WORLD GUIDE TO

HIGHER EDUCATION
A Comparative Survey of
Systems, Degrees and Qualifications
Second edition

Unesco

Bowker Publishing Company / Unipub

The Unesco Press
WORLD GUIDE TO HIGHER
EDUCATION
Other books in the same series:

Glossaire international: Termes d'usage courant en matière de certQkats d'études

secondaires et de diplômes et grades de l'enseignement supérieur dans quarante-cinq
pays, by Marcel de Grandpré, 1969 (out of print).
Methods of establishing equivalences between degrees and diplomas, prepared by the
International Association of Universities, 1970 (French, 1970).
International equivalences in access to higer education, by W.D.Halls, 1971.
Comparability of degrees and diplomas in international law: A study on the structura[
and functional aspects, by René Jean Depuy and Gregory Tunkin, 1973 (French,
1972).
Comparability of engineering courses and degrees: A methodological study, by Anatoly
I. Bogomolov, 1974 (French, 1974).
World guide to higher education: A comparative survey of systems, degrees and
qualipcations, 1st edition, 1976 (French, 1973; Spanish, 1973; Russian and Arabic in
preparation; new French version in preparation).
From equivalence of degrees to evaluation of competence: Present procedures and
practices: N e w avenues, by Jean Guiton, 1977 (French, 1977).
The education of primary and secondary school teachers, by José Blat Gimeno and
Ricardo Marin Ibinez, 1981 (Spanish, 1980; French, 1981).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris,France
Bowker Publishing Company
Erasmus House, High Street, Epping, Essex, England CM16 4BU
Unipub, 345 Park Avenue South, N e w York, NY 10010, USA
First edition 1976
Second edition 1982
@ Copyright Unesco 1982
The designations employed in this volume do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of Unesco or of IAU concerning the legal status or political
system of any country or territory or concerning the delimitations of its frontiers.
The publishers have used their best efforts in collecting and preparing material for
inclusion in World Guide to Higher Education. They do not assume, and hereby
disclaim, any liability to any party for any loss or damage caused by errors or
omissions in this publication, whether such errors or omissions result from
negligence, accident or any other cause.
All rights reserved. N o part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or any information storage retrieval system,without permission in writing
from the publishers.

British Library cataloguing in publication data

-
World guide to higher education. 2nd ed.
1. Education, Higher
I. Unesco
378 LB2322
ISBN The Unesco Press 92-3-1019147
ISBN Bowker Publishing Company G85935-066.5
ISBN Unipub G89059-002-8
Printed in Great Britain by Thomson Litho Ltd, East Kilbride, Scotland
Contents
Preface page vii
Introduction page ix
A note on terminology page xvii

Afghanistan page 1 Ethiopia page 83

Albania page 2 Fiji page 85
Algeria page 4 Finland page 87
Angola page 7 France page 91
Argentina page 8 Gabon page 97
Australia page 12 Gambia page 100
Austria page 17 German DemocraticRepublic
Bahrain page 20 page 100
Bangladesh page 21 Germany, Federal Republic of,
Barbados page 24 page 103
Belgium page 24 Ghana page 107
Benin page 28 Greece page 109
Bolivia page 30 Guatemala page 112
Botswana page 32 Guinea page 1 13
Brazil page 33 Guyana page 115
Bulgaria page 35 Haiti page 117
Burma page 38 Holy See page 119
Burundi page 41 Honduras page 121
Canada page 43 Hungary page 124
Central African Republic page 47 Iceland page 126
Chad page 50 India page 128
Chile page 51 Indonesia page 132
China page 53 Iran page 136
Colombia page 55 Iraq page 138
Congo page 57 Ireland page 140
Costa Rica page 58 Israel page 143
Cuba page 60 Italy page 146
Cyprus page 62 Ivory Coast page 150
Czechoslovakia page 64 Jamaica page 154
Democratic Kampuchea page 67 Japan page 156
Democratic People’s Republic of Jordan page 159
Korea page 69 Kenya page 161
Democratic Yemen page 70 Kuwait page 164
Denmark page 71 Lao People’sDemocratic
Dominican Republic page 73 Republic page 165
Ecuador page 76 Lebanon page 166
Egypt page 78 Lesotho page 170
El Salvador page 81 Liberia page 172
vi CONTENTS

Luxemburg page 173 Sudan page 267

Madagascar page 175 Surinam page 270
Malawi page 178 Swaziland page 271
Malaysia page 180 Sweden page 271
Mali page 182 Switzerland page 274
Malta page 184 Syrian Arab Republic page 278
Mauritania page 186 Thailand page 281
Mauritius page 186 Togo page 284
Mexico page 188 Trinidad and Tobago page 287
Mongolia page 192 Tunisia page 288
Morocco page 193 Turkey page 291
Mozambique page 196 Uganda page 294
Nepal page 197 Union of Soviet Socialist
Netherlands page 199 Republics page 296
New Zealand page 201 United Arab Emirates page 300
Nicaragua page 205 United Kingdom page 301
Niger page 208 United Republic of Cameroon
Nigeria page 209 page 307
Norway page 212 United Republic of Tanzania
Pakistan page 216 page 310
Panama page 218 United States of America page 312
Papua New Guinea page 220 Puerto Rico page 319
Paraguay page 223 Upper Volta page 320
Peru page 225 Uruguay page 322
Philippines page 228 Venezuela page 324
Poland page 230 Yemen, Arab Republic of,page 327
Portugal page 234 Yugoslavia page 327
Qatar page 237 Zaire page 331
Republic of Korea page 239 Zambia page 335
Romania page 241 Zimbabwe page 337
Rwanda page 244
Saudi Arabia page 245 Appendix 1: National bodies dealing
Senegal page 248 with the application of conventions
Sierra Leone page 252 on the recognition of studies,
Singapore page 254 diplomas and degrees in higher
Socialist People’s Libyan Arab education under the auspices of
Jamahiriya page 256 Unesco page 340
Socialist Republic of Viet N a m Appendix 2: International
page 257 conventions on the recognition of
Somalia page 260 studies,diplomas and degrees in
Spain page 260 higher education adopted under the
Sri Lanka page 264 auspices of Unesco page 344
Preface
The present volume forms part of the Unesco series of ‘Studieson the evaluation of
qualificationsat the higher education level’(formerly ‘Studieson internationalequivalences
of degrees’). This series,resultingfrom a resolution adopted by the General Conferenceat its
thirteenthsession (1964),is oneofthe facetsofthe Unescoprojecton the increased mobility of
students,teachersand research workers and on the recognitionof studies and diplomasand
degrees of higher education.
The comparative studies presented here describe or analyse the conceptual basis of,and
fundamental elements involved in,the comparability of studies,diplomas and degrees at
different steps of education. They suggest general criteria for the establishment of
internationalrecognitionand validation of studies and degrees and diplomas.
Conscious ofthe increasingmobility of thoseinvolved in highereducationsystems,Unesco
has undertaken a three-foldprogramme:systematic investigation of both the basic problems
and the technical issues involved,preparation of internationalconventionsand agreements,
and action to promote the establishmentor extensionofbilateral or regionalmachinery so as
to ensure that the relevant legal instrumentsare in fact applied.
The first phase has given rise to specificstudiesin certain fields,such as internationallaw,
engineeringetc.,to a regional Convention concerningthe recognitionof studiesand degrees
and diplomas signed in Mexico City in 1974 between the countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean as well as bilateral and multi-lateralco-operationand,finally,to the creation or
development of national or sub-regionalmachinery to promote the internationalmobility of
students,teachers and research and professional personnel.
During the second phase.Unescois carryingoutdetailed surveysofstudiesand degreesand
diplomas as well as continuing to encourage the elaboration of regional and international
juridicalinstrumentson mutualrecognition,such as the Conventionadopted in Nice (France)
in 1976. linking Arab States and European States bordering on the Mediterranean, the
Convention adopted in Paris in 1978 linking the Arab States,the Conventionadopted in 1979
linking the Statesof the European Region,or thosein preparation.grouping respectivelythe
African countries and the Asian and the Pacific States. In accordance with the explicity
clauses of the Conventions,Unesco co-operateswith the concerned States to establish viable
instruments for the application of the principles set forth.
The third phase of these activitieswill concentrateon the establishment of a system for co-
ordinatingnational and regionalbodies and for applying the foreseenworld Conventionon
the recognition of studies and diplomas and degrees.
The present volume. which constitutesthe second fully revised and enlarged editionof the
volume originallypublished in English under the same title in 1976,has been prepared by the
International Association of Universities (IAU). The Secretanat of Unesco expresses its
gratitude to the Secretary-Generalof IAU,Mr Douglas J Aitken,and to his colleagues,
notably Mr Georges Daillantand Mrs ClaudineLanglois.who were responsibleforcompiling
and editing the manuscript.
In most cases,the content of the country sections has been based on information specially
provided by the governmental and academic authorities of the relevant Member States.
Unescoand I A Uare indebtedto thoseconcernedfortheirreadinessto respond to requestsfor
assistance.
Although in substancethis work reflects the interest of Unesco and of IAU in the subject
treated,the facts and information given in the country sections must not be taken as
expressing the views of Unesco or of IAU.Similarly,the opinions expressed by the editors
should not necessarily be regarded as those of Unesco.
Introduction
The approach to the compilation of this country by country guide to higher education
throughout the world has been practical rather than scholarly.Its primary purpose is to
present in conciseand comparable formbasic information about academicand professional
qualifications.No attempt is made to establish ‘equivalences’or to propose ready-made
solutionsto related problems of mobility between differentcountriesor between professions.
To do so might be more misleading than helpful. It is hoped,however,that the user will find
the volume of service as a tool when evaluating degrees and diplomas awarded in different
countries and when assessing acquired competences.
Much has been written on the subject of what was until recently called the problem of
‘equivalences’and,at times,it seemed thatthe purposewas to presentit as oneso complicated
as to defy solution.Indeed,it did remain for long unsolved or atbest solvedonlyin particular
cases.This has constituted a seriousbarrier to academic mobility and to exchanges between
universities in different countries or has served as an alibi for attitudesofprotectionism and
isolationism.Consequently society has time and again been prevented from deriving the full
benefit ofvaluablehuman resources.Moreover,in acenturyduringwhich many thousandsof
men and women have left their homes and countries,often being obliged to do so in tragic
circumstances.personal hardship and humiliationhave been the lot ofthose who have found
that their hard won ‘foreign’qualificationsare not recognizedor,at best,accepted only after
long delays.It must be admitted. however, that although in other spheres new efforts to
develop exchanges and increasemobility have brought encouraging results,this problem has
continued to prove particularly intractable.The question,therefore,arises,is the difficulty
attributable to causesother than mere national egoism or the solipsism sometimesattributed
to universities?A university degree or diploma can be difficult and recalcitrant to handle,
simply because of the ambiguityattached to its role and purpose.In principle,it testifiesto the
possessionof knowledgeand to the aptitudeto acquirenew knowledge.Yet,at the sametime,
it constitutes a means of access to certain functions in society and is thus endowed with a
negotiable value. Representing in this way both knowledge and power, it has a hybrid
charactermade up of two different kinds of reality.It is very difficult,both in theory and in
practice,to formulate policies which take proper accountof the two dimensions of thissingle
instrument with validity in two distinct spheres each calling for different treatment.
Even if account is taken only of the social function of a degree or diploma,a certain
ambivalence exists.Many quite rightly regard it as a factor of upward socialmobility which
helps to correct and even offset inequalitiesattributable to the accidentof birth or offinancial
status.But it is also truethat it isa factorofsocialrigidity and immobilityin so farasit defines,
guaranteesand encompassescertain socio-professionalmonopolies.It may be comparedto a
door which opens and thus gives access-but also one which closes and protects a domain
from outside interference.Those who wish to pass through the door,students or would-be
students,naturally wish it to be open widely.But once they have qualified,they do not mind
seeingit closed.A privilege which is widely shared ceases to be a privilegeand those,many of
them students,who do seek situations of privilege. are anxious to preserve them from the
multitude.
Problems are raised at the national level by the complexity and ambiguity surrounding
academic qualifications.At the international level,the number ofproblems is far greaterand
they are more intractable.not least becauseofthe interplay of conflictinginterests.Thus they
can easily serve as a pretext for closingdoors rather than opening them.Thisis no doubtwhy
the efforts to re-establishthe mobility ofscholarswhich onceexisted in the world of Islamand
in mediaeval Europe have,for so long,remained sporadic and unsuccessful.
THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
This is not the place to analyse the reasons for the withdrawal of higher education systems
X INTRODUCTION

