Model-Based

Depth Imaging
Stuart Fag in
Geolmage Resources LLC

with contributions by

Uzi Egozi
Zvi Koren
Dan Kosloff
Ilya Tsvankin
Uri Zackhem

Course Notes Series, No. 10

Roger A. Young, Series Editor

Society of Exploration Geophysicists

Tulsa, Oklahoma USA
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 These course notes are published without the normal SEC peer reviews.
They have not been examined for accuracy and clarity. Questions or
comments by the reader should be referred directly to the author.

ISBN 0-931830-48-6 (Series)

ISBN 1-56080-085-2 (Volume)

Society of Exploration Geophysicists

P. O. Box 702740
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74170-2740

© 1999 by Stuart Fagin

All rights reserved. This book or portions hereof may not be
reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the
author.

Published in 1999. Second printing 2002.

Printed in the United States of America

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 Table of Contents

Preface ... v

Terminology ... vii

Acknowledgments ... x

Chapter 1 The Advantages of Depth Imaging ... 1

1.1 Introduction ... 1
1.2 Depth imaging advantages - a geologic perspective ... 2
1.3 Depth imaging advantages - a geophysical perspective ... 15
1.4 Barriers to depth imaging ... 24
1.5 Summary ... 25

Chapter 2 Model Building Concepts ... 27

2.1 Introduction ... 27
2.2 Model building approaches ... 27
2.3 The special nature of model-based velocity analysis ... 39
2.4 Summary ... 44

Chapter 3 Seismic Domains ... 45

3.1 Introduction ... 45
3.2 Seismic domains ... 45
3.3 Domain transformation ... 48
3.4 Ray tracing ... 51
3.5 Reflection interpretation ... 52
3.6 Summary ... 54

Chapter 4 Building the Initial Model (I) - Defining Layer Structure ••• 55
4.1 Introduction ... 55
4.2 The depth imaging conundrum ... 55
4.3 Solving the depth imaging conundrum using layer stripping methods ... 56
4.4 Variations in defining layer structure ... 58
4.5 Summary ... 61

Chapter 5 Building the Initial Model (II) - Defining Layer Velocity ... 63
5.1 Introduction ... 63
5.2 Dix-based techniques ... 63
5.3 Model-based techniques ... 69
5.4 Summary ... 73

Chapter 6 The Requirements of an Accurate Image ... 75

6.1 Introduction ... 75
6.2 Algorithm ... 75

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 Contents

6.3 Aperture ... 85

6.4 Velocity model ... 85
6.5 Signal ... 85
6.6 Summary ... 86

Chapter 7 Refining the Velocity Model Using the Results of Depth Imaging •.. 87
7.1 Introduction ... 87
7.2 Prestack depth migration and the depth gather ... 87
7.3 Depth gather reflection patterns ... 90
7.4 Model updating (I) the one dimensional method ... 92
7.5 Model updating (II) global tomography ... 97
7.6 Summary ... 101

Chapter 8 Pitfalls, Problems and Limitations ... 103

8.1 Introduction ... 103
8.2 The Time-Depth Rule ... 103
8.3 Limitations of seismic methods ... 107
8.4 Anisotropy ... 108
8.5 Resolution ... 110
8.6 Reconciling well and imaging conflicts ... 112
8.7 Summary ... 114

Epilogue 3D Considerations ... 115

References ... 117

Technical Contribution 1: Velocity Model Determination by Tomography of

Depth Migrated Gathers, by Zvi Koren, Dan Kosloff, Uri Zackhem, and Stuart Fagin ... 119

Technical Contribution 2: Influence of Seismic Anisotropy on Velocity

Estimation and Depth Imaging, by Ilya Tsvankin ... 131

Case History 1: Solving the Fault Shadow Problem, by Stuart Fagin ... 143

Case History 2: Efficient Development of Velocity Models over Gulf of Mexico

Salt Structures, by Uzi Egozi ... 161

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it'
 \..-/

Preface

Depth imaging is changing the face of seismic technology. First and foremost, depth imaging
greatly extends our ability to image geologic structure. This is true not only for highly
complex structures such as thrust imbricates and subsalt structures, but also for subtle
structural plays like fault shadows. In fact, since the late 1980's, almost all structural play
exploration has been stalled at the frontier where time imaging is no longer effective. In the
1990's depth imaging has taken us through this frontier and is renewing many of these
structural plays.

But depth imaging is also transforming seismic technology in a second way; by integrating
the traditionally separate tasks of seismic processing and seismic interpretation far more
extensively than ever before. Indeed, imaging and interpretation are now unified into a single
procedure. Model-building, which is so critical to the success of depth imaging is, in effect,
an exercise in defining structure. I use the term "model-based depth imaging" to call attention
to this new way of working.

