a

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS Percentage error 100%

amean
The SI system : It is the international system of units.
At present internationally accepted for measurement. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
In this system there are seven fundamental and two
supplementary quantities and their corresponding s1 + s2 + s3
units are: Average speed, Vav =
t1 + t 2 + t 3
Quantity Unit Symbol a t +a t
1. Length metre m Average acceleration, aav = 1 1 2 2
t1 + t 2
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second s The area under the velocity-time curve is equal to the
4. Electric current ampere A displacement and slope gives acceleration.
5. Temperature kelvin K If a body falls freely, the distance covered by it in each
6. Luminous intensity candela cd subsequent second starting from first second will be in
7. Amount of substance mole mol the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 etc.
Supplementary If a body is thrown vertically up with an initial velocity
1. Plane angle radian rad u, it takes u/g second to reach maximum height and
2. Solid angle steradian sr u/g second to return, if air resistance is negligible.
If air resistance acting on a body is considered, the time
Dimensions : These are the powers to which the taken by the body to reach maximum height is less than
fundamental units are raised to get the unit of a
physical quantity. the time to fall back the same height.
For a particle having zero initial velocity if s t ,
Uses of dimensions
(i) To check the correctness of a physical relation. where 2 , then particle’s acceleration increases with
(ii) To derive relationship between different physical time.
quantities. For a particle having zero initial velocity if s t ,
(iii) To convert one system of unit into another.
n 1u 1 = n 2 u 2 where 0 , then particle’s acceleration decreases with
a b c
time.
n1[M1a Lb1T1c ] = n2 [M 2 L 2T2 ]
Kinematic equations :
Significant figures : In any measurement, the reliable v = u + at (t) ; v2 = u2 + 2at (s)
digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as
1 a
significant figures. S = ut + at (t)2; Sn u (2 n 1)
2 2
Error : It is the difference between the measured value
applicable only when | a t | a t is constant.
and true value of a physical quantity or the uncertainty
at = magnitude of tangential acceleration, S = distance
in the measurements.
If acceleration is variable use calculus approach.
Absolute error : The magnitude of the difference
between the true value and the measured value is Relative velocity : v BA vB vA
called absolute error.
a1 a a1 , a2 a a2 , an a an MOTION IN A PLANE
Mean absolute error
| a1 | | a2 | ..... | an | 1
n If T is the time of flight, h maximum height, R horizontal
a = | ai |
range of a projectile, its angle of projection, then the
n ni 1
relations among these quantities.
Relative error : It is the ratio of the mean absolute error
gT 2
a h ...... (1);
to its true value or relative error = 8
a
gT2 = 2R tan ....... (2);
Percentage error : It is the relative error in per cent. R tan = 4h ....... (3)
 2

2u sin u 2 sin 2 On a banked road, the maximum permissible speed

T ;h 1/2
g 2g æ u + tan q ö ÷
ççR s ÷
Vmax = çç g ÷
÷
u 2 sin 2 u2 è 1- u s tan qø
R ; Rmax when 45
g g
For a given initial velocity, to get the same horizontal WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
range, there are two angles of projection and 90° – .
The equation to the parabola traced by a body projected Work done W = FS cos
horizontally from the top of a tower of height y, with a Relation between kinetic energy E and momentum,
velocity u is y = gx2/2u2, where x is the horizontal P 2mE
distance covered by it from the foot of the tower.
K.E. = 1/2 mV2; P.E. = mgh
gx 2 If a body moves with constant power, its velocity (v) is
Equation of trajectory is y x tan , which related to distance travelled (x) by the formula v x3/2.
2u cos 2
2

is parabola. W
Power P = = F.V
Equation of trajectory of an oblique projectile in terms t
x Work due to kinetic force of friction between two contact
of range (R) is y x tan 1 surfaces is always negative. It depends on relative
R displacement between contact surfaces.
Maximum height is equal to n times the range when WFK FK (Srel ) .
the projectile is launched at an angle = tan–1(4n).
W K, W total work due to all kinds of
In a uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration
are constants only in magnitude. Their directions forces, K total change in kinetic energy.
change. Wconservative U ; Wconservative Total work
In a uniform circular motion, the kinetic energy of the due to all kinds of conservative forces.
body is a constant. W = 0, a 0, P constant, L=constant SDu Þ Total change in all kinds of potential energy.
velocity of separation
2 v2 Coefficient of restitution e
Centripetal acceleration, a r r v (always velocity of approach
r
applicable) a r v The total momentum of a system of particles is a
constant in the absence of external forces.
LAWS OF MOTION
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES & ROTATIOAL
Newton’s first law of motion or law of inertia : It is MOTION
resistance to change.
The centre of mass of a system of particles is defined as
Newton’s second law : F ma, F dp / dt
mi ri
2 the point whose position vector is R
Impulse : p F t, p2 p1 F dt M
The angular momentum of a system of n particles about
1
Newton’s third law : F12 F21 n
the origin is L ri p i ; L = mvr = I
Frictional force fs (fs ) max sR ; fk kR i 1
Circular motion with variable speed. For complete The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles
circles, the string must be taut in the highest position,
u 2 ³ 5ga . about the origin is ri Fi
Circular motion ceases at the instant when the string i
becomes slack, i.e., when T = 0, range of values of u for The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is
which the string does go slack is 2ga u 5ga . defined by the formula I mi ri 2
Conical pendulum : w = g / h where h is height of a 1
The kinetic energy of rotation is K I 2
point of suspension from the centre of circular motion. 2
The acceleration of a lift
The theorem of parallel axes : I'z = Iz + Ma2
actual weight apparent weight
a= Theorem of perpendicular axes : Iz = Ix + Iy
mass For rolling motion without slipping vcm = R . The
If ‘a’ is positive lift is moving down, and if it is negative
the lift is moving up. kinetic energy of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic
energies of translation and rotation :
 3
1 2 1 2 Kepler’s 3rd law of planetary motion.
K mvcm I
2 2 T12 a13
A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if T2 a3 ;
T22 a 32
(a) It is translational equilibrium i.e., the total external
force on it is zero : Fi = 0.
(b) It is rotational equilibrium i.e., the total external MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
torque on it is zero : i = ri × Fi = 0. OF SOLIDS
If a body is released from rest on rough inclined plane,
Hooke’s law : stress strain
n
then for pure rolling r tan (Ic = nmr2) F
n 1 Young’s modulus of elasticity Y
n A
Rolling with sliding 0 s tan ; 1
n 1 Compressibility =
Bulk modulus
g sin
a g sin Y = 3k (1 – 2 )
n 1
Y = 2n (1 + )
GRAVITATION If S is the stress and Y is Young’s modulus, the energy
density of the wire E is equal to S2/2Y.
Newton’s universal law of gravitation If is the longitudinal strain and E is the energy density
Gm1m 2 of a stretched wire, Y Young’s modulus of wire, then E
Gravitational force F =
r2 is equal to Y
1 2

Nm 2 2
G = 6.67 × 10 –11 F
kg 2 Thermal stress = = Y Dq
A
The acceleration due to gravity.
(a) at a height h above the Earth’s surface
GM E 2h
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
g(h) g 1 for h << RE OF FLUIDS
(R E h)2 RE
Pascal’s law : A change in pressure applied to an
2h GM E
g(h) g(0) 1 where g(0) enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every
RE R 2E point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
(b) at depth d below the Earth’s surface is Pressure exerted by a liquid column P = hrg
GM E d d Bernoulli’s principle P + v2/2 + gh = constant
g(d) 1 g (0) 1 Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface
R E2 RE RE
energy per unit area) acting in the plane of interface.
(c) with latitude g1 = g – R 2 cos2
Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a
GM sphere of radius a moving with velocity v through a
Gravitational potential Vg = –
r fluid of viscosity F = – 6 av.
GM 2 r 2 ( – )g
Intensity of gravitational field I = 2 Terminal velocity VT =
r 9
The gravitational potential energy The surface tension of a liquid is zero at boiling point.
The surface tension is zero at critical temperature.
Gm1m 2
V constant If a drop of water of radius R is broken into n identical
r
drops, the work done in the process is 4 R2S(n1/3 – 1)
The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is
3T 1 1
2GM E and fall in temperature Dq = -
ve 2gR E and has a value of 11.2 km s–1. J r R
RE Two capillary tubes each of radius r are joined in
GM E
parallel. The rate of flow is Q. If they are replaced by
Orbital velocity, vorbi = gR E single capillary tube of radius R for the same rate of
RE flow, then R = 21/4 r.
A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) Ascent of a liquid column in a capillary tube
satellite moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane 2s cos f
at a approximate distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the h=
rr g
Earth’s centre.
 4

F Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state

Coefficient of viscosity, n = nR (T1 T2 )
dv from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) is W
A 1
dx
Velocity of efflux V T
2 gh The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by 1 2
T1
Second law of thermodynamics: No engine operating
THERMAL PROPERTIES between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than
OF MATTER that of the Carnot engine.
Q
Entropy or disorder S =
Relation between different temperature scales : T
C F - 32 K - 273
= =
100 100 100 KINETIC THEORY
The coefficient of linear expansion ( ), superficial ( ) and
volume expansion ( v) are defined by the relations : Ideal gas equation PV = nRT
A V 1
T ; T ; V T nmv 2 ,
Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation P
A V 3
Combined with the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic
v=3 ; 2
In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring interpretation of temperature.
parts of a body through molecular collisions, without any 1 3 3k BT
nmv 2 k B T , vrms (v 2 )1/2
TC TD 2 2 m
flow of matter. The rate of flow of heat H KA , The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy
L
for each degree of freedom in thermal equilibrium is 1/2 (kBT)
where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar.
Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to 3
unequal temperatures of its parts. The translational kinetic energy E k B NT . This leads
2
Radiation is the transmission of heat as electromagnetic
waves. 2
to a relation PV E.
Stefan’s law of radiation : E = T4, where the constant is 3
known as Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10–8 wm–2 k–4. Degree of freedom : Number of directions in which it can
Wein’s displacement law : mT = constant, where constant move freely.
is known as Wein’s constant = 2.898 × 10 –3 mk. Root mean square (rms) velocity of the gas
dQ 3RT 3P
Newton’s law of cooling: k (T2 T1 ) ; where T1 is C=
dt M
the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the
temperature of the body. Most probable speed Vmp = 2RT 2KT
=
Heat required to change the temperature of the substance, M m
Q = mc KT
Mean free path =
c = specific heat of the substance 2 d2P
Heat absorbed or released during state change Q = mL
L = latent heat of the substance
Mayer’s formula cp – cv = R OSCILLATIONS
Displacement in SHM : Y = a sin wt or, y = a cos wt
THERMODYNAMICS The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as
First law of thermodynamics: Q = U + W, where Q is functions of time are given by, v (t) = – A sin ( + )
the heat supplied to the system, W is the work done by the (velocity), a (t) = – 2A cos ( t + ) = – 2x (t) (acceleration)
system and U is the change in internal energy of the system. Velocity amplitude vm = A and acceleration amplitude
In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V1 am = 2A.
to V2 at temperature T the heat absorbed (Q) equals the A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a
work done (W) by the gas, each given by Hooke’s law restoring force given by F = – k x exhibits simple
V2 k
Q W nRT ln harmonic motion with (angular frequency),
V1 m
In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas PV = TV –1
m
T 2 (period)
T Cp k
1 = constant, where Cv
. Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
P
 5

