DÅÇ d <0/ d ÅpfÅ1G²Iføq²B³J1qh d g d i d ųû@/VgX/öDÅ/
=%f Æ ³ Æ Å³sÇ17?D·DfT?31Å d P à Æ$? d ³6µ9/y³6û€³hf/ Æ ¿ à d [ 17? d <p³6Å/³zÅ d ¸pÅ0/pf d <DÅ d f d
h d à /8P <81qÇh d Å/³A1Gfh<0/5iDµ¶³GøGöp³ W ± / Z> e<0/Ž?R1P /Ži d µ d ²/‰=þÅ81xų”/ γ ø^e81
< d ?R/sf1GÇ d ø<öp³w²/iµ¶³If<0/p·f d U (1) ų‹³‹Å d <p¸8l³Å d ø<h*1 /pf1P² d ²Ç^ùB<pg d Å0/
:1»f d h d =Ä Æ Ä  e0<0> /Ž?R1P /Ç d ²µ9/D²Bù à Šd
ö<³Bgl²Bù"1GfÅ1;l³6Å/³I
f ›= siÆØZÈ Æ á ùBQED
> >¥>
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e<³Bg d e/D²IÇ d Åp³lÅ d h d à /P;<1GÇùpöDÅ/f^³ke1 à ³If d Ǐf³-<Dµc/Å0/„Å d û
/pg7/Döp³²h/f^³
P1^g71GÅDÅ/ye1 à ³If d ²@1Ge0<p³?j³ à ³Å d µ d ² d Æ
21 à ³Bg6Å1y³M? d ²B³»e<³P;<1·f‡²If^³e³Å/f^³‚Å d ²Ç1P;17? d Æ 2<³?†/~²Ie1GÅf d Å5
Å81Gf1yÅ d <V¸8k³Å0/p³ˆÅ d ²-/Dµ¶³f</p·f d à d [ < d Å8K/ d Å d ²Iù+?iùB< K d PG³Bgµ d ²1GÇ;/pf^³
P1^g71GÅ0/ W ± / Z = f Æ ³ Æ 3 × 2 = 6 ²Bf³ep³6Å/¦Å d ²IÇ1P;1-? d øae81 < d ?R/ï? Ç^³If³
Ç^ùgµ`1XKÅ0/ƒe81 à ·3</pg d ÷/0/ƒÅ d PG³Bgµ d ²1GÇ;/•e81 à ³If d ²Bù–²²Ie0/łO /ƒö³If/0</
<p³ d à Å0/¦²Ih d à d <DÅ0/¼e1 à ³If d 1Gf φ(x) Æ á à ³? ²Ie1GÅf d ÅÅ1f1“Å d <p> ¸8l³Å0/³‡Å d
²/Dµž³If<0/V·Df d f<0/pf³!ì*1 à ²Bf1^¸pÅ1GÇ;/qP1^g71GÅ0/À² d fe1 [ ù à Šd f/ g 1f½h d à /8P <81
Ç^ùpöDÅ/f^³P1g-1GÅ0/øTh*1 /pf1{²Bf d Ç d fmµ d ²/DÇÅ0/Y/ne0</5?31;P;/DÇ d fE?31qepù Ã Å/f^³ Ã Å d
Å d ? à ùLKÅ d e1 à ·0<0/pg d ÷0/V· Æ È d h d Å/³ /Dµ d µ¶³ 3 × 3 = 9 ²Bf^³e³Å0/nÅ d ²Ç1

P17? d ǂh d à /P;<1GÇ^ùöÅ0/ d ²B³hf1;<W/‰1 :l³s³? Å d g d ²h d à d <DÅ d f d ö d ²Bf/D÷ d H ø
h*16·Df1l²B³}Å d </Dö d Qt/ [ ²”P1g-1GÅ Æ Pù à Å0/V· P <81 a»²Bf^³e³Å0/Å d ²Ç1P;17? d 1G²If d Ç d
³?R/Dʼn/y²IùB: e0<³?R/N/y² à ³?{²Ie1GÅf d ÅÅ1f1Å d <p¸8l³Å0/p³xÅ d ²/iµ¶³If<0/V·Df d Æ

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/Dµ`17?j³-aD²BfÇ/³ Æ .#1XKk³µû? d Çùg6e<1;/pg6dz?i³µÊ<p³Bg¸ à f d f/f^³W1f‰Å0/D²Ih*1³Å³-<5
[ /pf;/öDÅ/f^³ne0</P à /8Kk³Å0/V· ÇV< d µžh0/pf^³ŒÅ d ?31;P;<³^?j³û
/DÅ0/< d Å d É€Ç d Åf1
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µ d ²/DÇÅ0/me0<81´µ¶³KM?D¸VfùpöÅ0/yh d à /P;<1GÇùpöÅ0/#P1g-1GÅ0/ W ± / Z øh*1³If1MPG³-l³
e81GfÇ^ùB<;?j³Å1rö0<p³Iga³h¾²Ie³-<0/Dµ¶³6Åpf d à Å81Gf1b/Dµ‰1fh0</DÇ d Åp³ [ O ‡ ] Æ ÃP³-:1üe81qÇ^³ö³Gø
µ¶³i d Å/pgµ¶ù…f|Å d Qt/ [ ²D? d Ç d e0<³÷/pg6Å1me<³? ²Ih d g d Å/³¨g d µ d ²/f^³»Å d W ±
/ Z øY²IÇùB<Vg6Ç d :T/ [ /¦²{Ç d hp¸¾¸µžÅ1f1“²<³? Å81“Å d ²h d à d <DÅ81Gf1“e81 à ³„ö<³Bg
= siÆØZ^È Æ È d h d ²B³le<³? ²Ih d gÇ d ø öp³ M ³¨e819f^³Kˆù–h›1Gf M Æ R+g6e1 à g6Ç d ah0/
²Bù"1GfÅ8> 1 l³Å0/p·f d G /√2 = g2/(8MZ2 ) / e = g sin θ øiWÅ/³se81 à ¸pö d Ç d µ¶³
F W W

 1/2 √ −1/2
πα 1 37.280GeV
MW = √ = , v= 2GF = 246GeV.
GF 2 sin θW sin θW = sDÆ úd
>
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²Iep³7</iµ¶³Åf/„²D< d g6²B³-aDÇ d Åp³lÅ d ųB¸Vf<0/DÅ d øTö0<p³Ig¨²< d ÇųÅ0/p³¨Å d ²B³ö³Å/p·f d
µ¶³KM?D¸e0<81q÷p³6²/²rÅp³B¸Vf;< d à Å0/C/»g d <³?j³Å/ˆf1Gh d dz Æ Ù Ã d ²If/öDÅ1f1M< d g6²B³-a5
Ç d ų νq → νq ²B³Û1q²BùBl³²IfÇ·iÇ d ö0<³BgE1;Pqµ¶³6ŽŠd Z Ç t h d Å d à d øB?31qh d f1
Åp³I³ à d ²Bf/DöÅ0/V·e<1G÷³² νq → lq0 /VgX/²IhDÇ d 1;Pqµ¶³6ÅmÅ d g d <p³?i³Å W Æ
t</¼µ d ù–hƒe0<p³? d ?j³Åo/Dµžep¸ ²#P;1^g-1qÅÅ0/f^³ye<1Ge d d f1;<0/”²B³^<³?D¸p÷0/5
à à [
< d fM?31»h*1GÅD²Bf d Åf/ø31Ge0<p³?i³ à ³Å0/^1f»²Bù 1fdzIfÅ0/pf³sµ d ²/ Æ Él1qŲIf d Åpf/f^³lÅ d
Çg d /Dµ`17?j³-aD²BfÇ/³If1{Å d û
³-<iµ9/1GÅ0/pf^³²Bù–² Z / W ± 1GfV=Ä Æ s5Z /q= Ä Æ ÄGú ² d
²IÇ^ùB<pg d Å0/mö0<p³Bgsù [ ù Ã d θ Æ > >
W

 2
σNC (νq) MW 2
= sDÆ ú8O
σCC (νq)
∼
MZ2 cos2 θW
f sin2 θW . >
€Ú ²IÇ^³Ånf1GÇ d µ`1 [ d fE? d ²I³²< d ÇÅp·fye0<81q÷p³6²/pf³‚Å d < d g6²B³-aDÇ d Åp³»Å d ν /
Ç^ùB<;iV¸!< d g à /öDÅ/•µ9/l³Å0/ Æ Ì Å d à /pgù…f‡Å d ³h¾²Ie³-</iµ¶³Åf d à Å0/f^³ ? d DÅ Å/
? d Ç d õ‡ ö
ν̄

MW 2 = sDÆ ú*×
MZ2 cos2 θW
≈ 1, sin2 θW ≈ 0.23. >
PÚ f à /öDÅ1f1m²Bù [£Ã d ²/³x²xf³1;<³If/DöÅ0/f^³»e<³? ²Ih d g d Å/p·‡³kµžÅ1 [ 1?31;P;<1
e81GfÇ^ùB< KM?j³Å/³»Å d e0<p³?je1 à 1XKk³Å d f d ²Bf<p¸phpf¸8< d Å d ²e81qÅpf d ÅDÅ81Gf1yÅ d <p¸*
l³Å0/p³xÅ d ²/Dµž³If<0/V·Df d
Æ
21G²Bf d Ç^·0aDh/ú/pgµ¶³7<p³Å0/f^³“²Bf1;aDÅ1G²Bf/Øg d ÇR= ú;d ør²B³½e1 à ¸pö d Ç d f
θW siÆ >
² à ³?jÅ0/pf³le<³? h d g d Å/p·Kg d µ d ²-/pf^³sÅ d h d à /8P <81qÇ^ùpöDÅ0/pf^³\P;1^g-1qÅ/ø
= siÆ ú;Ä
MW ≈ 78GeV, MZ ≈ 89GeV, >
h*1;/f1² d Ç4?31;P;<1»²Bù [Äà d ²-/p³€²
³h¾²Ie³-<0/Dµž³Åpf d à Å0/pf^³D<³BgI¸ à f d f/ M =
/ ‡ Æ . d à h d f d ö/D²k
W

à 1qÇ d < d g à /Dh d ²B³l1;P6·i²IÅp·DÇ d 1GfkhDÇ d Åf1qÇ/f^³zh*1 <p³6h÷0//C1f¨e81 Ç;/²1qhe1;<q·8
(80.423±0.039)GeV MZ = (91.1876±0.0021)GeV [ ]
?iù–hø¶h*1;/f1nf<q·0PGÇ d ? d PGù+? d fY1fY1Gföp³f^³Å0/Àe0</Àe<³²µ¶·f d ųKÅ d = sDÆ úÄ
=ÕðH/5K  Û
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á h d à d <DÅ0/V· à d [ < d Å8K / d ł= sDÆíZXs Çù–Ç^³?j³Å81qÇ d ²h d à d <DÅ d ö d B² f/D÷ d Ç{µ`1
?i³ à d —"Qt/ [ ²TP1^g71GÅ d H Æ ð†f^³-<iµ9/D> Å/nÅ d û
/pg7/Döp³6²Ih/f^³»e1 Ã ³If d %= ¸pÅ0/pf d <DÅ d
h d à /8P <81qÇh d ø L e0</5?R1P;/DÇ d ² à ³?jÅ0/V·‡Ç;/Ž?G—
> S
hv 4 = sDÆ ú s
LS = + LH + LHG , 2 >
hpù+?j³If1 4

1 1 2 2 MH2 3 MH2 4 = sDÆ ú Z

2
µ
LH = ∂µ H∂ H − MH H −
2 2v
H − 2H ,
8v 
>
  
2 2 H2 1 2 H2
LHG2 = MW Wµ† W µ 1 + H + 2 + MZ2 Zµ Z µ 1 + H + 2 ,
v v 2 v v
= sDÆ úú
>
/{µ d ² d f d Å d tQ / [ ²@P1g-1GÅ d ²B³t? d Ç d 1f/pg7< d g d
p √ = sDÆ ú 
MH = −2µ2 = 2hv. >
ðag d /Dµ`17?j³-aD²BfÇ/p·f d Å d Qt/ [ ²
P;1^g-1qÅ d /iµ d µžÅ1 [ 14i d < d hf^³-<DÅ d ût1 <Dµ d —
f^³{² d Ç/DÅ d [ /¦e0<81qe81 <÷0/81qÅ d à Å0/àÅ d hDÇ d ?R< d f d Å d µ d ² d f d Å d P;1^g-1qÅ d ø²
h*1;af1„f1;aƒÇ^g d /iµ`17?j³-a²IfÇ d Æ ð‹²/DöDh/•h*1GÅD²Bf d Åf/ƒÅ d Çg d /Dµ`17?j³-aD²BfÇ/³‚Å d
Qt/ [ ²@P;1^g-1qÅ d ²B³@1Ge0<p³?i³ à ·f 1Gf M ø M ø M /yÇ d hp¸¾¸µžÅ1f1‚²-<p³? Å1 v Æ
H W Z

5² xBw z Y}*€`’
µ,ƒR¶,¶,µ‚´`ƒR„…ƒ3·`}*¶,µ
¼½Ž¾ã÷*¾Œ¼ Â
ó ø ÞòÀ<H ô ÁIE ø
Ã2/D²Ih*1G³Åp³7< [ /f/DöÅ0/p· V − A i d µ9/ à f 1GÅ0/ d Å=ÇO Æ O7d e1Gh d gÇ d øÿöp³ SU (2)
e d <pfÅDX1;< d Å d u hDÇ d <h d ųf<q·PqÇ d ? d ³ d ø d e81> ²Ih*1 <81„h*1qµ`P /Å d ÷0/p·f Ld
dC = cos θC d + sin θC s Æ
Ã21lÅ d /DÇÅ d f d g d µ·DÅ d Å d d ² d Ç Ã d [ < d Å5K/ d Å d
C
 ™Ï) œ ž ŸžlÑkÒ¡T¢ « žnÓý8ž6Ô « ©ÓD¦+¨þý0©Õ
Å d ųB¸Vf< d à Å/p·nf1Gh = Ä Æ s5Z ø…Ç17?R/?R1Ke0<1qµ·iÅ d Å d|d <81´µ d f d 1fKÅp³I¸Vf< d à 
Å/f^³sf1qh*1GÇ^³qø >

 µ 
¯ (vd − ad γ5 )s + s̄γ µ(vd − ad γ5)d ,
Zµ d¯C γ µ(vd −ad γ5 )dC −→ cos θC sin θC Zµ dγ
= Z¾Æ ú ‡
h d f1ƒÇ³ à /ö0/Å d f d Å d f^³Ig7/àe<³i*1-?†/¼³{²< d ÇGÅ/iµ d ²yf³Bg7/¼g d e d g6Ç d :4/ >
d <1qµ d f d Z dd ¯ Æ ÈG1g7/r<³BgI¸ à f d f{³|h d f d ²Bf;<81qû d à ³œg d µ`17?j³ à d ø/Dµ d ah0/“Ç
e<³? Ç/5?„²Bf<1 [ /pf^³x³h¾²ep³-<0/iµ¶³Åf d à Å0/‰1 [ < d Å/Dö³Å/p·‡Ç=è× Æ O È Æ
šd < d g7<p³7: d Ç d ų]Å d f1^g7/»e0<1P à ³6µ‰e<³BgDO È  d
³üe0<p³? e1 à 17> K¨³Å81 [s ] øGöp³
²BùB:l³²IfǸpÇ d ?R1Geù à Å0/f^³ à ³Å~hDÇ d <h*1qÇ d <1qµ d f—+1Gö d <1GÇ d Å Æ È1 [ d Ç d µ91 [ d f
? d ²B³xû
1;<iµ9/< d f ?jÇ d < d g à /DöDÅ/{hÇ d <Dh*1GÇ/#?D¸5P à ³If d ø
! !
u c = Z¾Æ ú È
dC
,
sC
, >
hpù+?j³If1
! ! ! !
dC cos θC sin θC d d = Z¾Æí d
sC
=
− sin θC cos θC s
≡V
s
. >
Út<pf1 [ 1GÅ d à Å1G²Bf^f d Å d µ d f</D÷ d f d Å d ²µ¶³²IÇ d ųŠd hDÇ d <Dh0/pf^³ :l³
1G²/ [ ¸8<0/EKk³ à d Å d f d à /De² d Å d ųB¸Vf< d à Å/{e<³i 17?†/me<1qµž³ÅV·3:4/ d <81´µ d f d
=ÕìÿR\. µ¶³i d Å0/Vgùÿµ [s ] ø
>


= Z¾Æí O
d¯ d + s̄ s = dd
C C C C
¯ + s̄s , >
d h*1|h*1GÅD²Bf d Åpf;/pf^³»Å d Ç^g d /iµ`17?i³7a²BfGÇ/³kÅ d ?jÇ d f d ?i¸5P à I³ f d ² d ³? Å d hÇ;/
Ú+fGh<0/Ç d ųIf1ŒÅ d 1Gö d <1GÇ d Å0/V·•hÇ d <Dh•e<³BgWO È Xs [šÆ [ ;× × ] ³ [ 1 à ·jµ d h0< d öDh d
Å d e<³?Ç < d g6Ç;/pf;/p³If1‚Å dÛá f d Ŏ? d <fÅ0/V·nµ`17?j³ ñÆ
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¼½Ž¾ã÷*¾ØÜ DÞà ø ô ó^HH ô ø À\ ô
šd ? d [ 1GÇ1 </iµ g d hDÇ d <Dh*1GÇ;/ d <81´µ d f/ø³»Å³1P7i 17?†/Dµ91yepùB<DÇ1#? d < d g-PG³
<p³6µØhÇ d <Dh*1GÇ/f^³mµ d ²-/ý= d / s ² d ?i³6û
/DÅ/0< d Å0/“h d f1nµ d ²1GÇ;/‰²1;PG²BfGÇ^³Å0/
²Bù–²Bf1·DÅ0/p· Æ
Ãt/p³½Ç^³ö> ³ng6Å d ³µvøvö³½û
³-<iµ9/1GÅDÅ/p· µ d ²1qÇÀö à ³Åø L = −mΨΨ =

ų€³
< d gX<p³ k³Åø¾g d :1Gf1¨f1;ayÅ d <pm¸  d Ç d h d /8P <81
Ã
Ç^ùpöDÅ d f d ²/iµ¶³If<0/p· Æ Ã21Dø±fùBa“h d f1ŒÅ0/p³KÇ^ù–dz?317iDµ¶³M?R1Geù à Å/f^³ à ³Ń²Ih d 
−m ΨL ΨR + ΨR ΨL

à d <p³ÅN?i¸5P à ³IfmÇmµ`17?i³ à d ø…µ`1XKk³µ ? d Å d e/ l³6µ¹² à ³? Å/p·nh d à /8P <81qÇ^ùpöDÅ81

/ÅDÇ d </ d Åf^³Åû€³7<Dµ9/1GÅDÅ1
o²Ih d à d <³Åyö à ³6Å+—

! ! !