In this book the key technical elements of model-based depth imaging are presented. It
consists of eight chapters. In Chapter 1 the key technical advantages of depth imaging are
reviewed. Chapter 2 is an overview of the variety of model building methods and the factors
influencing decisions about which to use. Chapter 3 is a discussion of the concept of seismic
domains and the role they play in model-based depth imaging. Chapter 4 is a discussion of
the first part of the layer-stripping technology used for developing an initial model. These are
the techniques for defining layer structure. In Chapter 5 the second part of initial model
building is presented. These are the techniques for defining layer velocity. Chapter 6 is an
informal presentation of the varieties of technologies used for seismic imaging. Chapter 7 is
a review of how the product of prestack depth migration, the depth gather, is used to refine
the model. In Chapter 8 some pitfalls, problems and limitations associated with model-based
depth imaging are discussed.

Two technical contributions are included in key areas for those readers who may desire a
more extensive treatment. These are "Velocity Model Determination by Tomography of
Depth Migrated Gathers", by Zvi Koren and others, and "Influence of Seismic Anisotropy on
Velocity Estimation and Depth Imaging", by Ilya Tsvankin.

A review of depth imaging would fall short without some case histories which review. in
detail, the needs and practices of the model-builder. Two case histories have been included.
The first, "Solving the Fault Shadow Problem, by Stuart Fagin, describes the nature of the
fault shadow problem and how it is eliminated through prestack depth imaging. It employs
the model-based velocity analysis and imaging approaches described in this volume. The
second, "Efficient Development of Velocity Models over Gulf of Mexico Salt Structures", by
Uzi Egozi, describes an alternative model building approach which is not horizon-based.

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 Preface

The intended audience for this book is the seismic interpreter/geologist. Because that is my
own background, I present the subject matter from that standpoint. Extensive mathematical
treatments are avoided and qualitative rather than quantitative explanations are preferred. I
assume little theoretical background on the part of the reader and, where necessary, basic
concepts are reviewed.

The object of this book is to enable a basic familiarity with this critical technology in a
manner that can be easily and quickly assimilated by a wide audience. My goal is to create a
text that is both brief and clear without being superficial. I hope you enjoy reading it as much
as I have enjoyed writing it.

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 Terminology

The terminology of model-based depth imaging has grown over the past decade with the
technology. What follows are the key terms used in this book and the distinctions among
them.

Forward processes vs. inverse processes

The terms forward modeling and inversion are used in a variety of contexts throughout this
volume. Whenever these terms are used, they share the following connotations. Forward
processes are those processes whose input is a representation of the subsurface, and whose
output are the expected seismic observations. For example, the input to normal incidence
ray-tracing is a representation of the subsurface as expressed by a layered subsurface velocity
model. The outputs are the expected seismic observations as expressed by zero-offset, stack
section arrival times.

In contrast, inverse processes are those whose inputs are seismic observations and whose
output is a derivation of the subsurface. For example, the inputs to tomography are seismic
observations as expressed by the residual moveout in depth gathers. The output of
tomography is a derivation of the subsurface as expressed by a refined, or updated velocity
model

The situation gets semantically muddled where one process is embedded in another. For
example, coherency inversion derives subsurface layer interval velocities from moveout
observations in the CMP gather. So it is correctly termed an inversion process. However,
CMP forward modeling is used within coherency inversion to define non-hyperbolic
trajectories.

Migration, imaging, and inversion

The terms seismic migration and seismic imaging are used synonymously in this manual.
The process of transporting seismic amplitudes from their recorded position to their reflection
point position is traditionally termed seismic migration. This terminology stresses the
mechanical characteristics of the operation and its place as one step in the processing stream.
The term seismic imaging is a more recent usage and expresses the greater expectation
engendered by depth imaging that the final result will more truly resemble a photographic
image of the subsurface. Because seismic imaging results in an expression of the subsurface
it is, broadly speaking, an inversion process.

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di
 Terminology

Depthing, depth conversion, map migration and vertical scaling

Depth conversion and depthing are synonymous. They refer to processes which transform a
time domain representation of structure into a depth domain representation of structure. For
all processes an interval velocity field is required to facilitate the transformation. When time
structure is represented by time maps, the depth conversion is implemented by either map
migration or vertical scaling. Map migration is a ray tracing process that accounts for
raypath bending and the lateral mispositioning of time structure. In contrast, vertical scaling
is a one-dimensional process that assumes time structure is in its correct lateral position.
When time structure is represented by a time image volume, the depth conversion is
implemented by either depth imaging or vertical scaling of traces. Depth imaging is an
imaging process results that accounts for raypath bending and the lateral mispositioning of
time structure. Vertical scaling of traces is a one-dimensional process that assumes time
structure is in its correct lateral position.