Electric field due to a point charge q has a magnitude

cos | q |/4 0r2
Time period for conical pendulum T 2 where
g Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane
angle between string & vertical. p 1 p
E , for r >> a
Energy of the particle E = k + u =
1
m 2
A2
4 0 (a 2 r 2 )3/2 4 0r3
2 Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r from the centre:
WAVES E
2pr
2 2 2
2p
for r >> a
4 0 (r a ) 4 0r3
The displacement in a sinusoidal wave y (x, t) = a sin
(kx – t + ) where is the phase constant or phase angle. Dipole moment p q 2a
t x In a uniform electric field E , a dipole experiences a torque
Equation of plane progressive wave : a sin 2
T V given by p E but experiences no net force.
2 t 2 x The flux of electric field E through a small area element
Equation of stationary wave : Y = 2a sin cos
T
The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string S is given by E. S
v T/ . Gauss’s law: The flux of electric field through any closed
surface S is 1/ 0 times the total charge enclosed i.e., Q
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge
travel through solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of sound
wave in a fluid having bulk modulus B and density µ is density E nˆ
v B/ . 2 0r
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar is Infinite thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density
v Y/ E nˆ
2 0
For gases, since B = P, the speed of sound is v P/ Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density
The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite
directions produces standing waves. For a string with fixed E rˆ (r R)
4 2 E 0 (r < R)
ends, standing wave y (x, t) = [2a sin kx ] cos t 0r
The separation between two consecutive nodes or antinodes 1 Q
is /2. Electric Potential : V(r) .
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates 4 0 r
An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential
1 v has a constant value.
with frequencies f .
2 2L Potential energy of two charges q1, q2 at r1, r2 is given by
The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the
fundamental mode or the first harmonic. 1 q1q 2
U , where r12 is distance between q1 and q2.
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open 4 0 r12
(such as air columns) vibrates with frequencies given by Capacitance C = Q/V, where Q = charge and V = potential
1 v difference
f n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .... The lowest frequency For a parallel plate capacitor (with vacuum between the
2 2L
given by v/4L is the fundamental mode or the first harmonic. A
plates), C 0 .
V d
Open organ pipe n1 : n2 : n3 ....... 1, 2, 3......., n The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with
2l
Beats arise when two waves having slightly different 1 1 1 Q2
frequencies, f1 and f2 and comparable amplitudes, are charge Q and voltage V is U QV CV 2
2 2 2 C
superposed. The beat frequency fbeat = f1 – f2 For capacitors in the series combination,
The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of
a wave when the source S and the observer O moves relative 1 1 1 1
.........
Ceq C1 C2 C3
v v0
to the medium. f f0 In the parallel combination, Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
v vs where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.

ELECTROSTATICS CURRENT ELECTRICITY

k (q1q 2 ) q
Coulomb’s Law : F21 = force on q2 due to q1 = 2
r̂21 Electric current, I
r21 t
1 Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per
where k = 9 × 109 Nm2 C–2
4 0 second per unit area normal to the flow, J nqvd
 6

Vd I 0 I1I 2
Mobility, µ and Vd Force between two long parallel wires F Nm 1 .
E Ane 2 a
The force is attractive if currents are in the same direction
and repulsive currents are in the opposite direction.
Resistance R = , = resistivity of the material
A For current carrying coil M NIA ; torque = M B
Equation E J another statement of Ohm’s law,,
Ig
= resistivity of the material. Conversion of (i) galvanometer into ammeter, S G
Ohm’s law I V or V = RI I Ig
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series V
R = R1 + R2 +..... + Rn (ii) galvanometer into voltmeter, S G
(b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel Ig
1 1 1 1 B0
...... The magnetic intensity, H .
R R1 R 2 Rn . 0
Kirchhoff’s Rules – (a) Junction rule: At any junction of The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment
circuit elements, the sum of currents entering the junction per unit volume. The magnetic field B in the material is,
must equal the sum of currents leaving it.
(b) Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential B 0 (H M)
around any closed loop must be zero. For a linear material M H . So that B H and is
The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances
R1 , R2 , R3, R4 . The null-point condition is given by called the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
R1 R 3 0 r ; r 1 .

R2 R4
The potentiometer is a device to compare potential ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
differences. The device can be used to measure potential
difference; internal resistance of a cell and compare emf’s of The magnetic flux
B B.A BA cos , where is the angle between B & A .
1
two sources. Internal resistance r R 1
2
d B
Faraday’s laws of induction : N
RC circuit : During charging : q = CE (1 – e–t/RC) dt
Lenz’s law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such
During discharging : q = q0e–t/RC
that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change
According ‘to Joule’s Heating law, H = I2Rt in magnetic flux that produces it.
The induced emf (motional emf) across ends of a rod B v
MAGNETISM
dI
The total force on a charge q moving with velocity v i.e., The self-induced emf is given by, L
dt
Lorentz force. F q (v B E) . L is the self-inductance of the coil.
A straight conductor of length and carrying a steady current 2
0N A
L=
I experiences a force F in a uniform external magnetic field
A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a
B , F I B , the direction of is given by the direction of nearby coil (coil 1).
the current.
dI
0 d r 1 M12 2 , M12 = mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t coil
Biot-Savart law dB I 3 . dt
4 r 2.
The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of
NN A
radius R carrying a current I at an axial distance x from the M= 0 1 2
2
0 IR Rt /L
centre is B . Growth of current in an inductor, i i 0 [1 e ]
2 (x 2 R 2 )3/2
For decay of current, i Rt /L
The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying i0e
0 NI
a current I is : B = µ0nI. For a toroid one obtains, B . ALTERNATING CURRENT
2 r
Ampere’s Circuital Law : , where I refers to the For an alternating current i = im sin t passing through a
B.d 0I resistor R, the average power loss P (averaged over a cycle)
C
due to joule heating is (1/2)i2mR.
current passing through S. E.m.f, E = E0 sin wt
 7

im For refraction through a spherical interface (from medium 1

Root mean square (rms) current I 0.707 i m . to 2 of refractive index n 1 and n2, respectively)
2 n 2 n1 n 2 - n1
- =
E0 v v R
Erms =
2 C
Refractive index of a medium m = (C = 3 × 108 m/s)
The average power loss over a complete cycle V
P= V I cos . The term cos is called the power factor. 1
r= (C = Critical angle)
An ac voltage v = vm sin t applied to a pure inductor L, sin C
drives a current in the inductor i = im sin ( t – /2), where Condition for TIR : 1. Ray of light must travel from denser to
im = vm/XL. XL = L is called inductive reactance. rarer medium 2. Angle of incidence in denser medium > critical
angle.
An ac voltage v = vm sin t applied to a capacitor drives a
current in the capacitor: i = im sin ( t + /2). Here, 1 1 1
Lens formula - =
v u f
vm 1
im , XC is called capacitive reactance. 1 (n 2 - n1 ) æ 1 1 ö
XC C Lens maker’s formula : f = -
n1 ç
è R1 R 2 ÷ ø
An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit is the
phenomenon of resonance. The circuit exhibits resonance, The power of a lens P = 1/f. The SI unit for power of a lens is
i.e., the amplitude of the current is maximum at the resonant dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m–1.
If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3,.. are in contact,
1
frequency, 0 (X L XC ) . 1 1 1 1
LC the effective focal f = f + f + f + .....
1 2 3
Impedance z = R 2 + (x L – x C ) 2 The total power of a combination of several lenses
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +.......
NS ES IP Chromatic aberration if satisfying the equation
Transformation ratio, K = = =
N P E P IS w1 w2
+ = 0 or in terms of powers w P + w P = 0 .
f1 f 2 1 1 2 2
Step up transformer : NS > NP; ES > EP; IP > IS
Step down transformer NP > NS; EP > ES and IP < IS V0 æ D ö
For compound microscope M = 1+ ÷
u 0 çè fe ø
0L 1
The quality factor Q defined by Q is an when final image at D
R 0 CR
indicator of the sharpness of the resonance, the higher value V0 D
M= . when final image at infinity..
of Q indicating sharper peak in the current. u 0 fe

RAY OPTICS WAVE OPTICS

Reflection is governed by the equation i= r' and Wavefront : It is the locus of all the particles vibrating in the
refraction by the Snell’s law, sini/sinr = n, where the incident same phase.
ray, reflected ray, refracted ray and normal lie in the same The resultant intensity of two waves of intensity I0/4 of
plane.
1 1 1 phase difference at any points I I0 cos 2 ,
Mirror equation: + = 2
v u f
where I0 is the maximum density.
Magnification M =
V I Intensity I µ (amplitude)2
u O
n 2 sin [(A + D m ) / 2)] Condition for dark band : (2n 1) , for bright band :
Prism Formula n 21 = = , where Dm is 2
n1 sin (A / 2) =m
the angle of minimum deviation. D
Dispersion is the splitting of light into its constituent colours. Fringe width
The deviation is maximum for violet and minimum for red. d
A thin film of thickness t and refractive index µ appears dark
1
Scattering µ by reflection when viewed at an angle of refraction r if
4
l 2µt cos r = n (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.)
d v - dr A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a
Dispersive power w = , where v, r are deviation of central maximum. The intensity falls to zero at angles of
d
violet and red and the deviation of mean ray (usually l 2l
± ,± , etc.
yellow). a a
 8

