DESIGN OF STRUCTURE-III

1. SLENDER COLUMN.
A short concrete column is one having a ratio of unsupported length to least dimension
of the cross section equal to or less than 10. If the ratio is greater than 10, it is
considered a long column (sometimes referred to as a slender column).

2. HOW FOUNDATION IS CLASSIFIED.

Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation

 Wall Footing  Pile Foundation

 Isolated column/Column  Pier Foundation
Footing  Well (Caissons)
 Combined Footing Foundation
 Cantilever (Strap) Footing
 Mat (Raft) Foundation

3. WHEN WILL YOU RECOMMEND RECTANGULAR COMBAINED FOOTING.

Combined footings are used when:

 there are two isolated footings overlapping (when columns are too close to each
other, like within 2m)

 soil bearing capacity is inconsistent and low within an area

 the footing is extending beyond your property.

4. SAFE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL.

bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground.
The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the
foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil.
5. ANY TWO FUNCTION OF PILE CAP.
 To distribute a single load equally over the pile group and thus over a greater area
of bearing potential,
 To laterally stabilise individual piles thus increasing overall stability of the group.
And
 To provide the necessary combined resistance to stresses set up by the
superstructure and/or ground movement.

6. HOW R.C.C COLUMN ARE CLASSIFIED AS SHORT AND LONG COLUMN

 A column is considered to be short when the ratio of its effective length to its
least lateral dimension does not exceed12.
 If the ratio of the the effective length to its least lateral dimension exceeds12
the column is considered to be a long column.
7. GIVE THE MINIMUM PERCENTAGE AND DIAMETER OF REINFOCEMENT TO BE
PROVIDED IN R.C.C COLUMN AS PER INDIAN CODE
 Longitudinal reinforcement should not be less than 0.8% and more than 6% of
gross C/S.
 Minimum diameter of reinforcement are 12mm dia bars.

8. WHAT IS THE CRITICAL SECTION CONSIDERED FOR CALCULATING MAXIMUM

BENDING MOMENT IN A ISOLATED FOOTING
The maximum moments acting on the footing in the two directions are increased in a
35% the traditional model with respect to proposed model.
9. WHAT ARE THE CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH MAT FOUNDATIONS ARE
PROVIDED
In case of soils having low bearing capacity, heavy structural loads are usually
supported by providing raft or mat foundations. Also if the structure is vulnerable to
subsidence on being located in mining area or due to uncertain behaviour of its sub-
soil water condition, raft or mat foundations should be preferred. Raft or Mat
Foundations provides an economical solution to difficult site conditions, where
pile foundation cannot be used advantageously and independent column footing
becomes impracticable.
10. DISTINGUSH B/W PRECAST AND CAST IN-SITU PILE FOUNDATIONS

Precast Cast-in-situ
Elements are manufactured in a Elements are manufactured on site

controlled casting environment and and hence it is difficult to control mix,

have it is easier to control mix, placement and curing.

placement and curing.

Quality can be controlled and Quality control and maintenance is

maintained easily. difficult.

Less labours are required. More labours are required.

Less skilled labours are required. More skilled labours are required.
 Precast construction is quick as it can Construction is slow as gaining of

be installed immediately and there is strength requires time.

no waiting for it to gain strength.

Increase in strength can be achieved Increase in strength at situ by

by accelerated curing. accelerated curing is a difficult task.

Elements can be cast in controlled Elements are cast in

condition. open environment.

On site strength test is not required. On site strength test is required.