φ (+)
(0)† (+)
φ φ
LY = c1 ū, d¯ L dR +c2 ū, d¯ L uR +c3 (ν̄e , ē)L eR +h.c.
φ(0) −φ(+)† φ(0)
= Z¾Æí ×
ð†¸pÅ/f d <Å d h d à /P;<1GÇGh d =þ² à ³?½²e81qÅpf d ÅDÅ81yÅ d <p¸ l³6Å/³_Å d ²/iµ¶³If<0/5>
·f d Dø f1^gX/ à d [ < d Å8K/ d ʼn1f h d ÇG²Ih0/Kf/ee1 à ¸pö d Ç d 0e <81q²Bf d û
1;<iµ d —
>
1  = Z¾Æ Ä
LY = √ (v + H) c1 dd
2
¯ + c2 ūu + c3 ēe . >
.m³i d Å/pgµ d Å d ²Ie1GÅf d ÅÅ1~Å d <p¸  d Ç d ųmÅ d ²-/Dµ¶³f</p·f d ²Iù1„f d h d
[ ³Å³-</0< d µ d ²/^/ d Åyû
³-<iµ9/81qÅÅ0/f^³ke1 à ³If d —
√ √ √ = Z¾ÆXs
md = −c1 v/ 2; mu = −c2 v/ 2; me = −c3 v/ 2. >
D1Gh*1 h*1f1
Å0/p³]ųwg6Å d ³6µe d < d µ¶³f</f^³ ø²If1;aDÅ81q²Bf/f^³üÅ d û
³-<iµ9/1GÅ5
Ã
Å/f^³]µ d ²/s² d e<1;/pgK41 à Å0/ Æ ð‹²/Döh0/ h d Dzh/lh*1qŲIf d pÅ f/¨² d û
/Dh¾²/0< d Å/
ci
Ljf^³-<iµ9/Å0/‡Å d µ d ²/pf³;—
 
H  = Z¾ÆZ
LY = − 1 +
v
¯ + mu ūu + me ēe .
md dd >
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¼ ½Ž¾ã÷*¾Øî § ø Þ\0JÀ<H8ÞzH8ÀTÀXàó ø À§ß ô ߧÞ
Ú+f„³h¾²ep³-<0/iµ¶³Åf d à Å0/“Å d P à ÆH?j³Å0/V·ƒ³E/Vg6dz²BfÅ1Døö³|²IùB:l³²BfGǸpÇ d fk³²Bf
< d g à /DöDÅ/‰hÇ d <Dh*1GÇ/ d <1qµ d f d = u ø d ø s ø c ø b ø t øf</r< d g à /öDÅ/ à ³6epf1qÅ d
= e ø µ ø τ /kf^³iÅ0/pf³üųB¸Vf<0/Å d = ν ø ν ø ν Æ È ³Bg7/¨> ö d ²Bf/D÷/»µ`1 [ d f? d Pù+? d f
Çh à Æ+ö³> Å0/“ÇN< d µžh0/f^³|Å dYá f d Å5? e d <pµfÅ0/pτ·À> µ`17?i³ à ø h d f1WPù+? d fW1;< [ d Å/pg7/5
< d Å/{Ǩf;</û d µ9/ à /0/‰1GfhÇ d <Dh/‰/ à ³ef1qÅ/ Æ
" # " # " #
νe u νµ c ντ t = Z¾Æ ú
e− d
,
µ− s
, , >
hpù+?j³If1 τ b

" # ! !
νl q u νl qu = Z¾Æ
l − qd
≡
l−
,
qd
, −
lR , (qu)R , (qd )R . >
È d h d Å0/³¨e1 à p¸ ö d Ç d µžL³kf<0/ne1GöfL/Y/Ž?j³Åf/DöÅ0/nh*1Ge0/p·Œ²l³?jÅ d /Œ²BùB: d
²Bf<p¸phf¸8< d øqh d f1z³?†/ÅD²BfdzŠd f d < d g à /h d ² d µ d ²/f^³A/iµ Æ
ÃP³h d ? d <³Bg [£Ã ³? d µ¶³‰1P :4/p·©² à ¸pö d a ² N û
³-<iµ9/1GÅDÅ/©e1Gh*1 Ã ³6Å/p·
SU (2)L ⊗U (1)Y
/àÅp³h d 1GfP³ à ³K/iµ ² ν 0 ø l0 ø u0 ø d0 ö à ³Å1GdzIf^G³„Å d û d µ9/ à /V·Df d j = j =
$
² q
1 
e 
< 
³ j
? ³ 
³ 
Å ¨
/ j f< j d ÅD²Ijû
1;<ij µ d ÷0/81qÅÅ0/»²IÇ1;aD²BfÇ d 1fÅ1G²Å81zh d /8P
1, . . . , NG > Ã Ã
<81qÇ^ùpöDÅ d f d [ <p¸pe d Æ á 1;PG²BfdzÅ0/pf^³Œ²Bù–²If1·DÅ0/V·àÅ d ² à d P;1f1ƒÇ^g d /iµ`17?j³-a²If§
Ç/³k² d à /DÅp³-aDÅ d h*1´µ`P;/DÅ d ÷/p·›1f|µ d ²1qÇ/f^³k²1;PG²BfdzÅ0/²Iù–²Bf1·DÅ0/V· Æ Ã d a5
1P;:T/V·  h d ÇG²Ih/ à d [ < d Å5K/ d ÅN/Dµ d ² à ³? Å0/V·‡Ç;/Ž?G—
! !
X


(d) φ (+)
(u) φ (0)† 
LY = ū0 , d¯0 cjk d 0
+ c u0kR
= Z¾Æ
‡
j j L (0) kR jk (+)†
φ −φ
jk
!  >

(l) φ(+) 0
+ ν̄j0 , ¯lj0 L cjk lkR + h.c.,
φ(0)
hpù+?j³If1 (d)
cjk cjk
ø (u) / cjk
(l) ² d e0<1;/pg6Ç1 à 0Å /¨h*1qŲIf d Åpf/»Å d Ç^g d /iµ`17?j³-a²IfÇ/³ Æ
 Ñ Ò¡ ¡c©êÔ;¦R£;¨UÓ§Ó§£ æ ¨U姨ϝ;©Ó§£X¬ ™3X™
á à ³?„²e81qÅpf d ÅDÅ81Gf1‚Å d <p¸  d Ç d ųsÅ d ²-/Dµ¶³f</p·f d  h d ÇG²Ih/p· à d [ < d Å5
K / d ŵ`1XKk³
? d PGù+?i³
g d e/D² d Åyf d h d —
 n
H o = Z¾ÆÈ
>
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
LY = − 1 + dL Md dR + uL MuuR + lL Ml lR + h.c. .
v
È ¸ph©²!#"cø%$%"e/'&("Y² d*) fP³ à · g d Å+àÇ^³hf ) <+f^³nÇ d < ) µ d fÅ ) f ) e < ) ²Bf

< d ŲBfGÇ ) +¼²Iù ) fGÇ^³IfÇ d :,+pf^³µ d ² ) Ç +¦µ d f;<+D÷+ಠd g d e+D²IÇ d ~
f e ) ² Ã ³ ? Å+p·
Å d ö+ÅL—

(d)
√ (u)
√ (l)
√
(M0d )ij ≡ −cij v/ 2, (M0u)ij ≡ −cij v/ 2, (M0l )ij ≡ −cij v/ 2.
= Z¾Æ㇠d
+V·
[ ) Å d à +Vg d ÷ +V·Df d Å d f^³Ig-+ص d ² ) Ç+†µ d f<+÷+ ) e0<³?i³ à ·Øµ d ² ) Ç +f^³ >
² ) Pq²BfÇ^³6Å+y²Iù–²Bf ) ·DÅ+V· d ø u Æ
/ d f < +÷ d f d M0 µ ) Kk³`j ? d j P‘ù+’?j. ³cl< jd g à ) Kk³6Å d Å d M0 = H U = S† M S U ø
hpù+?j³If ) H ≡ qdM0 M † ³³-<iµ0+f ) Ç d e ) Ã ) K1+pf³ Ã dÅ ) ?j³û2+Å+pfGÅ d d µ d <5
d d d d d
0

f+÷ d ø d Ud ³•¸pÅ +f d d<Å dd Æ H µ ) Kk³]? d Pù+?j³V?3+ d [ ) Å d à +pg-+0< d Å d ö<³Bg

¸pÅ +f d <Å d µd d f< +D÷ d S u <³BgI¸ dà f d ÅpfÅ d f d µ d f<+D÷ d M ³]?4+ d [ ) Å d à Šd ø
³-<D5µ +pf ) Ç d +¦e ) à ) 1 K +pf³ dà Š) ?i³66û +DÅ +fÅ d Æ Ì Å d à ) [ +DöÅ ) dM0 = H U =
ð 
f -
³ D
< µ +Å+“Å ud ?4+ d ) uÅ d u Å+
† + 0 † Æ 5
[ Ã
µ d f< +D÷ +ø M = diag(m , m , m , . . .) ø M = diag(m , m , m , . . .) ø
Su M u Su U u M l = H l U l = S l M l Sl U l
d d
ø s
 h b d DzI h +V· d
u
< d 5
Å K + d ÅÊue ) ¸pc ö d Ç td e ) 
7
à [ 1
Ã
e< ) ²Bf d û ) <iµ d
Ml = diag(me, mµ , mτ , . . .)

 
H  = Z¾Æ㇠O
LY = − 1 + dMd d + uMuu + lMl l , >
h d f ) µ d ² ) Ç+f^³s²Bù–²Bf ) i· Å+p·y²B³2?j³û2+Å+0< d ff d h d
v

= Z¾Æ㇠×
Ä>
dL ≡ Sd d0L , uL ≡ Su u0L, lL ≡ Sl l0L ,
= Z¾Æã‡
dR ≡ Sd Ud d0R , uR ≡ Su Uu u0R , lR ≡ Sl Ul l0R . >
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Ú2PùB<DÅ d f^³sÇÅ+Dµ d Å+³GøDö³
Q7+ [ ² ) Ç+f^³sh ) ÅD²Bf d Åf +‡² d e0< ) e ) <D÷+ ) Å d à Å+
Å d ²Bù ) fdzIfÅ+pf³lû€³-<iµ0+ ) ÅDÅ+µ d ² + Æ
ÈvùBa{h d f ) f 0 f 0 = f f + f 0 f 0 = f f = f = d, u, l øDû ) <Dµ d f d Å d Åp³
¸Vf< d à Å+p·ˆf ) hˆLÇ SU L L R R d < Rd Å5 R
K + d Å d ų]²B³v> e0< ) µ¶³Åp·_e0 < +¨e0<p³
(2)L ⊗U (1)Y Ã [
L 1
µ0+Å d Ç d ų_Ç|f^³7<Dµ0+DÅ+nÅ d µ d ² ) 8Ç +„² ) Pq²BfÇ^³6Å +Œ²Bù–²If ) ·DÅ +V· Æ á à ³? ) Ç d f^³ à Š)
Ç á f d Å5? d <fÅ+p·Àµ ) ?j³ à Åp·iµ d ųB¸Vf< d à Å +•f ) h ) dz‚e< ) µž³ÅV·39 : + d<)µ dfdÆ
ÚlP ) P :l³Å+V·rì–: R / µ¶³i d Å +pgùÿµà³ˆ² à ³?j²IfÇ +³ ) fKf<p³f +< d ųIf ) Å d ÇG;² +öDh +
û€³-<i0µ + ) Å +‡²
³? Å d hpù–Ç_g d <q·5?{Å d ³? Å d +y²IùB: , d ) ²IÅ ) Ç d Æ
à )<) ²Ç^³ņf ) Ç d u0 d0 = u s s† d ≡ u Vd Æ ð ) P 9 : +p·ñ² à ¸pö d a
su 6= sd u
f ) [ d Ç d e< +“Lg d Le +D²IÇ d ųÅ d d ² ) Pq²BfÇ^³6Å +f^³m²Bf +0aÅ ) ²If +”Å d ² à d P ) 
L u L L L

f ) Çg d +iµ ) ?i³-aD²Bf8Ç +p³„Ç•f^³-<i0µ +DÅ +¹Å d µ d ² ) Ç +f^³Œ² ) Pq²BfÇ^³6Å +©²If ) aDÅ ) ²Bf +øÇ
hÇ d <Dh ) Ç +f^³}g d <p³?i³Å +»f ) h ) dz}²I³re ) ·DÇ·iÇ d ¸pÅ +<DÅ d µ d f;< +D÷ d Å d ²µž³²IÇ d Åp³
nøÅ d <³ö³Å d µ d f < +÷ d Å d É d =P +8P ) Å0É ) P d ·09 : +ŽÅ / d ²Ih d Ç d =èÉ\: É /
NG ×NG
O;O ×
Ä — >
[ , ]

( " # )
g X X
LCC = √ Wµ† ūiγ µ (1 − γ5)Vij dj + ν̄l γ µ (1 − γ5)l + h.c. .
2 2 ij l = Z¾Æã‡
s
/ d f<+÷ d f d  ²Ç^ùB<pg6Ç d ÇG²B³h+ïf ) <³Å g hÇ d <Dh¹²Iù–²ÇG²;+Döh+ïfI? )  Å + g>
[ Ã
hÇ d <Dh+ Æ
ÈvùBaŒh d f ) Åp³I¸Vf<+DÅ d f d ² d P³Bg<µ d ² ) Ç+ø Å+p³ˆÇ+DÅ d [ +nµ ) Kk³µ ? d e<³?j³
û6+DÅ+0< d µ¶³}Åp³I¸Vf<+DÅDÅ+f^³ d < ) µ d f+e ) f d hpù–ÇzÅ d ö+DÅøqö³J? d ³ à +iµ0+DÅ +0< d µ¶³
d Å d à ) [ +DöÅ ) f ) ²µ¶³6²IÇ d Åp³mÇ Ã ³ef ) ÅDÅ+p·¼²I³hpf ) <L— ν 0 l0 = ν 0 s†l ≡ ν l Æ
È d h d e ) à ¸pö d Ç d µ¶³kg d e d g6Ç d ųkÅ d à ³ef ) ÅDÅ +p· d < ) µ Ld fm L ÇC< d µž h l+f^L³»Å d 0µ l +5L
L

Å+iµ d à Å+V· á f d Ŏ? d <f^³ńµ ) ?j³ à øPG³BgxÅ d à +Dö +³If ) Å d ?i·D²IÅ ) Åp³I¸Vf< +DÅ ) Æ
>l³-<Dµ5+ÅDÅ+f^³lµ d ²;+?+Kµ d f
< +÷ d f d Å d ²6µ¶³²IÇ d ųPÅ d hÇ d <Dh +f^2³  ² d ) e5
<p³?j³ à ³Å+ ) f@ h d DzIh+f^³¨h ) ŲBf d Åf +„Ç›= ZVÆA
‡ Æ Èÿ³ ) P d ö³k² d ų +pg6Ç^³²IfÅ + u
f d h d Å+³~f<q·0PGÇ d ? d +pg6e ) à g6Ç d µ¶³~e0< ) +VgÇ ) à > Å +†e d < d µ¶³If< + Æ ü Å +pf d <DÅ d
µ d f<+D÷ d N × N ²Iù+?iùB< K d N 2 <³ d à Å+Œe d < d µ¶³If^ùB< d õ N (N − 1)/2
d µže à +f¸X4? + G+ N (N G
+ 1)/2
û d -g +8ö 𩲠¸pö d ·mÅ d  µžÅ ) )B
G
Æ Ã [
G
) fˆGf^³B-g +me d 
G G
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< d µ¶³If< +ˆ² d Åp³6²BùB:l³²IfÇ^³Å+ø6g d : ) f ) Å+³]Ç+DÅ d [ +¨µ ) K¨³6µN? d +Vg7P³-<³6µ„² à ¸*
ö d aÅ +nhDÇ d <Dh ) 8Ç +nû d -g + Æ 2< +Œe0<p³?j³û2+Å+0< d Åp³»Å d û d gC+pf^³ u → O iφ u +

ø µ d 
f < +÷ d f d Å d ²µ¶³²Ç d ųv²BD³ +pgµ¶³6ÅV·ˆh d f )
i

i(θ −φ ) u
i i

dj → O dj
f d h d 2N − 1 û d -g +K² d ųŠd P à ÆH? d ³0µ + Æ ¿ < ) ·DfkÅ d ²IÇ ) VP ) ij? Å→+f^V³zijû6O +pg-+Döp³²
j iθ j i

h +f^³le d < Gd µ¶³If;< +{Ljµ d f< +÷ d f d Å d ²µ¶³6²IÇ d Åp³z²B³@<³?i¸p÷+0< d ? ) (N − 1)2 —