behind national frontiers,particularly in the 19th century,or for the creationofvast academic
empires. These, despite their authoritarian character, never became wholly independent
because the flow of ideas and mutual borrowing between them never ceased.There have
always been exchangesbetween the products ofthese systemsbut the systemsthemselveshave
remained relatively isolated one from the other.
At the same time, political, economic and cultural relations between nations have
developed,at times more rapidly than at others,and it might have been expected that this
would have had consequencesfor education,which both reflectsand underlies most historical
and social progress.And, in fact,starting in the second half of the 19th century,numerous
bilateral agreements concluded between nations did include clauses referring to the mutual
recognition of degrees and diplomas.Some of these agreements were concerned specifically
with cultural co-operationbut others,such as treaties of ‘friendship’(Iraq-Turkey 1946),of
‘friendshipand of commerce and navigation’(Ecuador-Japan 1918), were broader in scope.
The International Association of Universities has sought to assemble the texts of these
agreements.In 1966,it published its Collection of Agreements Concerning the Equivalence of
Universiiy Qualifications and,in 1977,aFirst Supplement in microfiche form.Ifone countsthe
number of these agreements-128 for the period 1911-61 (i.e. before the processes of
liberation and decolonization led to an increase in the number of sovereign states)- it might
appear that,already during the first half of the present century,a closenetwork providingfor
the equivalence and mutual recognition of qualificationshad come into existence.But this is
not so.In many cases,the clauses referring to equivalenceshave not been put into effect.Very
often,they took the form of declarationsof intentofa vague nature-‘Each contractingparty
shall determinethe conditionsandextent to which the equivalence ofqualifications,academic
degrees and diplomas awarded in the territory of the other party,including those relating to
the exercise of a profession,may be recognized’.In other words,each contractingparty would
continue to act unilaterally.The outsidermay well be surprised and ask whether the insertion
of such a clause in an agreement does not border on the absurd. Other texts foresee the
establishment of mixed commissions of experts from the two parties charged with the
elaboration of proposals for equivalences.But often the commissionsdo not meet,or if they
do,their recommendations are not acted upon.
Experience seems to show that only minimum results will be achieved if the matter of the
mutual recognition of academic qualificationsis dealt with merely as a subsidiarypart of a
more general agreement negotiated by expertsin foreignaffairs ratherthan by academicsand
educationists.The inclusion of clauses on equivalencesin this kind of agreement tended to be
a mere formality. There was no political desire to apply them and,for a long time,the
universitiesthemselves,jealously guarding their own qualifications,did little to awaken this
desire.There were exceptions,particularly in the case of countries linked by their common
history,geography and culture.There were,for example,the agreements which Spain started
to conclude in 1840 with countries in Latin America, and much later the important
agreements which France concluded with the governments of African countries closely
associated with it. Agreements of this kind express a genuine desire to co-operate in the
specific field of education and provide a legal basis for the exchanges which the contracting
parties intend to carry out.Similarly,the agreementsbetween many of the socialist countries
give expression to a policy ofrapprochement and postulate the mutual recognition of degrees
and diplomasas one means of achieving this end,as does the Treaty of Rome which provides
for the ‘rightof establishment’within the European Economic Community.
The Council of Europe Conventions on the Equivalence ofQualificationsGiving Access to
Universities (1953), on the Equivalence of Periods of Study (1956) and on the Recognition of
University Qualifications (1959) are distinctive in that they are concerned only with the
mutual recognition of qualificationsand are exceptional in that they were signed by a large
number of countries.The latter,of course,do form part of a large cultural community which
INTRODUCTION XI

they regard as a basis for close co-operation.

Another approach,more recent and as yet not widespread,is to entrust universities and
their members with the task of carefully studyingcourses,discipline by discipline.in order to
devise complex and detailed systems of equivalences. These may not necessarily be
incorporated in a formalinternationalagreementor convention but may instead be validated
in each of the countries concerned by national legislation,by regulations or in otherways in
conformity with the law of the country.The number of mixed commissions set up for this
purpose has steadily increased.These have the advantageofbasing the mutual recognitionof
qualifications and of partial studies on the full consent of the interested parties. The
disadvantage is that they involve a laborious process which may often later give rise to
problems of equivalence since reforms of curricula do not take place in the same way and at
the same time in the countriesinvolved.Agreements concludeddirectly between universities
appear to be very rare.
Thus,until recently,there have been very few really effectiveagreements and these have
principallyinvolved countries,such as thosesignatoriesto the Andean Pact,already linked by
other historical,political and cultural ties. There was. for long,no question of a global
solution.

A MORE DYNAMIC CONCEPTION

Thcre has,however.been a considerablechange in the situationsincethe Second World War.
It is not necessaryhere to refer in detail to the appearanceofmany new sovereignstatesand to
the foundationof new universities.Nor isit necessarytoevoke againthe ‘explosions’-that of
student enrolments and that of knowledge and technology-and accompanying progress
made in the democratization of higher education,the change in attitudes to the right to
education and the development of international exchanges,not least in the field of higher
education.All these factors have resulted in universities and post-secondaryeducation in
generalfinding themselves in a stateof effervescenceand spectacularquantitative expansion.
All were bound to have an effect on the status of qualifications and on their international
‘convertibility’.
Dynamic developments of this kind were also bound to have an effect on the nature of
academicqualificationsthemselves.For centuries.a universitydegree or diplomaconstituted
a well-defined‘asset’.It representedthe acquisitionofa body ofknowledgeand an aptitudeto
use it intelligently in the exercise of certain functionswithin society.But this conception has
been undermined,partly because the knowledge which constituted the ‘asset’has tended to
become outdated and rapidly lose its value,partly because.as a corollary,the functionswhich
it served have themselveschanged,both in method and in content.Consequently,a university
qualification is no longer an acquisition that will serve the holder for the rest of.hislife.
Instead,it must be seen as a potential to be used to assimilate new knowledge and to
participate in,or at least to adapt to,the process of innovation.Instead of being a terminal
point,it should constitute a starting point. turned towards the future rather than the past.
Unesco has done much to encouragethis new approach and it has embodied it in the various
regional conventionson the mutual recognitionof studies,degreesand diplomas which have
been drawn up on its initiative.
But the status of academic qualificationshas also undergone a substantialrelative change.
Far from being the privilege of the few they have become accessible to large numbers.
Consequently,they are no longer the only prerequisitefor access to certain functionsand no
longer,of themselves,open the door to certain closed professions.As has already been
mentioned,academic qualificationsboth open and close doors.In many societies,they were
for a long time the key to many selective mechanisms, for they appeared to operate
‘objectively’ifnot ‘scientifically’. This is no longer true since they are now within reach offar
greater numbers and the phenomenon of graduateunemploymentincreasesthe risk of being
xii INTRODUCTION

shut out.In this situationthere is a danger:that offindingother criteria being added to or even
taking the place of academic qualifications.These may take the form oflessequitablefactors,
such as that of family, social or financial status. But there may also be advantages.
Consideration may be given not only to the qualifications of an individual but also to the
experience,professionally or in terms of the competence,he may have gained outside his
formal educational work,his achievements,publications,etc.The move in this direction has
been strongly encouraged by Unesco and in its conventions reference is made to the
desirability of taking account of such factors as well as of formal academic qualifications
when assessing the aptitude of persons to engage in particular activities.
There is a third importantelementwhich has helped to modify attitudes towards academic
qualifications.This is the development of internationalexchanges in all fields.In a world in
which everything is moving more and more rapidly-merchandise, capital, equipment,
information,labour-the barrier of the non-recognitionof qualifications which is often a
consequenceof lack of knowledgeof them appearsas an anomaly blocking the movement of
teachers,research workers and students,the very groups which traditionally moved more
freely than many others. Science knows no frontiers,yet the men and women of science and
those who seek the advancement of knowledgeare painfully aware of them. It is strange that
this should be so.Motor cars are exported but the qualificationsof those who designthem are
not recognized in the importing countries.It is quite conceivable that a Nobel Prize winner
could find it impossible to practise medicine in another country,not for political reasons,but
simply because his qualifications were not regarded as valid. In a world which attaches
growing importance to the value of mobility,situations of this kind verge on the absurd.
The intensificationof internationalcontactshas other and contrary effects,and institutions
everywhere are tending more and more to be cast from common moulds. There is
consequently an increasing uniformity of customsand ways of life which engendersa certain
interchangeability or ‘generalizedequivalence’,but paradoxically this also gives rise to a
reactionagainst conformity and a growing search fordiversity.Universities,in particular,are
conscious of the cultural and scientific enrichment which they can derive from teachers and
students accustomed to different approaches and methods of work.