2 2 Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting

Amplitude of resultant wave R = a b 2ab cos the ac voltage to one direction).
Intensity of wave I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cos Zener diode is one such special purpose diode. In reverse
bias, after a certain voltage, the current suddenly increases
Brewster law : µ = tan ip (breakdown voltage) in a Zener diode. This property has
been used to obtain voltage regulation.
MODERN PHYSICS The important transistor parameters for CE-configuration are:
Input resistance Output resistance
hc VBE VCE
Energy of a photon E = h = ri r0
IB VCE IC IB
h
Momentum of a photon P = IC IC
Current amplification factor, ;
IB IE
Einstein’s photoelectric equation VCE VCE

1 The voltage gain of a transistor amplifier in common emitter

mv 2max = V0 e = hn - f 0 = h ( n - n 0 ) configuration is:
2
Mass defect, v0 RC
Av
M = (Z mp + (A – Z )mn) – M ; Eb = M c2. vi R B , where RC and RB are respectively the
1 amu = 931 MeV resistances in collector and base sides of the circuit.
Z 2 The important digital circuits performing special logic
En 13.6eV (For hydrogen like atom) operations are called logic gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT,
n2 NAND, and NOR gates. NAND gate is the combination of
According to Bohr’s atomic model, angular momentum for NOT and AND gate. NOR gate is the combination of NOT
the electron revolving in stationary orbit, mvr = nh/2p and OR gate.
n 2h2
Radius of the orbit of electron r =
4 2
mkze 2 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Bragg’s law : 2d sin = n .
Transmitter, transmission channel and receiver are three basic
Radius of the nucleus R = R o A1/3 units of a communication system.
Law of radioactive decay : N = N0e– t. Two important forms of communication system are: Analog
and Digital. The information to be transmitted is generally in
dN
Activity = N (unit is Becquerel) continuous waveform for the former while for the latter it has
N
only discrete or quantised levels.
0.693 Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances.
Half life period, T1/2
Therefore, they are superimposed on a high frequency carrier
Characteristics X-rays : signal by a process known as modulation.
K L In the process of modulation, new frequencies called
Moseley law : = a (Z – b)2 sidebands are generated on either side.
Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. If an antenna radiates electromagnetic waves from a height
The presence of charge carriers (electrons and holes) number
hT, then the range dT 2Rh T R = radius of earth.
of electrons (n e ) is equal to the number of holes (n h).
The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ Effective range, d = 2Rh T + 2Rh R
of a suitable impurity in pure semiconductors known as
extrinsic semiconductors (n-type and p-type). hT = height of transmitting antenna; h R = height of receiving
antenna
In n-type semiconductors, n e >> n h while in p-type
Critical frequency Vc = 9(Nmax)1/2
semiconductors nh >> ne.
where Nmax = no. density of electrons/m3
n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with
pentavalent atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type 2
Vmax
Si or Ge can be obtained by doping with trivalent atom Skip distance, Dskip 2h 1
Vc
(acceptors) like B, Al, In etc.
In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of h = height of reflecting layer of atmosphere.
the battery and p-side is connected to the positive), the barrier 1
is decreased while the barrier increases in reverse bias. Power radiated by an antenna 2
 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Total energy of electron in the n th shell
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF
CHEMISTRY e2 kZe 2 kZe 2
= K.E. + P.E. kZ
2rn rn 2rn
Multiplie ed by
Amount of a
d by Multipli
NA 23 Number 1 1 1
substance Molar mass Mol (6.023 × 10 ) of = RZ2 , [R = 1.0968 × 107 m–1]
(in gram)
b y by entities n12 n 22
Divi d ed
d D Divided by
iv
plie id hc h
ti 22.4 L ed E hv
ul by ,
M 2m K.E.
Volume of gas (in L) at STP No. of spectral lines produced when an electron drops from
n(n 1)
Molecular mass nth level to ground level =
2
Average relative mass of one molecule Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle ( x) ( p) h/4
1 Nodes (n – 1) = total nodes, = angular nodes,
mass of C-12 atom (n – – 1) = Radial nodes
12
Molecular mass = 2 × VD Orbital angular momentum : h
( 1) ( 1)h
2
Eq. wt. of metal
wt. of metal
1.008
CHEMICAL BONDING
wt. of H 2 displaced
Actual dipole moment
(i) % ionic character = 100
wt. of metal Calculated dipole moment
Eq. wt. of metal 8 (ii) Dipole moment is helpful in predicting geometry and
wt. of oxygen combined
polarity of molecule.
wt. of metal Fajan’s Rule : Following factors are helpful in increasing
35.5 covalent character in ionic compounds
wt. of chlorine combined (i) Small cation
Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)n (ii) Big anion
(iii) High charge on cation/anion
(iv) Cation having pseudo inert gas configuration
ATOMIC STRUCTURE (ns2p6d10) e.g. Cu+, Ag+, Zn+2, Cd+2
M.O. theory :
Energy of electron in species with one electron. (i) Bond order = ½(Nb–Na)
2 2 me 4 Z2 (ii) Higher the bond order, higher is the bond dissociation
En = energy, greater is the stability, shorter is the bond length.
n 2h 2
2 Formal charge (F.C.) on an atom in a Lewis structure
2 me4 Z2 = [total number of valence electrons in the free atoms]
For energy in SI system, En =
n 2 h 2 (4 0)
2
– [total number of non-binding (lone pair) electrons]
1312Z2 1 –
1
[total number of bonding (shared) electrons]
En = kJ mol 2
n2
Relative bond strength : sp3d2 >dsp2 >sp3 >sp2 >sp >p-p
nh (Co-axial) > s - p > s - s > p - p (Co-lateral)
mvr
2 VSEPR theory
(i) (LP-LP) repulsion > (LP-BP) > (BP-BP)
n 2h 2 n2 (ii) NH3 Bond Angle 106° 45’ because (LP-BP) repulsion
r= 2 2 = 0.529 Å
4 mZe Z > (BP-BP) H2O 104° 27’because (LP-LP) repulsion >
(LP-LB) > (BP-BP)
 10

Hybridisation :
Moles / lit of Acid or Base Mixed
number of valence electrons of central atom (iii) Buffer Capacity =
Change in pH
1
number of monovalent atoms attached to it Relation between ionisation constant (Ki) and degree of
2
negative charge if any positive charge if any 2 2
C
ionisation( ) : – K i = (Ostwald’ss
(1 )V (1 )
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM dilution law)
It is applicable to weak electrolytes for which <<1 then
ng
K p = K c (RT) where ng = nP – n R Ki
Free Energy Change ( G) = Ki V = or V C
C
(a) If G = 0 then reversible reaction would be in Common ion effect : By addition of X mole/L of a common
equilibrium, Kc = 0 ion, to a weak acid (or weak base) becomes equal to
(b) If G = (+) ve then equilibrium will be displaced in
backward direction; Kc < 1 Ka K
or b [where = degree of dissociation]
(c) If G = (–) ve then equilibrium will shift in forward X X
direction; Kc > 1 (i) If solubility product > ionic product then the solution is
(a) Kc unit (moles/lit) n, unsaturated and more of the substance can be dissolved
(b) Kp unit (atm) n in it.
Reaction Quotient and Equilibrium Constant (ii) If ionic product > solubility product the solution is
Consider the following reversible reaction A + B C + D super saturated (principle of precipitation).
Salt of weak acid and strong base :
[C][D]
Qc = [A][B] Kh Kw
pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa + log c); h = ; Kh = K
Case I : If Q c < Kc then : [Reactants] > [Products] c a
then the system is not at equilibrium (h = degree of hydrolysis)
Case II : If Q c = Kc then : The system is at equilibrium. Salt of weak base and strong acid :
Case III : If Q c > Kc then : [Products] > [Reactants] Kw
The system is not at equilibrium. pH = 0.5 (pKw – pKb – log c); h = Kb c
A relationship between the equilibrium constant KC, reaction
quotient and Gibb's energy. Salt of weak acid and weak base :
G = G° + RT ln Q Kw
At equilibrium G = 0 and Q = K then G° = –RT ln Kc pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa – pKb ); h =
Ka Kb
G° = –RT ln Kp
Le-Chatelier’s principle
(i) Increase of reactant conc. (Shift reaction forward) CHEMICAL KINETICS
(ii) Decrease of reactant conc. (Shift reaction backward)
(iii) Increase of pressure (from more moles to less moles) Unit of rate constant : k = mol1–n litn–1 sec–1
(iv) Decrease of pressure (from less moles to more moles) Order of reaction It can be fraction, zero or any whole number.
(v) For exothermic reaction decrease in temp. (Shift Molecularity of reaction is always a whole number. It is never
forward) more than three. It cannot be zero.
(vi) For endothermic increase in temp. (Shift backward)
First Order Reactions :
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM 2.303 a 0.693
k= log10 (a x) & t1/12 = [A]t = [A]0e–kt
(i) Lewis Acid (e– pair acceptor)
CO2, BF3, AlCl3, ZnCl2, t k
normal cation Second Order Reactions : When concentration of A and B
(ii) Lewis Base (e– pair donor) NH3, ROH, ROR, H2O,
RNH2, normal anions 1 x
Dissociation of Weak Acid and Weak Base taking same. k2 =
t a(a x)
(i) Weak Acid, Ka = Cx2/(1 – x) or Ka = Cx2 ; x << 1 When concentration of A and B are taking different -
(ii) Weak Base, Kb = Cx2/(1 – x) or Kb = Cx2 ; x << 1
Buffer solution {Henderson equation} : 2.303 b(a x)
k2 = t(a b) log a(b x)
(i) Acidic, pH = pKa + log {Salt/Acid}.
For maximum buffer action pH = pKa
a
Range of buffer pH = pKa ± 1 Zero Order Reaction : x = kt and t1/2 =
(ii) Alkaline pOH = pKb + log {Salt/Base} for max. buffer 2k
action pH = 14 – pKb The rate of reaction is independent of the concentration of
Range pH = 14 – pKb ± 1 the reacting substance.
 11

