Geothermics 78 (2019) 62–69

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Geothermics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geothermics

Hydrogeochemical and isotope characterization of geothermal waters from

the Cidanau geothermal field, West Java, Indonesia
⁎
Boy Yoseph Cahya Sunan Sakti Syah Alama, , Ryuichi Itoib, Sachihiro Taguchic, Hakim Saibid,e,
Rie Yamashirob
a
Faculty of Geological Engineering, Padjadjaran University, Sumedang, Jatinangor, West Java, Indonesia
b
Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
c
Faculty of Science, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
d
Department of Geology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, 15551, United Arab Emirates
e
National Water Center, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, 15551, United Arab Emirates

A R T I C LE I N FO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The Cidanau geothermal field is situated in the northern part of Mt. Parakasak in Banten province, West Java,
Hot spring Indonesia. Nine hot spring samples, one river sample, and one cold spring sample were collected and analyzed
hydrochemistry for their chemical composition and stable isotope ratios of the water. The objectives of this study are to char-
isotope acterize the chemical composition of hot spring water, to estimate the reservoir temperature and to develop a
Cidanau geothermal field
model of a hydrothermal system using chemical composition and water isotope ratios. The geothermal waters
conceptual model
Indonesia were characterized mainly as Na-Cl-HCO3 type of water. The pH of the waters was close to neutral. The tem-
perature of the hot-water discharges varied from 32.2 °C to 61.1 °C. The waters were evaluated to be immature
due to mixing with shallow groundwater during the upflow process. Mixing ratios between cold and hot waters
were estimated to be 12.2 to 98.3% with Cl concentrations using a mass balance approach. Higher mixing ratios
were found for samples at KR-5, KR-37 and KR-43 and can be explained by the existence of fault zones. The δ 18O
and δD values for geothermal waters in the region ranged between −7.1‰ to −6.4‰, and −43‰ to −38‰,
respectively. Isotope signatures of all hot springs suggest a local meteoric origin, and the oxygen shift corre-
sponds to an exchange between circulating meteoric water and reservoir rocks in the geothermal system. A
conceptual model of the Cidanau geothermal field hot springs is proposed.

1. Introduction Syariman and Hendarmawan (2010), the average value of evapo-

Rapid population growth leads to an increase in energy demand,
such as in geothermal energy (Bertani, 2005; Lund et al., 2005). Geo-
thermal energy has been widely studied by researchers in some areas
with respect to various aspects such as resource potential, exploitation
methods, and environmental impact (Kristmannsdottir and
Armannsson, 2003; Ungemach, 2003; Duan et al., 2011). Indonesia has
many promising geothermal areas because of its tectonic setting. Ap-
proximately 70 out of more than 200 geothermal prospects in Indonesia
have been identified as high-temperature systems (Sudarman et al.,
2000).
The Cidanau geothermal field is located in the northern part of Mt.
Parakasak, Banten Province, West Java, Indonesia (Fig. 1). The climate
in West Java is described as a humid-tropical climate, which is char-
acterized by the presence of a dry and rainy season. According to
transpiration of the Cisuwarna river in the study area is 48%. Its annual
rainfall varies in the range from 1183 to 3213 mm. The native residents
use the hot spring waters for daily needs, such as washing and bathing.
In the east of the study area, there is the industrial city of Cilegon that
needs electricity to develop. Geothermal energy is one of the possible
energy resources for the electricity needs of the residents in Cilegon.
One of the important tasks in the exploration for geothermal resources
is to develop conceptual models of geothermal systems. The chemical
and isotopic composition of the geothermal fluids provides information
about the origin of the hot waters, as well as mixing, recharge area and
flow patterns.
Only a few previous geoscientific investigations of the Cidanau
geothermal field have been carried out. Herdianita and Julinawati
(2007) studied the hydrochemistry of geothermal manifestations in the
Cidanau and Anyer geothermal fields. They concluded that the origin of

⁎
Corresponding author
E-mail address: boy.yoseph@unpad.ac.id (B.Y.C. Sunan Sakti Syah Alam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2018.11.003
Received 15 November 2017; Received in revised form 9 November 2018; Accepted 19 November 2018
0375-6505/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B.Y.C. Sunan Sakti Syah Alam et al. Geothermics 78 (2019) 62–69

Fig. 1. Map of the study area showing water sampling locations.