STAGES OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Thus three series of factors-the advancement of knowledge itself, the development of
education and the development of international exchanges-all help to change attitudes with
regard to the nature and conception of qualifications.This opens up new possibilities for
action and Unesco,to its credit,has identified them. In particular,it has taken an initiative
which has led to the drawing up of a number of regional conventions on the mutual
recognition of degreesand diplomas (see appendices)which,it is hoped,will eventuallylead to
a global convention.First of all,the word ‘equivalence’ isnot alwaysapplicableand has often
been replaced by or combined with the term ‘mutualrecognition’.This,instead ofpostulating
the rigorous identity of curricula or of knowledge sanctioned by degrees and diplomas,
recognizes that the trainingofthe mind can be served by differentareas of knowledge.While
respecting the place of individuals,these conventions set the question of recognition in the
context of the global perspectives of national and regional societies,of their cultural and
economic development and of the optimum use of educational facilities and of human
resources.Their aim is not only to facilitatethe access of foreigners to higher education or to
the professions,but also to facilitatethe reinsertionin the national context of those who have
studied abroad-a matter of great importance in the world today.
Finally,and perhaps this is the most important of all, these conventions lend a new
dynamism to the notion of academicqualifications(or ofpartial studies), by regarding them
not as terminalpoints but as spring-boardsfor futurework.Thusthey embody the notion ofa
‘stageof training’which is considered to be represented by the sum total of theoretical and
 ...
INTRODUCTION Xlll

practical studies,of personal experience and of achievements which together constitute the
level ofmaturity and competence needed-in the case ofthe pursuit ofstudies-to embark on
the following stage and, for the exercise of a profession, justifies the assuming of
responsibilitiesand duties at a given stage. Thus,whereas the notion of ‘level’implies that
what is measured is static,thatof‘stage’immediatelysuggestsa continuousprogression.Such
a definition, moreover, postulates the taking into account of all the pertinent
factors-including, for example,professional experience and personal achievements-and
not only the qualificationsearlier obtained within a particular educational system.
It is true that this does not solve all the problems of evaluation:it may even appear to
complicate them. Professional experience,for example,is a complicated notion which is still
difficult to quantify. To take account of this experience not only means assessing the
knowledge and specializedcompetenceswhich have been derived from it;it is also a question
of assessing what the individual has gained from the exercise of complex and rigorous
techniquesand from the need toanalyseand to takedecisionsquickly in complexsituations.It
is also a matter of acquiring the habit of team work and of co-operationwith specialistsin
different fields.In other words,the need is to measure a certain ‘culture’quite independently
of the tangiblecontext in which it has evolved and has its existence.It was once believed,and
some still believe,that a classical education in Latin provided the mind with a sound training
for later life (a graduate in classics,for example,could become an administrator). But the
question is rarely put as to whether experience of human relations may be of use to the
administratorwho,later,might wish to become a grammarian or linguist.
However this may be, such factors are difficult to measure or quantify and do not lend
themselves to data processing (required when the selection of candidates is done by
computer). Yet they are factors which employerstake into accountwhen filling seniorposts.
Their methods,where these are codified,could profitably be studied. But they should be
studied and not copied,for the ultimate objectives are different. The first concern of the
manager. at least in a market economy,is the success of his business rather than the personal
and intellectual development of his employees.H e may thus attach importance to attitudes
and behaviour such as acquiescence or apoliticism.neither of which is a guarantee of success
in academic research.The notion of taking account systematicallyofnon-scholarlyand non-
academic factors raises a new problem for the educational system,which must review its
methods of examining and evaluation. At present much still depends on the personal
judgement of those responsiblefor admissions to higher education.
The question is raised here because it is of vital importance for the application of the
Conventionsconcludedunder the auspicesof Unesco.The presentvolume. which isdesigned
to facilitate their application,is concerned with systems of higher education as they exist at
present and only incidentallyand factually deals with questions of professionalexperience
and personal achievement where certain systemsof higher educationalready take accountof
them.In organizing and presentingthe country sectionsthe firstconcernhas been to ascertain
whetherthe notion of ‘stages’oftrainingis alreadyaccepted and can thusbe used in describing
the systems.not as they might be but as they are at present.The question,therefore,istwofold:
(1) are the stages identifiable?(2)is there sufficient articulationbetween the stagesin different
countriesfor valid conclusionsto be drawn and fora system ofmutual recognitionto be based
on them?
The first questioncan be answered affirmatively.This would not have been the case a few
years ago.In the German-speakingcountries.for example,there was traditionallyonly one
‘degree’in many fieldsof study-the doctorate-and the studentwas left to organize his own
programme of study.Certainly he passed through a number of stagesbut he did so at his own
pace and not in conformitywith a prescribed course.Today,all systemstend to be more highly
structured.
At first sight there is no such simple answer to the second question with regard to the
xiv INTRODUCTION

comparabilityof the articulation of stages in different countries.In some systems,in France

forexample,higher education is explicitly divided into three cycles,otherstend to be binary in
nature-undergraduate and graduate (or postgraduate). This is true of the Anglo-Saxon
countries and of most countries which derive their own systemsfrom them.In most socialist
countries,higher education is also essentially binary in nature,with studiesleadingto the first
‘diploma’then to the ‘aspirantur’which broadly correspondsto postgraduate study,and to
the award of a first doctorate (or degree of Candidate) on presentation of a thesis.
A closer examination,however,reveals that many systems are,in fact,implicitly if not
explicitly tertiary in nature-even if there are no explicit stages or corresponding
qualifications.In socialistcountries,studiesleadingto the first ‘diploma’aregenerallydivided
into two parts. The first, for which no qualification is conferred,is devoted to training in
fundamental disciplines, while the second is more highly specialized. Similarly,
undergraduate medical studies,which in many countries appear to constitute a six or seven
year continuum,are often divided into pre-clinical(more theoretical)and clinical studies.In
the Federal Republic of Germany and in Austria the Vordipiom (or Vorprüfung) does not
constitute a terminal qualificationbut it does mark apoint in the course leadingto the degree.
In the Anglo-Saxon systems, the pattern (although with exceptions) is that of a triple
progression from BA-BSc to M A - M S c to PhD.
However,it would be unwise to pursue this approach in order,arbitrarily,to seek to castall
systems in the same mould.But,on the whole,they do appear to reveal a pattern of higher
education divided into three phases.The first phase,which may or may not lead to the award
of a particular qualification, may be described as one of training in the fundamental
disciplinesof one field of study (or activity). The second is one ofgreater specializationin one
or severalfundamental or applied disciplines,usually allied to an introductionto researchand
the analysis of complex problems.The third and finalphase is that devotedto advanced study
and original research,which may be carried out individually or in a team.
This,of course,is only a theoreticalmodel and it must,in any case,be corrected for short
post-secondarycourses which lead directly to activeemployment.Here,the firstphase is itself
terminal in nature and,therefore,laysgreater emphasison practicalwork.Even so,it is highly
desirable that it should not constitute a dead-endbut permit,under certain conditions,access
to the next stage of education. This is already the case in some countries. In the
Gesarnrhochschulen in the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, the first stage is
common to all students,whether they intend to follow long or short courses.It is the second
stage which is shorter for some and longer for others.
Finally,it should be mentioned that,in some countries,the third stagemay be longer,due to
the existence of a ‘second’doctorate (Habilitarion,in the Federal Republic of Germany,
docrorar d‘Etar in France,dokror nauk in the Soviet Union). This is a qualification primarily
designed for those wishing to accede to senior academic posts.
The question may therefore be put,should this tertiary structure find its counterpartin the
world of employment? There is no difficulty with regard to short courses which train for
middle level employment. However, the first stage of full higher education does not always
correspond to a clearly defined stage in the hierarchy of professionalemployment.Subjectto
there being provision for some in-servicetraining,it would be desirablefor it to lead to middle
level management appointments, and subsequently, to higher levels through internal
promotion.
The second stage is, broadly speaking,that from which engineers,doctors,lawyers and
senior secondary school teachers are recruited,together with administrators and managers.
These are people who should have a mastery ofa certain body of knowledgeand ofmethods of
applying this knowledge to practical,and often complex,problems.
The third stage normally provides for access to scientificcareers,including those in higher
INTRODUCTION xv

education.which require a high level of training and an aptitude for research and effective
decision-making.
Here again,the object is not to imposearigid frameworkor to createa monopoly ofcertain
kinds of qualification for certain categories of employment.To do so would be to deny the
decisive importance of professional experience and of personal achievement.

THE PRESENT VOLUME

The purpose of the above observationsis simply to outline the broad framework which has
served for the presentation of the contents of the present volume. It is addressed to thosein
universities and government departments and to others who are responsible for the
recognition of academic qualifications or who may be interested in the various systems of
higher education throughout the world.It is hoped that it will facilitatethe task ofthose who
will serve on the regional and national bodies charged with the important responsibilityof
applying the Conventions signed under the auspices of Unesco and thus. with stimulating
mobility of individuals, in this way promote their personal development and that of the
countriesbetween which they form the living links.This is a task of special importance at a
moment of history when,in some countriesat least,there appears to be a lesseningofinterest
in study abroad and when the difficulties of the economic crisis may reawaken attitudes of
protectionism-a moment in history too.when internationalrelationsare more intricateand
complex than ever before.
The economic crisis is giving rise to an increasing obsession with the economic and
professional rewards of training, and this is at the expense of the development of the
individual,which the Universal Declaration of Human Rights defines as one of the goals of
education.
For any man or woman today,internationalexperienceis an indispensablepart ofpersonal
and cultural fulfilment.It may. moreover,constitutean element of professional competence
in a world in which almost all problems have an internationaldimension and in which the
number of centres of innovation is continually growing.Architects. doctors,engineers,all
need to be familiar with the achievements and methods of other countries,and to be able to
communicate with other socio-professionalgroups. The Conventions seek specifically to
allowthem to do this without unnecessary waste oftimeand with the maximum benefitforthe
community.
For the Conventions,the main question with regard to the individual is not a matter of
knowing what he has already done but of what be is still capableof doing in his own field or
even in a new one.for it is no less importantto stimulate mobility between the differentfields
of study.Here,too.the interestsofthe individualand thoseofthe communitycan coincide.It
is good for the mathematicianto become a lawyer,ifhe feels the need or the inclination-and
it may also be good for society to have the benefit of a number of lawyers who have also
received a mathematical training.
Today,knowledge changes and becomes out-dated so rapidly that the exact content of
previous training is less important than its scientific quality and its methods. Good higher
educationmust. therefore,have a certain polyvalentelement and prepare the mind to embark
on new paths of study and research.
The present volume,obviously.does not attempt to pass judgementand does not,of itself,
provide a basis for evaluation.However,its compilationwould not have been undertakenhad
a knowledgeofthe patterns of higher education in different countriesnot been indispensable
for taking decisions in matters concerned with the recognition of studies. degrees and
diplomas.The informationhere presented has,in most cases,been furnished by the competent
authorities in the countries concerned. It has been collated in the Secretariat of the
International Association of Universitiesand efforts have been made to present it in a form
which corresponds.as faras possible,to the stagesof educationand training outlined above,
xvi INTRODUCTION