Time of nth fraction of first order process, H S G Reaction characteristics

1 – + Always negative Reaction is spontaneous at
2 303
t 1/n = log 1 all temperature.
k 1 + – Always positive Reaction is nonspontaneous
n
at all temperature
A
Amount of substance left after 'n' half lives =
o – – Negative at low Spontaneous at low temp. &
2n temperature but non spontaneous at high
Ea positive at high temperature
Arrhenius equation : k = Ae–Ea/RT, slope = temperature
2.303R
+ + Positive at low Non spontaneous at low
k2 Ea T2 T1 temp. but temp. & spontaneous at high
and Temperature Coefficient log k = T1T2 negative at high temp.
1 2.303
It has been found that for a chemical reaction with rise in temperature
temperature by 10 °C, the rate constant gets nearly doubled.
k PZ AB e Ea /RT
ELECTROCHEMISTRY

REDOX REACTIONS m = Z.I.t

eq
Oxidant itself is reduced (gives O2) Degree of dissociation : = 0
Or Oxidant e– (s) Acceptor eq
Reductant itself is oxidised (gives H2) Specific conductance
Or reductant e– (s) Donor 1
(i) Strength of acid O.N G G cell constant (G*) ;
R.a a
(ii) Strength of base O.N
(i) Electrochemical Series:- Li, K, Ba, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, 1000 1000
m
, eq
Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, H2, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au. M N
(ii) As we move from top to bottom in this series 0 0 0
(a) Standard Reduction Potential Kohlrausch’s law : m x A y B
(b) Standard Oxidation Potential [Products]
(c) Reducing Capacity 0.0591
Nernst Equation E = Eº – log10
(d) IP n [Reactants]
(e) Reactivity nEº
& EºCell = Eºright + Eºleft & Keq. = antilog
THERMODYNAMICS 0.0591
G = – nFEcell & Gº = –nFEº cell = –2.303 RT logKc
First Law of Thermodynamics : E = Q + W
G
Expression for pressure volume work W = –P V & Wmax= +nFEº & G = H + T
Maximum work in a reversible expansion : T P
V2 P1 Calculation of pH of an electrolyte by using a calomel
W = –2.303n RT log = –2.303 nRT log E cell 0.2415
V1 P2 electrode : pH
Wrev Wirr 0.0591
qv = cv T = U, qp = cp T = H G nFEocell
Enthapy changes during phase transformation Thermodynamic efficiency of fuel cells :
H
(i) Enthalpy of Fusion For H2–O2 fuel cells it is 95%.
(ii) Heat of Vapourisation P = KH . x
(iii) Heat of Sublimation
Enthalpy : H = E + P V = E + ngRT number of equivalents
Normality (N) =
Kirchoff’s equation : volume of the solution in litres
ET2 ET1 CV (T2 – T1) [constant V] number of moles
Molarity (M) =
volume of the solution in litres
H T2 H T1 CP (T2 – T1) [constant P]
Entropy(s) : Measure of disorder or randomness SOLUTIONS
S = Sp– SR
Raoult’s law
q V2 P1
S = rev = 2.303 nR log = 2.303 n R log P P = pA + pB = p°AXA + p°BXB
T V1 2 Characteristics of an ideal solution:
Free energy change : G = H – T S, Gº = –nFEºcell (i) solV = 0 (ii) solH = 0
– G = W(maximum) – P V, Gsystem = –T Stotal
 12

PAo – PA PV
Relative lowering of vapour pressure = Z (compressibility factor) = ; Z = 1 for ideal gas
PAo nRT
PAo – PA nB 8a a a
XB TC , PC 2
, VC 3b, Tb
PAo n A nB 27Rb 27b bR
Colligative Number of particles/ ions/ moles of solute
properties SOLID STATE
Depression of freezing point, Tf = Kfm Available space filled up by hard spheres (packing fraction):
Elevation in boiling point with relative lowering of vapour
Simple cubic = = 0.52
1000K b po p 6
pressure Tb (M 1 = mol. wt. of
M1 po 3 2 2
bcc = = 0.68 fcc = = 0.74 hcp = = 0.74
solvent) 8 6 6
Osmotic pressure (P) with depression in freezing point Tf 3
dRT diamond = = 0.34
P Tf 6
1000K f Radius ratio and co-ordination number (CN)
Relation between Osmotic pressure and other colligative Limiting radius ratio CN Geometry
properties: [0.155– 0.225] 3 [Plane triangle]
p oA p A dRT [0.255–0.414] 4 [Tetrahedral]
(i) M B Relative lowering of vapour pressure [0.414–0.732] 6 [Octahedral]
p oA
[0.732–1] 8 [bcc]
dRT Atomic radius r and the edge of the unit cell:
(ii) Tb Elevation in boiling point
1000K b Pure elements :
dRT a 3a 2a
(iii) Tf Depression in freezing point Simple cubic = r = ; bcc r = ; fcc =
1000K f 2 4 4
Relationship between radius of void (r) and the radius
Normal molar mass Observed colligative property of the sphere (R) : r (tetrahedral) = 0.225 R ; r (octahedral)
i= =
Observed molar mass Normal colligative property = 0.414 R
n Paramagnetic : Presence of unpaired electrons [attracted by
Degree of association a = (1 – i) magnetic field]
n 1 Ferromagnetic : Permanent magnetism [ ]
i 1 Antiferromagnetic : Net magnetic moment is zero [ ]
& degree of dissociation ( ) =
n 1
SURFACE CHEMISTRY
GASEOUS STATE
Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT Ferrimagnetic : Net magnetic moment is three [
(i) R = 0.0821 liter atm. deg–1 mole–1 Emulsion : Colloidal soln. of two immiscible liquids [O/W
(ii) R = 2 cals. deg.–1 mole– emulsion, W/O emulsion]
(iii) R = 8.314 JK–1 mole–1
Velocities related to gaseous state Emulsifier : Long chain hydrocarbons are added to stabilize
emulsion.
3PV 3RT 3P
RMS velocity = = = Lyophilic colloid : Starchy gum, gelatin have greater affinity
M M d for solvent.
8RT 2RT Lyophobic colloid : No affinity for solvent, special methods
Average speed = & Most probable speed = are used to prepare sol. [e.g. As2S3, Fe(OH)3 sol]
M M
Average speed = 0.9213 × RMS speed Preparation of colloidal solution :
RMS speed = 1.085 × Average speed
MPS = .816 × RMS; RMS = 1.224 MPS (i) Dispersion methods (ii) Condensation method.
MPS : A.V. speed : RMS = 1 : 1.128 : 1.224
1
1 Coagulating power
Rate of diffusion Flecculating value
density of gas
van der Waal’s equation Properties of colloidal solution :

n 2a (i) Tyndall effect (ii) Brownian movement

P (V nb) nRT for n moles
V2 (iii) Coagulation (iv) Filtrability.
 13

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides : B < Al < Ga < In < Tl
PERIODIC TABLE Relative strength of Lewis acid : BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
Ionisation energy : B > Al < Ga > In < Tl
General electronic configuration (of outer orbits) Electronegativity : Electronegativity first decreases from B
s-block ns 1–2 to Al and then increases marginally.
p-block ns 2 np 1–6
d-block (n–1)d1–10 ns1–2 CARBON FAMILY
f-block (n–2)f1–14 s2 p6 d10
(n–1)s2p6d0 or 1 ns2 Reactivity : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
Property Pr (L To R) Gr (T toB) Metallic character : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
(i) Atomic radius Acidic character of the oxides :
(ii) Ionisation potential CO2 > SiO2 > GeO2 > SnO2 > PbO2
(iii) Electron affinity Weaker acidic (amphoteric)
(iv) Electronegativity Reducing nature of hydrides
(v) Metallic character or CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
electropositive character Thermal stability of tetrahalides
(vi) Alkaline character CCl4 > SiCl4 > GeCl4 > SnCl4 > PbCl4
of hydroxides Oxidising character of M+4 species
(vii) Acidic character GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
(viii) Reducing property Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides
SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
(ix) Oxidising property
(x) Non metallic character
NITROGEN FAMILY
1 1
IP Metallic character Reducing character Acidic strength of trioxides : N2O3 > P2O3 > As2O3
Acidic strength of pentoxides
1 N2O5 > P2O5 > As2O5 > Sb2O5 > Bi2O5
EA nuclear charge. Acidic strength of oxides of nitrogen
size
Second electron affinity is always negative. N2O < NO < N2O3 < N2O4 < N2O5
Basic nature, bond angle, thermal stability and dipole moment
Electron affinity of chlorine is greater than fluorine (small
of hydrides NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
atomic size). Stability of trihalides of nitrogen : NF3 > NCl3 > NBr 3
The first element of a group has similar properties with the Lewis base strength : NF3 < NCl3> NBr3 < NI3
second element of the next group. This is called diagonal Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides
relationship. The diagonal relationship disappears after IV NCl3 > PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3
group. Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As and Sb
PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3
s-BLOCK ELEMENTS Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides
PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3
Atomic radii : Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs Nitrogen displays a great tendency to form p – p multiple
Electronegativity : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs bonds with itself as well as with carbon and oxygen.
First ionization potential : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs The basic strength of the hydrides
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3
Melting point Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs
The thermal stability of the hydrides decreases as the atomic
Colour of the flame Li - Red, Na - Golden, K - Violet, Rb - size increases.
Red, Cs - Blue, Ca - Brick red, Sr - Blood red, Ba-Apple green
Rb and Cs show photoelectric effect. OXYGEN FAMILY
Stability of hydrides : LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH
Basic nature of hydroxides : Melting and boiling point of hydrides :
LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S
Hydration energy : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs Volatility of hydrides:H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S
Reducing character : Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na Reducing nature of hydrides : H2S < H2Se < H2Te
Covalent character of hydrides : H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
BORON FAMILY The acidic character of oxides (elements in the same oxidation
state) SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2 ; SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3
Stability of +3 oxidation state : B > Al > Ga > In > Tl Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S)
Stability of +1 oxidation state : Ga < In < Tl SO < SO2 < SO3 ; SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2
 14