11. WHAT IS THE MINIMUM COVER TO BE PROVIDED FOR FOOTING LAID ON SOIL
PRONE TO CHEMICAL ATTACK
Clear cover to main reinforcement in
Footings : 50 mm
Raft foundation Top : 50 mm
Raft foundation Bottom/ sides : 75 mm
12. WHAT ARE THE MINIMUM NUMBERS OF LONGITUDIONAL BARS STIPULATED
BY IS 456 FOR RECTANGULAR AND CIRCULAR COLUMNS
Minimum number of bars for a square or rectangular column are 4 and for
circular column are 6.
13. UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES HELICALLY REINFORCED COLUMN ARE
PREFERED
Helical reinforcement gives protection mainly against seismic loads and also during
failure the concrete adhered to steel peels off from the helical structure first,which is a
warning sign of structural failure before the entire structure eventually falls.
14. LIST THE FACTOR OF INFLUENCING THE DEPTH OF A REINFORCED
CONCRETE FOOTING FOR A R.C COLUMN

 Load applied from structure to the foundation

 2. Bearing capacity of soil

 3. Depth of water level below the ground surface

 4. Types of soil and depth of layers in case of layered soil

  5. Depth of adjacent foundation

15. WHAT ARE THE SITUATIONS IN WHICH COMBINED FOOTING ARE PREFERRED
TO ISOLATED FOOTINGS

 The distance between two columns is small and when soil bearing capacity of soil is
lower and their footings overlap with each other.
 When one column is close to a [simple tooltip content=It is Underground Line or Pipe
of Sewer, Water Supply, Gas and electrical. ] property line [simple tooltip] or sewer
pipe, the Centre of gravity of column will not coincide with footing. In such cases, it is
necessary to provide combined this footing with that of the adjacent internal column.
 Dimensions of one side of footing are restricted to some lower value so
that column footings may be combined.

16. COMMONLY USED TYPES OF RAFT FOUNDATION

 A slab with constant thickness usually referred as flat slab type raft foundation
 A slab-beam type raft foundation
 A Cellular type raft foundation

17. COMMONLY USED TYPES OF COMBINED FOOTINGS

 Slab type combined footing

 Slab-beam type combined footing
 Strap-beam type combined footing

18. MENTION THE SITUATIONS IN WHICH PILE FOUNTATION IS PREFERRED

End Bearing Piles
In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong soil
or rock. The load of the building is transferred through the pile onto the strong layer. In a
sense, this pile acts like a column. The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the
surface which is the intersection of a weak and strong layer. The load therefore
bypasses the weak layer and is safely transferred to the strong layer.

Friction Piles
Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to
the soil across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of
the pile, which is cylindrical in shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil.

To visualise how this works, imagine you are pushing a solid metal rod of say 4mm
diameter into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you have pushed it in, it is strong enough
to support some load. The greater the embedment depth in the ice cream, the more load
it can support. This is very similar to how a friction pile works. In a friction pile, the
amount of load a pile can support is directly proportionate to its length.
19. HOW ARE COLUMNS CLASSIFIED BASED ON ECCENTRICITY OF LOADIND
1) Columns with axial loading
2) with uni axial eccentric loading
3) with bi axial eccentric loading
20. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF INTERACTION CHARTS FOR THE DESIGN
OF COLUMN
identify a design chart and understand the differences between a design chart and
interaction diagram of P and M, • name the major design parameters of short columns
subjected to axial loads and uniaxial bending, • state the design parameters assumed
before the design, • state the design parameter actually designed for the column, •
explain the roles of each of the design parameters in increasing the strength capacities
of column, • name the two non-dimensional design parameters to prepare the design
charts, • derive the governing equations in four separate cases while preparing the
design charts, • mention the various points at which the values of the two non-
dimensional parameters are determined to prepare the design charts, • prepare the
design chart of any short and rectangular column subjected to axial loads and uniaxial
moment.
21. DIFFERENCE B/W MASONRY PIER AND MASONRY WALL
Masonry piers are normally provided in residential buildings to support the ends of
beams. Once the length of a wall becomes less than 3 times its thickness it is called
a pier (or column) rather than a wall.
Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure. They provide
strength,, durability to the structure and also helps to control indoor and outdoor
temperature. It separates a building from outside
22. HOW WILL YOU DETERMINE THE SLENDERNESS RATIO OF A MASONRY WALL
SR = effective height hef
effective thickness = tef < 27
Thus the slenderness ratio is acceptable.
23. MENTION THE MINIMUM GRADE OF CONCRETE RECOMMENTED BY IS CODE
FOR PRE-TENTIONED AND POST-TENSIONED SYSTEM OF PRE-STRESSING
IS CODE.1343
 In the designation of concrete mix M refers to the mix and the number to the
specified compressive strength of 150 mm size cube at 28 days, expressed in
N/mm2 .
 For pre-tensioned prestressed concrete, the grade of concrete shall be not less
than M 40.
 Except where specifically mentioned otherwise, for concrete grade greater than
M 60, design parameters given in the standard may not be applicable and the
values may be obtained from specialized literatures and experimental results
 24. DIFFERENCE B/W PRE-TENTIONING AND POST-TENSIONING