This paper addresses the hydrochemical and isotopic characteristics

the water in these geothermal fields is similar, i.e. both are from me-
teoric water. They estimated a reservoir temperature of approximately
180–280 °C for both geothermal fields. Harada et al. (2014) carried out
a numerical simulation of the geothermal system in the Cidanau geo-
thermal field and estimated the geothermal reservoir temperature to be
approximately 250 °C at 2 km below sea level under Mt. Parakasak with
a high geothermal gradient of 11 °C/100 m and a heat flow of 45 mW/
m2. These results are from a geothermal numerical simulation using the
software FEFLOW 6.2.
of the Cidanau geothermal field waters to: 1) investigate the origin of
the thermal waters, 2) estimate the geothermal reservoir temperature
and 3) develop a model for the study area. The results are intended to
contribute to the planning of future management of the geothermal
resources in the Cidanau geothermal field.
2. Geological and hydrological setting
Volcanoes in Java are dominantly characterized as andesitic and are
related to stratovolcano-high topographic terrain geothermal systems

63
B.Y.C. Sunan Sakti Syah Alam et al. Geothermics 78 (2019) 62–69

Fig. 2. Geological map of Mt. Karang and Mt. Parakasak showing sampling locations and a cross section line A-B, modified from Rusmana et al. (1991) and Santosa,
(1991); faults compiled from Suryadarma, (1991) and Endyana et al. (2011).
layers of laharic and pumiceous tuff that are between 3 and 12 m thick;
(Utama et al., 2012).
The study area comprises two volcanoes and a wide swampy area
that is filled with volcanic debris such as tuff and clay deposits.
According to Van Bemmelen (1949), Rusmana et al. (1991) and Santosa
(1991), the formation of the lithostratigraphy unit in the study area
took place from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene, and resulted in
the formation of the oldest volcanoes in the area, namely Mt. Karang
and Mt. Parakasak (Fig. 2). The oldest rocks are andesitic to basaltic
lavas, volcanic breccia and tuff (Plio-Pleistocene), specifically that of
the Mt. Kamuning formation as formed by a pyroxene andesitic basalt
(Pleistocene), that of Mt. Parakasak by volcanic breccia, and tu ff (Ho-
locene), that of Mt. Karang by andesitic to basaltic lava, tu ff and vol-
canic breccia (Pleisto-Holocene) and that of Rawa Danau sediment
formations (Holocene) (Fig. 2). Normal faults with a strike of northeast-
southwest control the appearance of springs in the study area. Ac-
cording to Herdianita and Julinawati (2007), these faults are an ex-
tension of the Lampung fault system in southeast Sumatra.
The peak of Mt. Parakasak is 990 m. (a.s.l) and has two calderas.
The geomorphology of the inner caldera is an indication of the most
recent sedimentation in the north of the study area (Rawa Danau se-
diment/ Qr); nearly all the sediment has come from the south volcanic
slopes and has been deposited in alluvial fans and fluvial systems in the
caldera.
Sudibyo et al. (1995) and Suryaman (1999) divided the study area
into three different aquifer systems, based on discharge mechanisms
and aquifer capacity. (1) There is no aquifer associated with the peaks
of both volcanoes (Mt. Karang and Mt. Parakasak), and so there is no
groundwater worth mentioning. (2) The volcano slopes include an
aquifer where groundwater flows through porous media and locally
fractured media. Here, young volcanic deposits consist of multiple