HALOGEN FAMILY TRANSITION ELEMENTS (d- and f-

Bond energy of halogens : Cl2 > Br 2 > F2 > I2
BLOCK ELEMENTS
Solubility of halogen in water : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 The element with exceptional configuration are
Oxidising power : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 Cr24[Ar] 3d54s1, Cu29[Ar] 3d104s1
Enthalpy of hydration of X– ion : F– > Cl– > Br– > I– Mo42 [Kr] 4d5 5s1, Pd46 [Kr] 4d10 5s0 Ag47 [Kr] 4d105s1 ,
Pt78[Xe] 4f145d106s0
Reactivity of halogens : F > Cl > Br > I
Inner Transition Elements
Ionic character of M - X bond in halides 0 1
(i) Electronic Configuration - Xe 4f 0 14
5d 6s 2
M – F > M – Cl > M – Br > M – I
Reducing character of X– ion : I– > Br– > Cl– > F– (ii) Magnetic properties - Magnetic moment is given by the
formula 4 S S 1 L L 1 where L = Orbital quantum
Acidic strength of halogen acids : HI > HBr > HCl > HF
Conjugate base strength of halogen acids: I– < Br– < Cl– < F– number, S = Spin quantum number
Reducing property of hydrogen halides : HF < HCl < HBr < HI COORDINATION COMPOUNDS
Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine
Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl2O6 > Cl2O7 Coordination number is the number of the nearest atoms or
groups in the coordination sphere.
acidic character of oxyacids of chlorine Ligand is a Lewis base donor of electrons that bonds to a
HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4 central metal atom in a coordination compound.
Oxidising power of oxyacids of chlorine Paramagnetic substance is one that is attracted to the
magnetic field, this results on account of unpaired electrons
present in the atom/molecule/ion.
NOBLE GASES Effective atomic number EAN
= (Z – Oxidation number) + (2 × Coordination number)
HClO > HClO2 > HClO3 > HClO4
Factors affecting stability of complex
XeF2 PF5 [XeF] [PF6 ] (i) Greater the charge on the central metal ion, greater is
the stability.
XeF4 SbF5 [XeF3 ] [Sb F6 ] (ii) Greater the ability of the ligand to donate electron pair
(basic strength) greater is the stability.
XeF6 H 2O XeOF4 2HF (iii) Formation of chelate rings increases the stability.
Isomerism in coordination compounds :
XeF6 2H2O XeO2 F2 4HF (i) Structural Isomerism (ii) Ionization Isomerism
(iii) Hydration Isomerism (iv) Linkage Isomerism
2XeF4 3H 2 O Xe XeO3 4HF F2 (v) Polymerisation Isomerism (vi) Valence Isomerism
(vii) Coordination Position Isomerism
XeF6 3H 2 O XeO 3 6HF (viii) Stereo Isomerism
2XeF6 SiO 2 2XeOF4 SiF4 (a) Geometrical Isomerism
(1) Square planar complexes of the type
2XeOF4 SiO 2 2XeO 2 F2 SiF4 MA2X2 ; MABX2 ; MABXY
(2) Octahedral of the type : MA4XY, MA4X2 MA3X3
2XeO 2 F4 SiO2 2XeO3 SiF4
MA2X2Y2. M(AA)2X2 and M(ABCDEF).
(b) Optical isomerism

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
GENERAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
The order of decreasing electronegativity of hybrid orbitals
is sp > sp2 > sp3.
Conformational isomers are those isomers which arise due
to rotation around a single bond.
A meso compound is optically inactive, even though it has
asymmetric centres (due to internal compensation of rotation
of plane polarised light)
An equimolar mixture of enantiomers is called racemic
mixture, which is optically inactive.
Reaction intermediates and reagents :
Homolytic fission Free radicals
Heterolytic fission Ions (Carbonium ions, carbanions etc.)
Nucleophiles – Electron rich
Two types : (i) Anions (ii) Neutral molecules
with lone pair of electrons (Lewis bases)
Electrophiles : Electron deficient.
Two types : (i) Cations (ii) Neutral molecules with vacant
orbitals (Lewis acids).
Inductive effect is due to electron displacement along a
chain and is permanent effect.
+I (inductive effect) increases basicity, – I effect increases
acidity of compounds.
Resonance is a phenomenon in which two or more structures
can be written for the same compound but none of them
actually exists.
 15

ALKANES SN1 reaction : Mainly 3° alkyl halides undergo this reaction

and form racemic mixture. SN1 is favoured by polar solvent
Pyrolytic cracking is a process in which alkane decomposes and low concentration of nucleophile.
to a mixture of smaller hydrocarbons, when it is heated SN2 reaction : Mainly 1° alkyl halides undergo this
strongly, in the absence of oxygen. substitution. Walden inversion takes place. SN2 reaction is
Ethane can exist in an infinite number of conformations. They preferred by non-polar solvents and high concentration of
HH H H H nucleophile.
H H Reaction with metals:
H Dry ether
are HH (i) R – X + Mg R – Mg – X
HH H H
H
H H H Alkyl Grignard reagent
halides
Eclipsed = 60° Staggered < 60° > 0 Skew
(ii) Wurtz reaction:
Conformations of Cyclohexane : It exists in two nonplanar,
strainless forms, the boat and the chair form Dry ether
R – X + 2 Na + X – R R R 2Na X –
Alkane

ALCOHOLS
Chair form Half Chair
Most Stable
Alkenes are converted to alcohol in different ways as follows
Reagent Types of addition
dil H2SO4 Markovnikov
B2H6 and H2O2, OH– Anti-Markovnikov
Twist Boat Boat form
(Least Stable) Oxymercuration demercuration – Markovnikov
Oxidation of
ALKENES 1° alcohol aldehyde carboxylic acid
(with same no. (with same no. of
In dehydration and dehydrohalogenation the preferential of C atom) C atom)
order for removal of hydrogen is 3° > 2° > 1° (Saytzeff’s rule). 2° alcohol ketone carboxylic acid
The lower the Hh (heat of hydrogenation) the more stable (with same no. (with less no. of
the alkene is. of C atom) C atom)
Alkenes undergo anti-Markonikov addition only with HBr 3° alcohol ketone carboxylic acid
in the presence of peroxides. (with less no. (with less no. of
of C atom) C atom)
ALKYNES
Alkynes add water molecule in presence of mercuric sulphate
PHENOLS
and dil. H2SO4 and form carbonyl compounds. CHCl3 /OH
Terminal alkynes have acidic H-atoms, so they form metal Phenol Phenolic aldehyde
alkynides with Na, ammonical cuprous chloride solution and (Reimer-Tieman reaction)
ammoniacal silver nitrate solution. Phenol
CO2
Phenolic carboxylic acid (Kolbe's reaction)
Alkynes are acidic because of H-atoms which are attached
to sp ‘C’ atom which has more electronegativity and ‘s’ Acidity of phenols
character than sp2 and sp3 ‘C’ atoms. (i) Increases by electron withdrawing substituents like
– NO2, – CN, – CHO, – COOH, –X, N R 3
ARENES (ii) decreases by electron releasing substituents like
– R, – OH, – NH2, – NR2, – OR
All o and p-directing groups are ring activating groups
(except – X)
They are : – OH, – NH2, – X, – R, – OR, etc.
ETHERS
All m-directing groups are ring deactivating groups. 2ROH
Al2O3
R O R H 2O
250ºC
They are : – CHO, – COOH, – NO2, – CN,– NR 3 , etc. RONa X R ' ROR ' NaX
(Williamson's synthesis)

HALOGEN COMPOUNDS ROR H 2 O

dil. H 2SO 4
2ROH
The order of reactivity is
(i) RI > RBr > RCl > RF CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
(ii) Allyl halide > Alkyl halide > Vinyl halide Formation of alcohols using RMgX
(iii) Alkyl halide > Aryl halide (a) Formaldehyde + RMgX Hydrolysis
1° alcohol
 16

(b) Aldehyde + RMgX Hydrolysis

2° alcohol Tests to differentiate :
1°, 2° and 3° alcohols (i) Lucas test
(other than HCHO)
(ii) Victor meyer’s test
(c) Ketone + RMgX Hydrolysis 3° alcohol 1°, 2° and 3° amines Hinsberg test
Cannizzaro reaction (Disproportionation) 1°, 2° and 3° nitro compounds Test with HNO2 and KOH
Hot conc. Aryl halides and alkyl halides Test with AgNO3 solution
Aldehyde Alcohol + Salt of acid Aldehydes and ketones Tollen’s test/Fehling’s test
alkali
(no H-atom) Aromatic aldehydes and Fehling’s test
Aldol condensation : Aliphatic aldehydes
Carbonyl compound + dil. alkali –– -hydroxy carbonyl
(with H-atom) compound IMPORTANT REAGENTS