NG (NG − 1)/2
d ž
µ e à +f¸X4
? +E+ û d -g +
Æ
G

ðŒe0< ) ²Bf +p·k² à ¸pö d alÅ d ?jdz‹e (N G − 1)(NG − 2)/2

) h ) ³
à Š+pF ·  ²B³ ) e<³?j³ · ) f}³3
à ? +DÅs³4? +DŲBf

Ç^³Łe d < d µ¶³If^ùB< Æ ð”f ) -g +|² à ¸pö d @ a  ²B³P²IÇ^³KT? d ? ) µ d f< +÷ d f d Å d É d 8P +P )
) fq=
Z¾Æ  d > Æ á NG = 3 ø¶µ d f;< +D÷ d f d Å d É\: É / ²B³ ) e +²Ç d ²f< +”ù [ ù à d +
³?jÅ d û d g d Æ  d g à +DöDÅ+o=þÅ ) ³hDÇ+DÇ d à ³6ÅpfÅ+ e<³? ²Bf d Ç·iÅ+p·Œµ ) [ d f? d PGù+
? d f
Å d µ¶³-<³Å +¨Ç à +f^³-< d f^¸8< d f d Æ ð [‡ ] +pg6e ) > à gÇ d f
² Ã ³?jÅ d f d f(²Bf d Å5? d <pfÅ d g
e d < d µ¶³If< +Vg d ÷ +V·…—

 
c12 c13 s12 c13 s13e−iδ13
 
V = −s12c23 − c12 s23s13eiδ13 c12c23 − s12s23 s13eiδ13 s23 c13  .
s12s23 − c12 c23s13 eiδ13 −c12 s23 − s12 c23s13 eiδ13
= Z¾Æ㇠Z
c23c13
ȸph c ≡ cos θ + s ≡ sin θ øž² i + j ²B³ ) fPG³ à ·pg6Ç d Å ) µ¶³-< d Å d >
e ) h ) à ³Å+ij³If ) = i, j =ij 1, 2,ij 3 Æ –³ d à ijÅ+f^³Œù [Äà + θ ø θ + θ µ ) [ d fr? d
Pù+? d fyÅ d e0< d Ç+DÅ+Y? d à ³K d fy> ÇyeùB<Ç8+nhÇ d ?†< d Åpf{12ö<³B23ge ) ?0i 13) ?i·0: ) e0<p³
?i³û2+DÅ+0< d Åp³lÅ d û d g-+f^³lÅ d hDÇ d <h ) Ç+f^³se ) Ã ³f d u f ) [ d Ç d c ≥ 0 ø s ≥ 0
ij ij
+
0 ≤ δ13 ≤ 2π Æ
Ú2PùB<DÅp³If³vÇÅ +Dµ d Å +³Gøö³ δ ³³4? +ÅD²BfdzŠd f d h ) µže à ³h¾²IÅ d û d g d Ç Ã d [ 
< d Å5K1+ d Å d Å dMá f d Ŏ? d <fÅ +V·{13µ ) ?j³ Ã–Æ á à ³? ) Ç d f^³ à Š) f ) g d ³€³3? +DÅD²BfÇ^³6Å +p·
Ç^ùgµ ) Kk³61 Å +Vg6f ) öDÅ +Dh‚Å d Å d <p ¸  d Ç d ų+Å d4Hh G I +ÅDÇ d < + d ÅfÅ ) ²Bff d Æ ðm?j³-aD²k
fÇ +f^³ à Š) ²Bf€f ) Ç d ³we0< +ö +Å d f d ? d ²B³we0<p³? e ) à ) 1 K +ø^ö³²BùB:l³²IfǸpÇ d f;<p³If )
e ) h ) à ³Å +³ [ ×
Ä ] øje0<³3? + ) fGh< +Ç d ųIf ) Å d b + τ Æ á ? Ç^³ke ) h ) à ³6Å +p· á f d Ŏ
? d <pfÅ +p·»µ ) ?j³ à Åp³$=P +_µ ) [ ù à ? Jd ) P·D²IÅ +kÅ d P à Æ$? d Ç d Å ) f )Hh G oÅ d <V¸8:k³Å +³
Ç K ;² +D²Bf^³60µ +f^³ Æ
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É d à +P;< ) ÇùpöDÅ+p·1+‚²Ih d à d <Å+V·‚²I³hpf ) <Ç à d [ < d Å8K1+ d Å d Å d4á f d Ŏ? d <fÅ+V·
µ ) ?i³ à ²Iù+?iùB< K d f»² d µ ) ö³If+0<+{e d < d µ¶³If^ùB< d — g ø g0 ø µ2 + h Æ È ³zµ ) [ d f? d
Pù+? d fng d µ¶³Å³Å+”² α ø θ ø M + M Æ Ì Ã f³-<Å d f8+ÇGÅ ) h d f ) ²Ç ) P ) ?jÅ+
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²I³7+Vge ) à g6Ç d f¨f<+ ) f_ZÅ d a5oeF<³÷+Vg6Å H) +Vgµž³-<p³6Å+f^³
h ) ÅD²Bf d Åp8f + Æ
ð  h d DzIh +p·‡²B³hf ) <{;² +pf^¸ d ÷ +p·f d ³D< d g à +öDÅ d Æ ð¹² Ã ¸pö d a‡Å d N = 3
L
+Dµ d µ¶³NO7ć²IÇ ) P ) ?  Å +‰e d < d µ¶³f^ùB< d — È µ d ;² +øÄyù [ ù à d +ýOû d g d ÆNM ²IGÅ ) ³Gø
öp³f ) Ç d ų³µžÅ ) [ ) g d ? ) Ç ) à +f^³ à Š) Æ R+gf ) öÅ +Dhpù…fÅ d f ) Ç d µžÅ ) Kk³²BfÇ )
) fxe d < d µ¶³If < +»³üųBg6Å d Å +³If ) Å d  h d Dzh +f^³}h ) ÅD²Bf d Åp8f +Ç = ZVAÆ 
‡ Æ t< ) +pg
i ) ? d Å d µ d ;² +f^O ³ +Œ²µ¶³²IÇ d ųIf ) g d ³?jÅ +„²kÅ d à +ö +p³f ) Å d f< +P+5?i> ³6Åpf +DöDÅ +
û d 0µ + à ++n²B³l·iÇ·iÇ d fKh d f ) ³3? +DÅ ) f ) ²Å ) ÇÅ +pf^³ ) fGÇ ) <³Å +Œe< ) P à ³0µ +ŒÇ^ù±³
û +p-g +Dh d f d Å d ³ Ã ³hf< ) ² Ã d P ) f ) Çg d +Dµ ) ?j³-aD²BfÇ +³ Æ
6
R
µ d aDh +ÉǼe<³? Ç +5? h ) ÅD²Bf d Åpf d Åf d f d Å d Çg d +iµ ) ?i³-aD²Bf8Ç +p³‰Å d ÉlJQ 
αs (MZ2 )
ø´eù à Å +p· SU (3) ⊗ SU (2) ⊗ U (1) à d [ < d Å8 K + d Å|Å dTá f d Å5? d <Ž
fÅ +p·µ ) ?j³ à ²Bù+?jùB< K d O ‡ ²Ç ) P ) ?jÅ +me d < d µ¶³If^ùB< d Æ
C L Y

²5xBwy‹ ¯4’
}Žq†R¶`}¶`m„¶†R€,„µ,}
à d :9+f^³gÅ d Å+p·€g d e d < d µ¶³If;<+f^³wÅ d g d <³?j³Å+V·zf ) hsųY² d f ) à h ) Ç d ? ) P;<+
h d hf ) ǂ² à ¸pö d aÅ d ųB¸Vf< d à Å+p·f ) h Æ šd ? d ²B³+pgµ¶³7<q·f»³ à ³6µ¶³Åf+f^³kÅ d
Å d µ d f<+÷ d f d Å d É\É:/ ²B³Q+pgI¸pö d Ç d fne ) Ã ¸ Ã ³ef ) ÅDÅ+f^³W< d g6e d ?3+ H →
H 0 lν̄l
øw²Ç^ùB<pg d Å+¦²²Iù–²‡²Bù ) fdzIfÅ+pf^³nhDÇ d <h ) Ç+©e0<³i ) ?4+ d → u l−ν̄ Æ
Ì µže à +f¸X? d f d Å d e0<p³i ) ? d j i l

GF =þú Æ O
T [H → H 0 lν̄l ] ≈ √ Vij hH 0 |ūiγ µ (1 − γ5)dj |Hi¯lγµ (1 − γ5 )νl
2
>
Ç+DÅ d [ +©ÇGh à Æ+öÇ dƒd †? < ) Å ³Å µ d f<+Dö³Å ³ à ³6µž³Åpf“Å d à ³6Ç+p·à² à d P“f ) h Æ
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2<³²µ¶·f d ųIf ) Å d f ) gC+¹µ d f<+Dö³Å©³ ³6µ¶³6Åpf“³ŒÅ³ep³7<pf¸8<P d f+DÇ^³ÅúÉlQJ
Ã
e< ) P à ³6T µ +yÇGh à Æ+öDÇ d ų+pg-P³KÅ+mf^³ ) <p³f+öDÅ+{ų ) e0<³?i³ à ³Å ) ²If+ Æ
Ú28P +DhÅ ) dzŠ) ²BO³ +pgI¸pö d Ç d e ) à ¸ à ³ef ) ųÅne0<³i ) ?ÿøThù+?i³f ) µ d f;<+DöÅ+p·
³ à ³µ¶³Åfrµ ) Kk³c? d Pù+?j³a2 û +h¾;² +0< d ÅsÇ]Åp·Dh ) ·sh+Dų6µ d f8+öDÅ d f ) öh dH) fre0<+DÅ5
÷ +De‰Å d ² +Dµ¶³f< +p· Æ È ) -g +~e ) ?i ) U
 ? +iµ d iV¸5P d Ç ) f ) h d ö³²BfÇ ) ? d Å d µ d à ·iÇ d
f^³ ) <³If +DöDÅ +f^³+Åp³ ) e0<p³?j³ à ³Å³²Bf +? ) Å +DÇ ) Å d h ) <³hD÷ ++ˆÅ d <V ¸  d Ç d :9+_²;+5
µ¶³If< +V·Df d +lh +Dų6µ d 8f +öDÅ +k³h¾²Bf< d e ) à d ÷ +p· Æ á f d Å5? d <fÅ +p·_e0< +Dµ¶³7<l³H< d g
e d ? ) f_f +e d 0− → 0− øh d f ) K → πlν ø D → Klν + Ã + B → Dlν Æ ád µ )
Ç^³hf ) <³Ňf ) h‡µ ) K¨³t? d ? ) e0< +DÅ d ²Ä·‡Çˆf ) -g +{² à ¸pö d aL—
æ= ú Æ ×
hP 0 (k 0 )|ūiγ µdj |P (k)i = CP P 0 {(k + k 0 )µ f+(t) + (k − k 0 )µ f−(t)} . >
ȸph C ³û d hf ) <“Å d É Ã ³P8DÖì ) <;?jù–ÅP+ t = (k − k0)2 Æ ÃP³+pg6Ç^³6²Bf§
Å d f d ?3+DÅ d Pµ0P+Dh d Å d ²;+ Ã Å ) f ) Çg d +iµ ) ?i³-aD²BfÇ8+p³
²B³P²Bù+?jùB< K d Å d eù à Š) Ç^ù–Ç
0

û ) <Dµžû d hf ) < d f (t) Æ ð [ < d Å+D÷ d Å d PG³Bgµ d ² ) Ç8+àhÇ d <Dh + f (t) = 0 +
<
ø g d : ) f ±) ²Ç^ùB<pg d Å+V· d < ) µ d f^³Å_g d <q·5?³vg d e d g6Ç d : d −²B³]dz +D
à ö +Ž
Å d Æ È d h dF) ²If d Ç d ³?3+DŲIfÇ^³Å ) ų ) P-i ) ?3+iµ ) ²If^f d ? d ²B³ ) fö³If^³zh ) <³hD÷ +p·f d
f+ (0) = 1
) fh0< d aÅ d f d ²Bf ) aÅ ) ²IfÅ d µ d ² d f d Å d hÇ d <Dh d
Æ
ÈvùBah d f ) (k − k0)µ ¯lγ (1 − γ )ν ∼ m ø´e< +DÅ ) ²BùTf ) f f (t) ³+h +Dų6µ d 
f+ö³²Ih+‚e ) f8+²IÅ d f¨Çxµ ) ?4µ+f^³ e + 5 µ Æ l È ) [ d Ç l d ,+< +DÅ d f d Å d −< d g6e d ? d µ ) Kk³
? d PGù+?i³
g d e+D² d Å d f d h d —

G2F MP5 æ= ú Æ Ä
Γ(P → P lν) = 0
|Vij |2 CP2 P 0 |f+(0)|2I (1 + δRC ) , >
hpù+?j³If ) δ ³P³ Ã ³hf ) 192π< ) ² Ã d P d < d ?4+ d ÷+ ) ÅDÅ d e ) e0< d Çh d øV÷ I ³ ) fP³ Ã ·5
3

gd Åyû d g ) Ç+p·V+Åf^³ [ < d à øjh ) apf ) Ç [ < d Å+D÷ d m = 0 +iµ d û ) <Dµ d f d

RC
l

Z  2
(MP −MP 0 )2
dt 3/2  f (t)  þ= ú Æ s
I≈
MP8
λ (t, M 2
P , M 2  +
P 
0 )  .
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á f d Å5? d <pfGÅ d f d 00e < ) ÷ ³?D¸8< d g d#) e0<³?i³ à ·iÅp³aÅ d |V | ÇGh à Æ+öDÇ d f<+s²If^ù–eŽ
h+L— ij
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) fÅ ) l³6Å+³If ) +mf d h dB) e<³?j³ ·
|f+ (t)/f+(0)| Ã IÆ
× Æ R+gµž³-<Ç d ²B³veù à Šd f d :,+<+Å d Å d < d g6e d ? d Γ Æ È]ùBa¨h d f ) G ³X+pg6dz²k
Å )Y) fPµ9Æ ) ÅÅ+V·4< d ge d ?–ø6f ) ³h¾²Ie³-<+Dµž³Åpf d à Š) µ ) Kk³c? d ²B³ F) e<³?j³ à +
e0< ) +pg6Ç^³?j³Å+p³f ) |f (0)||V | Æ
+ ij
Ä Æ ðYg³6µ d ²B³zf^³ ) <³If +DöDÅ ) f ) e0<³?j²h d g d Å +³€g d f (0) Æ
+
ð d K¨³Ŕµ ) µ¶³Åf³C? d ²B³ ) ²Bùg6Å d ³Gø ö³|f³ ) <³If +DöÅ ) f ) Å d ö d à ) ³KÇ +DÅ d 
[ +Àų ) P-i ) 3? +iµ ) Æ á à ³? ) Ç d f^³ à Š) f ) öDÅ ) ²Bf^f d Ç ) e<³?j³ à ·iÅp³f ) Å d |Vij | ³
Ç+DÅ d [ + ) [ < d Å +ö³Å )*) f‰Å d  d f d ²Ie ) ² ) PqÅ ) ²BfW? d +pg6ö +D² à +Dµ ²Bù ) fÇ^³IfGÅ +p·
d ?†< ) Åp³Ňǧi ) ? Æ
¼½Ž¾[Z*¾Œ¼ V
ud

à d aŽoe0<p³÷+pg6Å ) f ) +Vgµž³-<Ç d ų+Å d V ³PÅ d e0< d Ç^³Å ) Å d ²IÇ;<pù+i< d gX<p³k³Å+V·

·5?†<p³Å β < d g6e d ? ) fK>l³-<iµ0+¼f+Deúõ ud0+ → 0+ö øžhù+?i³If ) ·8?R<³Å+V·¼µ d f<+Ž
öp³Å ³ à ³6µ¶³Åf hN 0|ūγ µd|N i µ ) Kk³W? d Pù+?j³nû2+h¾²;+0< d Å ) f“g d e d g6Ç d Åp³f )
Å d dzhf ) <DÅ +p·~f ) h Æ Ù Ã ³6µ¶³Åf d\) f‡µ d f;<+D÷ d f d Å d É@É:/ ²B³_e ) à ¸pö d Ç dQ) f
²Bù ) fÅ ) l³Å +³If ) [Ä Z ] ø
π 3 ln 2 (2984.4 ± 0.1)s =þú ØÆ Z
|Vud | = 2
f tG2F m5e (1 + δRC )
=
f t(1 + δRC )
, >
hpù+?j³If ) ²û d hf ) < d f t ³ ) fPG³ à ·g d Å ) fGÅ ) ²;+pf³ à Å+p·se³-<+ ) ?lÅ d e ) à ¸8< d g
e d ? d Åp³_h ) <+ [ +0< d Åg d û d g ) Ç ) e0< ) ²Bf< d ÅD²BfÇ ) +rÉ}¸ à ) Å ) Ç8+{³6û€³hf+ [Äú ] Æ
šdQ) e0<³?i³ à ·iÅ d f ) Å d |V | ø±³Å³ ) P7i ) ?4+iµ ) ? d ²B³Å d e0< d Ç+•ÇGÅ+iµ d f³ à ³6Å
f^³se ) e0< d Çh+ [Ä  ] øÇh à Æ+öÇ d : h d hf ) hpù–² ) ?j³-aD²k
d Å d à +VgxÅ d < d ?4+ d ÷+ ) ÅDÅ+ud
fÇ d :9+f^³Pe<+DÅ ) ²;+ ∆ = 0.0234 ± 0.0012 øIf d h d +»·5?†<p³Å ) 9g d Ç +D;² +D5µ +pf^³
h ) <³h÷++ ∆ ≡ δinner−∆ Æ È ³Bg-+< d ?4+ d ÷+ ) ÅÅ+»e ) e< d ÇGh +_² d ? ) ²If d 
+Q+iµ d fˆ²BùB:k³²BfdzŠd < ) ·g d ²Bù
f^ùpöDÅ ) [ ) à ³6µ5outer  [£Ã d ²0¸pÇ d ųIf )
RC inner
+
δRC ∼ 3 _ s Ã
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ÃP³Bg d Ç8+²+Dµ ) ³ à ³6µ¶³Åf d V µ ) K¨³J? d PGù+?i³ ) e0<p³?j³ à ³Å ) fxÅp³I¸Vf< ) ÅÅ+p· >
|Vud | = 0.9740 ± 0.0010.