they have well yields that are less than 5 L/s and transmissivity values
of about 600m²/day. (3) At the foot of the volcanoes there are aquifers
where groundwater flows through porous media aquifers and locally
fractured multiple layer lavas. The location and the shallow ground-
water aquifers (Aq1 to Aq3) are presented in Fig. 2. Alam et al. (2014)
discussed the hydrogeochemical characteristics and groundwater flow
system in the area studied with respect to the results of hydro-chemical
and stable isotope analysis.
3. Materials and methods
Eleven water samples were collected in July-August 2012 from the
northern part of Mt. Parakasak (Fig. 2): Eight from hot springs (KR-5,
KR-6, KR-7, KR-8, KR-9, KR-10, KR-37 and KR-43), one from a wellbore
(KR-45), one from a cold spring (KR-40) and one river sample (KR-39).
64
The depth of the wellbore is approximately 30 m. The sampling points
are mostly located at an elevation of approximately 100 m a.s.l., except
for KR-43, which is at 253 m a.s.l. Water samples were filtered in situ
with a 0.45-μm membrane filter and stored in polyethylene bottles.
Samples for SiO2 and cation analyses were acidified by adding 1 mL of
1 N HCl to 100 mL of the water samples. pH and electrical conductivity
were measured in situ.
Cations (Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+) and anions (F−, Cl−and
SO42-) were analyzed using ion chromatography (Dionex ICS-90), and
aluminum (Al) and boron (B) with ICP-AES (Vista-MPX). SiO 2 was
analyzed by the molybdate yellow method using a spectrophotometer
(Hitachi U-1100). Bicarbonate was analyzed by the titration method
with 0.1 N HCl soon after sampling.
Water is usually the most abundant component in geothermal and
volcanic fluids, followed by CO2 (Bolognesi, 2011). Water isotopes
(δ18O and δD) were determined using the CO2 and H2 equilibration
B.Y.C. Sunan Sakti Syah Alam et al. Geothermics 78 (2019) 62–69

Table 1
Chemical composition of waters from the Cidanau geothermal field in Indonesia. HS: hotspring, CS: cold spring, RS: river water, KR: number of water sample, Alt:
altitude in meters, T: temperature, EC: Electrical conductivity, ND: not determined.
ID KR Alt (masl) T (oC) pH EC Li+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Cl- SO42- HCO3- SiO2 B (mg/L) F- (mg/L) δ18O (‰) δD
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (‰)

HS 5 107 61.1 6.7 910 0.1 102 25.8 21.9 57.7 18.5 23.8 495 213 0.4 0.6 -6.7 -42
HS 6 98 54.6 6.5 2170 1.6 302 49.8 29.9 69.6 419 7.0 499 185 4.8 0.5 -6.8 -41
HS 7 98 53.9 7.4 1900 1.4 292 50.7 31.1 74.0 351 3.5 532 185 3.3 0.3 -6.8 -41
HS 8 98 55.5 7.4 2000 1.4 293 49.8 30.3 70.7 368 1.9 537 190 2.5 0.5 -6.8 -41
HS 9 96 42.1 6.5 1800 1.3 263 50.8 31.0 74.7 287 0.9 622 164 0.5 0.5 -6.9 -42
HS 10 96 51.6 7.1 1581 ND 214 39.4 24.7 55.5 210 25.4 531 178 0.9 0.6 -6.8 -41
HS 37 104 32.2 6.2 600 ND 25 7.0 28.5 64.8 9.0 17.7 377 133 ND 0.2 -7.0 -43
HS 43 253 50.3 4.3 2410 0.1 157 26.2 112 250 34.1 535 ND 192 0.2 0.3 -7.1 -43
HS 45 96 47.6 6.9 1950 1.3 266 46.6 29.7 77.2 297 1.6 631 163 0.5 0.4 -6.8 -41
RS 39 143 29.6 7.6 491 ND 53 6.5 19.1 68.6 59.4 276 25.6 55.2 ND 0.3 -6.4 -38
CS 40 538 24.6 5.0 811 ND 51 5.2 23.2 106 59.2 537 ND 78.2 0.1 1.0 -7.2 -43