Benzoin condensation Benzaldehyde ethanolic Dil. H2SO4 [or Conc. H2SO4 + H2O]
Benzoin
NaCN Use Hydrating agent (+HOH)
The relative reactivities of different acid derivatives towards Alc. KOH or NaNH2(Use -HX)
nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction follow the order: alc.KOH
CH3CH2Cl CH2=CH2
O O O O O
|| || || || || Lucas Reagent ZnCl2 + Conc. HCl
R – C – Cl R – C – O – C – R ' R – C – OR ' R – C – NH 2 Use For distinction between 1º, 2º
Acid chloride Anhydride Ester Amide
& 3º alc.
Tilden Reagent NOCl (Nitrosyl chloride)
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
C2H5NH2 NOCl C2H5Cl
The rate of esterfication decreases when alcohol, acid or
both have branched substituents. Alkaline KMnO4(Strong oxidant)
Or tho effect : All orth o substituted benzoic acids Toluene Benzoic acid
(irrespective of type of substituent) are stronger than benzoic Bayer’s Reagent : 1% alkaline KMnO4(Weak oxidant)
acid. Use: For test of > C = C < or –C = C –
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS CH2=CH2+H2O+[O] BR CH2OH–CH2OH
Order of basicity : Acidic K2Cr2O7 (Strong oxidant) : RCH2OH [O] RCHO
(R = – CH3 or – C2H5) 2° > 1° > 3° > NH3
Hofmann degradation SnCl2/HCl or Sn/HCl used for reduction of nitrobenzene in
SnCl 2 / HCl
Amides Br2 /KOH 1° amine acidic medium. C6H5NO2 C6H5NH2
6H
The basicity of amines is (i) decreased by electron with
drawing groups (ii) increased by electron releasing groups Lindlar’s Catalyst = Pd/CaCO 3 + in small quantity
Reduction of nitrobenzene in different media gives different (CH3COO)2Pb 2 – butye + H2 "
Cis-2-butene
products
Medium Product (main product)
Acidic Aniline Ziegler –Natta Catalyst (C2H5)3Al + TiCl4
Basic Azoxy, Azo and finally hydrazobenzene Use In Addition polymerisation
Neutral Phenyl hydroxylamine
IDENTIFICATION TESTS
BIOMOLECULES Unsaturated compound (Bayer’s reagent)
Decolourising the reagent
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. Alcohols (Ceric ammonium nitrate solution)
Monosaccharides are simple sugars, containing three to nine Red colouration
carbon atoms. Phenols (Neutral FeCl3 solution)
Characteristic reactions : Violet/deep blue colouration
Homologous series Type of reactions Aldehydes and ketones (2, 4-D.N.P.)
(i) Alkanes Substitution Orange precipitate
Mostly free radical Acids (NaHCO3 solution)
(ii) Alkenes and alkynes Electrophillic addition Brisk effervescence (CO2 is evolved)
(iii) Arenes Electrophillic substitution 1° amine (CHCl3 + KOH)
(iv) Alkyl halides Nucleophillic substitution Foul smell (isocyanide)
(v) Aldehyde and ketones Nucleophillic addition 2° amine (NaNO2 + HCl)
Yellow oily liquid (Nitrosoamine)
 (e) tan = tan : = n + ; n
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS (f) tan = k, = n + , where n and = tan–1k
(g) sin2 = sin2 : = n ± ; n
A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian
(h) cos2 = cos2 : = n ± ; n
product A × B obtained by describing a relationship between (i) tan2 = tan2 : = n ± ; n
the first element x and the second element y of the ordered sin + sin ( + ) + sin ( +2 ) +........ to n terms
pairs in A × B.
n 1 n
Function : A function f from a set A to a set B is a specific sin sin
type of relation for which every element x of set A has one 2 2
= ; 2n
and only one image y in set B. We write f : A B, where f (x) sin ( / 2)
= y. cos + cos ( + ) + cos ( +2 ) +........ to n terms
A function f : X Y is one-one (or injective) if n 1 n
cos sin
f (x1) = f (x2) x1 = x2 x1, x2 X. 2 2
A function f : X Y is onto (or surjective) if given any = ; 2n
y Y, x X such that f (x) = y. sin
2
Many-One Function :
A function f : A B is called many- one, if two or more B C b c A
tan cot
different elements of A have the same f- image in B. 2 b c 2
Into function : A (s - b)(s - c)
A function f : A B is into if there exist at least one element sin =
2 bc
in B which is not the f - image of any element in A.
Many One -Onto function : A (s - b)(s - c)
tan = s (s - a)
A function f : A R is said to be many one- onto if f is onto 2
but not one-one. a b c
Many One -Into function : R= = =
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C
A function is said to be many one-into if it is neither one-one abc
nor onto. R=
4D
A function f : X Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one
and onto. æA ö æB ö æC ö
r = 4R sin ç ÷ . sin ç ÷ . sin ç ÷
è2ø è2ø è2ø
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND a = c cos B + b cos C
E Q UAT I O N S Maximum value of a sin + b cos a2 b2 and minimum

General Solution of the equation sin = 0: value of a sin + b cos a2 b2

when sin = 0
= n : n I i.e. n = 0, ± 1, ±2........... INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
General solution of the equation cos = 0 : FUNCTIONS
when cos = 0
= (2n + 1) /2, n . i.e. n = 0, ±1, +2....... Properties of inverse trigonometric function
General solution of the equation tan = 0:
General solution of tan = 0 is = n ; n x y
tan 1 , if x,y 1
General solution of the equation 1 xy
(a) sin = sin : = n + (–1)n ; n x y if x 0, y 0
(b) sin = k, where –1 < k < 1. • tan–1 x + tan–1 y = tan 1 ,
1 xy and xy 1
= n + (–1)n , where n and = sin –1k
(c) cos = cos : = 2n ± n x y if x 0, y 0
tan 1 ,
(d) cos = k, where –1 < k < 1. 1 xy and xy 1
= 2n ± , where n and = cos–1 k
 18

(ii) If D > 0 and D is not perfect square Roots are irrational

1 x y
tan , if xy 1 and unequal.
1 xy
x y
Condition for Common Root(s)
• tan–1 x – tan–1y = tan 1 , if x 0, y 0 and xy 1 Let ax2 + bx + c = 0 and dx2 + ex + f = 0 have a common root
1 xy
x y (say).
tan 1 , if x 0, y 0 and xy 1 a b c
1 xy Condition for both the roots to be common is
• sin–1 x + sin–1 y = d e f
If p + iq (p and q being real) is a root of the quadratic equation,
where i 1 , then p –iq is also a root of the quadratic
if 1 x, y 1 and x 2 y 2 1
sin 1{x 1 y2 y 1 x 2 }, equation.
or if xy 0 and x 2 y 2 1
Every equation of n th degree (n 1) has exactly n roots and
if 0 x, y 1 if the equation has more than n roots, it is an identity.
sin 1{x 1 y2 y 1 x 2 },
and x 2 y 2 1

sin 1{x 1 y 2 y 1 x 2 }, if 1 x, y 0 and x 2 y2 1

COMPLEX NUMBERS

• cos–1 x + cos–1 y = Exponential Form: If z = x + iy is a complex number then its

exponential form is z = rei where r is modulus and is
cos 1{xy 1 x 2 1 y2 } , if 1 x, y 1 and x y 0 amplitude of complex number.
1 2 2 (i) | z1 | | z 2 | | z1 z 2 | ; here equality holds when
2 cos {xy 1 x 1 y }, if 1 x, y 1and x y 0
arg(z1/z2) = 0 i.e. z1 and z2 are parallel.
1 1 (ii) || z1 | | z 2 || | z1 z 2 | ; here equality holds when
sin 1 (2x 1 x 2 ) , if x
2 2 arg(z1/z2) = 0 i.e. z1 and z2 are parallel.
1 (iii) | z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 – z2 |2 = 2( | z1 |2 + | z2 | 2 )
2 sin–1x = sin 1 (2x 1 x 2 ) , if x 1
2 arg(z1z 2 ) arg(z1 ) arg(z 2 )
1 1 2
sin 1 (2x 1 x 2 ) , if 1 x
2 z1
arg 1 2 arg(z1 ) arg(z 2 )
2x z2
1
tan , if 1 x 1 For any integer k, i4k = 1, i4k + 1 = i, i4k + 2 = – 1, i4k + 3 = – i
1 x2
| z z1 | | z z 2 | , represents an ellipse if
2 tan–1 x = 1 2x
tan , if x 1 | z1 – z2 | < , having the points z1 and z2 as its foci. And if
1 x2
| z1 z 2 | , then z lies on a line segment connecting z1
1 2x
tan , if x 1 and z2.
1 x2 Properties of Cube Roots of Unity
(i) 1 2 (ii) 3=1
0
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND (iii) 1 n 2n
3 (if n is multiple of 3)
INEQUALITIES n 2n
(iv) 1 0 (if n is not a multiple of 3).
Roots of a Quadratic Equation : The roots of the quadratic
b b2 4ac PERMUTATIONS AND
equation are given by x
2a COMBINATIONS
Nature of roots : In Quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. The The number of permutations of n different things, taken r at
term b2 – 4ac is called discriminant of the equation. It is a time, where repetition is allowed, is nr.
denoted by or D. Selection of Objects with Repetition :
(A) Suppose a, b, c R and a 0 The total number of selections of r things from n different
(i) If D > 0 Roots are Real and unequal things when each thing may be repeated any number of times
(ii) If D = 0 Roots are Real and equal and each equal to is n+r+1Cr
– b/2a Selection from distinct objects :
(iii) If D < 0 Roots are imaginary and unequal or The number of ways (or combinations) of n different things
complex conjugate. selecting at least one of them is nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + .....+ nCn
(B) Suppose a, b, c Q and a 0 = 2n – 1. This can also be stated as the total number of com-
(i) If D > 0 and D is perfect square Roots are unequal and bination of n different things.
Rational
 19

Selection from identical objects :