< d g6e d ? n → pe−ν Æ ð f ) g-+à ud

² à ¸pö d a d h¾²+ à Å+p·¦f ) hà²Bù_ ) ? ) e`+DÅ d ²£·ø
f d h d ö³‡³‡Å³ ) P-i )-a +iµ ) ³h¾²ep³`+iµ¶³Åf d à Š) +pgµ¶³-`Ç d ų‡Å dP) fÅ ) k³Å +p³If )
e

+¦Ç`³6µ¶³If ) Å db +DÇ ) f“Å d ųB¸Vf` ) Å d

È
gA /gV = −1.2720 ± 0.0018
885.7 ± 0.8 Æ
d h ,) fÅp³B¸Vf8` ) ÅÅ+V·` d g6e dca e ) ¸pö d Ç d µž³;—
d Ã
τn =

|Vud | = 0.9725 ± 0.0013,

ú d AÆ 8e
7+ ) ÅÅ+V·KfG³If d ` d g6e dCa e`p³ a à d [ d e )  a3) fù`•Å d ö+DŽg d
π + → π 0 e + νe
+Vgµž³`Ç d ų È ) Ç d ³xö+D²BfÇ^³hf ) `p³Å{e`³i )a ²xµÅ ) [ ) µ d à h+yf^³ ) `p³
|Vud| Æ
f+öDÅ+»Åp³ ) e`³ a ³ à ³Å ) ²Bf+ Æ šd ²Bù bˆd à ³Å+³f ) aB+iµ d µÅ ) [ ) µ d à h ) ²B³ö³Å +³ Æ
Ù¶h¾²Ie³`+Dµ¶³6Åpf d à Šd f d ²Bf ) aDÅ ) ²Bfl³Fg%hji (1.025 ± 0.034) × 10−8 Æ ±³IgI¸ à f d f d
) fe+ ) ÅÅ+V·VfG³If d ` d g6e dca ³
Æ
ÈvùBaˆh d f ) ų ) e`³ a ³ à ³6Å ) ²B|V
f^f udd |Ç
=e ) 0.968 `³BgI¸ f d f
³rµžÅ ) ) ) ·jµ d ø
² à ³ a ű+V·0.018 à [ [ Ã
g d e ) à ¸pö d Ç d Åp³|Å d ²;`³ a Å d f d ²Bf ) aDÅ ) ²BfÅ d ³ à ³6µ¶³Åf d V ²B@ ³ +Vg6e ) à g6Ç d f
² d µ ) eù`Ç8+pf³ a Ç d `p³Bg¸ à f d f d [‡ ] ud

|V | = 0.9734 ± 0.0008,
ú
d Æ'‡ke
ud

¼ ½Ž¾[Z*¾ØÜ V
us
šd +Vgµž³`Ç d ų‹Å d ³ à ³6µ¶³Åf d |V | ²B³#+Vg6e ) à g6Ç d fl` d g6e dCa +pf³ K + → π0l+ν
− + ø–h ) +pf ) ²B³e )-a i )a ·_,+Œg d ÷p³ à f d ø±g d _ ) f ) ²Iù ) fGÇ^³IfÅ+f^³
us l
+ 0
dCa K` ) ÅÅ→+nπû ) l`iµ¹νlû d hf ) `+‰² dOa3) f=`p³O+pgI¸pöp³6Å+ Æ Ã d `V¸  d Ç d ųIf ) Å d SU (3)
² d ;² + à Š) e ) 8f +²IÅ d f ) [Ä ‡ ] Æ ÚPfö+f d ah+kÅ d `p¸  d Ç d ųIf ) Å d +Vg ) ²Ie+Å d Ç [ ) `5
Å+f^, ³ ` d ge cd a +øTe ) à ¸pö³Å +f^³_²Bf ) aDÅ ) ²Bf+g d |V | ² d ǁ²Bù [£Ã d ²;+‡e )  am) f8` )
) E f n _ Æ  cd a + d ÷ + ) ÅDÅ +f^³¨h ) `p³6h÷ ++{² d +pg6ö+D² à ³usÅ+‡Ç1` d µžh+f^³kÅ d Él+` d à 
Å d f d f^³ ) `+p·_Å d ep-³ `pf ¸ `f d ÷ ++f^³ [ ZXs ] Æ o á ) fö +pf d ųüÅ Hd a ù Ã3[ )-a ³-aD²BfÇ d _9+f^³
` cd a + d  ÷ + ) ÅÅ +„e ) e ` d ÇGh ++Åp³ à +DÅp³-aDÅ +pf^³_ö à ³Å ) dzlÇ^ù–Ç»û ) `iµžû d hpf ) `+pf^³
e ) à ¸pö d Ç d µ¶³ [‡ ]
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|Vus | = 0.2196 ± 0.0026.

ú Æ Èke d
Ì Å d à +pg d Å d [s × ] i+e³` ) ÅDÅ+f^³P` d g6e dCa +<+iµ d e )  [ ) à ³6µ0+àf³ ) `³If+DöŽ
Å+“ų ) e`³ a ³ à ³Å ) ²If+ø e ) ` dCa +ƒÅ d `V¸  d Ç d ųIf ) Å d SU (3) ²;+iµ¶³If`+p·f d Ç
d h¾²;+ d à  Ç³hf ) `DÅ d f d h ) ŲIf d Åpf d Æ –³BgI¸ à f d f do) f [‡ ] ³ |V | = 0.2176 ±
us
Æ
0.0026
ÈvùBa‰h d f ) f d Cg +n²Bf ) aÅ ) ²Bf ) ²Bf d Ç d +Vg6Çù–Å [ `³ kh d f d +‰Åp³ aTd Ç 
d a3) fGù `
û +føj² `p³ a Å d f d ²Bf ) aDÅ ) ²Bfˆg d |V | ³ d ú Æ È=e [‡ ] Æ
6
us

¼½Ž¾[Z*¾Øî V
cd
á f ) aÅ ) ²Bff d Å d |V | ²I³üe ) à ¸pö d Ç d6) f a ù à f ) h ) Åp³I³ à d ²Bf+DöÅ ) ` d g6²B³-aDÇ d Åp³
Å d ν + ν̄ ø…ö`³BgB+pcdgµ¶³-`Ç d ų¨Å d ` dcbBaTd ųIf ) Å d c hDÇ d `Dh ) fKÇ d à ³6ÅpfÅ+ d
hÇ d `Dµh +ø´f µÆ ³ ν d → µ−c + a ³If^³hf+` d Åp³
Å d c ö`p³BgPe` ) ÷p³6²;+pf³ c → µ+ν d
à µ νµs Æ  ) f ) g-+ˆÅ d ö+Å_²B³]e ) à ¸pö d Ç d e` ) +pg6dz a ³6Å+³If ) [‡ ] B c|Vcd|2 =
µ µ
+ + +

(0.41±0.07)×10−2
ø6hù a ³If ) B ³w²;`³ a Å d f d Ç^³` ) ·fÅ ) ²Ifüg d e ) à ¸ à ³ef ) Åp³Å
` d g6e cd a Å d ` )-a ³Å+p· ) ö d ` ) Ç d ŁchÇ d `Dh R}ge ) g6Ç d aDh+
Æ Ã
D
ø e ) ¸pö d Ç d µž³
B c = 0.099 ± 0.012
[‡ ] Ã
|V | = 0.224 ± 0.016.
ú n-d
d Æ e
cd

¼½Ž¾[Z*¾'ñ V
cs

 ) e )-am) f³ŌŠd ö+DÅn²B³_e ) ¸pö d Ç d ³ ³µ¶³Åf d ) f aTd ÅDÅ+

Ã Ã νµ s → µ − c Æ
±³IgI¸ à f d f d g d Ç8+²+ ) fŒe`³ a e ) à ³ b ³Å+p· ) fÅ ) ²Å ) e à ù…fÅ ) ²Bf^f d Å d ²Bf` d Å5
|Vcs|
Å+¼hÇ d `Dh +¼Çne d `f ) ÅDÅ ) f ) µ ) `p³ Æ È ) gC+Àµ¶³If )apa d Ç d Ç^ùgµ )Cb Å ) ²Bf aTd ²B³
)  e `p³ a ³ Ã +y² d µ ),am) Ã Å d [ ` d Å ) ÷ d [s Ä ] |V | > 0.59 Æ
e `³÷ +Vg6Å d +DÅû ) `iµ d ÷+p·~²B³_e ) Ã ¸pcsö d Ç d\) fye ) Ã ¸ Ã ³ef ) ÅDÅ+o` d g6e dCa +
 ) o
Å d D µ¶³Bg ) Å +øÅ d e ` Æ D → K̄e+ν Æ +`³hfÅ+f^³D+pgµ¶³-`Ç d Å+V·lÅ d |V | a d 
Ç d f [‡ ] |V | = 0.97±0.09(stat.)±0.07(syst.) e
Æ  ) 9f ) öÅ ) f )6) e`³ a cs
³ Ã ·iÅp³
Å d ³ à ³µ¶³Åf d µ )-b ³ a d ²Bf d Åp
cs
³ +pg6e ) à g6Ç d ah + ) fÅ ) k³Å +³If ) Å ddCa ` ) ÅÅ+f^³
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` d g6e cd a +{Å d hpùÿµ à ³ef ) ÅDÅ+f^³Gø…h ) ³f ) ³:+Vg<µ¶³`³Å ) Å d LEP [ ×d ] +E`p³
gI¸ à f d f d ³ P |V |2 = 2.039 ± 0.025 ± 0.001 øhù a ³If ) ²0¸µ d f d ³„e )
W

i = u, c j = d, s, b Æ ü
+ i,j ij
Å +pf d `DÅ ) ²Bf^f d Å d µ d f`+D÷ d f d Å d É\ÉF/ +pg-+²hÇ d

²0¸µ d f Dd aTd ³J× Æ ÈvùBalh d f ) e³If ) flk³²Bf^³w³ à ³6µ¶³6Åpf d ² d + à + a3) f=`p³q+pgµ¶³`³Å+
+ +‡
à e `p³6Åp;³ f=`p³ b +iµ ) µ d à h +øie ) à ¸pö d Ç d µ¶³ [ ×
d ] —
|V | = 0.996 ± 0.013.
ú nn
d Æ e
cs

¼½Ž¾[Z*¾Ø÷ V
cb
 ) eV¸´²Ih d aDh+ø…öp³O_9+`+Å d f d Å d +DÅh ¸¾gC+ÇGÅ+p·~e ) ¸ ³ef ) ųÅP` d g6e dCa Å d
à à Ã
Cd a ` )  Å +f^³Œ²Bù a ù` b_d _,+ b hÇ d `Dhà²B³ ) e`³ a ³ à · ) f½²Iù ) fGÇ^³IfÅ+p·àhDÇ d `h ) Ç
e `³i )-a b → clν øi³ à ³6µ¶³Åf d |V | µ )Cb ³ aTd fGù a ³ ) e`³ a ³ à ³6Å ) f ) fÅ ) l³

Å +³If ) Å d +pgµ¶³ `l ³Å d f Q
 d ) fGÅ ) ²;+pfcb³ à Šd Ç^³` ) ·fÅ ) ²Ifyg d e ) à ¸ à ³epf ) ųÅr` d g
e cd a +„8Ç `p³6µž³If ) Å 1 d b +DÇ ) f Æts +`+Å d f d Γ(b → clν ) ∝ m5 ø f d h d ö³lf ) gC+
µ¶³If )-a ³mµÅ ) [ ) öp¸pDzBf8Ç +pf³ à ³6ÅÀhùÿµºµ d ² d f d Å d b l hÇ d `Dh db + ) ²IÇ^³Ŕf ) Ç d
É uJ e ) e ` d Çh +{² d g6Å d ö +f^³ à Å + Æ šd Å d aŽ f ) öÅ )?) e `p³ a ³ à ·DųlÅ d ³ à ³6µ¶³Å5
Y
f d |V | ²B1 ³ +pg6e ) à g6Ç d ³h¾²h à ¸¾-g +DÇÅ +Vo
· ` d ge cd a B → D∗l+ν̄ [sŽZ ] øhù a ³f )
²Bù ) fÇ^³IfGÅ +f^³ Cd a ` ) ÅÅ +ƒû ) `iµžû d hf ) `+ õ F (v · v )öv² d +pg6l dz²IÅ +“²f ) öŽ
cb

Å ) ²Bf ) fÅV·ih ) à h ) e ` ) ÷³Åf d Æ  d ge cd a d B → BDl+ν̄D aTd Ç d ²Bù [£Ã d ²0¸pÇ d ÅøDÅ )
∗

e ) oµ d à h ) e `p³6÷ +pg³ Å `³BgI¸ à f d f Æ –³BgI¸ à f d f +pf³ ) Q

f +ÅDl ²Ih à ¸¾-g +DÇÅ +f^1
³ +„³h¾²Ih5
à ¸¾-g +DÇÅ +f^ ³ ` d g6e Cd a +y² d Ç am) f8` ) ²Bù [£Ã d ;² +p³ Æ –³BgI¸ à f d f d g d |V | [ ×d ] ³;—
cb

|Vcb| = (41.2 ± 2.0) × 10−3. d

ú Æ nX× e

¼ ½Ž¾[Z*¾AZ Vub
ÚPe`³ a ³ à ·iÅp³If ) Å d ³ à ³6µ¶³6Åpf d |V | ³ ) ²Å ) Ç d Å ) Å d +pgµ¶³-`Ç d ųrÅ d à ³6epf ) Ŏ
Å+po · +iµžeV¸ à ²B³Ån²ep³hf^ù`nÇQ+DÅDh à ub¸¾g-+DÇÅ+pf^³@` d g6e dca + B → X lν̄ øhù a ³f )
w
³ e ` ) +pg6Ç ) Å )
dCa ` ) ÅDÅ ) ²Bù–²Bf ) ·DÅ+³‹²Bù a ù` b_d _ ) D
h Ç d `Dh qÈ ) lg-+kµ¶³f )-a

à Æ
³+µÅ ) [ ) öV¸pÇG²Bf8Ç +pf^³ à ³Łhpùÿµ½e `p³ a e ) à )Cb ³Å+V·|f^³ ) `³Ifu+Dö³ł²Ie³hf^ù`‚Çsh+5
Xq
Åp³6µ d f +DöÅ d f d [ ` d Å +D÷ d g d B → Dlν̄ Æ R+g6e ) à g6Ç d ah+*` d g à +DöÅ+½µ )a ³ à +
l
 ™¥j0 œž ŸžlÑkÒ¡T¢ « žnÓý8ž6Ô « ©ÓD¦+¨þý0©Õ
g1 d ) ÷p³6Åh d Å d ²;+D²Bf^³6µ d f+DöÅ+f^³ˆf^³ ) `³If+DöDÅ+nų ) e`³ a ³ à ³6Å ) ²Bf+ø d Å d à +pg d
Å d ³h¾²ep³`+iµ¶³Åf d à Å+pf³ a d ÅÅ+ aTd Ç d [‡ ]

|Vub| = (3.6 ± 0.7) × 10−3. d

ú Æ n-Ä e

¼½Ž¾[Z*¾wv V tb
x ³6µ¶³Åf d ²B³6+pgµ¶³`DÇ d e ) ²;`³ a ²IfÇ ) µU` d g6e dCaTd t → bl+ν øh ) af ) h ) Å5
Ã
hV ¸ `+` d e ) à ¸ à ³6epf ) ÅÅ+f^³B` d ge dca +Å d t Ç s + à + d hDÇ d `Dh+ Æ l R}g<µ¶³`³Å ) f )
Vtb
) fÅ ) k³ Å +³x³ [‡ ]
|Vtb|2
= 0.94+0.31 d
ú Æ n sye
2 2 2 −0.24.
|Vtd | |Vtc| |Vtb |
¼½Ž¾[Z*¾Az {7| }w~€cj}‚~Iƒ
l`+
à d [ d ah+Œ¸´² à ) Ç+³If ) g d ¸pÅ+f d `Å ) ²Bf V V † = V †V = 1 d +~e`³ a e ) 
à d [ d ah +øYö³‡²Bù_l³6²BfǸpÇ d f~² d µ ) f`+àe ) h ) à ³6Å+p· e µ )Cb ³ a d ²B³‡e ) à ¸pö+
epù Ã Å d h d `f+Å d g d µ d f`+D÷ d f d Å d É\É:/ Æ á Å+DÇ ) Å d9a3) ²Bf ) Ç^³-`Å ) ²Bf È d _
²Bf ) aDÅ ) ²Bf +f^³kÅ d ³ à ³6µ¶³Åf +f^³lÅ d µ d f`+D÷ d f d Å d É\É:/ ² d õ ‡ öè—

 
0.9741 to 0.9756 0.219 to 0.226 0.0025 to 0.0048
 
V =  0.219 to 0.226 0.9732 to 0.9748 0.038 to 0.044  .
0.004 to 0.014 0.037 to 0.044 0.9990 to 0.9993
ú Æ n Z8e
d
ü Å+f d `DÅ ) ²Bf^f d ²IÇù`Vg6Ç d ` d g à +DöÅ+f^³ˆ³ à ³µ¶³Åf+øh d f ) ²Bf ) aÅ ) ²Bff d Å d
a dca ³Ål³ ³µ¶³Åf ) ` d Å+Dö d Ç d„) f d ²Bf8+pf^³qø<h ) +f ) µ ) d f aTd ²B³…+pgµ¶³6ÅV·Df a `p¸*
à [ à [
+pf³  dCa ³Å+pf³»f¸ph ) f d ²If+‰²I³1` d g +Dö d Ç d f ³h ) Å ) ų²;+~e` )  f +DÇ ) 
[ Æ Ã Ã Ã d
`p³ö d f ) f a +`p³6hpfÅ )1) e`³ a ³ ³6Å+f^³l²Bf ) aÅ ) ²If+‡e ) ) `³
e à [ Æ
/ d `f+÷ d f d Å d É@É:/ e ) h d g6Ç d ap³-` d `;i+öDÅ d ²Bf`p¸phpf^ ¸ ` d ø² a + d [ ) Å d à Å +
³ à ³µ¶³Åf+صžÅ ) [ ) f à +Vgh+ a3) ³ a +Å+÷ d øüf^³Ig-+†²IÇ^ù`pg6Ç d _9+eù `8Ç +pf^³ a Ç^³
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e ) h ) à ³Å +p· ) h ) à ) λ ≡ |V | = 0.223 ± 0.003 ø ²|³ à ³µ¶³Åf+”²µž³²IÇ d _9+
Ç^f ) ` ) f ) +ˆf `³If ) f ) e ) h ) à ³Å us+³ ) fxe ) `q· a ù–h d λ2 ø8+»²v³ à ³6µ¶³Åf+ˆ²µ¶³6²IÇ d _9+
epù `DÇ ) f ) +½f `³If ) f ) e ) h ) à ³Å +p³ ) f{e ) `q· a ù–h d Å d λ3 Æ È ) Ç d LJ¸ a3) fqÅ ) gd
+Vg6e ) g6Ç d ų}Å d ² ³ a Å d f d e d ` d µ¶³f`+pg d ÷+p·Å d µ d f`+D÷ d f d Å d É\É:/ —
à à [s ‡ ]