method. The use of Oxygen (18O) and Deuterium (D) ratios in waters
has been described by Stewart and Taylor (1981; in Hulston, 1983). The
isotope ratios were determined using a DELTA Plus mass spectrometer.
The analytical precision for δ18O and δD was ± 0.1‰ and ± 1‰, re-
spectively, and expressed relative to SMOW (Standard Mean Ocean
Water). The results are summarized in Table 1.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Water geochemistry
The chemical nature of the waters studied is shown in the Piper
diagram in Fig. 3a. The hot waters mainly belong to the Na-Cl-HCO3
type except those from KR-37 and KR-5 (HCO 3 type) and KR-43 (SO4
type). The cold waters (KR-39 and KR-40) belong to the Ca-SO 4 type.
Due to the low pH of 4.3 at KR-43, the HCO3 concentration could
not be determined because the carbonates at this pH are primarily in
the form of H2CO3, and HCO3 is observed only at a higher pH (> 6).
KR-43 water can be categorized as Ca-SO4 type.
The hot spring waters examined were characterized by pH values
ranging from 6.2 to 7.6, except for one acid hot spring sample, KR-43,
which has a pH of 4.3. Moreover, the cold spring (KR-40) shows a pH of
approximately 5, and a pH of 7.6 was observed for the river water (KR-
39).
The dominant ions in the hot spring waters are Na, Ca, and HCO 3,
with mean concentrations of 213 mg/L, 88 mg/L, and 469 mg/L, re-
spectively. The mean concentrations of other ions in the hot spring
waters are 38.5 mg/L for K, 37.3 mg/L for Mg, 222 mg/L for Cl, and
69 mg/L for SO4. In the cold waters, the dominant ions were Ca (87 mg/
L), Na (52 mg/L) and SO4 (407 mg/L).
The discharge temperature of the hot springs varies from 32.2 °C
(KR-37) to 61.1 °C (KR-5). KR-37 had the lowest temperature (32.2 °C),
which may be due to mixing with cold shallow groundwater. The
measured temperatures for the cold waters were 24.6 °C for the cold
spring and 29.6 °C for the river sample.
The electrical conductivity (EC) of the hot waters varies from 600
μS/cm (KR-37) to 2410 μS/cm (KR-43) with an average of 1700 μS/cm.
This result indicates a low mineralization of hot springs from the
Cidanau geothermal field. The cold waters show an EC of 490.5 μS/cm
and 810.5 μS/cm for KR-39 and KR-40, respectively. The silica con-
centrations of the hot spring waters range from 133 mg/L to 213 mg/L.
A higher concentration of dissolved silica is usually found in high-
temperature geothermal waters, particularly those associated with
volcanic systems (Giggenbach et al., 1983). The silica concentrations of
the cold waters were 78.2 mg/L for the cold spring and 55.2 mg/L for
the river water.
The positions of major anions on the Cl-SO4-HCO3 ternary diagram
(Fig. 3b) proposed by Giggenbach (1988) indicate that the majority of
the hot waters (KR-6, -7, -8, -9, -10 and -45) are typical of dilute Cl-
HCO3 water. These waters are formed by the dilution of deep Cl type
water by shallow groundwater while flowing laterally. KR-43 water
belongs to a SO4 water type; this water is formed near the surface due to
condensation of water vapor into groundwater or surface water. KR-5
and KR-37 waters are of the HCO3 type.
All hot spring samples have low SO4 concentrations ranging from
0.9–25.4 mg/L, except that from KR-43 with 535 mg/L. The con-
centrations of the cold spring KR-40 water is also high in SO 4 with
537 mg/L.
The Cl concentrations of KR-6, -7, -8, -9, -10, and -45 waters range
from 210 mg/L to 419 mg/L indicating the contribution of deep geo-
thermal water to these hot springs.
Geothermal water in deep reservoirs generally has a low SO 4 con-
centration because of reducing conditions (Nicholson, 1993). Water
samples with high Cl concentrations are located at an elevation of about
100 masl (KR-6, -7, -8, -9, -10 and -45) while water sample with high
SO4 concentration is located at the high elevation of about 253 masl
(KR-43) (Fig. 7). The concentrations of SO4 increases as a result of
oxidation of hydrogen sulfide through interaction with oxygen rich
groundwater at a relatively shallow depth. The Cl/SO 4 ratio is generally
higher in deep geothermal waters than in surface waters (Ellis and
Mahon, 1977). KR-43, KR-5, and KR-37 waters have low Cl con-
centrations with less than 35 mg/L and with high SO4 concentrations
relative to the discharge temperature, which suggests that these hot
waters are mixed with either groundwater or surface water.
4.2. Reservoir temperatures
Fig. 4 shows a Na-K-Mg diagram according to Giggenbach (1988).
The results all plot in the immature water region, which indicates that
none of these hot spring waters have attained equilibrium conditions
with the reservoir rock. However, all hot spring waters plot on a line.
This implies mixing of the ascending deep hot waters with shallow cold
waters. By extrapolating this line, the reservoir temperature can be
estimated to be 220 °C to 240 °C.
4.3. Isotope characteristics
Data on δ18O and δD for the nine hot spring waters and two cold
waters (the river and cold spring samples) from the Cidanau geothermal
field are presented in Table 1. Isotope studies of the groundwater in the
northern part of Mt. Karang were carried out by Alam et al. (2014); who
concluded that as all water samples plotted close to the global meteoric
water line this implies that they are of meteoric water origin as shown
in Fig.5. Fig. 5 shows that the hot spring samples plot among the cold
groundwater samples, implying that the water sources are similar, but
there is a slight oxygen shift. The oxygen of the KR-37 and KR-43 are
relatively depleted as shown on the plot (Fig.5) than the other samples.
The depleted oxygen for these two samples may have been controlled