The number of ways to select some or all out SEQUENCE AND SERIES
of (p + q + r) things where p are alike of first kind, q are alike
of second kind and r are alike of third kind is Properties related to A.P. :
(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) – 1 (i) Common difference of AP is given by d = S2 – 2S1
Selection when both identical and distinct objects are where S2 is sum of first two terms and S1 is sum of first
present: term.
If out of (p + q + r + t) things, p are alike one kind, q are alike (ii) If for an AP sum of p terms is q, sum of q terms is p, then
of second kind, r are alike of third kind and t are different, sum of (p + q) term is (p + q).
then the total number of combinations is (iii) In an A.P. the sum of terms equidistant from the beginning
(p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1) 2t – 1 and end is constant and equal to sum of first and last terms.
Circular permutations: (iv) If terms a1, a2, ..., an, an+1, ..., a2n+1 are in A.P., then sum
(a) Arrangements round a circular table : of these terms will be equal to (2n + 1)an+1.
The number of circular permutations of n different things (v) If for an A.P. sum of p terms is equal to sum of q terms
then sum of (p + q) terms is zero
n
Pn (vi) Sum of n AM's inserted between a and b is equal to n
taken all at a time is (n – 1) !, if clockwise and
n n
anticlockwise orders are taken as different. times the single AM between a and b i.e. A r = nA
r 1
(b) Arrangements of beads or flowers (all different) around a b
a circular necklace or garland: where A =
2
The number of circular permutations of ‘n’ different The geometric mean (G.M.) of any two positive numbers a
1 and b is given by ab i.e., the sequence a, G, b is G.P..
things taken all at a time is (n – 1)!, if clockwise and
2 n GM's between two given numbers: If in between two
anticlockwise orders are taken to be some. numbers 'a' and 'b', we have to insert n GM G1,G2,.......... Gn
Sum of numbers : then a1, G1,G2,........Gn , b will be in G.P.
(a) For given n different digits a1, a2, a3 ......an the sum of the The series consist of (n +2) terms and the last term is b and
digits in the unit place of all numbers formed (if numbers are first term is a.
not repeated) is (a1 + a2 + a3 + .....+ an) (n – 1) ! 1
(b) Sum of the total numbers which can be formed with given b n 1
arn + 2 –1
=b r=
n different digits a1, a2, .........an is a
(a1 + a2 + a3 + .........+ an) (n – 1)! . (111 ........n times) G1 = ar, G2 = ar2 ........Gn = arn or Gn = b/r
Use of inequalities in progression :
BINOMIAL THEOREM (a) Arithmetic Mean Geometric Mean
(b) Geometric Mean Harmonic Mean :
Greatest binomial coefficients : In a binomial expansion A G H
binomial coefficients of the middle terms are called as greatest
binomial coefficients. STRAIGHT LINES
n
(a) If n is even : When r = i.e. nCn/2 takes maximum value. An acute angle (say ) between lines L1 and L2 with slopes
2
n 1 n 1 m2 m2
(b) If n is odd : r = or m1 and m2 is given by tan , 1 m1m 2 0
2 2 1 m1m 2
n n
Cn 1 Cn 1 Three points A, B and C are collinear, if and only if slope of
i.e. and take maximum value.
2 2 AB = slope of BC.
Important Expansions : The equation of the line having normal distance from origin
If | x | < 1 and n Q but n N, then
is p and angle between normal and the positive x-axis is , is
n(n 1) 2 given by x cos + y sin = p.
(a) (1+ x)n = 1 + nx + x
2! Co-ordinate of some particular points :
n(n 1).....(n r 1) r Let A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3) are vertices of any
+ ......+ x + .......
r! triangle ABC, then
n(n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2) 3 Incentre : Co-ordinates of incentre
(b) (1 – x)n = 1 – nx + x– x
2! 3! ax1 bx 2 cx 3 ay1 by 2 cy3
n(n 1).....(n r 1) ,
+ ......+ (–x)r + ....... a b c a b c
r!
where a, b, c are the sides of triangle ABC
 20

Area of a triangle : Let (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) Chord of contact :
respectively be the coordinates of the vertices A, B, C of a The equation of chord of contact of tangent drawn from a
triangle ABC. Then the area of triangle ABC, is
x2 y2
1 point P (x1, y1) to the hyperbola = 1 is T = 0
[x (y – y )+ x2 (y3 – y1) + x3 (y1 – y2)] a2 b2
2 1 2 3
Or xx1 yy1
x1 y1 1 where T –1
2
a b2
1 x
= 2 y2 1 Equation of normal in different forms :
2 x y 1 Point Form : The equation of the normal to the hyperbola
3 3

x2 y2 a2x b2 y
CONIC SECTIONS = 1 at the point (x1, y1) is = a2 + b2
a2 b2 x1 y1
Condition of Tangency : Circle
x2 + y2 =a2 will touch the line. THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
y = mx + c if c = ± a 1 m 2
Slope Form : The equation of normal to the hyperbola
Pair of Tangents : From a given point P( x1,y1) two tangents
PQ and PR can be drawn to the circle x2 y2 m(a 2 b2 )
S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. = 1 in terms of slope 'm' is y = mx ±
a2 b2 a 2 b2 m 2
Their combined equation is SS1 = T2.
Condition of Orthogonality : If the angle of intersection of Conditions of Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Two
the two circle is a right angle ( = 90°) then such circle are Lines:
called Orthogonal circle and conditions for their orthogonality Case-I : When dc's of two lines AB and CD, say 1 , m1, n1
is 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 =c1 +c2 and 2 , m2, n2 are known.
Tangent to the parabola : AB | | CD 1 = 2 , m1 = m2, n 1 = n 2
Condition of Tangency : If the line y = mx + c touches a AB CD 1 2 + m1m2 + n 1n 2 = 0
parabola y2 = 4ax then c = a/m Case-II : When dr's of two lines AB and CD, say a1, b1 c1 and
Tangent to the Ellipse: a2, b2, c2 are known
Condition of tangency and point of contact :
The condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the a1 b1 c1
AB | | CD a2 b2 c2
x2 y2
ellipse = 1 is that c2 = a2m2 + b2 and the coordinates AB CD a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
a2 b2
If 1, m1, n1 and 2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two
a 2m b2 lines; and is the acute angle between the two lines; then
of the points of contact are ,
a 2m2 b2 a2m2 b2 cos = | 1 2 + m1m2 + n1n2 |.
Normal to the ellipse Equation of a line through a point (x1, y1, z1) and having
(i) Point Form : The equation of the normal to the ellipse
x x1 y y1 z z1
x2 y2 a2x b2 y direction cosines , m, n is
= 1 at the point (x1, y1) is m n
a 2 b2 x1 y1
= a2 – b2 Shortest distance between r a1 b1 and r a2 b2
(ii) Parametric Form : The equation of the normal to the
(b1 b 2 ).(a 2 a1 )
x2 y2 is
ellipse = 1 at the point (a cos , b sin ) is | b1 b 2 |
a 2 b2
ax sec – by cosec = a2 – b2 Let the two lines be
Tangent to the hyperbola :
x 1 y 1 z 1
Condition for tangency and points of contact : The condition ..........(1)
for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the hyperbola 1 m1 n1
x2 y2
= 1 is that c2 = a2m2 – b2 and the coordinates of the x 2 y 2 z 2
a2 b2 and ..........(2)
2 m2 n2
a2m b2 These lines will coplanar if
points of contact are ,
a 2 m2 b2 a 2 m2 b2
 21

2 1 2 1 2 1
For a function f :
m1 n1 Differentiability Continuity;
1 =0 Continuity derivability
2 m2 n2
Not derivibaility discontinuous ;
The plane containing the two lines is
But discontinuity Non derivability
x 1 y 1 z 1 Differentiation of infinite series:
1 m1 n1
=0
2 m2 n2 (i) If y f (x) f (x) f (x) ........
The equation of a plane through a point whose position
y = f (x) y y2 = f (x) + y
vector is a and perpendicular to the vector N is
(r a).N 0 dy dy dy f '(x)
2y = f ' (x) + =
Vector equation of a plane that passes through the dx dx dx 2y 1
intersection of planes r.n1 d1 and r.n 2 d 2 is
f (x)....
r.(n1 n2 ) d1 d 2 , where is any nonzero constant. (ii) If y = f (x)f (x) then y = f (x)y.
Two planes r log y = y log [f(x)]
a1 b1 and r a2 b2 are coplanar if
1 dy y '.f '(x) dy
(a 2 a1 ) (b1 b2 ) 0 log f (x).
y dx f (x) dx
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS dy y 2 f '(x)
dx f (x)[1 y log f (x)]
Existence of Limit :
lim f (x) exists lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1 dy y f '(x)
x® a x® a- x® a+ (iii) If y = f (x) .... then
Where is called the limit of the function f (x) 1 1 dx 2y f (x)
(i) If f(x) g(x) for every x in the deleted nbd of a, then f (x) f (x)

lim f(x) lim g(x)

x a x a DIFFERENTIATION AND
(ii) If f(x) g(x) h (x) for every x in the deleted nbd of a
APPLICATION
and lim f(x) = = lim h (x) then lim g(x) =
x a x a x a

(iii) lim fog (x) = f lim g (x) = f (m) where lim g (x) = m Interpretation of the Derivative : If y = f (x) then, m= f (a) is
x a x a x a the slope of the tangent line to y = f (x) at x = a
1 Increasing/Decreasing :
(iv) If lim f(x) = + =0 or – , then lim (i) If f (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is increasing
x a f (x) x a
CONTINUITYAND DIFFERENTIABILITY OFFUNCTIONS on the interval I.
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if (ii) If f (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is decreasing
on the interval I.
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f(a)
x® a+ x® a- (iii) If f (x) = 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is constant
Discontinuous Functions : on the interval I.
(a) Removable Discontinuity: A function f is said to have Test of Local Maxima and Minima –
removable discontinuity at x = a if lim f (x) = lim f (x) First Derivative Test – Let f be a differentiable function defined
x® a- x® a+ on an open interval I and c I be any point. f has a local maxima
but their common value is not equal to f (a). or a local minima at x = c, f (c) = 0.
(b) Discontinuity of the first kind: A function f is said to
have a discontinuity of the first kind at x = a if dy
Put 0 and solve this equation for x. Let c1, c2........cn be
dx
lim f(x) and lim f (x) both exist but are not equal. the roots of this.
x® a- x a
(c) Discontinuity of second kind: A function f is said to If dy changes sign from +ve to –ve as x increases through
have a discontinuity of the second kind at x = a if neither dx
lim f (x) nor lim f (x) exists. c1 then the function attains a local max at x = c1
x® a- x® a+
dy
Similarly, if lim f (x) does not exist, then f is said to have If changes its sign from –ve to +ve as x increases through
x a dx
discontinuity of the second kind from the right at x = a. c1 then the function attains a local minimum at x = c1
 22

dy g(x)
If does not changes sign as increases through c1 then d
dx Leibnitz rule : F(t) dt g (x)F(g(x)) f (x)F(f (x))
x = c1 is neither a point of local maxm nor a point of local dx f (x)
minm. In this case x is a point of inflexion. If a series can be put in the form
Rate of change of variable :
1r n 1 r 1r n r
dy dy f or f , then its limit as n
The value of at x = x0 i.e. represents the rate n r 0 n nr 1 n
dx dx x x0
of change of y with respect to x at x = x0 1
dy dy / dt dx is f (x) dx
If x = (t) and y = (t), then , provided that 0 0
dx dx / dt dt
Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be Area between curves :
calculated by using the rate of change of y and that of x b
each with respect to t. y f (x) A [upper function] [lower function] dx
dx dy a
Length of Sub–tangent = y ; Sub–normal = y ;
dy dx d