and which describes the terminology of each system.An attempthas been made to presentthe
information clearly and in comparable form, although,in certain cases, this has meant
simplifyingsome long and complex texts.It is hoped,in this way’,that the country sectionswill
help to indicate paths through the systems of higher education and through the main
disciplines and fields of study,although the way in which these are divided and organized
varies from one country to another.
Similarly,for ease of reference,the descriptive texts are accompanied by tables which
recapitulate the periods of study leading to the award of the various degrees and diplomas.
These should be used with caution since their apparent simplicity may overemphasize the
significance of the length of courses as one of the criteria for assessing the value of a
qualification.Important as it may be,it can also be misleading if it is the only factor to be
taken into account, and the standing of qualifications cannot therefore be measured or
compared simply by using a ruler.Those who will use this volume willcertainlybe awarethat
tables of this kind constitute a tool which can only be of value if used with caution.
A Note on Terminology
Much of the discussion regarding equivalences is bedevilled by semantics.For this reason,
specialcare has been taken regardingthe languageemployed in this book.So faras possible,a
‘neutral’form of English,in which the key criterion is comprehensibility,has been used to
designateinstitutions,qualificationsand courses.For example,whereasthe British speak ofa
‘collegeof education’but Americans refer to a ‘teachers’college’or a ‘normalschool’.in this
book the term ‘teacher-traininginstitution’,which is self-explanatory, has in most casesbeen
employed.
Whereverpossible,terms that might lend themselvesto ambiguity have been avoided.Thus
the term ‘school’(asin ‘schoolofsocialscience’,forexample)has been used as little as possible
and a circumlocution employed.Likewise,the use of the word ‘professional’gives rise to
confusion. particularly when translating from the Romance languages. The procedure
adopted here has been to use ‘professional’when a high level of occupational training is
implied (e.g.in medicine and engineering), and to use ‘vocational’-and, on occasion,
‘technical’-for lower levels of training.Moreover, the word ‘technical’is now used in many
countriesnot only to apply to the industrial techniques,but also to commercial and business
arts,and even to preparation for tertiary occupations. It is realized that the use of these
different terms has sometimes involved making value judgements that are arbitrary.
Furthermore,the term ‘professionalqualification’has been used in the ratherrestrictedsense
of an award granted at the end of professional training,although its use does not imply that
the award necessarilyconfers the right to exercisethe professionfor which it was granted.In
certain cases.such as in the entriesfor a number of South American countries,the more exact
denomination of ‘professionaltitle’has been deliberately employed.
The word ‘qualification’has been used as a generic term to designate any kind of degree,
diploma,title or certificate whatsoever awarded as the result of a course of education or
training.
Wherever possible. a distinction has been made between the words ‘thesis’ and
‘dissertation’,although current usage of these in English is itself very unclear.In general the
term ‘thesis’has been employed to designate a written exercise of a fairly substantialnature
prepared for a doctoratedegree and ‘dissertation’for a lesser qualificationthan a doctorate.
Words and expressionsused in their common or generic meaning are printed in the text in
normal type.However.they are printed in italicswhen a specific meaning is attached to them
in a particular system of higher education and they figure in the glossary for that system.
AFGHANISTAN 1

Afghanistan
No information having been received recently,the present text is mainly repeatedfrom the 1976
English edition of this Guide.

In Afghanistan,all educational institutionsare controlled,administered and financed by the

State.
Higher education is given at the University of Kabul and some institutionswhich are
attached to it (for instance,the College of Medicine at Nangarhar). The other major
institutions of higher education are the Instituteof Accountancy,the Institute of Industrial
Management, the Higher Institute of Agriculture. fourteen advanced teacher-training
colleges and a teachers’academy.
Kabul University comprises ten faculties:letters and humanities (including journalism,
history,geography,fine arts,education,linguistics,teacher training); Islamic law;law and
political sciences; sciences; engineering (including architecture); economics and business
administration;pharmacy; agriculture; veterinary science: and medicine: it includes a
polytechnic institute,the College of Medicine (Nangarhar)and a university hospital.
As a special facility for foreign students,the university also offers the following special
language coursesin Pashto and Persian:(a)an elementary language courselasting four and a
half months with an emphasis on conversation;(b) a nine-month course leading to a
certificate: (c) an eighteen-monthcourse leading to a diploma;and (d) a four-yearcourse
leading to a leicanc in Persian and Pashto in the faculty of letters.
The Institute of Industrial Management. which includes two sections (industrial
managementand secretariat)offers four-yearcoursesat the end ofwhich studentsmay obtain
a degree enabling them to occupy middle levelmanagementjobsin industry.banks and public
administration.
The Higher Instituteof Agricui: ire, set up in 1971,acquired its statusand presenttitle in
1975. A State institution responsible to the Ministry of Higher Education. it includes
departments of veterinary medicine, forestry and also offers courses in accountancy,
management,marketing techniquesof agriculturalproducts,horticultureand co-operatives.
It awards a diploma after five semesters.
The Teachers’Academy receives graduates with one year’s experience in the field of
teaching.They work in co-operationwith Unesco educationalspecialistsand continuetheir
training abroad.with the aid of scholarships.
The languagesof instructionat the universityare Persian and Pashto;however,because of
relations existing with assistance programme agencies or foreign universities,English and
French are also used.
Primary level teachersare trained in teacher-trainingcollegesat secondarylevel.Secondary
levelteachers acquiretheirtrainingin the universitiesor in higherteacher-traininginstitutions
(two years).
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate (baccaluria)
awarded after 12 years of general education in Afghan vocational schools or 1-vcées,after
which candidateshave to pass the universityentranceexamination(concor). Foreign students
are admitted in accordancewith culturalexchangeagreementswith certaincountries.Foreign
candidatesare not required to pass the entrance examination,but must hold a twelfth-grade
school-leavingcertificate or equivalent.
The main stage of higher education leads. in arts and science,after four years’study to the
leicanc (licence). In engineering,studieslast five years.In medicine they last seven,leading to
the doctori (doctorate).
A postgraduate degree (master’sdegree) is awarded (in Persian and Pashto).
2 AFGHANISTAN

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,baccaluria and entrance examination)
years 4 5 6 7
Arts L M
Sciences
Engineering,technology
-
L
L
Medicine D
D doctori L leicanc M master’s degree

GLOSSARY
Baccaluria. Secondary-school-leavingqualification,awarded at the end of 12 years of
education.The baccaluria is a necessaryqualificationforhighereducation,but doesnot give a
right of access.Candidateshave to pass a competitiveentrance examination.
Concor.Entrance examinationset by the university for prospectiveAfghan students,who
must hold a baccaluria. Candidates must complete a questionnaire containing about 300
questions which test their knowledge and intelligence. Entrance to any particular faculty
dependson the number ofplaces availableand thegradesobtained by a candidate inthe basic
subjects taught in the faculty he wishes to enter. Foreign candidates holding secondary-
school-leavingqualificationsare not required to pass the entrance examination.
Doctori.Degree of doctor of medicine awarded by the facultyand collegeofmedicineafter
seven years of study.The first year,known as MPCB (mathematics,physics,chemistry and
biology)iscommon toall science,medicineand pharmacystudents.It isfollowed by fiveyears
of professional study and hospital training,and by one year of internship in one of the
university hospitals.The degree of doctor of medicine isa professional qualification.It is the
sole doctorate awarded by the university.
Entrance examination.See concor.
Leicanc (licence). First degree,awarded in lettersand sciencesafter four years’study,the
first one or two of which consist of general study;the last one or two years of the course are
devoted to specialization.In engineering,studies last five years.
Master’sdegree. Higher degree awarded in Persian and Pashto by the faculty of letters.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See baccaluria.

Albania
Mo detailed information having been received recently, the present text is largely based on the
previous edition of this Guide.

In the People’sSocialistRepublicof Albania institutionsofhighereducationare regulated by

statutes approved by the Ministry of Education and Culture.Higher education is given in
ALBANIA 3

Tirana State University and in the following institutions,which are also stateinstitutions:an
institute for fine arts,three institutes for agriculture,an institute of physical education,four
institutes of engineering,of mechanical and chemical engineering,three teacher-training
institutions attached to the University,and a teacher-traininginstitute.
The University is governed by a rector, together with the Council,which is the main
governing body. It consists of seven faculties (history and philology;economics;law and
political science; natural sciences, including mathematics and pharmacy; engineering,
includingarchitecture;medicine,includingdentistry;geologyand mining)and three institutes
(historyand languages;nuclear physics;folklore). A numerus clausus operatesin accordance
with the needs of the economy.
The Institute for Agriculture,which comprises the faculties of agriculture, veterinary
medicine and forestry,offers professional qualificationsin these fieldsafter four or five years
ofstudy.The InstituteofPhysicalEducation,open to holdersofthe secondary-school-leaving
certificate who successfully pass the competitive entrance examination,gives a teaching
qualification after a three-yearcourse (four years by correspondence). T h e teacher-training
institute gives a three-year course leading to a teaching qualification (mësues i shkollës
televjeçare)in a variety ofsubjects.It is residential,but also has a largenumber of externaland
evening students.
Teachers of elementary and lower-secondaryeducation qualify after two years’study in a
teacher-training institution and teachers of upper-secondary education are trained in
university facultiesof arts and science.
The basic levelforaccessto highereducationiseitherthedeftesepjekurie (secondary-school-
leaving certificate), obtained after fouryears of generalsecondaryeducation,followingupon
seven years of primary education,which gives access to all the faculties,or the teacher’s
certificatefor primary education,obtained in a teacher-trainingschool,which gives accessto
the faculties of natural sciences;economics;law and political sciences;and history and
languages. In addition,the leaving certificate of a technical school gives entrance to the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 11 years,deftese pjekurie)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Eàu cati on TC P
Arts B
Fine arts B
Law,political sciences B
Economics B
Exact and natural sciences B
Engineering P
Medical sciences
medicine P
dentistry P
pharmacy P
veterinary medicine P
Agriculture P

B bachelor’s degree P professional qualification TC teacher’scertificatefor elemen-

tary and lower-secondary schools
4 ALBANIA

facultiesof engineering,medicine and dentistry,and qualifiesstudentsto studypharmacyand

enter the Agricultural Institute.
The main stage of higher education comprises study lasting four to six years.Depending
upon the subject,this culminates in the award of eithera bachelor’sdegree after fouryearsof
study;or a professional qualificationin pharmacyafter fouryears,inagricultureand forestry
after fouror five years,in engineering,dentistryand veterinary medicine after five years,and
in medicine after six years-obtained either through state examinations or by submitting a
thesis,again depending upon the subject.
Beyond this stage,students may prepare by three years’full-timeor five years’part-time
study for a competitive examination for a teaching post in higher education.