65
B.Y.C. Sunan Sakti Syah Alam et al. Geothermics 78 (2019) 62–69

Fig. 3. a) Piper diagram for the Cidanau geothermal field hot spring waters [hot spring water types: 1) Na-Cl-HCO 3 type for KR-6, -7, -8, -9, -10, and -45; 2) HCO 3
type for KR-5 and KR-37; and 3) SO4 type for KR-43] b) Cl-SO 4-HCO3 diagram for the Cidanau geothermal field hot spring waters.
this group, are of the SO4 dominant type. These waters originate in the
by their higher elevation position (107 and 243 masl), and their relative
proximity to the fault. Moreover, these two samples (KR-37 and KR-43)
might have been significantly influenced by the mixing with ground-
water.
Hot spring waters are divided into two groups based on δD and δ 18O
ratios; the first group is depleted in δD and δ18O contents and the
second is isotopically enriched. The chemistry of the depleted group
indicates steam-heated water; KR-39 and 43 waters, which belongs to
 4.4. Mixing evaluation

near surrounding area as groundwater in surface water. The depleted

The deep hot waters reach the surface as mixed waters, and the
group is mostly a mixed water group and the HCO3 is a dominant water
recognition of the different components/end-members can be di fficult
group.
especially if water-rock re-equilibrium takes place after mixing for long

66
B.Y.C. Sunan Sakti Syah Alam et al. Geothermics 78 (2019) 62–69

Fig. 4. Na-K-Mg diagram for the Cidanau geothermal field waters (after Giggenbach, 1988).

Two end member waters were selected, a cold groundwater sample

(Cl = 1.91 mg/L; Alam et al., 2014) and the hot thermal spring KR-6.
Calculated mixing ratios are shown in Table 2.
The evaluation of the calculated mixing ratio at shallow depth in the
geothermal field is described above. The relationship between δD and
δ18O with Cl identifies the existence of two groups mainly (Figs.6a and
6b): a shallow groundwater in a surface water dominant group for KR-
5, KR-43 and KR-37, and a thermal fluid group with a higher Cl con-
centration. This interpretation is in good agreement with the Cl mass
balance results (Table 2). The KR-5 water is the most enriched in 18O
while the KR-37 and KR-43 waters had lower Cl concentrations and
were both depleted in δ18O and δD.