 2 
1 − λ2 λ Aλ3 (ρ − iη)
 2  4


d
ú Æ nú e
V= −λ 1 − λ2 Aλ2 +O λ ,
Aλ3(1 − ρ − iη) −Aλ2 1
hpù a I³ f )† ø ρ
+
η
² d `³ d à Å+‡ö+² à d —

A = 0.83 ± 0.04
p
ρ2 + η 2 = 0.40 ± 0.07. d
ú Æn e
`V¸
[ d e d ` d µ¶³If`+Vg d ÷+V·{Ljf Æ Å d ` Æ f(²Bf d Å a d p` fGÅ d g —
 
c12 c13 s12c13 s13e−iδ13
 
V = −s12 c23 − c12 s23s13eiδ13 c12 c23 − s12 s23s13eiδ13 s23 c13  ,
s12s23 − c12c23 s13eiδ13 −c12s23 − s12c23 s13eiδ13 c23c13
ú Æ n ‡ke
d
hpù a ³If ) c = cosθ + s = sinθ ø²V‡1ø ˆi nøH×¾øcĉ² d
) f
f³ Ã p· g d Å+
e ) h ) à ³Å+p·f d ijÆ ðಠà ¸pö d ijaKÅ d θij i θ i ij δ iûdˆµ d f`+D÷ d f d Å d É@: É / ²B³
²IÇ^³ bBaTd9am) µ d f`+÷ d f d Å d É d f=+ f ) ² θ ù‰Bù à Šd É d f8+DÅf ) Æ
13 23 13
12

¼½Ž¾[Z*¾AŠ 
H Rô àÞIL8ß<H8óMóÂà8Þ  Þù Ž H8Þ

 ) epù Å+pf^³ Å d +ÅDû ) `iµ d ÷+V·¹µ )-b ³ aTd fù a ³e ) ¸pöp³6Å o d ) f“ųB¸Vf ` d à Å +
à à Ã
e`³i )-a +~e` ) µ¶³Åp·_,+ d ` ) µ d f d Çm³ a Å ) e `+iµžh ) Ç ) e `+f à + b ³Å +³ Æ ð cd b ³6Å
e`+Dµž³`©³Œ²µ¶³6²IÇ d Åp³If ) Å d B + B̄ Æ È ) -g +©e `p³i )-a ²B ³ +VgÇ^ù `kÇ d ² ) fqµ¶³
Å dOa Ç d W f ) g ) Å d µ¶³ b,a ¸‡û
³ `D5µ + ) ÅÅ +pf³ à +Å ++øjf Æ Å d ` Æ f ) h¾²k a + d ‰` d µ d Æ
Ì µže à +f¸ a d f d Å d ²µž³²IÇ d Åp³
³se ` ) e ) `D÷ + ) Å d à Šd Å d
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hB̄d0 |H|B0 i ∼
X
∗
Vid Vib ∗
Vjd VjbS(ri, rj ), d
ú Æ n È=e
hpù a ³If ) S(r , r ) ³kû€¸pÅhD÷+V·„g d Ç+D²B³_  d ) fmµ d ²;+f^³‰õ r ≡ m2/M 2 öÅ d
ij

hÇ d `Dh+f^³ ) ff+eYfŒ‹ g e ) ·DÇ^·DÇ d _9+½²B³‚Çù–LJÇ^ù…f`³kÅ+pf³ ià +Å++ i Æ  ) W` dCa +

i j

¸pÅ+f d `Å ) ²If^f d Å d µ d f`+D÷ d f d Å d É\É:/ d µže à +f¸ a +f^³‰Å d ²µž³²IÇ d Åp³„²B³
ÅV¸ à +` d fmg d ` d ÇGÅ+‰µ d ²;+~Å d hDÇ d `h+pf³ d ìÿRF/ µ¶³i d Å+Vgùÿµ e£Æ È d h d ³û
³h5
f d ³„e ` ) e ) `D÷ + ) Å d à ³Å Å d ` d g à +Dh+f^³ŒÇ“µ d ²;+f^³nµ¶³ bBa ¸ u ø c + t Æ ÈvùBa
h d f ) ` d g à +DöÅ +pf³ƒû d hpf ) `+ Çൠd f8`+D÷ d f d Å d É\É:/ ² d e ) öf+` d ÇGÅ+ø
∗ ∗ ∗
∼ Aλ3
ø¶h ` d aDÅ d f d‰d µže à +f¸ aTd ²B³ am) µ0+5
Vud Vub
Å +` 
 d ) f»e `+DÅ ) ² d Å d ZrhDÇ d `Dh d Æ f Æ ³ Æ hB̄ 0|H|B i ∼ |V |2S(r , r ) Æ
∼ Vcd Vcb ∼ VtdVtb
È ) -g +ye `p³i )-a µ )Cb ³ a d fGù a F ³ +pg6e ) à gdÇ d Å|g Bd 0 ) e `p³ a ³ tbà ·DųzÅ t d |V
t
Æ Ú€²k
Å ) ÇÅ d f d ų ) e `p³ a ³ à ³Å ) ²B1
f +aÇOd ) f Cd a ` ) ÅÅ +V·Œµ d 8f `+Döp³6Ň³ à ³6µ¶³6ÅpfÅ d ö³
td |

f +`+f^³hÇ d `Dh Xd ) f a + d ‰;` d µ d f d Å d >9+‰ Æ n7d Æ Ä Æ R+gµž³ `p³6Å ) f ) ²µž³²IÇ d Åp³aµž³ b 


a ¸ + ø Ç )-a + am) —
d B 0 B̄ 0 ∆M = 0.496 ± 0.007ps−1 [ ŽŽ ]
d Bd0

 
p  Vtd 
|Vtd | = 0.0077 ± 0.001, (1 − ρ)2 + η 2 ≈   = 0.84 ± 0.12.
λVcb  ú ×
d d Æ e
 )a3) fG³Å d Å d à p+ g‰µ )Cb ³ Ta d ²B³„Å d e` d Ç8++¹Ç“²;+²If^³6µ d f d Bs0 − −B̄s0 Æ

q u, c, t b q W b

W W u, c, t u, c, t

b u, c, t q b W q
 ™ !ÿÎ6" B # B̄ 2], =6, ?<.w$<, ).0/9)š2H !
0 0
  Ñ Ò¡’‘¥¡7“H© æ;« ¨UÓ§Ó
ž‹«XÓ§£§Ÿ-©êÔ ª žn
Ó;¨ ª6« ÓžJ¤¥žÖÔ8© ý0©èÓ§£ « © « ¨Ïå
¨ÏŸ7© ϙ jÎ
Ã+³6ep³`f¸ `f d f+ÇGÅ+f^³Å³ ) e`³ a ³ à ³Å ) ²If+Œ² d Å d µ d à ³Å+ am) Å+Ç ) Å d Å d `p¸*
l³ Å +p³xÅ d SU (3) ö `p³Bg ) fGÅ ) l³Å+p³f )
   2
∆MBs0
≈
MBs0 ξB2 s0  Vts 2


 ≡ Ω2  V ts 
 ú Æ ”× n e
d
∆MBd0 MBd0 ξB2 0  Vtd   Vtd 
ðag³6µ d aDh+
Ω ≈ 1.15 ± 0.08 [ Ž ]
d
+ ³h¾²Ie³`+iµ¶³Åf d Å d f d
ú • à ‰;` d Å+D÷ d g d
∆MBs0
e ) ¸pö d Ç d µž³
> 14.9ps−1 d È Ž8• –H— e [ Ž8Ž ] Ã
 
 Vts 
 ≈ p 1
d
ú Æ × × e
 Vtd  λ (1 − ρ)2 + η 2 > 4.2.

²y˜™›š œ*´Ÿž R¶,¶¢¡r£+¶,µ¶4k¤Ÿ¥=¡3·`¶Ÿ ¦¥ž!¶¢¡r§k¡3¤Ÿ

¨*¶,µNž ž 3©t  4
ð á f d Å aTd `fÅ+p·|µ )-a ³ à W Ç^g d +iµ )-a ³ª²IfÇ d ²v³ a Å d +»²Bù_ d ²;+ à d g/(2√2)
²»Ç;² +Döh+Œg d `³ a ³6Å+‰û€³`iµ0+ ) ÅDÅ+‰f ) h ) Ç^³ Æ ü Å+DÇ^³-`² d à Š) ²If^f d Å d à ³6epf ) Ŏ
Å ) f ) Çg d +Dµ )a ³ªD²BfÇ8+p³Kµ )Cb ³ à ³²IÅ )Ea d fù a ³‚f^³6²BfÇ d Å ) ø d h ) ²B³ a3) ep¸q²Åp³
à ³ef ) ÅÅ +pf³|h ) ŲBf d Åf + aTd g d Ç +D²Ä·Df ) f{f +e d Å d à ³ef ) Å d +½²I³1+Vgµž³`q·f
ÅV·ih ) Ã h ) Ã ³ef ) ÅÅ + +{e ) Ã ¸ Ã ³epf ) ÅDÅ +E` d g6e cd a + Æ
ÚPfÅ ) l³Å +³If ) R Å K d a Ç^³f^³½e ) à ¸ à ³6epf ) ÅÅ + π− → l−ν̄ µ )-a +ÉÅ d
` d g6e cd a ³s e ` ) e ) `D÷ + ) Å d à Š) Å d |g /g |2 Æ ÚPf d n [Æ «=e e ) à ¸pö d Ç d µ¶8³ l¬
e/µ
e µ
 
d VÆ e
 gµ  n
  = 1.0017 ± 0.0015.
 ge 
á ù‰ à d ²0¸pÇ d ÅE`³BgI¸ à f d f |g /g | = 1.0006 ± 0.0021 øD²B³ke ) à ¸pö d Ç d ö `³Bg
+Vgµž³`Ç d ų€Å d:) G f Å ) l³Å+p³f ) µB e /B = 0.9737 ± 0.0044 [« ] ø¾hù a ³ f )
τ →µ τ →e
− − Æ
á ` d ÇGÅV·iÇ d ªDh + Γ(τ − → e−ν̄ ν ) + Γ(µ− → e−ν̄ ν ) øµ )Cb ³ a d fù a ³
Bτ →l ≡ Γ(τ → l ν̄l ντ )
f^³²BfÇ d Å d g ¬ e τ e µ
τ
 
 gτ 
  = 0.9995 ± 0.0023. ×
d VÆ e
 gµ 
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Ù¶h¾²Ie³`+Dµž³Åpf d à Å+pf^³O`³BgI¸ à f d f8+{e ) h d g6Ç d f [« , n È ] øiö³khDŲBf d Åf d f d Å d

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à à Ã
a ³Å + ³ Ü ÚPf‰ ) Ç ) ` + f^³Å d f^³Bg-+~Ç^ù–e` ) ²;+ŒÇh Æ+öDÇ d f ) fK³h¾²ep³`+iµ¶³Åf d Å d
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Å d Å ) Ç ) ` )-a ³Å+ f^³
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f ) öDÅ ) ²Bf Æ –³‰;D+ ²Bf` d ÷V+ ·Df d +Ô+ a ³Åf+ û2D+ h d ÷V+ ·Df d Å d ³ à ³6µ¶³6Åpf d D` Å+ f^³|ö d ²k
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g d q` · a Å d ö d ²BfD+ ÷ d øh ) ·Df ) V+ gI¸pö d Ç d µ¶³qøÿ² d p+ g6Ç^³²IfÅ+ Æ ðYù–Ç{û2p+ g-+ h d f d Å d
³ à ³µ¶³Åf d ` Åp+ f³„ö d ²If+ ÷à + e ) Ç^³6öp³If ) ö d ²If + ÷+'i + µ d f½³ a  + ÅD+ öp³Å©³ ³6hpf`5
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Å d ö d ²Bf8+÷ d f d ø d β = v/c ³ŒÅ³ªÅ d f d ²Ih ) ` ) ²Bf“²Bù 0) fÇ^³IfGÅ ) Æ á h ) ` ) ²If^f d
Å d ö d ²Bf +D÷ d f d µ )Cb ³ aTd fù a ³ ) e`³ a ³ à ³Å d ø Å d e`+iµ¶³`øö`³BgKµž³If )-a d Å d
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E kin = (γ − 1)m0c2 , d Æ e
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b ³ aTd fù a ³ )  e `1−β
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g d ‰0¸yf=+ à d‘ ³Å³`‰;+V· x g d ² à ) ª ) fyÇ^³_k³²BfÇ ) f ) ö`³Bg1ª ) Å+pg d ÷+p· Æ  )
f¸ph‡Å d ¸pö+yÝDµ¶³ m + ì e )8) f a ³ à Š) Æ  ) f ) gC+yÅ d ö+Å a dÞb ³:` d g à +DöDÅ+E+Vg ) 
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g d `p³ ‰+²B8f ` d ÷ +p·~Å d ö d ²Bf8+÷+n³Gø…ö³_ÇG²B³h+Œû6+pg-+Döp³Ån³û€³6hpfyµ )Cb ³ aTd fGù+
a ³ +pg6e ) g6Ç d ÅÀh d f ) + a ³B·”g d e ) ²Bf` ) ·DÇ d ų‡Å da ³If^³hf ) `
à Æqõ ) Å+pg d ÷+p·f d
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Dz à ³ a ²BfÇ +³Å d Åp·Dh d hDÇ ) Çg d +Dµ )a ³ ªD²Bf8Ç +p³ aTd ` )-a ·Dfmg d `³ a ³Å d ö d ²Bf +D÷ d ø
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d Æÿþye
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²IÇ^ù`pg d Å d f ) µ¶³Ŧ³ à ³hf` ) Å Æ ÈD`q·fqÇ da d ²B³ ) f
fG³ à ³ b +ø‹öp³f ) g-+àe` ) ÷³²
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e ) ³6µ d +iµžep¸ à ² d Å dF) fh d f Æ É d f ) +Dµ d µ¶³PÇe`³ a Ç8+ a ø¾ö³ 80% ) fk²B³ö³Å+p³f )
Å d Çg d +Dµ )-a ³ªD²BfÇ+³wg d û ) f ) ³û
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K
σph.e. =(
32 1 4 5
7
) 2 α Z σT hompson [cm2 /atom] d
n
Æú e
ε
hpù a I³ f ) ε = E ø d σ h
Æ ó d Ç+D² ) h+„³Å³`‰;++
T hompson = 3 πre = 665 U ‘ ’
8 2 Û
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γ
m e

d ÆA8e
K 1 n
σph.e. = 4πre2 Z 5 α4 .
ε
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d f ) µžÅ+p·©Å ) µ¶³`Å d ²;`³ aTd f d Æ È ) Ç dP) f·D²IÅp·DÇ d g d _ ) g d g d _9+f d*) f γ
à ùpö +y²BF ³ +pg6e ) à gÇ d fˆf^³ b h+„µ¶³If d à +yh d f )) à ) Ç ) f ) Æ
ðYù–Ç€2 û +p-g +h d f d Å d Ç8+² ) h+pf^³ü³Å³`‰++_²B³ö³Å+p³If ) g d û ) f ) ³û
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Å d ö +pf^³ à Š) øf Æ ³ Æ û ) f ) ³6û€³hf^ù…f ) f²If^ù–eÇ d µ·D²If ) e`³ aPa `V¸ ‰+pf^³ˆe` ) ÷p³²+
+_Å d ª5oÇ^³ö³ü e `p³ a ` cd bBaTd ųIf ) Å dYa Ç ) ªh d ³ à ³hf` ) ÅT±e ) gC+pf` ) Åøqh d hf ) _l³
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γ + e− −→ γ0 + e− 0
É ) žµ ef^ù–Å ) Ç ) f ) ` d g6²B³-ªÇ d ų
Å d γ ‹hÇ d Åf+{µ )-b ³ aTd ²Bf d ų:+ ) f»²IÇ ) f )-a 
Å+~³ à ³6hpf` ) Å+øf^ùª~h d f ) e`p³ a ²Bf d Ç Ã ·iÇ da Ǹpö d ²Bf8+ö³Že` ) ÷³² Æ Ù¶Å³`‰;+5
·f d Å d γ ]hDÇ d Åpf d ²B³ke )-a ³ à ·nµ¶³ bBa ¸
` d g6²B³B·iÅ+p· γ ]hDÇ d ÅfQ+„³ à ³hpf8` ) Å
) fm;² `³ a d f d á ³ö³Å+p³If ) Å d Çg d +Dµ )a ³ªD²BfÇ8+p³kg d É ) µžef^ù–Å ) Ç ) ` d g6²B³-ªÇ d 
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h ) ÅD²Bf d Åpf d +iµ d Ç+ aTd ¬