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree.Degree of higher education,usually awarded after four years’study in
arts,law and political sciences,economics,exactand naturalsciences(sometimesfiveor six in
other subjects), and the successful completion of either state examinations or a thesis.The
sectionsof the programme that are not tested in the final examinationsare examined by oral
interrogations during the course. After completing their examinations candidates in the
appropriate fields of study are awarded the corresponding professional qualification as
teacher,doctor,lawyer,economist,engineer,etc.
Deftese pjekurie.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,obtained after fouryears of general
secondary educationfollowingseven years of primary education,which gives entranceto all
the faculties.Entrance also depends upon the number ofplacesattributed to each facultyby a
national plan,which takes into account the needs of the country (numerus clausus).
Professionalqualification. See bachelor’s degree.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.See deftese pjekurie;teacher’s certifïcatefor primary
education;technical-school-leaving certificate..
Teacher’s certificate for elementary and lower-secondaryschools. Qualification awarded
after two years’studies in a teacher-training institution.
Teacher’scertificate for primary education.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained
after fouryears of secondaryeducationin a teacher-traininginstitutionfollowingsevenyears
of elementary education.Confers the right to teach in an elementary schooland also gives
access to the facultiesof natural sciences,economics,political sciencesand law,and history
and languages,as well as to the teacher-training institute.
Technical-school-leavingcertificate. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained after
four years’ study in a technical secondary school following seven years of elementary
education.Gives access to the faculties of medicine,dentistry,pharmacy,engineering and
architecture,and to the Agricultural Institute.

Algeria
In Algeria higher education is provided in the University ofAlgiers,the University ofScience
and Technology of Algiers,the UniversitiesofAnnaba and Oran,the UniversitiesofScience
ALGERIA 5

and Technology of Oran and Constantine,the University Centres of Tlemcen,Tizi-Ouzou,

Sétif,Sidi-Bel-Abbèsand Mostaganem,the Polytechnic School of Architecture and Town-
Planning.the National InstituteofAgriculture,the National School ofVeterinary Studies,the
Higher Teacher-TrainingCollege,the School of Commerce in the Algiers area,and in the
Higher Technical Teacher-TrainingCollege and the Instituteof Telecommunicationsin the
Oran area.
Studies in Algerian universities are divided into three categories: social sciencesand the
humanities;biological and earth sciences;exact sciencesand technology.
The Universities of Algiers (the oldest), of Oran and Constantineare comprised of,by and
large,the same institutes(previously Faculties)-those, forexample,ofeconomics,ofmedical
and socialsciences,of modern languages,of law and administration,or Arabic languageand
literature,of psycho!ogy and education,etc.
The teaching in the Universitiesof Science and Technology of Algiers (USTA)and more
recently of Oran (USTO)is essentially in the field of the exact sciences.They comprise in
particular institutes of physics, electronics, biology, chemistry, mathematics, civil
engineering,mechanics,hydraulics. etc. This predominance of the exact sciences is also a
feature of the recently founded university centres.
The reorganizationof higher education currently in progress has effected the following:
abolition of the propaedeutic year;abolition of annual in favour of semestrial or termly
organization of the curriculum des études (term or semestrialperiodsare chosen according to
the nature, quantity, structure and co-ordination of the teaching they are to contain);
reorganizationofthe teachingunit into a sub-unitor module;abolitionofannualin favourof
term examinations;and initiation of continuousassessment.It will no longer be possible to
retake a term or semester.
All establishmentsof higher education are financed by the State and are under the direct
control of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research.
A policy of unification of the higher education system is currently being carried out.
Trainingstructuresspecific to specializedhigher education will be absorbed into the Ministry.
The languagesused are Arabic and French.
Access to higher education is given by the Algerian baccalauréat. Options are based on the
grade of baccalauréat the candidate has obtained and the subjects he wishes to study.
Every year, according to economic requirements,specific competitive examinations are
also held.Thesepermit accessto certain-fdièresofhigher education to candidateswho,though
they have not passed the baccalauréai,have attended third-yearclasses in secondary school
(previouslyterminale).Scientific courses at university are also open to those who have not
passed the baccalauréat,by means of the evamen spécial. option B,and law coursesto those
having followed capacité courses.
The main stage of higher education involves the acquiring of a wider knowledge and
experienceof one subject or of an advanced professionalqualification.It leads to either the
degrees of licence or DES. or to a diplôme in engineering,dental surgery,pharmacy or
architecture,etc. The first part of licence studies consists of a common teachingprogramme
(tronc c o m m u n ) lasting two to four semesters,depending on the subject-matter.The licence
obtained after six semesters in the humanities (Arabic literature, modern languages,
philosophy and history), in natural sciences and geography and also the exact sciences
(mathematics,physics and chemistry) is called the licence d’enseignement (in the applied
sciences it takes eight semesters). Thislicence is primarily intended for those wishing to enter
the teaching profession.The remaininglicences are obtained after eight semestersand are in
psychology,sociology,librarianship,economics,accounting,jurisprudence,translation and
interpretation.
In certain subjects (biologicaland earth and exact sciences,etc.) it is also possible to take a
diplôme d‘études supérieures (DES)after eight semesters.
6 ALGERIA

In technological sciences and in agriculture the diplôme of engineering in various