4.5. Conceptual model

A schematic geothermal cross section of the Cidanau geothermal

field is presented in Fig.7. The origin of the geothermal water is me-
teoric on the basis of isotope data. Precipitation at a higher elevation
Fig. 5. Plot of δ18O (‰) vs. δD (‰) for waters sampled from the Cidanau
flows downwards through faults. After heating up in the subsurface, the
geothermal field. water travels upward to the surface along faults, and after boiling it
mixes with shallow groundwater and eventually emerges in a hot
Table 2 spring.
Mixing ratios (percentage of cold groundwater) in the The hydrochemical model encompasses three different types: Cl-
mixed sample. HCO3, HCO3 and SO4 waters. Discharge of the geothermal waters is
Hot spring Mixing ratio (%) associated with NE-SW and NW-SE trending faults. The hot spring
waters of KR-6, -7, -8, -9, -10 and -45 come from depth and flow as Cl-
KR-5 96 rich water through faults to the surface, and near the surface they start
KR-7 16.3
KR-8 12.2
to boil. The H2S and CO2 gases released create steam-heated waters
KR-9 31.6 (HCO3 and SO4 type) near the surface like in KR-5, 37, and 43. The
KR-10 50.2 residual deep fluid flows up along the fractures, then mixes with steam-
KR-37 98.3 heated water of the HCO3 type.
KR-43 92.3
Given that the geothermal gradient is approximately 11 °C/100 m in
KR-45 29.3
the Cidanau geothermal field (Harada et al., 2014), it can be inferred
that the reservoir depth of these hot waters is 1.9 km when using a
residence times (Han et al., 2010). To simplify the determination of ClT is the chloride concentration in the hot water.
mixing ratios, it is assumed that the hot springs are a mixture of two
end-members, one thermal and one non-thermal groundwater. Chloride
is used to estimate mixing ratios because it generally does not partici-
pate in chemical reactions even at high concentrations and tempera-
tures. Assuming conservative Cl behavior, mixing of cold water with
thermal water is estimated using the equation:
R= (ClT-Clmix)/(ClT-Clc) x 100 (%) (1)
R is the mixing ratio, expressed as the percentage of non-thermal
groundwater (%); Clmix is the chloride concentration in the mixed
groundwater; Clc is the chloride concentration in cold groundwater; and
reservoir temperature of 240 °C which we estimated using the Na-K-Mg
diagram.
5. Conclusions
The Cidanau geothermal field contains several manifestations like
hot springs with several differences in physical characteristics. On the
basis of the analyses, the hot spring water in the Cidanau geothermal
field has been divided into three types: 1) Na-Cl-HCO 3 type for KR-6, -7,
-8, -9, -10, and -45; 2) HCO3 type for KR-5 and KR-37; and 3) SO 4 type
for KR-43.
The reservoir temperature at depth in the Cidanau geothermal field

67
B.Y.C. Sunan Sakti Syah Alam et al. Geothermics 78 (2019) 62–69

Fig. 6. a) δ18O (‰) vs Cl in mg/L and b) δD (‰) vs. Cl in mg/L for the hot waters from the Cidanau geothermal field.
 Fig. 7. A Scheme for the geothermal system in the Cidanau geothermal field deduced from the results of geochemical and isotope analysis.
was estimated to be 220° to 240 °C based on the Na-K-Mg diagram. The
values for reservoir temperature are in the Cidanau geothermal field
reflect mixing between hot water and cold water in a thermal reservoir
and original geothermal fluids.
All the water samples plotted close to the global meteoric water line
in a δ18O and δD diagram. This implies that the origin of these waters is
local precipitation. Low isotope ratios reflect that the hot spring waters
are derived from high elevations.
Due to the existence of faults and shallow cold groundwater aqui-
fers, the hot waters have mixed with cold groundwater. A Cl mass
balance was used to evaluate the mixing proportions in the hot waters.
The mixing proportions in the Cidanau geothermal field were between
12.2 and 98.3%; the results show higher values in springs that flow
from fault zones. The low mixing ratios are observed in samples with
high Cl concentrations (KR-6, -7, -8, -9, 10, and -45). The mixing pro-
cess between hot and cold waters can be distinguished on the δD and Cl
bivariate plot.
Finally, a conceptual model of the occurrence of hot waters in the
Cidanau geothermal field was developed on the basis of chemical and
isotope analysis.
68
Acknowledgments
The first author would like to thank the Global Center of Excellence
in Novel Carbon Resource Sciences, Kyushu University, for financial
support for this work, and Directorate General Higher of Education,
National Ministry of Education of Indonesia for a PhD Scholarship. The
authors appreciate the help of the staff of the Faculty of Geological
engineering, Padjadjaran University, Indonesia for their participation
during the fieldwork. The early version of this paper received the
benefit of valuable comments and suggestions by anonymous reviewers,
and the journal editor Chris Bromley and Associate Editor, Halldor
Armannsson.
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