d ÆS«ke
ln ε n
σCompt ≡ σc ∼ Const. Z,
ε
hpù a ³If ) ~³f8` ) ·fKÅ d ³ à ³hpf8` ) Å+f^³ˆÇ d f ) µ ) fmµ0+k³Å d f d Æ ÚPf‚g d h ) Å +f^³
g d g d e d g6Ç d ų]Å d ³Å³`‰;+V·Df d +O+DµeV¸ à ² d µ )-b ³ aTd ²B³H+Vg6dz a ³ ) fÅ ) k³Åp + ³If )
µ¶³ bBa ¸{³Åp³-`‰;+p·f d Å d ` d g6²B³B·iÅ+p· γ vhDÇ d ÅfKhpùÿµ¦³6Åp³`‰;+p·f d Å d Å d p+ f d 
Ã
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γ
‹hÇ d Åf¬
0
Eγ
=
1
, Æ Èke d
n
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ph ù a ³If ) Θ ³_ù‰Bù à ù…fÅ d ` d g6²B³ªDÇ d Åp³_Å d û ) f ) Å d?) fÅ ) I² Å ) epù`DÇ ) Å d ö d à 
Å d f d e ) ² ) γh d Å d6a Ç+ b ³Å+p³ Æó dF) f=` d fÅ ) ` d g6²B³ªDÇ d Åp³ (Θ = π) ø¾e`³ a dca ³
Å d f d ³6Åp³`‰;+p·yÅ d ³ à ³hf` ) Å d +Dµ d µ d h¾²;+iµ d à Šd ²Bf ) ªDÅ ) ²Bγf ¬

max
Ekin =
2ε2
me c2 , Æ e d
n n½
1 + 2ε
h ) ³If ) ÇK‰;` d Å+DöDÅ+p· ² à ¸pö d ª (ε  1) ³
` d ÇÅ ) Å d E Æ 7`+©e` ) ÷p³²IùTf
Å d ` d g6²B³-ªÇ d ų{Å d eù`DÇ+DöÅ+V· γ ¨hDÇ d Åf ) f•³ à ³hf` ) γÅ d ø ² d µ ) ö d ²Bf ) f
³Åp³-`‰;+p·f d Å d γ »hDÇ d Åpf d ²B³ ) f a d Ç d Å d ³ à ³6hpf` ) Å d ø dr) ²Bf d Å d à d f d ²B³
) fÅ d ²£· ) fr` d g6²B³B·iÅ+p· khÇ d Åf Æ È ) Ç d Å d à d ‰ d Çù–Ç^³ bBaTd ųIf ) Å d Å ) 8Ç +
a dz‚²B³ö³Å+V·t¬²B³ö³Å+³Å d ` d g6²B³ªDÇ d Åp³ x hŒð Z Z h¯‡ ð;hŒ 0æZ ‡‚ 
γ
d ’ O ‘ O ’ O ’
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<¤  ¢ ™ ¢ ¤¡   Ÿ # < ( ¡  Ÿ
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σcs e
 0Z懂  ¬ ’ ‘ ’
O ’ σca e

σcs =
Eγ 0
σc d Æ
n nn
e
Eγ
n nX×
−

σca = σc − σcs = σc(1 −

Eγ 0 Ee
) = σc kin d Æ e
Eγ Eγ
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l` ) ÷³²Bù…fV` dÞbBa d Åp³‚Å d Å }e ) -g +f` ) ÅDÅ dQa Ç ) ªDh d ÇWÉ+¸ à ) Å ) Ç ) f )
³ Ã ³ hf` ) !
e ) ³sÅ d · a ` ) f ) +pg-+²hÇ
à d 5µ +Å+Dµ d à Šd ³6pÅ ³`‰;+p·Û¬
n n-Ä
d Æ e
2m2e c2
E ≥ 2m c2 +
γ e .
mnucleus
l` d hf+Döp³6²Ih+ mnucleus  me
+y²
à ³ a3) Ç d f^³ à Š)
Eγ ≥ 2me c2 Æ

γ −→ e− + e+ ,
Ú+fÀ²Bù ) f8` dcb ³Å+p· g d g d e d g6Ç d ųnÅ d +Dµžep¸ à ² d ² à ³ a Ç d wø ö³nf ) g-+Ée` ) ÷ ³²
f`q· fqÇ d:a d e` ) f^³ö³
Ç_e`+²Iù–²BfÇ+³If ) Å d f8`p³If ) f6· à ) Æ á ³ öp³6Å+³If ) Å d e` ) 
÷p³² d µ )-b ³ aTd ²B³
g d e+l³xÇ»² à ³ a Å+V·‡Ç8+ a ¬
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7 183 1
σpair = 4αre2 Z 2( ln 1 − ) [cm2 /atom] d Æ
n n
þ”e
9 Z3 54
á à ³ a h d f ) e`p³6µ d Ýų6µ”e`³Åp³f8`³ b +Dµ0+f^³kö à ³Å ) ^Ç ³Gøpg d ‰ ) à ³6µ0+#~µ )Cb ³6µ
a d g d e+l³6µ ²B³ö³Å+p³If ) Å d e` ) ÷³² d Å d ` dcbBaTd ň ³ Å d ³ à ³hpf8` ) ÅNüe ) -g +pf

` ) ÅÅ d,a Ç ) ªDh d Ç ) e` ) ²Bf^³Å+p·{Ç+ a ¬

σpair =
7 A 1 Æ Že
d
n n
9 NA X 0
 d g6e`p³ a ³ à ³Å+p³If ) Å d ³6Åp³`‰;+p·f d µ¶³ b,a ¸‰³ à ³hf` ) Å d +•e ) g-+f` ) Å d  ³ ²;+5
µ¶³If`+öDÅ ) e`+ƒÅ+²h+“³6Åp³`‰;++ (E +ƒ²+ Å )nd ²;+Dµž³If§
Ã
`+DöÅ ) e`+|Ç8+² ) h+³Å³`‰;++ gamma  50M eV )
6aTd g d Ç^ù`9+iµÔ` d -g ‰k
d
Æó
³Ã bBaTd ųIf ) Å d Çg d +Dµ )-a ³ªD²BfÇ(E+p·gammaf d Å d û ) 1GeV
f ) Å+{)²
dz_l³6²BfÇ ) f ) Åp³h , d ) f ) f
_9+iµ ¬že`+¼Å+D²Ih+”³Å³`‰;++ a ` d ²Bf+DöÅ ) e`³ ) f dca d Ç d û ) f ) ³û
³hpf d Å cd a
Ã
) ²Bf d Å d +pf³‚h ) ÅDhV¸ `³ÅfÅ+‰e` ) ÷p³6²;+ø a3) h d f )  e `+‰ Ç +D² ) h +Œ³Å³ `‰;++nh d f^³
Ã
‰ ) `+öDÅ )Bam) µ0+Å+` d ` dcbBaTd ųIf ) Å d ³ ³h
à f ` ) ÅE‹e ) Cg +pf ` ) ÅDÅ + a Ç ) ªh + Æ
²†²4™ ³b·¢k©Ÿž ¤¢ 4ú2¡†»¶,µŸž8¶,µ<©t¡4¥8©Û¡D
9µ
É ) ‰ d f ) Ç+D² ) h ) ³Å³`‰I³If+Döp³ÅO‰ d µ d  hDÇ d Åf:+ à +»³ à ³hf` ) ŏe ) e dCa Åp³}Ç^ù`8ÝV¸
e à ùTf^³6Ňe ) ‰ à ù…f+pf³ à e`p³ a +pg6Ç+DhDÇ d ³ à ³hf` ) µ d ‰IÅ+fÅ d h d ²Ih dCaTd øih ) ³If ) ²B³
¸pe` d Ç Ã ·iÇ d2) fle` ) ÷³²;+f^³PÅ d ` dcbBaTd ųPÅ d ³ à ³hf` ) Å e ) g-+f` ) ÅÅ+ a Ç ) ª5
h+P+*+Vg à ùpöDÇ d Åp³ˆÅ d ²e+` d öDÅ ) +pg à ùpöDÇ d ų ) fKg d `p³ a ³Å+pf³_ö d ²Bf8+÷+ Æ ÚJf
` d gI¸pÇ d f²B³sÇ^f ) `+DöÅ+³ ³hpf8` ) Å+E+ ‰ d µ d hÇ d Åf+{²xe ) oÅ+D²Ih d ³6Åp³`‰;+p·
à Æ
l` ) ÷³²Bù…f€Å d Çf ) `+öDÅ ) ` cd bBaTd ųüÅ d ö d ²If+÷+»e` ) f+ö dlam) h d f ) ³Å³`‰;+V·8
f d Å d Çf ) `+DöÅ +pfX³ ‰ d µ d …hDÇ d Åpf +ke cd a ų‹e )-a ³Åp³-`‰;+p·f d g dD) f8` d g¸pÇ d ųaÅ d
a Ç ) ªD h +»³ à ³hf ` ) Å  e ) -g +p8f ` )  Å + à + E e cd a ų+e )-a h `+f +DöÅ d f d ³6Åp³`‰;+p·ˆg d
h ) ÅDh `³IfÅ ) f ) dz _l³6²BfÇ ) øVhù a ³f ) ²I6³ ` d g68Ç +Ç d e ` ) ÷p³² d f Æ 6³ ` d Cg ` d ²BfÇ d Åp³f )
Å d à d 8Ç +Å d f d e ` )-a ù à b_d Ç  d a3) f ) ‰ d Ç d ø a3) h d f ) E = E Æ l`+Œe ) üÅ +D²Ih +
³Åp-³ `‰;++ ) f E g d e ) öDÇ d e ` ) ÷p³²xÅ d ª ) Å +pg d ÷ +p·øie `+‡h c) ³If ) ³ à ³6hpf ` ) Å +f^³
+_e ) Cg +pf ` ) Å +f^cJ³ ‰0y¸ f·f€³6Åp³ `‰;+p·f d ² +,+ˆ²B³re ) ‰ à ù _ d f€Ç^ù–ÇzÇ^³ _k³²BfÇ ) f ) Æ  )
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w <> ­W­0!˜Ð<"%$¡0Ÿ0   ¡¢ ™ ¢Ÿ& < Ÿ<0 sŸ  ¡ < ¡¢l0 (Ÿ<¥0Ÿ  ¡    ¥ 3 j   ¢< >¡0¥ (' Ÿ 
o  # ¤<¥  Ÿ¡  ¡0¢a a¥¢*)w¢ ¡¥0¡0
ÑkÑWµÿþ-µ
äm±=¸èå=·Ô º€¹¦² ë6Ócâ8·¥Ócâ\å-²;åèå-²>ý”â 4Î

w< ­W­0!ÿÍ6" + ¥  ¡  ¢aŸ  ¢ ™ ¢(¤6¡  

š Ÿ  ¡Ÿ ]™ ¥  Ÿ 
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w< ­W­0! ", ™ ¢(¤6¡  

š Ÿ  ¡Ÿ ]™ ¥  Ÿ 
f ) -g +‰Å d ö+Ån³ à ³6hpf` ) µ d ‰IÅ+pfGÅ d f d à d Ç+DÅ d ¸ ‰ d ²Ç d ÇK²;`p³ a d f d øÇmh ) ·Df ) ²B³
³F` d gÇ + Ã d Æ
Ù a Å d ³ à ³hf` ) µ d ‰IÅ+pfÅ d à d Ç+DÅ d ²I³ü²Bù–²Bf ) + ) fx³ à ³hf` ) Å+øqe ) g-+f` ) Å+
+B‰ d µ d –hÇ d Åf+øGf d h d öp³ ) f6‰ ) `³]Å d e` d dzÅ+pf^³Y` d g6²Bù bBa ³Å+V·»µ )Cb ³6µ aTd
g d e +k³6µ f8` ) ·kÅ d ö d ²Bf+D÷+pf^³üh d f ) û€¸pÅhD÷+V·¨Å d ` dCa + d ÷+ ) ÅDÅ d f dHa ù à b +Ž
Å d d t ³_Ç|³ a +DÅ +D÷ + õ X ö ešÆ d  Cd a + d ÷+ ) ÅDÅ d f da ù à b +Å d ³9Ý d ` d hf^³`+D²Bf+Dh d
Å d ;² `³ a d f d +xe `³ a ²Bf d Ç 0à ·DÇ d ;² `³ a Å ) f ) ` d g6²Bf ) ·DÅ+³Gø0g d h ) ³If ) Ç8+² ) h ) ³Å³`5
f +Döp³6ŕ³ à ³6hpf ` ) Å ‰0y¸ f8+'n.- O ) f{³6Åp³ `‰;+p·f d ;² +“ö`³BgK²Ie+` d öDÅ ) à ùpö³Å+p³
‰B³I
e

N (t) = 2t d
× Æ nú e

⇒ E(t) = E0 2−t d
× Æn 8e
ðY³ö³z²Ie ) žµ ³Å d DÝ µ¶³Gøöp³z¸µžÅ )Cb ³Å+p³f ) e ` )-a ù à b_d Ç d9a3) Ee ∼ E c ⇒

Ec = E02−tmax
× Æ n «ke d

ó
d Ç`³6µ¶³Å d t > t ö d ²Bf8+÷+pf³g d e ) öÇ d f Ta d ²I³e ) ‰ à ù _ d fø à d Ç+DÅ d f d
e`³²Bf d Ç d9a d ²B³F` d max
g6e` ) ²Bf` d Åp·DÇ d Æ
ÑkÑWµÿþ-µ
äm±=¸èå=·Ô º€¹¦² ë6Ócâ8·¥Ócâ\å-²;åèå-²>ý”â 4Í

tmax =
ln( EE0c )
≈ ln E0 d
× Æ n Èke
+ù
à Å+V·DfBf=` ) ªyö d ²Bf+D÷+
ln 2

S=
tmax
X
N (t) =
X
2t = 2tmax+1 − 1 ≈ 2tmax+1 d
× Æ Þ× ½ e
t=0 t

E0
S = 2.2tmax = 2 ≈ E0
Ec
Ù a +ń³ à ³hf` ) Åø…e ) e Cd aTd ªDh+nǁh d à ) `+iµ¶³Ifù` d ø ) ²Bf d Ç·Œ÷V· à d f d ²;+³Å³`5
‰;+V·±ø d h ) h d ) `+iµ¶³Ifù`pù…fn³y² am) ²Bf d f^ùpöDÅ ) ‰ ) ·jµ d a ù b +Å d f ³ e ) ų
Ã Ã Ã Æ Æ
a ³²I³If h + ` dCa + d ÷+ ) ÅDÅ+ a ù Ã b +DÅ+ Æ ð dÞb Å ) ³ aTd ²B³ ) f
f³ à ³ b +øjöp³kµž³ bBa ¸
f8` ) ·DflÅ d û ) f ) Å+pf^³2+»³Å³`‰;+V·Df·‚Å d eù`Ç8+öDÅ+V·‰ d µ d hDÇ d Åpf<ø´e`³ a +VgÇ+5
h d Ãyà d 8Ç +Å d f d øj²Iù_l³²BfGǸpÇ d à +ųªDÅ d Ç8`pùgh d Æ f Æ ³ Æ
Nph. ∼ S ∼ E0
Ì h ) +Vg6Çù`¨Ç d µ¶³2+pgµ¶³-`Ç d Å+V·ye`p³BglÇ8`p³6µž³ t ⇒
S
S∗ =
=2
E0 1
d
× Æ ”× n e
t Ec t
√ √ √
σ S∗
= ∗ =q
t
∼√
t
d
× Æ × × e
E0 S 2 EE0c E0

σ a
∼√ ,
E E
ph ù a ³If ) a = const ø d σ ³ ) f Å ) ²;+f^³ à Šd f d ‰;`³kh d øDe`+E+pgµ¶³-`Ç d ųIf ) Å d
³Åp³-`‰;+p·f d Æ 7`+ne ) H`pE³ d à +B² f8+öDÅ ) ) e+² d Å+³»Å dca à ù b Å ) f ) ` d g6Ç8+pf8+p³»²B³
d e ` ) h¾;² +Dµ5+` d ²¬
dE/dx = const.ta e−bt ,
× ×
Ä
d Æ e
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hpù a ³If ) g d Ç+D²;+ ) »f Å d ö d à Šd f d ³ ų`‰;+p· E + ) f_dz_l³6²BfÇ ) f ) øpf Æ ³ Æ

dE/dx
a = f (E0) b = f (E0) Æ
+ à d e`p³6öÅ ) f ) ` d ge` ) B² f8`0 d Åp³Å+³¨g d Ç+D²;+ ) ?f `d
a +p¸q² d Åd / )
à +p-³ ` d0/ 21’‡ O h O e ¬
R =
21 M eV
X [g/cm2 ]
× ×
d Æ þye
m 0
Ec
ÈD`q·fqÇ d@aTd ²I³ ) f
fG³ à ³ b +ø–ö³ X + E ² d ` d g à +öDÅ+~g d ` d g à +DöÅ+f^³Ç³
_l³²BfGÇ d ðØh d ) `+Dµ¶³f^ù`øh ) ªpf )0 µ )-b c³6µ aTd ` d g-‰ ³ bBaTd µ¶³ˆh d f ) ÷+ +DŎ
Æ Ã Ã Ã
a  ù `¼V ² ` dCa +V¸´² r = R ø 95% ) f~³6Åp³`‰;+p·f d ²B³ ) ²Bf d Ç d Ç~h d à ) `+iµ¶³If^ù+
` d
Æ ó d Ý ) µ ) ‰B³ÅDÅ+h d à ) `+iµ¶³If`+ Rm(F e) = 14 g/cm2 ∼ 1.8 cm ø
m
„
Rm (P b) = 18 g/cm2 ∼ 1.6 cm Æ
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w< ­W­0! ]6".5 ^  0Ÿ<Ÿ w™ ¥  Ÿ 