 Pre-tensioning:

 In this method the tendons(group of wires) are pulled between two end bulkhead prior to
casting . This pre-stress is later transferred to concrete due to bonding between the
concrete and tendon
 Post-tensioning:
 In this process first the casting of structure is done and later the tensioning is
done. Stressing in Post-Tensioning is done in two-stages in which the order of selection of
tendon is done based on the drawing provided.
 1st stage- is done after 7 days of casting.
 2nd stage- after 28 days of casting.
 This tendons are installed via duct pipe in the structure(PSC Girder) which after stressing
process are sealed with a mix of cement+water+intraplaster (sika or civax-100). This process
is known as Grouting.
25. CLASSIFY THE COLUMN BASED ON SLENDERNESS RATIO
Based on Slenderness Ratio
1) Short Columns (lx/D and ly/b <12)
2) long (Slender) Columns
26. STATE THE MINIMUM ECCENTRICITY OF A RECTANGULAR COLUMN FOR
DESIGNING
 IS:456-2000,PG:42,CL.25,4
 All the column should be designed for minimum eccentricity
 Minimum eccentricity(e)= unsupported length of column/500+Lateral dimension/30
 emin= L/500+D/30 where L and D are in mm
 emin≥20mm

27. WHY IS IT DESIRABLE THAT A FOOTING BE SO PROPORTIONED THAT

ECCENTRICITY OF LOADING IS ELEMINATED

28. WHAT ARE THE USES OF NOMOGRAMS

 Results of structural analysis, based on'calculatedmasonry method',for certain
loadings and span, have been presented in the form of nomograms, by the National
BuildingCode of India (SP : 7-1970). Though the
nomograms presented in the Cods cover buildings upto 6 storeys, it isviewed that
there is risk of some portion of the structuregetting overstressed, on account of
unfavourable location andshape of openings and occurrence of concentrated loads
thusendangering the structural safety of tall buildings It isdesirable, therefore, to use
the nomograms to design buildingsupto 3 storey height Buildings exceeding 3
storeys in heightshould be designed by detailed
29. GIVE SOME APPLICATIONS OF PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
Pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of
structural beams, floor slabs, hollow-core planks, balconies, lintels, driven piles, water
tanks and concrete pipes, Railway sleepers, Electric poles..
POST TENSIONING : For longer span girders.
30. WHAT IS MEANT BY SLENDERNESS RATIO OF COMPRESSION MEMBER
The ratio of the effective length of a column to the least radius of gyration of its cross
section is called the slenderness ratio
31. DIFFERENCE B/W SHORT COLUMN AND SLENDER COLUMN

 Short Columns

o Columns in which the strength is governed entirely by the strength of

materials and the geometry of the cross-section are called short columns.

o Short columns mainly carry compression loads.

o They are generally used in construction.
o They can carry bending moments as well about one or both axes.
o Column is treated generally as compression member because
compression forces dominates.