specializationsis obtained after ten semesters.
In a further stage the best studentsundertakepostgraduate (third cycle)studies,taking the
magister a minimum of four semestersafter the DES or thelicence.The magisrev isprincipally
available in the major universities-Algiers, USTA and Constantine-and in schoolssuch as
the Polytechnic School of Architecture and Town Planning (EPAU),and the National
Institute of Agriculture (INA). The academic year 1979/80 witnessed the establishment of
postgraduate opportunitiesin the technological sciences.
The last stage,the second ofpostgraduatestudies,leads to the doctorat &Eta/. This takes a
minimum of three years. It involves individual research work and the submitting of a
substantial thesis.
~~~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education L
Arts LE L/DES M D
Fine arts Di
Architecture Di
Economics,accounting C L D
and jurisprudence
Political sciences Di
Commercial sciences Di
Natural and exact sciences LE LIDES M D
Technology,engineering LE D
i
Medical sciences
medicine D
dentistry Di
pharmacy Di
veterinary medicine D
Agriculture Di

C capacité en droit D doctorat DES diplôme d’études supérieures Di diplôme

L licence LE licence d‘enseignement M magister

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat.Academic qualification obtained by six years’primary followed by seven
years’secondaryeducation.Secondary education isdivided into two phases offourand three
years respectively. Students may choose between two main options (literary or
mathematics/science). The baccalauréat gives access to all institutionsof higher education,
but some establishments may require it to be of a certain type,e.g. the ‘mathematics’
baccalauréat.
Capacité en droit. Diploma of higher education awarded after two years’study in law to
candidatesnot necessarilyholding thebaccalauréat who have neverthelesspassed the entrance
examination to the capacité courses.
Curriculum des études.Thecurriculum des études ofanydiplôme is the structuring in order of
ALGERIA 7

difficulty of the sum of all the knowledgerequired in the preparation of that diplôme.
Diplôme. Qualificationawarded by a facultyor instituteof highereducationwhich doesnot
normally award the liceiice (e.g.in the following subjects:pharmacy,dentistry.engineering.
agriculture,politics. business.architecture,fine arts,etc. The diploma is also a professional
qualification.
Diplôme d’études supérieures (DES). First academic qualification (apart from the licence)
awarded mainly in exact. biologicaland natural sciences.It permits continuance of graduate
studies (maxisrer).
Doctorat. Highest academic qualification.awarded by several faculties.In medicine,the
doctorat d’Erat denotes the successfulcompletion ofthe professional medicaltrainingcourse.
In law and especially in the humanities and science. candidates must submit a thesis
containingthe results of substantial individual research.
Filière. Ajlii.re is concerned with all teaching relative to a particular area of scientific
knowledge,in the way that the exact sciences,for example. are concerned with the basic
sciences (mathematics. physics and chemistry) and their technological applications;the
biological sciences include biology and medical science;the earth sciences touch on geology
and geography,etc.
Licence. First academic qualification.awarded in the humanities.in science,in law and in
economics after six to eight semesters of study.In certain subjects,it is possible to obtain a
licence d‘ensei,~ncincritafter only six semesters. T h e remaininglicerices take eight semesters
and allow the continuance of graduate studies.
Magister. Postgraduate academic qualification obtainable after a minimum of four
semesters after the DES or the licepice.
Module. All trainingprogrammes involvea certain number ofdisciplines:thus,sociologists
are trained in the following disciplines:sociology,mathematics.statisticsand the economy.
Each disciplineis furtherdivided intoelementscalledniodule.~. A rtiotiiik comprisesa coherent
and well-defined body of knowledge relating to a particular discipline;it is a completeentity
independentof other nzodiiles being taught simultaneously with it.
Tronc commun. The tronc coinriilin is a collection of rnodiiles forming the initial section
common to several different curricula.It may last one or more semesters.

Angola
Higher education is provided in the People’s Republic of Angola by one university,the
Universidade de Angola at Luanda (currentlyundergoing reorganization). Founded in 1962,
it now comprisesfourfacultiesat Luanda (science,economics,engineering,medicine), one at
Huambo (agriculture)and one at Lubango (humanities).
The teaching language is Portuguese.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate;there is also
an entrance examination.
The fint stage of higher educationleads to the bacharel,awarded after three years’study.
The second stage leads to the licenciado, after two further years’study.
8 ANGOLA

The third stage leads to the doutorado (doctorate)following two to three furtheryears-that
is, after a total of seven or eight years’ study.

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previouseducation: 1 1 years, carta do curso complementar liceus (secondary-school-leaving
certificate), and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 I 8

B bacharel D doutorado L licenciado

GLOSSARY
Bacharel. Degree of higher education awarded after three years’ study.
Carta do curso complementar liceus. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained after
four years of primary studies,followed by seven years of secondary studies divided into three
cycles, and required for access to higher education.
Doutorado.The highest degree of higher education. It is awarded after seven or eight years’
study.
Entrance examination. Success in this examination is the second condition required for
university entrance.
Licenciado. Degree of higher education awarded after two years’ study subsequent to the
award of the bacharel.
Secondary-school-certificate.See carta do curso complernentar liceus.

Argentina
In Argentina, higher education is provided in three types of institution: the national or
provincial universitiesand the private universities;institutionsthat are not at university level
and which are devoted to higher studies in the arts or to technical and professional studies;and
teacher-training colleges.
The universitiesare usually divided into faculties or departments and often include schools
and institutes as well. They offer courses at the highest level in traditionalsubjects,and also in
architecture and town-planning, economics, technology and agriculture. There is one
exclusively technological university.
The 26 national universities are autonomous. They may decide for themselves,
independently of the State, all matters relating to their organization and functioning; they
may set up their study programmes, appoint teachers,award qualifications and degrees,etc.
Their resources come essentially from credits granted by the State. Each university considers
ARGENTINA 9

its financial, building and equipment requirements and submits these to the central
government through the Ministry of Culture and Education.Through an Under-Secretariat
of University Affairs,a university planning body examines problems that are common to all
universities, sets administrative and teaching procedures and entrance requirements;it
decides upon the creationof new studiesand the abandoning of others,and upon thevalidity
of university degrees and qualifications.The nationalgovernment deploys a consultingbody
for this:a council of rectors of the national universities.Its purpose is to study the problems
that are common to all these institutions and to submit to the Ministry of Culture and
Education recommendations concerning university policy.
The three provincial universities are financed by the provincial governments. They are
approved by the central government and the qualifications they award are nationally
recognized.
The 24 private universities are also autonomous,but they must be recognized by the State
and their statutes,courses and programmes must be approved by it. They are authorized to
award degrees and university qualifications which are nationally valid if they are recognized
as such by the central government. However,the right to practise one of the professions
regulated by law or subject to state authorization,is granted by the Government,afteradvice
from an official commission, to candidates who pass an examination of professional
competence organized by the authorities,both national and private.The private universities
receive no financial aid from the State.
The institutionsofhigher education that are not of university status are very varied in type
and course of study. As with some short-term courses offered by universities,they give
occupational training for medical auxiliaries. laboratory technicians, radio operators,
mechanics,meteorologists,librarians,social workers,etc.The schools of fine arts and music
fall within this category of institution,which are provided for in the national budget.
Pre-school and primary school teachers are trained in training schools of higher level.
Secondary school teachersare trained in a numberofinstitutionsofdifferent kinds.In several
towns there exist higher teacher-traininginstitutions,the instiiuiosnacionales deprofesorado,
which admit students after an entrance examination.O n the other hand,courses for training
secondary teachers have been set up in a number of national training institutions(escuelas
normales de profesores), as well as the Institut0 Nacional de Lenguas Modernas. Lastly,the
nationaluniversitiesalso provide courses ofprofessionaltrainingfor futuresecondaryschool
teachers. Moreover, there exist Catholic higher teacher-training institutions. Other
institutions of higher education train specialist teachers for the arts and for physical
education.
Access to higher education is based on the bachillerato or secondary-school-leaving
certificate,which has different orientations (teaching,commerce,humanities, science) or
techniques,and is usually awarded after 12or 13 years ofprimary and secondaryeducation.In
certain subjects the holder of the bachilleraio must also sit an entrance examination.The
enrolment is not restricted,but there does exist a numerus clausus.
The number of foreign students admitted to the national universities (officialsystem) has
been restricted since 1977.Every year,each of the twenty-sixuniversitiesfixesa limitedquota
of available places. The Ministry of External Affairs and Culture decides upon their
attribution; the Department of Cultural Affairs of this Ministry divides them up between
various countries,especiallythose in Central and Latin America,according to the main lines
of foreign policy.The applicant countries then choose their candidates with the help of their
specialized bodies and propose them for definitechoice.Each country must endorse its chosen
candidates. They do not have to sit an entrance examination,nor have equivalence of
secondary studies.At the end of their studies,however,they may only practise in Argentina
unless they revalidate their qualifications. It should be stressed that it is the cultural
departments of Argentinian embassies, together with the educational institutions of the
10 ARGENT INA

different countries, which are responsible for the admission of foreign students.
Short higher education courses of two to four years lead to a technical professional
qualification (midwife, nurse, physiotherapist, industrial, commercial or agricultural
technician, librarian, etc.).
As far as long courses of higher education are concerned, two main stages may be
distinguished and they are sanctioned by successive university qualifications.
At university level, the first one or two years are often devoted to the study of basic subjects,
followed by progressive specialization.
The main stage of long higher education courses varies according to the subject or the
university, but usually lasts five or six years. These courses lead to the licenciatura or to a
professional qualification. This first stage corresponds to the study of basic subjects and a
thorough practical experience in a given subject, or a high level professional qualification.
The professional qualification of secondary school teacher may be awarded either in
faculties of science or humanities,concurrently with the licenciatura,or in a teacher-training
institution.
A further stage leads to the doctorado,the highest degree.The number ofyears’study varies,
but the doctorado is usually awarded two or three years after the licenciatura,upon submission
of a thesis.Since a doctorate is not a prerequisite for the practice of aprofession,no time limit
is imposed.
Specialization or advanced training takes place during postgraduate studies and provides
specific professional training.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12/13 years, bachillerato)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education P
Arts, humanities L D
Fine arts P
Law, social sciences P P WP D
Economics P L D
Exact and natural sciences L D
Technology, engineering,
architecture P P D
Administration, management
Medical sciences
medicine
dentistry P D
pharmacy P L/D
veterinary medicine D/P
Agriculture P P D

D doctorado L licenciatura P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato de nive1 medio O secundario.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after
seven years of primary and five years of secondary education,the latter being divided into two
ARGENTINA 11

phases.The first phase lasts three years.The second phase includes two sections (arts and
science) and usually lasts two years.In some secondary schools the second phase lasts three
years and leads to a certificate which is usually called the bachillerato especializado.The
bachillerato is required for entrance to all faculties but candidates often have to take an
entrance examination as well (examen de ingreso),unless they have obtained the bachillerato
especializado. Other secondary-school-leavingcertificates are considered as equivalences of
the bachillerato (see certijïcado de técnico).
Bachillerato especializado. See bachillerato de nive1 medio O secundario.
Certificado de técnico. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after seven years of
primary and six years of secondary education in a training school for industrialtechnicians.
This certificate is considered equivalent to the bachillerato secundurio.It givesaccessto higher
education after success in an examen de ingreso (entrance examination).
Diploma of professional qualification. See certificado de técnico.
Doctorado.The highest university degree awarded after the licenciarura or the professional
qualification.This degree is obtained on submission of a thesis requiring at least a year’s
preparation.In certainfacultiesit is also compulsory to have followeda coursewhich lastsone
or two years.Other faculties offer a specializationcourse which lasts one or two years after
obtaining a professional qualification,but no degree is awarded for this.
Entrance examination. See examen de ingreso.
Examen de ingreso.Entranceexaminationrequired to enter institutionsofhigher education
which is imposed by certain faculties on candidates holding a secondary-school-leaving
certificate giving access to these institutions (see cerri$cado de técnico). Every faculty
organizespreparatory courses of two months’to one year’sduration for candidates who wish
to sit for this examination.National universities do so by using a unified system.Candidates
coming from certain institutions-usually those where the second phase of secondary
education lasts three years-are exempted. In certain faculties examinations also include
interviews,aptitude tests and character references.
Licenciatura. First degree of higher education awarded after four to seven years. Each
faculty organizes examinationsbased on each specific subject,certain examinationstaking
place within the course during the university year. Students may have to sit a general
examination at the end of their studies and present research work.