²†²4™cb »
R¶¶,µË·0¡ Rµ,¶,µ
6 5¤¢ 

Ì a ` ) Å+Vg d ÷+V·Df d ³{e` ) ÷³²ø d Å d ) ‰;+Döp³żŠdP) f8` d gI¸pÇ d ųIf ) Å d ³ ³hpf8` ) 
à Ã
µ d I‰ Å+fÅ d à d Ç+DÅ d øvh ) ªpf ) ²B³ ) ²Bù_l³6²BfÇ·iÇ d e`+¹Ç8+² ) h+¹³Å³`‰;++øve`+
h ) ³If ) ²;+ à Š) f ) Çg d +Dµ )a ³ªD²BfÇ8+p³»ÇgC+Dµ d Ç`ù»ÝnÅ dCa ³ à ³hf` ) µ d ‰Å+fÅ ) f ) Æ
l` + f ) Ç d ø¾ÇGµž³²Bf ) ` dCa + d ÷+ ) ÅÅ d f dFa ù b +DÅ d Å d Ç^ù Å d f d _l³J+pg6e ) 
à à Ã
g6Ç d µ¶³y· a `³Å d f da ù à b +DÅ d λ Æ `p¸ ‰ ) øah ) ³If ) f8`q·fGÇ dPa d ²B³ ) f
fG³ Ã ³ b +
X0
³GøDöp³xe`m + ³ ³hf` ) µ d ‰IÅ+fÅ ) Ç Id +Dµ )a ³ªD²BfÇ8+p³:+mÇ+D² ) h+m³6Åp³`‰;++øù‰ +f^³
à Ã
µ¶³ bBa ¸ ) f=` d gI¸pÇ d _9+f^³ü²B³rö d ²Bf+D÷+ d e− + e+ e ² d µžÅ ) ‰ ) µ d à h+øf Æ ³ Æ f^³ à ³
f·Dff à V+ g ) ³ a Å+ am),a V` ¸ ‰+ Æ 7`+m²;+ à Š) Çg d +Dµ )-a ³ªD²BfÇ+³zf ) Ç d Åp³z³
f d h d ø
f d µ p ³xµžÅ ) ‰ ) e ) %‰ ) à ·iµ Æ
+ e`+ dCa ` ) Åp
ڀ² ⊥) Gf ³Å ) ²Bfy + g d ÷p
+ ·o¬

dca e`ÅDÅ d f d à d Ç +DÅ d z d a ù à b +DÅ d

³ ²xe ) I‰ ) à ·iµ 
•
λ I > X0 d 
úX pe ù…f+ ešÆ  ) f8` dQa ù à b +Å d Å dCd a ` ) Åp³6Žh d à ) `+iµ¶³Ifù`
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³ ø¶h ) ³If ) ‰ d ` d Åf+` d ø¶ö³ ) fŒ³6Åp³`‰;+p·f d) ²Bf d Ç d Ç

h d à ) `+iµ¶³Ifù` d Æ
(10 − 12)λI 98%

cd a ` ) ÅDÅ d f d d 
• Ã Ç +DÅ d ³se ) I9+` ) h d
ph⊥ > pe.m.
⊥

•
dca ` ) ÅDÅ d f d à d Ç+DÅ d i+ µ d +
EM
h ) žµ e ) Å ³Åf d d g d ` cd a +
π0 e

π0 −→ 2γ −→ EM showers

Ee.m. = 0.11 ln E0 [GeV ] d

Ä Æ× Ž e
ųÇ+ a +Dµ d ³6Åp³`‰;+p·
•
ÃP³h d ` d g-‰ à ³ a d µ¶³6`³ d h÷+V·Df d n + A −→ p + B
X d ²Bf ) fK³Åp³-`‰;+p·f d ø…h ) ·f ) Å ) ²£·fKÅp³I¸Vf` ) Å+f^³ ) f+Ç d ÇKh+DÅp³f+öDÅ d
³6Åp³ `‰;+p·ƒÅ d e` ) f ) Å+f^³Gø d) ²Bf d Å d à d f d ö d ²Bf ) f+DÇ d DŽf Æ Å Æ ³Åp³-`‰;+p·
Å d Ç `ùg6h d f d d7 ‡ ‡ ð O O hŒð8 ešÆ È]ùªh d f ) ²B³ ) ²Bù_l³6²BfÇ·iÇ d f€· a `³Å+
e `³Ç `ù _ d Å +pÔ
 · +•’ .² d ’ µ0+pf’ ³e` ) ÷p³²+½²If d Ç d f„Ç^³6öp³‚Dz d µ0+pf³· a ` d øÿf )
f d Cg +À³6Åp³ `‰;+ d Å d ²IÇù `VgÇ d ų d Ù á Ç e ³ a3) ²If d ‰ ) à ·iµ d Æ Ã7+³{µ )Cb ³6µ
aTd f=` ) +Dµà e ` ) f ) Å +f^, ³ + aTO d ) fö³If^³µà÷V· à d f d ³Å³`‰+V·±øih ) ·Df ) f³lÅ ) 
²£·f<ø a3) h d f ) Ù á ÇmÅp³»µ )Cb ³ a d ²B³ a ³If^³hf +` d + ) ²Bf d Ç d g d ‰0¸yf³6Å d g d
³6h¾²Iep-³ `+iµ¶³Åf d f ) ` d Æ È ) öDÅ ) f d -g +m³Å³ `‰;+V·y²B³xÅ d `+ö d Å³Ç + a +iµ d Æ
†² ²4™®­ ù§k¡Rµ¢ú6 ´
5kû¢¥žDRµNü ¶¢¡r§k¡3¤Ÿ
¨*¶,µ:9¢¡4¥žµ<;,µ
¼¼
¾(ñ5¾Œ¼  ô H8Þ ø À§ß ô L*À
ó
d h ) ÅùTfˆg d g d e d gÇ d ųsÅ d þ I+Dµžep¸ à ² d e ) g6Ç ) à ·iÇ d9aTd ²B³:+pg6ö+D² à +µ d h¾²;+5
µ d à Šd f d ³Å³`‰+V· ) fÅp³6²B³Å d g d ö d ²Bf+D÷ d ²lµ d ² d Å d e ) h ) ª m +‡²Ih ) ` ) B² f
xhùÿµƒ³ ³h f ` ) Åøih ) ªf ) eù`Ç ) Å d ö d Å ) ³6f=+ Ç»e ) h ) ªÛ0 ¬
v=β Ã Ã Ã
E max =
2me c2 β 2γ 2
=
2me p2
,
×ú
d þDÆ e
kin me 2
1 + 2γ( m 0
) m20 + m2e + 2me E/c2
 kÑ ÑWµ ^µ>=m²á€åŒ¸ïãc³;² Ó8¸ 4W®
f¸ph γ = E ³S ) `³ÅD÷ ) Ç+p·kû d hpf ) `ø”x{³veù à Šd f d ³6Åp³`‰;+p·9+,êk³X+DµeV¸ à 
²BùTfÅ d ö md ²Bcf +D÷ d Æ¢ó d Å+D²Ih ) ³6Åp³`‰B³If8+öDÅ+•ö d ²Bf8+÷+“e ) 9f³ b h+ ) fh ) à h ) f )
0
2

³ à ³6hpf ` ) ÅøDf Æ ³ Æ (2γ m  1; m  1) ø d þDÆ ×^ú e ²B³x²Idz bBa d9a3) ¬

e e

×
0 m 0 m

Ekinmax
= 2mec2 β 2γ 2. d þDÆ 8e
ó
d `³ à d f +DÇ +D²Bf +DöDÅ +„ö d ²Bf +D÷ + (E ≈ E; pc ≈ E) +Dµ d µ¶8³ ¬
kin

E max =
E2
. d þDÆ «ke
×
E + m20 c2 /2me
à d e `+iµ¶³ `ø¾e `+ d µ − e e ;² f à ù–²Bù–h‚µ d h¾;² +Dµ d à Šd f d e `³ aTCd a ³Å d ³Å³ `‰+V·‚=³ ¬
E=
E
EinGeV
×
d þiÆ È=e
 ) h d g6Ç d _ d øö³‰ e `+ɳ6h¾;² `p³µ dEà Å ++p11
· `³ à d f +DÇ +D²Bf +Dö³Åز à ¸pö d ªøüeù à Šd f d
L
³Åp-³ `‰;+p·µ )Cb ³ a d fù a ³ne `³ a ³ aTCd a ³Å d Å d ³ à ³hf ` ) Å d Æ Ì h ) m = m ø
×^ú ²I³xµ )-a +2
þd iÆ e
d am) ¬
û +D÷ +` B 0 e

E max
=
p2
=
E − me c4
= E − m c2 .
Ľ
d þDÆ e

kin e
me + E/c2 E + m e c2
†² ²4™@? A7¡3§=¥=kû¶4¡R¶¢
¼¼
¾ã÷*¾Œ¼ ¿`À7Á\Þ`pJÀ<H8ÞxHÀ4¿aEiE àB
óà
 d g6²B³ ªDÇ d Åp³xÅ d ö d ²Bf+D÷ d ²Iù–²+g d `q· aEì2) f‚µ0+l³6Å d ²
· a `p³6Å|g d `q· a ³:+pg
Ç^ù `l³Å d ö`p³BgY³ à ³6hpf` ) µ d ‰IÅ+pfGÅ ) Çg d +iµ )-a ³ªD²BfÇ8+p³ d û2+‰ Æ n8n Æ Ž Æ n e É+¸ à ) Å ) Ç d f d
²;+ à d µ¶³ bBa ¸KÅ d à +f d _ d f d ö d ²If+÷ d +‡µ5+k³Å d f d ³=¬
F~ =
z · e · Z · e ~r
dïŽ Æ e
Än

~2
 ) ` cd a +‡;² +Dµž³I f `+öDÅ +²Bù ) f8` cd b ³Å +p·‡er `p³ aTd ³6rÅ +p· +DµeV¸ à ²
³s² d µ ) ep-³ `e³Å5
a +DhV¸ 
à · `³Åye ) p~ e ) +Dµže d hf d ‡ U ê ‘ BZ e e d ` d µ¶³If^ù ` d  ¬
Z +∞ Z +∞
Pb = Fbdt =
z · Z · e2 b dx
, ï
d Ž Æ Ä×e
2 r r βc
−∞ −∞
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¶ 4/.1!"2%5 4 !
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−
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−
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p L`qgN%QN%iQ9iI p c9rsQ=Nn N I;it=iQ;culN dFP0c;jecwv;GxMeL9y;P LDN,j;c9r;P,NxHJygH,M=Hzd7I9iFtQNP,N
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2πN e4 Z 1 ‘™˜`v›š`’•
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MF3?O]ƒ_"L y ·cË!#R,
.S0)T+-/.D0)|Æ3s?5! x

φ(ε)dε = ξ(x)
1 ]gaLbÒ5…@c
xε2
ñl ξ ÇÈ
z)ɝÊV!#R,7ð.D&+~,7

ξ=
0.1536 Z
x
]gaLbÒ#·c
β2 A
<!¹+-G9-
¿,\+!"0)!%: u5*%0)!"-*37-ÌËXÊ)E β = 1 E)+-T?@!" ! L
¶ 9'/Z.D,.19rk- 3G ξ = 0.123KeV

1
f (x, 4) = ω(λ)
g] aLíÒ"Ò3c
?5!uÆ7-!#6"!%0)5f#3-). 9 Z: 0 3$ Z.D&7'/(*"[99-' 6 4 E+-7GJ
ξ
Æ"Ó?=+-)Y*"0)!%-*"9-à0Z.  *")41  L 0 Z.19rk- u?!O!"- U417J
x λ
æ9“Í ³9´3Œd)Œ¿çHç/†¼ýÈÛ|ŒdÙµl’7芎þ3܈‹ˆpÙ"ŠêéŒ8/Ù"Ü`’âë’/Š0é3Šíì2ˆ‹ˆÙ@ÚHéÙKÚ)Œ Ü|‹ˆÙÝ#Ù,ÜN7ŠŽÞjŠ|Ü|‹ˆ7Š|‹d’
-3!H!"3?4 !"9f!"K3ÓJ)Æ7-!#6"HÓ!"#$!% &#3'/(*% 4m.p. L

λ=
4 − 4m.p. ]gaLbÒ5Ø@c
ξ
Î3ÓBJVÆ7-!#6"HÓ!"#$!% e#3'/(*%e0)T7:0/46eÆ%f.e*3l.1Hx

4 m.p.
= ξ{ln
2mec2 β 2γ 2ξ
− β 2 + 1 − γE }
]gaLbÒ3a3c
I 2
?l.1 ! γE = 0.577...
T?@!"0)3555K  ì Ó4 9-ÈL
Z
ω(λ) =
1 ∞
e−u ln u−λu sin πudu
]gaLíÒâ%c
π 0
?@!3 !YG!7R&.e*3l.1f+-?0  G-3![0
7- #x
1 1
Ω(λ) = √ exp{− (λ + e−λ )}
]gaLbÒ5é%c
2π 2
Xo 0   "-:!"0 ºQêZ3.9( - 7+-). )4 99!ï0)5,Æ"Q!%:Æ3.1 ‚#
V?[*"0)!%-*"9-lLñl
3?eÆ"T0Å+!kJN' !46 UX.1 *3)41k- 7+-). )4 99!
0)| Æ"Y+!KJ80   "-:!E?5!Y#H3V?A5*"0 !"-*39-O0)Z+-4D'/H!%+-/.1/J
49 S+-!%$/. (- S+!H!%-%6 Æ%K] æ€«Ê Ïöè9äæ€Î„Ì"öDcL
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æ

 \¡¢£¤ ¥ “/“¦î“•”§Ð ¥ © º¤ ¬ » ¬µ,¬­ ¡ ¬Ñ­ ¥
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²±Ó ¤ ¦
æHæÖ ³9´3Œd)Œ¿çHç/†¼ýÈÛ|ŒdÙµl’7芎þ3܈‹ˆpÙ"ŠêéŒ8/Ù"Ü`’âë’/Š0é3Šíì2ˆ‹ˆÙ@ÚHéÙKÚ)Œ Ü|‹ˆÙÝ#Ù,ÜN7ŠŽÞjŠ|Ü|‹ˆ7Š|‹d’
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Ù ÛÝÜ

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ïéèaëßàåæðæå

ï;ñwò7ï óAô4õgöw÷E÷ó Ñö õgø;õgö#ø;÷ôzó

úùƒûuúûþú ú7ûýü7þ;ÿ9ük,;û
/&Z þ;ü=ü  



pt = qBρ
]`_3LÐ_#c
pt [GeV /c] = 0.3Bρ [T.m]
]`_3L y c
L θ θ
= sin ≈
2ρ 2 2

⇒ θ≈
0.3LB ]ƒ_"Lî…@c
pt
θ θ2
s = ρ(1 − cos ) ≈ ρ ≈
0.3L2B ]ƒ_"L¬·c
2 8 8pt
ñle3-O# 9-"36

s = x2 −
x1 + x3 ]ƒ_"LíÒ"c
2
7“
 ³ ´3Œd Œ#†>Šˆ‹Š%‹’%Ù5Œj/Ù3Ü|’’/Š"Š!€Šˆ‹|ÙÚÙKÚ)Œ)܈‹ˆÙ#ÝÙ

 \¡¢£¤ ¥ “¦î“§
q

(
σ(pt) meas. σ(s)
) = =
3
2 σ(x)8pt ]ƒ_"LîØ@c
pt s 0.3BL2
ñl N
9?"".D0)3"^ 9-"6
r
(
σ(pt) meas.
) =
σ(x)pt 720 ]ƒ_"Lía"c
pt 0.3BL2 N +4
WX-  9- xÄñl E E E
σ(x) = 200 µm
ED
pt = 1 GeV /c L = 1 m B = 1 T N = 10 ⇒

σ(pt) maes.
( ) ≈ 0.5%, (s = 3.75 cm)
pt
#ù%$&#
$›ù ')(+*-,*-.9þ"/0("*þ+/12ü439ÿ5/(;ü
6#†77†
³#Œpۀ’€pÙZ‹Š’€pÙ98Š|‹dŠ"‹d’%Ù p”

 \¡¢£¤ ¥ “¦7§

r
4pM.S. = plane
p sin θRM ≈ p.0.0136
1 L ]ƒ_"Lîâ@c
S
ρ X0

(
σ(p) M.S.
) = 0.045 √
1 ]ƒ_"Lîé@c
pt B LX0
:<;3?+=5>@?A B5CREDF;HG yJI é!KML" ON;-PC"?2CQ>5=
pI
R<S"CUT 2=
S xñV;
Ar (X0 = 110 m) W L = 1 m W B = 1T ⇒

σ(p) M.S.
( ) ≈ 0.5%
pt

X;ñwò ñ Y[Z]\g÷_^]` ø9ô4õgö ÷_^]`baÑõgø;õgö#ø;÷ôc`

#ù%$ù%$d# e *-("gh14/0i+g+j€ÿk,/l14*|ÿ,ü
f
RnmoS5Cp"LU;SÓ+>!L"C+N;5q"C+r GtsʈÎÐôYäÊ`ùB΄Ì"öÎvu7ä5æ€ÎÑÌ"ö_K
•
Rnmxw]L;eÓ">PLChN;5q"C+r G æ•Ìæä3ρÎÑÌ"öÎvu#äæ€ÎÑÌ%ö]K
•
d² ³ ´3Œd Œy>Šˆ‹Š%‹’%Ù5Œj/Ù3Ü|’’/Š"Š!€Šˆ‹|ÙÚÙKÚ)Œ)܈‹ˆÙ#ÝÙ

 \¡¢£¤ ¥ “ ¦ ”§z ¥±½¡ Ô ¡ ª ¯ Ô²ý­ ¥ ¬µ,¬¶² ¤¡³ ­ ¯ ² ¯Vº¯ µ,¬ ¯ ² ¤ ¥ ©«Ô² ¯{ ­ ¡ ¬² ¯ ­ ¥4º¤ ¬ ª ¡ ­ ¥½F¥ ­¬
­ ¥®¯ ­ ¡ © ¡ ¤ ¥±°'¥ ² ¥¿³ ¥ Ô² ¡0|¥'»|¯¥ ­ ¯»0¥ ­ ¥'º¤¯º¯¤0|¡¯ ­ ¥ µ,­ ¡{´¤¯{³ § ~À }v€  Á 
6y7ly
³‚pÛƒ„pن…+‡0ƒ„pÙ98‡ˆ…‰‡P…‰ƒ%Ù /ß