2 and x f (y) A [right function] [left function] dy

dx c
Length of tangent = y 1
dy If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be
found individually.
2 Symmetrical area : If the curve is symmetrical about a
dy
Length of normal = y 1 coordinate axis (or a line or origin), then we find the area of
dx one symmetrical portion and multiply it by the number of
Equations of tangent and normal : The equation of the symmetrical portion to get the required area.
tangent at P (x1, y1) to the curve y = f(x) is y – y1

=
dy
(x – x1). The equation of the normal at P (x1, y1) PROBABILITY
dx P
Probability of an event: For a finite sample space with equally
1
to the curve y = f (x) is y – y1 = (x – x1) likely outcomes Probability of an event is
dy
dx n(A)
P P(A) , where n (A) = number of elements in the set
n(S)
INTEGRAL CALCULUS A, n (S) = number of elements in the set S.
Theorem of total probability : Let {E1, E2, ...,En} be a partition
of a sample space and suppose that each of E1, E2, ..., En has
Two standard forms of integral : nonzero probability. Let A be any event associated with S,
e x [f (x) + f ' (x) dx = ex f (x) + c then
P(A) = P(E1) P (A | E1) + P (E2) P (A | E2) + ...
e x [f (x) + f '(x)] dx = e x f (x)dx + e x f ' (x) dx + P (En) P(A | En)
Bayes' theorem: If E1, E2, ..., En are events which constitute
= ex f (x) – e x f '(x) dx + e x f' (x) a partition of sample space S, i.e. E1, E2, ..., En are pairwise
(on integrating by parts) = ex f (x) + c disjoint and E1 E2 ... En = S and A be any event with
Table shows the partial fractions corresponding to different nonzero probability, then
type of rational functions :
S. Form of rational Form of partial P(E i ) P (A | E i )
P (E i | A) n
No. function fraction
P(E j ) P(A | E j )
px q A B j 1
1. (x a) (x b) (x a) (x b) Let X be a random variable whose possible values x 1, x2, x3,
..., xn occur with probabilities p1, p2, p3, ... pn respectively.
px 2 qx r A B C n
2. 2 (x a) 2 (x b)
(x a) (x b) (x a) The mean of X, denoted by µ, is the number x i pi
i 1
px 2 qx r A Bx C The mean of a random variable X is also called the
3. 2 2 expectation of X, denoted by E (X).
(x a) (x bx c) (x a) x bx C
 23

Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if 1

(vi) | A–1 | = = | A |–1
they satisfy the following conditions : |A|
(a) There should be a finite number of trials. (b) The trials (vii) If A = diag (a1,a2.....,an), then
should be independent. (c) Each trial has exactly two A–1 = diag (a1–1, a2–1, .........an–1)
outcomes : success or failure. (d) The probability of success (viii) A is symmetric matrix A–1 is symmetric matrix.
remains the same in each trial. Rank of a Matrix : A number r is said to be the rank of a
m × n matrix A if
For Binomial distribution B (n, p),
(a) Every square sub matrix of order (r + 1) or more is singular
P (X = x) = nCx qn–x px, x = 0, 1,..., n (q = 1 – p) and (b) There exists at least one square submatrix of order r
which is non-singular.
MATRICES Thus, the rank of matrix is the order of the highest order
non-singular sub matrix.
Properties of Transpose Using Crammer's rule of determinant we get
(i) (AT)T = A
x y z 1 D
(ii) (A ± B)T = AT ± BT = = = i. e. x = D1 , y = D2 , z = 3
(iii) (AB)T = BT AT (iv) (kA)T = k(A)T D1 D2 D3 D D D D
(v) I = I (vi) tr (A) = tr (A)T
T Case-I : If 0
(vii) (A1A2A3.....An–1 An)T = AnTAn–1T.....A3TA2TA1T D1 D2 D3
Then x = , y= ,z=
Symmetric Matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called D D D
symmetric matrix if The system is consistent and has unique solutions.
aij = aji for all i, j or AT = A Case-II if = 0 and
Skew-Symmetric Matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called (i) If at least one of 1, 2, 3 is not zero then the system
skew-symmetric matrix if of equations a inconsistent i.e. has no solution.
aij = – aji for all i, j or AT = –A (ii) If d1 = d2 = d3 = 0 or 1, 2, 3 are all zero then the
Also every square matrix A can be uniquely expressed as a system of equations has infinitely many solutions.
sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix.
éf (x) g(x)ù VECTOR ALGEBRA
Differentiation of a matrix : If A = ê ú then
ëh(x) (x) û Given vectors x1 a y1 b z1 c , x 2 a y2 b z 2 c ,
dA éf '(x) g '(x)ù
=ê is a differentiation of Matrix A x 3 a y3 b z3 c , where a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors,
dx ëh '(x) '(x) ú
û
. x1 y1 z1
DETERMINANTS will be coplanar if and only if x 2 y2 z2 = 0
x3 y3 z3
Scalar triple product :
Properties of adjoint matrix : If A, B are square matrices of
order n and In is corresponding unit matrix, then (a) If a a1ˆi a 2 ˆj a 3kˆ , b b1ˆi b 2 ˆj b3 kˆ and
(i) A (adj. A) = | A | In = (adj A) A c c1ˆi c 2 ˆj c3 kˆ then
(ii) | adj A | = | A |n–1 a1 a 2 a3
(Thus A (adj A) is always a scalar matrix) (a b).c [a b c] b1 b 2 b3
(iii) adj (adj A) = | A |n–2 A c1 c2 c3
(n - 1)2 (b) [a b c] = volume of the parallelopiped whose
(iv) | adj (adj A) | = | A |
coterminous edges are formed by a, b, c
(v) adj (AT) = (adj A)T
(vi) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) (c) a, b, c are coplanar if and only if [a b c] = 0
(vii) adj (Am) = (adj A)m, m N (d) Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b, c, d
(viii) adj (kA) = kn–1 (adj. A), k R respectively are coplanar if and only if
(ix) adj (In) = In [AB AC AD] = 0 i.e. if and only if
Properties of Inverse Matrix : Let A and B are two invertible
[b a c a d a] = 0
matrices of the same order, then
(e) Volume of a tetrahedron with three coterminous edges
(i) (AT)–1 = (A–1)T
1
(ii) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1 a , b, c [ a b c]
6
(iii) (Ak)–1 = (A–1)k, k N (f) Volume of prism on a triangular base with three
(iv) adj (A–1) = (adj A)–1 1
(v) (A–1)–1 = A coterminous edges a , b, c [ a b c]
2
 24

Lagrange's identity :
a.c a.d DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
(a b).( c d) (a.c)(b.d) (a.d)(b.c)
b.c b.d Methods of solving a first order first degree differential
equation :
Reciprocal system of vectors : If a, b, c be any three non dy
coplanar vectors so that (a) Differential equation of the form f (x)
dx
[a b c] 0 then the three vectors a ' b 'c ' defined by the dy
f (x) dy = f (x) dx
dx
b c c a a b Integrating both sides we obtain
equations a ' , b' , c'
are called
[a b c] [a b c]
[a b c] dy f (x) dx c or y = f (x) dx c
the reciprocal system of vectors to the given vectors a, b, c dy
(b) Differential equation of the form f (x) g(y)
dx
STATISTICS dy dy
f (x) g(y) f (x) dx c
Relation between A.M., G.M. and H.M. dx g (y)
A.M. G.M. H.M. dy
(c) Differential equation of the form of f (ax by c) :
Equality sign holds only when all the observations in the dx
series are same. To solve this type of differential equations, we put
Relationship between mean, mode and median : dy 1 dv
ax + by + c = v and dx a
(i) In symmetrical distribution b dx
Mean = Mode = Median dv
dx
(ii) In skew (moderately symmetrical) distribution a b f (v)

Mode = 3 median – 2 mean dv

So solution is by integrating dx
Mean deviation for ungrouped data a b f (v)
(d) Differential Equation of homogeneous type :
| xi x| | xi M| An equation in x and y is said to be homogeneous if it
M.D.(x) , M.D.(M)
n n dy f (x, y)
Mean deviation for grouped data can be put in the form dx g (x, y) where f (x ,y) and g
fi | x i x| fi | xi M| (x ,y) are both homogeneous functions of the same
M.D.(x) , M.D.(M) , degree in x & y .
N N
So to solve the homogeneous differential equation
where N fi dy f (x, y) dy dV
v x
dx g (x, y) , substitute y = vx and so dx dx
Variance and standard deviation for ungrouped data
dv dx dv
Thus v x f (v)
2 1 2 1 2 dx x f (v) v
(xi x) , (x i x)
n n dx dv
Therefore solution is c
x f (v) v
Variance and standard deviation of a discrete frequency
distribution Linear differential equations :
dy
1 1
Py Q ....... (1)
2 2 2 dx
fi (x i x) , fi (xi x)
n N Where P and Q are either constants or functions of x.
Multiplying both sides of (1) by e P dx , we get
Variance and standard deviation of a continuous frequency
distribution dy
P dx P dx
e Py Q e
2 1 1 dx
fi (xi x)2 , fi x i2 ( fi x i ) 2
n N On integrating both sides with respect to x we get
P dx P dx
ye Q e c
Coefficient of variation (C.V.) = 100, x 0
x which is the required solution, where c is the constant and
For series with equal means, the series with lesser standard P dx
e is called the integration factor..
deviation is more consistent or less scattered.