Depth gathers, CRP gathers, image gathers and CMP gathers

The terms depth gathers, CRP gathers and image gathers are synonymous. These terms all
refer to the gather product of prestack depth imaging. These gathers playa key role in the
velocity model building process. The extent of residual moveout they exhibit is a measure of
inaccuracy in the model. Depth gather stresses the domain class of this product. Because
distinguishing seismic information by its domain is a key concept of this manual, depth
gather is the preferred term. (Although, it is also possible to display these gathers scaled to
time, they are always part of the depth domain.) The term CRP (common reflection point)
gather stresses the nature of this gather as expressing the information that arises from a
single subsurface reflection point. It stands in contrast to the reflection point smear of CMP
gathers in structured environments. Image gather calls attention to the fact that these
gathers, when stacked, create the final seismic image.

The term CMP gather (common midpoint) is not synonymous with these other terms. It
represents the collection of traces which share a common midpoint (or bin) location between
the surface location of source and receiver. The term is used in this book to represent the
data state prior to imaging.

Depth gather delay and depth gather residual moveout

When depth gather reflections are not flat, errors in the velocity field are indicated. (The
reasons for this are reviewed in Chapter 7). The variation of depth with offset in a depth
gather is termed depth gather residual moveout. When the change in depth of a reflection is
compared to some reference level, such as the zero-offset depth, we term the change in depth
depth gather delay. Depth gather delay is positive when the reflection is deeper than the
reference level and negative when it is shallower. The units of measurement of depth gather
delay are units of length.

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"iii
 Terminology

Velocity model and earth model

The velocity model is the entity that describes the subsurface velocity field. This velocity
field can be expressed in several alternative velocity modes such as interval velocity, root-
mean-square velocity or average velocity. The velocity model may be represented by a
collection of horizon structure maps and interval velocity maps, a series of velocity maps at
regular time or depth intervals, a velocity-depth function, or a raster volume of instantaneous
velocity. The term earth model is used in a wide variety of ways in geophysical literature. In
this book I use it to specifically describe those velocity models that are built within a
framework of geologic structure. In this manner the earth model depicts subsurface structure
as well as the subsurface velocity field.

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ix
 Acknowledgments

One key to success in life is to associate yourself with exceptional individuals. Over the past
five years it has been my privilege to work with a group of such individuals at Paradigm
Geophysical. By creating a highly usable and effective software system for imaging and
model building, this group has been responsible for transforming depth imaging, within the
oil and gas industry, from a research lab curiosity to a mainstream exploration tool.

The group has been led by Zvi Koren. His personal vision, that velocity model building is far
more effective when strongly linked to an interpreted structural framework, is indelibly
stamped throughout Paradigm's system. This vision has been vindicated by the widespread
acceptance of his system in the industry and in the body of results it has been responsible for.

Prominent among the talented group which Koren has led includes Dan Kosloff who
pioneered the development of a usable tomography system, Oleg and Valentin Meshby who
led in the development of a rapid depth imaging algorithm, and Alex Litvin and Irina
Volovich who developed many of the ray-based velocity analysis routines. Ofra Kalechstein
is the software engineering leader who ensured that their technical vision was effectively
expressed in a usable software system.

The data examples shown in this volume (with the exception of those appearing in
Tsvankin's contribution) were developed by depth imagers at Paradigm Geophysical
Corporation. These individuals are Brian Burgess, Anat Canning, Ning Guo, Fred Kierulf,
Zvi Koren, Mark Littman, Alex Litvin, Richard Randall, Stan Roby and Florian Romanescu,
The Gulf of Mexico salt sill example was developed by Uzi Egozi and is used as a case
history in this volume. The South Texas fault shadow example was developed by myself and
is also used as a case history in this volume. These data examples have been graciously
released by Paradigm Geophysical Corporation. Ning Guo performed the velocity
experiments discussed in Chapter 5.

This volume is an outgrowth of the workshop I taught in depth imaging at Paradigm and I
thank the many attendees who have offered me comment, and encouragement to publish.
The text has also benefited greatly from the review of Mike Bennett, Luis Canales, Alice
Fagin, Alfonso Gonzalez, Huw James, Jerry Kapoor, Ilya Tsvankin and Roger Young. I am
especially grateful to Ning Guo, the world's best depth imager, for his insightful comments.
Both Alice Fagin and Roger Young consented to review two versions of the manuscript.

Roger Young is the SEG editor for the Course Notes Series. In addition to being a skillful
editor, he has been very effective in setting, and getting all to adhere to, an ambitious
publication timetable. I am in his debt for his very enthusiastic support of this project. Ted
Bakamjian at SEG was responsible for ensuring the print quality of the final product.

Last, I thank my family for putting up with many impositions, particularly the usurpation of
my sons' PC (they really had no choice).

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