Profesor para la enseiianza primaria. Primary teaching qualification awarded after seven
years ofprimary and five yearsofsecondaryeducationand threeyearsin an instituteofhigher
education.
Professionalqualification.Title of higher educationawarded after studieswhich usually last
between four and six years (medicine)and sometimes seven years (fine arts); the most usual
length of courses is five years.A professional qualificationis sometimes awarded at the same
time as the licenciatura (e.g.secondary school teacher’s certificate)and is considered as an
equivalence in the case of long-termuniversity studies.In other cases(technician’scertificate,
paramedicalprofessions) it is awarded after shortercourses which last between two and four
years.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See bachillerato;certijïcado de técnico.
Teaching qualification. See profesor para la ensefianza primaria.
12 AUSTRALIA

Australia
Higher education in Australia is provided primarily by universities, colleges of advanced
education and colleges of technical and further education. There are a variety of other
specialized colleges which offer higher education courses in art, theology,farm management,
etc.
In 1979 there were 19 universities,with at least one in each of the six state capitals.T h e
Australian National University,which is located in the national capital,Canberra,consists of
a school of general studies,dealing with undergraduateteaching,and an instituteof advanced
studies containing the research schools.
Under authority vested in each governing body by the Act of Parliament establishing the
university, each university has autonomy in managing its o w n affairs and in its decision-
making. Until 1974 the financing of universities was a joint responsibility of the state and
federal governments,and of the universities by charging tuition fees.In 1974 student tuition
fees were abolished, and the federal government took over full responsibility for financing
universities.
Universities are in close contact with governments and with each other through such bodies
as the University Council of the Tertiary Education Commission, the Australian Vice-
Chancellors’Committee,the Federation of Australian University Staff Associations,and the
Australian Union of Students. The governing body in a university is its senate or council,
which is presided over by the chancellor, who is elected by the council and is usually a
prominent member of the community. The council generally comprises elected
representatives of graduates, teaching staff and students, as well as representativesfrom the
relevant state parliaments, commerce and industry,and ex-officio members such as the vice-
chancellor and the chairman of the academic body.
Universities emphasize the development of knowledge and the importance of scholarship
and research.They are divided into faculties,departments and in some cases,schools.Within
each facultyaregathered anumber of relateddepartments,each of which has its o w n head and
each of which deals with one subject. Large universities may have up to twelve faculties.
Universities give courses and conduct research in a wide range of professional and academic
disciplines. They award undergraduate and postgraduate bachelor’sdegrees, postgraduate
diplomas, master’s degrees, and doctorates.
Colleges of advanced education were establishedin 1965,their basic purpose being to widen
the range of tertiary education opportunities outside universities,with a strong bias towards
the practical application of the studies undertaken.Courses are introduced into colleges of
advanced education on the basis of known industrial and social needs. There are at present
approximately 65 colleges of advanced education.
In 1973,former state teachers’colleges and pre-school teachers’colleges became colleges of
advanced education and are now funded by the Australian government under advanced
education arrangements.These colleges are autonomous, though financially dependent on
the federal government under the same arrangements as exist for universities.As in the
universities,student tuition fees were abolished in 1974.T h e colleges are kept in close contact
with government and with each other through such bodies as the Advanced Education
Council of the Tertiary Education Commission, membership to the Australian Conference of
Principals of Colleges of Advanced Education,and the Federation of Staff Associations of
Colleges of Advanced Education.
Governing councils in colleges of advanced education usually comprise senior officials of
the college, elected representatives of teaching staff and students, and community
representatives, many of w h o m have experience in education. Organization of the colleges
varies according to size,nature and purpose;they are vocationally oriented,providing multi-
AUSTRALIA 13

level courses specifically designed to meet the needs of the community,tertiary in character,
but flexible in their approach to entry requirements,teaching methods,modes ofstudy,and
the design of courses.They award undergraduateassociate diplomas,diplomas and bachelor’s
degrees, and postgraduate diplomas and master’s degrees.
Colleges of technical and further educationprovide an opportunity for a vast rangeofpost-
secondary education and some higher education courses, with over 250 major colleges
throughout the country.These colleges are administered by the respective state education
departments and co-ordinatedat the national level by the Technical and FurtherEducation
Council of the Tertiary Education Commission.They are fundedjointlyby state and federal
governments,and there are no student tuition fees for technical courses.
Originally,colleges of technical and further education were founded to provide part-time
education for people already in employment,but full-timecourses have been developed and
their awards are recognized by professional bodies. Practical training is usually offered
concurrently or following completion of these full-timecourses.Colleges of technical and
further education award undergraduatediplomas,associate diplomas,certi3catesand conduct
trade and course programmes. They provide specificvocational preparations for apprentices,
techniciansand various sub-professionalgroups,the main formsofwhichare courses ofadult
education not leading to specific vocational qualifications.They cater for most external and
part-time students (94 per cent of students enrolled in colleges of technical and further
education are either studying externally or part-time)but a small number of universitiesand
some collegesofadvanced educationalsooffer external coursesfor studentswho are unable to
enrol for full-timeor part-timestudy.These are offered for undergraduatebachelor’sdegrees,
diplomas and a small number of higher degrees.External study is supplemented by residential
schools (three to five days)conducted at the institutionsat varying timesthroughoutthe year.
The time taken to complete an external course variesbut is usually based on the timetaken for
part-timestudy.
Apart from colleges of technical and further education,adult education courses are
provided by universities,colleges of advanced education,statutory bodies such as the Council
of Adult Education in Victoria,large voluntary bodies such as the Workers’ Educational
Association, and other much smaller voluntary bodies. There is a vast variety of courses:
leisure/pleasure courses;preparatory courses for people seeking training for re-entryto the
workforce;basic education programmes designed to increase adult literacy and numeracy;
and intensive courses of varying length (maximum 27 weeks). All courses vary greatly in
organization,period of study,etc.
Post-secondary education and certification also takes place outside universities and
colleges.The major responsibility for the development of tradesmen rests with industry and
comes under the general supervision of apprenticeship authorities.Most nurse education is
provided within the hospitals.There are examining boards in law which directly or indirectly
are under the controlof the Supreme Courts.The Royal Colleges in the specialistareasofthe
practice of medicine conduct post-experienceexaminations.
Access to higher education is provided by a satisfactory level being achieved after 12 to 13
years of primary and secondary education.Public examinations are being phased out in a
number of states.Matriculation standard is judged on the basis of success in a senior public
examination (higher school certificate,university examination,school-leaving-certi3caie)or
teacher assessment and/or internal examinations.
The standard of matriculation required for entry to universities,colleges of advanced
education, and colleges of technical and further education to undertake first bachelor’s
degrees and diplomas varies in accordance with what standard is deemed necessary to enable
the student to complete successfully the particular course at a particular institution.While an
applicant may meet the admission requirementsfor a certain course,it may not be possible for
him to attain a place if there is a greater number of qualified applicants than the limited
14 AUSTRALIA

number of places available.This applies particularly to universities and colleges of advanced

education. Selection is made on the basis of academic merit.
All institutions of higher education have special entry provisions for mature students
(usually required to be at least 22 years of age). Candidates are required to display academic
ability of the standard required for normal admission,usually determined by special tests,
essays, etc. Age,previous education,employment and other relevant background is taken into
consideration and each application is decided on merit. Some universities and colleges of
advanced education offer bridging courses for students whose matriculation standard does
not meet the requirements for entry to higher education. These courses are offered in the
summer vacation prior to the commencement of the new academic year. Courses in
mathematics, science and English are the main ones offered.
Institutionsof higher education in Australia accept for enrolment overseas students,Asian
in particular.D u e to the demand for places in institutionsof higher education,some have had
to impose separate quotas for the admission of overseas students. Applications must be
accompanied by documentary evidence confirming all educational qualifications, and
documents not in English must be accompanied by certified translations in English.
Overseas students are expected to undertake courses of worthwhile standard and duration.
Approved courses include senior secondary studies,university courses,degree and diploma
courses at colleges of advanced education,miscellaneouscommercialstudy,secretarialstudy,
nursing and other certificate studies. Applications will not normally be approved where the
student’sproposed course is readily available to him in his home country or place of residence.
This does not apply,however, to postgraduatestudentsw h o have been awarded a scholarship
by an Australian university.Students are required to have adequate English language capacity
based on an English language test which they sit in the home country and which is marked by
the Department of Education in Canberra.
Undergraduate certificates, diplomas and associate diplomas undertaken at colleges of
advanced education and colleges of technical and further education usually require two to
three years’ full-time study or four to six years’ part-time study.
The main stage of studies at universitiesand colleges of advanced education offering degree
qualifications leads to the bachelor’s degree. Undergraduate studies last between three years
(e.g. education,arts, science,commerce)and five years (e.g.medicine) full-time,and between
five years (e.g. education,arts, science,commerce) and seven years (e.g. law) part-time. Arts
and science faculties usually offer either a bachelor’spass degree obtained in three years or a
bachelor’s degree (honours)obtained in four years; candidates for the latter undertake extra
work in their speciality.A n honours degree is normally required for access to higher degrees.
A student who has qualified for a bachelor (honours)degree at a sufficiently high level may
proceed to study for the master’s degree, which constitutes the second stage of higher
education.This degree may be obtained after one year (pass degree) or two years (honours
degree)of course-work,as at undergraduate level,or research, which requires the submission
of a thesis. In medicine and engineering, a period of practical training is usually required
before the student qualifies for the master’s degree.
Alternatively a student w h o has qualified for a bachelor (honours)degree at a sufficiently
high level may proceed to study for a doctor’s degree (usually PhD: doctor ofphilosophy). The
usual period of postgraduate studies is three to four years and culminatesin the submissionof
a thesis. M a n y faculties award a higher doctorate in science (DSc) or humanities (DLitt)upon
submission of published work representing a substantial contribution to knowledge in a
particular field.The final option for the graduate with a bachelor’s degree is to proceed to a
postgraduate course lasting one to two years leading to a graduate diploma in a particular
subject.
AUSTRALIA 15

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12/13 years,higher school certificate)

years 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 varied
duration

Education B B/Di M/Di D

Arts B B M/Di D DLitt
Psychology B D i M D
Music B B M D DMus
Architecture B M
Law,accounting B B M/Di D
Social,economic and B B M/Di D
commercial sciences
Social work B M/Di
Exact and natural B B M/Di D DSc
sciences
Engineering B M/Di D
Applied science and B M/Di
technology
Medical sciences
medicine B B M/Di __
D
dentistry B B M/Di
pharmacy B B M D
veterinary medicine B M/Di D
Agriculture B B M/Di D

B buchelor’s degree D doctor ofphi1osoph.v DLitt ùoctoraie in letters

D M u s dociorate in music DSc doctorate in science Di diploma
M master’s degree

There are also: two- to three-yearundergraduate associate diplomas and diplomas in most
fields in collegesof advanced education;two-yearassociate diplomas and diplomas,and four-
year part-timecertificatesin colleges of technical and further education.

GLOSSARY
Associate diploma. See diploma.
Award courses. Coursesofstudy at institutionsof highereducationleadingto the awardsof
certificates,diplomas,associate diplomas,bachelor’s degrees,postgraduate diplomas,master’s
degrees,doctorates.
Bachelor’s degree.Firstdegree qualificationofhigher education,obtained afterthreeyears
(e.g. arts,science,education,commerce)to five years (e.g.medicine). Universitiesoffer two
types of first degrees:bachelor’s degrees (pass)taken after three years’study;and bachelor’s
degrees (honours)taken after four years’ study.A n honours degree is usually required for
access to a higherdegree.Most degreesmay be studiedpart-timeand requiredoublethe length
of time needed for full-timestudy.
Bridging courses. Some institutionsoffer bridging courses,mainly mathematics,scienceand
English,for students who have not reached the assumed level of knowledge for first-year
16 AUSTRALIA

courses. These are conducted during the summer vacation and are of varying duration.
Certificates.Certificate courses provide education at para-professionalor technicalofficer
level. Most programmes operate on a four-year part-time basis. The certificateprogrammes
meet the requirements of commerce and industry for the training of supervisors,draftsmen,
technicians, technical officers and senior personnel.
Course programmes. Course programmes are available at colleges of technical and further
education for a wide range of studies of varying durationand depth which cannot be presented
as certificate or trade studies. No specific entrance requirements are needed.
Diplomas.Undergraduate diplomas and associate diplomas require two to three years’full-
time study. Colleges of advanced education and universities offer postgraduate diplomas