4E dE
dx
4x GŠ Id‹  K
ntotal = = ,
mŒ VD] 4=-> +mxw]L;-=0;,Ó+>!L"C+N;5q"C">PLL;N;-ŽW
Wi
h%i; ‘ l’< Œ =5C5LU;
=
;†?4S" D“
4E W
L;kN0;-Žh%;ELU;” 2L" 2SŽ4C+r•LU;” D_CL–; Œ =—LU;SÓ+>!L"C+N;-qC+r–= I I N;k?AmxNADF;-!;-L" OLU;
Wi
D]5>"Ó Œ ;k Aw Œ =5S">PL•“ÄÓ">PL˜Gš™ Âk› ÉK I"œ S!r"!P;DF;”?A f>P=-5 4w Až@C p" >5=
+>!S!rhD]m Œ ;”L;k=5SCQ“p+ 4=PC"SC–"mF=5C W ntotal
I
Rn>!;-?4>PL">P->ŸSU;0NlS" DU 4w 2LC" ”  nprimary
(n̄)m exp −n̄ GŠ dI ‹5‹ K
P (m) =
m!
GŠ I&‹ Š5K
εdet = 1 − P (0) = 1 − exp −n̄
R<S"CUT 2S)  ;
εdet = 0.92 W
CUT¡;”ŽA>-wU lT
C•L" 2">!;5?A>PL">PPC ’nw Œ =->!;5q"CC¢G ê†;-LhDF;4Q>PU;-£ Œ ;!K I
Ar d = 1 mm, → nprimary = 2.5 ⇒
ntot
#ù%$ù%$›ù ¤P/14*,ÿ-*E¥Pgheÿ-/0(9ü
CV0 1 GŠ Id‹ %™ K
E(r) =
2πε r
CV0 r GŠ Id‹ h· K
V (r) = ln
Œ mVD] 4=->@? C ?2T O>5=55 Awr+N;
wUC ;-U;-qC+=- 2=—L;ka AD]CL"CqU;DUmxwž@C"LU;
Œ
2πε
I
DF;-SLU;SÓ+>!L"C+N;-qC+r
• ¦

GŠ I&‹ ÒPK

n = n0 exp α(E)x
G Š I&‹ Ø%K
n = n0 exp α(r)x,
Œ mVD] 4=-> α ?A ‘LU;-SCp;"moS"PC Œ >5 l’fCq"C" 2L"=†L; œ ;2JN2 2LhD§C@CT¨;fSU;0N0T 2SL+>!?A=
PS">"ÓQ AwU Œ =5S+>!L©“iÓ">PLL"C§D_->%Ó Œ C LU;E?l;-L"=5CT
4=-moS I"œ >-NC Œ >P 2’OC"qC+ lL+=—T>-“
ž ”DF; ?A @C+NlSU;0NlCªCªpS+ 4N—?4S+ AD]LChr«?4->P5>lD] 2L)S+>P5 2Ž   œ mVÓ Œ ;
=5> Œ >5 A“
’fCq"C" 2L"=0;—L; œ ;2JN2 2LhD– <N0;-5C?4CUT¬>P=@hwUmF=PL+>!?A=-=
;@LU;”λ- 9¿ 2?A=55>5=-> =5>ŸN;
W
pü ­4®5‚‰„4‚y‡6…¯‡!…¯ƒ%Ù
‚°„/Ù3܈ƒ0ƒ‡P‡!‡6…|ÙÚÙKÚA‚)Ü6…ˆÙ#ÝÙ
ž Aw_;-L">5=->±>P=H Œ ?2+ 2SCUT 2L"=0;-=->PSU;²Ž;
N2>P5> %?4Chw]P;5L+ § §!;0ž 2L¢C+N2P>PSU;–LU;
Ž;
N Ix³ ?2L+>Q p" kSU;
P>5=
;
=
; ?”+wm[=5L"CªC"L" 2S"=5LCªŽ;0N2>!- †D_;5P;QLU;Ó²“´DU>PPSC
S+ AN2wU=
;
=5C I!œ W S!r"!P;µD_;f?A °>P=-5 AwU Až@C p" °>!?4L+>!5LChr@T/ ¾h;-LChNlm~T±L;nN;5Žh!;
L;O 2L" 2SŽ4C+r@ ‘pS+ 4N>Ó">PLC+N;-qChr I+¶ ;0NlS"W AžkD_;5L+ 2=->LU;-w_;-ŽA>!S+>lD_L"C—Ž;
N2>P5 9?A
>P?AVm ¿ 2?A=5-rP;— D_C"L?A=55 2L">QpS" AN”C+N4wUm+pP;-L" ”L;©’f>5=->!L"C Œ >5 2=-> ?A †rU
rUP;
"S">55w lT =-Vm Ó Œ ;-=->@ 2L" 2SŽ4Chr=0;@L;k>P=4D] AwU 2L"C+r Œ P;5L+=ŸW BLU;A D Ó+>!L"C+N;-qCh“
W γ
>PLL"C+r)"SU;-ŽN;©T 4=
;0w]C·G=
; Œ C"!;•?2;§?A=- 2LC+=5 ”LU;ŸDU 4=5 Œ =5>PSU;!KnC² EQ?Amo?A=->-“
rLC+ fDF;Ÿ"S" D_ChN5C Œ ;”’<>P=->5 2’f Œ = I Î<;5"SCUT 2S–N; =
;0NlC– 2L" 2S"Ž2Chr• ‹5‹PI Ø
›É f ; Ó">PLChN0;-qC+>!L"LChrQ"SU;-Ž‘N0; Ar
f¸ I ¸ › É I+¹ lS+>r"=PL+>!?A=-=
; C+N2PC"=5C"=- <>P=
’<>P=->PLL+>P=->wUm+p+ lL"C" º AwU Œ =PS+>!L"CEDF;n">PU;D_L;-=ODU 2=- Œ =->PSU;fW ´ŽA>-wrUT¨; N;0“
W Cu
=->P!;n?A º
Nl lT¡;
=n?2+ 2qCU;0w]L"CkT 2S Œ C I R<S+>P-wU lTm[=µ!?4" 2£L">n?A ºS" 2£E;5P; Œ W ;-=->
Œ m~T«Ž;0N;?4 µSC+%;-
r=">-w]C;-=->!T
LCQŽ;
N2>P5 W Œ >PC"=->E">PŽ¯wUVm ¿E;
= 㠌 !;-L"=5CJ“
=- 9n£EC"S"> Œ 2L" 2SŽA 4=5Cp" 2LBD_CU;-U;0N2>!L•Gš;
!?A>PS"PCSU;
=f?4 ´T
L+>!ŽA><PC+!S;5q"C">PLL"C
C S+>P=0;5q"C">PLLCHLC"!;!K IUœ ANlC§D]>5!;5 Œ C ?A L;5S"CpU;
=—»DÏ › öèdç › ʈ÷ I

#ù%$ù%$½¼ ¾B*,þ;û
g9þ+/0(;üB(+/Eg",‰("/"/

ì 5w];5?A=-=
;µN;µ’f>PSUT
CS;5L+ 9L;‘w_;-PC"LU;
=
; ºnSU;5T Œ C"=- ´LU;L+r Œ >-w Œ >nSU;D_Ch%?2;
L;<L"C£ Œ ;-=0;fCPS+ lT
2L;<+>“oT¡;
w ΠCE>5=
1 ns I
¶ CŽ4LU;0wŸ?A °CLJDU+q"CSU; Œ ; Œ =->
L;†;5L+>lDF;=
; Œ ;†C§L; Œ ;
=->lDF; ">PSU;D_C©"SCJD_5C+ž@P;5L+ 4=5>kLU;B AwU Œ =5S">PLC+=- fC
Ó+>!L"C"=- I W
Q dV GŠ Id‹ ¸PK
dv = dr
lCV0 dr
;¶
Nl?A=->rUL"C" 4=->QL;— AwU Œ =5S+>!L"C"=- ED]>Q;5L+>lDF;@ ET¨;0w Œ >)GtL+r Œ >-w Œ >•T
C ΠS">PLU;!K
N;
=->!P;•SC"L">P?Am[= CT Œ m~T¿DU 4=5 Œ =PC"SU;-LChr«?4CŽ4L;
wÀ @T
L">PŽA> ?w_;
 IoÁ LhDU%“ W
q"CS;5L"C+r N;5S!rhD– @ 
ln( ar ) GŠ Id‹ %â K
Qs,el = Nqe b
ln( a )

ln( rb ) GŠ Id‹ %é K

Qs,ions = Nqe b
ln( a )
6y7lyf­‚pÛƒ„pن…+‡0ƒ„pÙ98‡ˆ…‰‡P…‰ƒ%Ù Ÿ

 \¡¢£¤ ¥M ¦Ã§ Ð ¥ © ½¡ ² ¡ ¬w­ ¥ µ ¥½¡ ­ ¥ ² ¥#½ Ó ½ ½¤ ¬ª¬² ¯4½#´ µ ¡ © ¯ Ô² »|¯#¥ ­ ¯»0¥Ý¥ ¦ ¹gº Ó ¤½¡³ ¬­
¬)µ,¬¶² ¤¯ ­Ô¬ »,½¡Ä¿¡ ¶Ó`ª ¥ ­ ¯»0¥ű´ ¦ ¹ ¬)µ,¬¶² ¤¯ ­Ó0² º¤¡»,¯´¡½F¥ ¬­¬ ¤¢¡{½ ¬µ ¬¶² ¤¡³ ­ ¯ ¹
² ¯¿º¯ µ,¬ ¡®¯ ­ ¡ © ¡¤ ¥¼¥ ² ¯ ª ¡ ²¬ Å,½'¹ ¬µ,¬¶² ¤¯ ­­ ¡{ ² ¡%®¯ ­­ ¡{ ² ¯´ µ ¥ ¶Ô¬ º¤¡»|½¡Ä¿½F¥ ²
½º¤¯ ² ¡½¯º¯ µ ¯Ä ­ ¡ ­ ¥±º¤ ¥½ µ ¬­ ¡{!Å`¢ · » ¦ ¹ ¬)µ,¬¶² ¤¯ ­­ ¡{ ² ¯´ µ ¥ ¶{Ô¬ º¤¡»,½¡Ä¿½F¥ ¶Ó`ª
¥ ­ ¯»0¥·,¥'®¯ ­­ ¡{ ²¿Ô¬ ¯ ² »0¥ µ,¬ ³ ¥±½F¥¯ ²¿­¬ ¢¯½ ¤ ¥Y»|¡¥ µ,­ ¯ ­ ¥º¤¥½ µ,¬­ ¡ ¬

¹ LU;lpU;0wU>5=5>Ÿ=-> Œ mF=ŸSU;-?A=- W >P-!?Aw>!- 2L§>5=ŸLU;

=5S++"!;-L" 4=->@LU;E Aw Œ =5S">PLC"=-
L ;@;5L+>lDF; ?wU D Œ >5 4=->@N;-">PpP;DF;ŸU;DF; =-mVÓ Œ ;
=-> − ?2;”?A BC+Nlp" 2S"C+wUC I
ì =PL+>!->¬LUW ;-?A=-moP;«LU;-SU;-?4=5P;5L+ ±LU;À=5> Œ ; W W >P-%?w>!- 2eL">«>5=ªD]>P?A=5CŽ;-L" ÆLU;
Ó+>!L"C"=- ±DF; Œ ;
=->lDF; I :<; Œ =5>Ç- lp+ )>P=-5 4w"r"N;#¾T )SC"L">P?Am[=ÇLU; Ó">PLC"=- À
T
L+>!ŽA>@">k“ÈŽA>-wrUTÉ 
Qs,el ln( ar ) ln 2
= < ≈ 0.1
Qs,ions ln( rb ) ln 1000

V 1 GŠ I Š  K
⇒ is = N qe µ(E)
(ln( ab ))2 r2
#ù%$ù%$ËÊ 4Ì üA͟g;û
g§("/{þ+/0Î-*54/
>PLC+N;-qC+>!L+ lL S+ 4žŸCUT
• Ï =->-NCÐS+ Až@CUT LU;ÑS;-5>P=0;Ñ?A ª>P?AmV¿ 2?A=5-rP;¬+mxw]L+>Ò?Am·!C"SU;-L" ÀLU;
¹
N0;-S!rhD L+>@L" BL;5?A=-moP;E"T
L">ž 2LC+ I
W
Í ­4®5‚‰„4‚y‡6…¯‡!…¯ƒ%Ù
‚°„/Ù3܈ƒ0ƒ‡P‡!‡6…|ÙÚÙKÚA‚)Ü6…ˆÙ#ÝÙ
R<S">P">PSq"C">PLU;0wU 2L S" Až@CT
•
¹ =
;0NlC†>5-w_;-?4= W LU;Dk>!"S" D] AwU 2L†S;5ŽMLU;µLU;-S+ AžE 2L"C" N;5+>!p"!;°"T¡L+>-“
žE 2L"C" BT¡;N;-S!r+D_; S"C Œ >5 4=->ED] 4=- Œ =5CS;5L"C+r"=§?4C"Ž2L;
w fS+>!+>!S"qCJ“
>!L;
w lL•L;”">-w+p+ lW L"C+rQN;-S!r+D–>5H = Ó+>!L"C+N;5q"C+r I ñV;
=5>PP;k=5>-NlC• ">2D ¾!>-“
DUr ¿EChr= S+ 4žŸCUTÓN;QC+NT lS"!;-LChrÀLU;•?4" 2qC"’OC"pLU;
=
O ; Ó">PLChN0;-qC+>!L"LU;
N0;-Žh%;LU;E 2L+ lS"Ž4C+r˜GtÔ]ÕÈÖ0Ôh×]K IFØ ;0N2>!->P=->%?4C+wU!;-L" O”S+>!+>!S"qC+>!L;
w+“
LC+rÀS+ Až@CUTÉL;QSU;
P>5=
;Q 4 SC±!?Aw>!5C" kp" Ÿ?A k">PŽ;-?¯r!;
=
10 − 105 W
5=->PSCp"LC+=5 Bw];55CL"C Œ >PC"=->—?4 f>PPSU;0N4+!;
= I
W
•
ì Ž4SU;-LC"p" 2LU;²"S">P">PSqC+>!L;
wUL">P?A= −→ Îf;-?4C ¿E;5L+ −→ ¶ =5SCUT 2S" 2L
S" Až@CUT
œ >P!;§ >55w];5?A=•L;©?4C+w]L;Q’f>5=->P lT
C?4C+r±C)>5PSU;0N2+P;-L" ELU;Q-=5>PSC"pL"C
w_;-PC"LC +>!S;0D]C Œ >5 2=->E?A C+NlC? Œ !;
=?2Chw]L"C§+>!Ž;5?4C"=- Aw]C±Gt»DÏ › öèpç › ʈ÷‰K
C+w]CŸh0w]W ?4C"SU;¿>OPC"?4> Œ >L;5"S" Až 2LC" I ?4C+wU!;-L" 4=-> 9ŽA>5w"r]T>ŸG 10 K
?2C"Ž4LU;0wUmF=´ ¨£CS+> Œ Œ >5 4=5>9>P-!?Aw];5
rf?w_¦;
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y

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δE = eVmax cosϕ
F ë?»Uì&¸Xémº·
º
ò ?ê+¸<)·
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B
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n
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B
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¸ ó
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ó
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P =
3 R 2 m0
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 ´X·=ê+µØµ ¯
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d = 9km L = 27km E = 2x45GeV
f ·™³Š¸4<X¸Xë_¸=º™µìS»_ꮵñ¼µQü+ºXë+¸)ê H <)»²Çá"Iš¥ˆ¸úÙjóÅ"üC¸Ôë?·aý H ñ?µì³·=öJµŠér_ö‘·
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ó
P ≈ 47M W
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ï²MóDz*DMð
S = (p1 + p2 )2 = m21 + m22 + 2m2E ≈ 2m2 E
ü+òîì&µmº
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ñ¼µýPê¼·¿µPê+µQë H »+ô ¯
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S ï²MóDz4áXð
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E
f ·»?üMém»_ë¼·
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R= √
E
ïM
² óDz"C
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p = 200GeV =⇒ R = 0, 1
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p)
­Ì¸ H ·=´X·i¼-µŠ»?ö¾·=ö;µ ¯

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S = (p1 + p2 )2 = 4E 2, R = 2
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S = 2T eV
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º
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 µQéº
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n1 n2 ï²MóU¾=øCð
L= f,
ü+òîì&µmº
¸
óŵhéµ_µQê_»_µmº
¸™ê¼·Uémê_¸Xþ_¸X´
µQº
µXó
s

ï²MóU¾ ³ð
s = 4πσx σy
n1 n2 ï²MóU¾²Xð
L= f
4πσx σy
Å üC¸Àë¼·ý H ñ¼µìS·Xö;µ÷þ?ë+¸Pì&ò ña~»_º
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Z
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Lint = Ldt
Å"üC¸ ?º
¸ éŠë¼·ýEö;µPë_ê_¸Xéº ó f ·)émüC¸)ë_»_º
µñ?ô à Æ
  à
L = const Lint = LT pb−1
1 ’´p)éQüC¸Xë?»+º
µmñ_ô  é µ
`bunch = 1cm lLEP = 26, 66km n = 30.10 0
a ·
º
D
ô “ hõ Ç ÿ Ä ?ü8·aº
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ï²MóU¾"DMð
σx = 200 µm, σy = 8 µm.
´>ê ö µK¶4,%·K,ÐÒÑKÔÓÚ Õ"!oÖÛ#%$¡¶"Û

j-·Ëþ?ë+µPéQö;µmº=ê_µPö

n1 n2 3.1020.3.102.106 ï²MóU¾áXð
L= = −4 −4
≈ 2.1031
4πσx σy 4π200.10 .8.10 .22
» éQþ_ë¼·
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