 Slender Columns

o Columns are said to be slender if its cross-sectional dimensions are small

compared with its length.

o The degree of slenderness is generally expressed in terms of

slenderness ratio, L/r where L is the unsupported length and “r” is the
radius of gyration.
32. WHAT ARE THE MAIN REQUIREMENTS OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM FOR A
STRUCTURE
 The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed
loads and to transmit these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on
it will not cause settlement which would impair the stability of the building
or adjoining structures.
 Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are
minimised, specially for the case when super-imposed loads are not
evenly distributed.
 Faundations should be taken suficient1y deep to guard the building
against damage or distress caused by sweelling or shrinkage of the sub-
soil.
 Foundations should be so located that its performaced may not be
affected due to any unexpected future influence.
33. EXPLAIN CAVITY WALL
 a wall consisting of two walls with a space between them to keep
out cold and noise
 A cavity wall is a wall formed by an inner skin and an outer skin of masonry
(sometimes referred to as ‘leaves’ or ‘wythes’ if they are a single unit wide),
connected by ties, but separated by a cavity. The masonry is formed by hard
units such as brick, stone or block.
  Very generally, if the external walls of a building are less than 30cm thick, then
they are unlikely to include a cavity.

34. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF WALL

 Building walls purposes are to support roofs, floors and ceilings, enclose a
space as part of the building envelope, along with a roof to give buildings form,
and to provide shelter and security.
 In addition, the wall may house various types of utilities such as electrical wiring
or plumbing.
35. WHAT IS THE PRINCIPLES OF PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
 he principle behind prestressed concrete is that compressive stresses induced
by high-strength steel tendons in a concrete member before loads are applied
will balance the tensile stresses imposed in the member during service.
36. DEFINE CREEP AND SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

Creep Of Concrete:

Creep can be defined as the elastic and long-term deformation of concrete under a continuous
load. Generally, a long term pressure changes the shape of concrete structure and the
deformation occurs along the direction of the applied load. When the continuous load is
removed, the strain is decreased immediately. The amount of the decreased strain is equal to
the elastic strain at the given age. This quick recovery is then followed by a continuous
decrease in strain, known as creep recovery that is a part of total creep strain suffered by the
concrete.

Shrinkage Of Concrete:

The volumetric changes of concrete structures due to the loss of moisture by evaporation is
known as concrete shrinkage or shrinkage of concrete. It is a time-dependent deformation which
reduces the volume of concrete without the impact of external forces.

Types Of Shrinkage:

1. Plastic Shrinkage

2. Drying Shrinkage

3. Carbonation Shrinkage

4. Autogenous shrinkage

37. DIFFERENCE B/W COLUMN AND PEDESTAL

A column is a vertical structural member intended to transfer a compressive load.
For example, a column might transfer loads from a ceiling, floor or roof slab or
from a beam, to a floor or foundations.
 Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone, brick, block,
concrete, timber, steel and so on which have good compressive strength

A pedestal is a compression element provided to carry the loads from supported

elements like columns, statues etc. to footing below the ground. It is generally provided
below the metal columns. In general pedestal width is greater than its height.
38. LIST THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF A
MASONRY WALL

39. DEFINE PRE STRESS CONCRETE

Prestressed Concrete is an architectural and structural material possessing great

strength. The unique characteristics of prestressed concrete allow predetermined,
engineering stresses to be placed in members to counteract stresses that occur when
the unit is subjected to service loads. This is accomplished by combining the the best
properties of two quality materials: high strength concrete for compression and high
tensile strength steel strands for tension.

Actually, prestressing is quite simple. High tensile strands are stretched between
abutments at each end of long casting beds. Concrete is then poured into the forms
encasing the strands. As the concrete sets, it bonds to the tensioned steel. When the
concrete reaches a specific strength, the strands are released from the abutments. This
compresses the concrete, arches the member, and creates a built in resistance to
service loads.
40. WHY HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE AND HIGHER GRADE STEEL REQUIRED
FOR PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
High strength steel is used because of the following reasons :-
 Magnitude of pre stressing force is very high which can be increased either by
increasing areas of steel or by increasing initial stress.Area can't be increased
much as there will be problem in concreting so using high grade steel is good.
 The are various losses present in steel so if we use low grade steel so effective
stress will reduce leading to poor performance

And high grade concrete :

 To develop greater bond stress in pre tensioned member.

 To resist high bearing and bending stresses
 Reduce losses due to elastic shortening.