which require one to two years’full-timestudy and are designed to enable students holding a
first degree to obtain a vocational qualification in a specialized area.
Doctor’s degree or doctorate. These are higher degrees obtained after a bachelor’s degree
(high honours) and a minimum period of two years’ full-time study devoted to preparing a
thesis. The qualification is that of doctor of philosophy (PhD). Higher doctorates are also
awarded for published work representing an original and substantial contribution to
knowledge,e.g. humanities (DLitt),science (DSc), music (DMus).
External study. External courses are offered at some institutions for students who are
unable to enrol in a course of study that requires physical attendance daily/weekly at the
institution.These programmes are carried out by correspondence,use of media (e.g. tape
recordings), submission of essays, etc, and are supplemented by attendance at residential
schools (threeto five days) conducted at the institutionsat varying times throughout the year.
Higher degrees. See master’s degree and doctor’s degree.
Higher school certificate. See matriculation.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Master’s degree. This is a higher degree of higher education,obtained after a period of one
year following upon a bachelor’sdegree (honours).Following upon a bachelor’s degree @ass),
entry to a master’s degree may be obtained by completing a master’s qualifying course of one
year.Master’s degrees may be obtained by research,culminating in the submissionof a thesis,
or by course-work, as at undergraduate level. In medicine and engineering a period of
practical training in employment is required before this qualification is granted.
Matriculation. Called senior public examination, higher school certificate, university
examination, school-leaving certifcate. Public examinations are being phased out in some
states and where there is no public examination, matriculation is obtained via teacher
assessment and/or internal examinations. The higher school certificate is obtained after six
years of primary followed by six years of secondary education, giving access to higher
education.
Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Postgraduate diploma. See diploma.
Public examination. See matriculation.
School-leaving certificate. See matriculation.
Tertiary education. Education after completion of primary and secondary education.
Trade programmes. Trade programmes are available at colleges of technical and further
education to candidates employed as apprentices.The programme is of three years’duration
and is undertaken on a day-release basis, that is, one full day a week. There is also provision
for block release training.Applicants must have reached a standard of education sufficient to
follow the programme, but matriculation standard is not required.
University examination. See matriculation.
AUSTRIA 17

Austria
In Austria,universities and other establishments of higher education are federal institutions
under the direct control of the federalMinistry of Science and Research,and are financed by
the State.The organization of coursesand qualificationsis the subject of the General Law on
higher education (AllgemeinesHochschul-Studiengesetz)of 1966,which has served since that
date as the basisof a gradualoverhaul ofhigher studies.Issuesofadministration and structure
fall under the more recent law on university organization(Universitats-Organisationsgesetz),
passed in 1975.Further laws also exist governing particular fields of study.The universities
are,however,autonomousin respect of certain oftheiractivities,their acts being governed by
their statutes and by their own decisions.Each establishment of higher education has as its
head a Rector. The Conference of Rectors (Rektorenkonferenz)is a body including all
universitiesand higher academies of art.It submitsproposals to the Ministry and deliberates
on any issue raised in the field of higher education.
The function of the universities is to guarantee general instruction in higher education,to
contribute to the advancement of knowledge,and to the training of future research workers
and scientists,and to contribute also to advanced training in the professional field,such
training having its basis in scienceand scientificprocedure.The universitiesenjoy fullfreedom
in the matter of teaching and are autonomous within the framework of the existing laws.
Higher educationtakesplace in twelve universities ofwhich five are ofthe traditionalkind and
two are technical universities with various faculties;the others are the universitiesof mining,
agriculture,veterinary medicine,economics,and teacher-training.Fine arts are taught in six
higher schools or academies which have now attained university status.The universitiesare
generally divided into faculties. Faculties are divided into institutes, and these may, in
conformity with the law,form specialized groups called Fachgruppen.
Several universities and commercial secondary schools, along with various other
institutions,some religious,offer instruction at a post-secondaryor ‘quasi-university’ level
which does not lead to a university degree.Their relatively shortcourses (oneto six semesters)
lead to professionalqualificationsnormally correspondingto a particularprofessionaltitle in,
for example,smelting technology,publicity and sales,accounting,mechanical calculation,
and the tourist trade.The universitiesthemselvesalso organize short courses of four to six
terms,leading to a professionalqualification and not a degree,most notably in the fields of
calculus techniques,mathematics applied to insurance,and translation.
Primary school teachers are trained at post-secondarylevel over two years in teacher-
training institutions(PüdagogischeAkademien) to each ofwhich is attached apracticalschool.
Secondary level teachersare trained in the universities.The minimum duration of studiesfor
the award of a teaching qualification is four years. May 1979 saw,the foundation of a
university research institute for ‘open’university instruction whose function is to work out
‘open’courses,especially refresher courses,and advise the universitiesin this regard.
The language of instruction is German.
Access to higher education is based on the Reifezeugnis or secondary-school-leaving
certificate which is awarded after four years’primary and eight or nine years’secondary
education. Students obtain the right to enter higher education by passing either the
Reifeprüfung in an Austrian general or professional secondary school,or the ‘professional
maturity examination’,the Berufsreifeprüfung or a higher education entrance examination,
the Siudienberechtigungsprüfung. The latter has,since 1978,been open to Austriansofat least
24 years of age,who do not have the Reifeprüfung but who have taken a specialpreparatory
course available in certain universities.The Srudienberechiigungspriifung is not general;it is
valid only for those subjects in which it has been prepared.A further requirementis always
made,that the student pass the ‘supplementary/compiementary/aptitude’examination (the
18 A USTR IA

Zusatz-Erganzungs-Eignungsprüfungen) whose subjects are taken from those deemed

indispensable for the field of studies to be undertaken (for example, Latin in the case of
classical archaeology), or for any particular semester of study or professional orientation.
Higher studies involve the acquisition of a high level of knowledge and experience or a high
level professional qualification. Studies for the first university degree, the Magister or the
Diplom, depending on the field of study, are divided into two successive phases called
Studienabschnitte.The first phase is intended to offer a basic scientific training in the relevant
field of studies, while the second involves a higher degree of specialization.At the end of the
first stage the student must take a preliminary examination called the Vorprüfung,to which,
however, no degree or qualification corresponds.
A further stage leads to the degree of Doktor. For this the student must pass a
supplementary examination, submit a thesis and perhaps continue with his studies over a
period of several semesters. The Austrian higher education system thus reflects the three
stages c o m m o n to those of other countries.
A n exception to this is medicine, where studies lead exclusively to the Doktorat.

P R O F I L E OF HIGHER S T U D I E S

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12/13 years, Reifezeugnis)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education P M/Di
Arts
Catholic theology
Evmgelical theology
Music
Fine arts, M Di/M
architecture
Law, political
sciences
Social and economic
sciences
Exact and natural
sciences
Technology,
engineering
Commercial studies, Di D
administration
Medical sciences
medicine n
pharmacy
veterinary medicine
Agriculture Di D

D Doktorat Di Diplom M Magister P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Berufsreifeprüfung.Examination by which persons between the ages of 25 and 45, who do
AUSTRIA 19

not have the Reifezeugnis,but wish,for professional reasons,to take university courses,may
enter higher education in the subject in which the examination has been taken. If, in mid-
course,they wish to change subject,they must take an Ergünzungsprujiung (complementary
examination).
Diplom.Qualification awarded after between eight and ten semesters’studies (classified as
longer studies) which are divided into two phases,one general,one specialized.To receivethe
Diplom the student must pass the examination at the end of each stage and submit a
Diplomarbeit (memoire or other work of Diplom level). This latter may,depending on the
subject matter,be theoretical,practical, artistic,experimental or technical in nature. It is
intendedto demonstratethe student’scapacity for originalwork in one domain ofhis subject.
Holders of the diploma are awarded the titles ofMagister,Diplom-Zngenieur,Diplom-Tierarzt,
etc.Subjectsstudied for the Diplom are of three kinds:obligatory,optionaland freelychosen.
Only the two former come under the Diplom award.
Doktor. The highest degree of higher education, awarded after between two and four
semesters of studies further to those leading to the Diplom (in technical studies and in
agriculture there is no defined minimum,and enrolment for the course is not compulsory for
the qualification). A dissertation (normally a piece of written work of thesis kind) must then
be submitted on a subject of the student’schoice.If the thesis is approved,the student may
take the Rigorosum examination, which involves the student defending his thesis. The
qualificationDoktor prior to the laws of 1975 differs widely from that awarded since then.By
these laws,the studies for the degree of Doktor must have been preceded by those leading to
the Diplom (except in the case of medicine,in which only the doctorate is available). Prior to
the new laws,it was possible in some subjects,for example philosophy,to obtain the Doktor
degree without first passing the Diplom. A further important distinction relates to the
Rigorosum. Formerly the Rigorosum embraced allthe domains ofthe relevant subject,while in
its present form it is limited to the particular field forming the subject of the dissertation,and
one or two further subjects ad libitum. A more general knowledge is tested in the Diplom
examination.
Eignungsprüfung. Aptitude examination testing the student’s capacity to study certain
subjects,for example,music,fine arts,drama,sport (physicalaptitude examination), and the
disciplines leading to careers in translation and interpretation.
Erganzungsprüfung.See Berufsreifeprujïung.
Magister. Degree of higher education awarded in certain disciplinesafter a minimum of
four to five years’study and prior to that of Doktor.
Maturazeugnis.See Reifezeugnis.
Professional qualification.Qualification awarded either after shorter studies at university
(fourto six terms) or after studies undertaken in other trainingestablishments.Qualifications
awarded after longer studies at university are university degrees (see Diplom, Magister,
Doktor).
Reifeprüfung.See Reifezeugnis.
Reifezeugnis. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate or ‘maturity’examination,awarded
after four years’primary and eight years’secondary education,the latter divided into two
phases,each of four years.The 1962reform law set a maximum of five years for the second
cycle but this law is not applied. The Reifezeugnis certifies the candidate’s success in the
school-leavingexamination,the Reifeprüfung. In theory the Reifezeugnis gives access to all
university faculties.In some cases,however,a further examination (the Zusatzprüfung) is
required of candidates who have not studied during their courses certain subjects regardedas
particularly useful for the continuation of their studies.
Access to higher education may also be obtained by the ‘professional maturity
examination’(Berufsreifeprüfung)or the Studienberechtigungsprüfung.
20 AUSTRIA
Rigorosum. Final examination organized by an establishment of higher education,for the
award of the degree of Doktor.
Staatsprüfung.A n examination now replaced by the Diplom in all those subjects for which it
existed prior to 1975.
Studienberechtigungsprüfung. Examination established in 1978 and allowing access to
higher education to Austrian nationals w h o are over 24 years of age, w h o do not have the
Refezeugnis but who have followed a special preparatory course offered in various
universities. It is not of general application,being valid only for those subjects in which it has
been taken.
Vorprüfung. Examination taken at the end of the first phase of the Diplom course.
Zusatzprüfung.See Refezeugnis.

Bahrain
Higher education in Bahrain is provided in four establishments:Gulf Technical College, Isa
T o w n (technical sciences); the College of Health Sciences, Manama; the College of Arts,
Science and Education; and the Hotel and Catering Training Centre, Muharraq. These
establishments,founded between 1968 and 1978, are all State institutions.
The teaching language is English.
Access to higher education is based on the intermediate or secondary school certificate.The
College of Health Sciences and the Hotel and Catering Training Centre also set an entrance
examination.
The duration of studies depends on the establishment and qualification in question.Shorter
studies take place in the Hotel and Catering Training Centre, which awards certificatesafter
two years’ study, and the College of Health Sciences,which offers a two-year course for a

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R S T U D I E S

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 1 1 years, intermediate or secondary school certificate)

years 2 3 4 5

Administration B
Engineering and Di Di
technology
Health sciences AssD/P Di
Hotel and catering C

AssD associate degree B bachelor C certiJicate Di diploma P professional

qualification
BAHRAIN, 21

nursingdiploma. The associate degrees (theseare professionalqualifications)awarded by the

CollegeofHealth Sciencesalso requiretwoyearsofstudy(X-ray,medicalequipment,medical
laboratory,and pharmaceuticaltechnicians). The diploma in obstetric nursing takesone year
after the award of the general nursing diploma (threeyears). Longer studies take place at the
Gulf Technical College,which comprisesa business studies institute and three departments
(mechanical and electrical engineering,constructionand civilengineering,and English). Only
Arab nationals of the Gulf States are accepted in this college.It offers three-and four-year
diploma coursesin construction,civil engineering,secretariatskills,geodesy,mechanicaland
electrical engineering,and a five-yearbachelor of arts in administration.These engineering
diplomas are recognized by the City and Guilds of London Institute and delivered in co-
ordination with it.

GLOSSARY
Associate degree.Professional qualificationawarded after two years’study by the College
of Health Sciences.
Bachelor. Degree of higher education awarded in administration by the Gulf Technical
College.
Certificate. Qualification awarded after two years’ study by the Hotel and Catering
Training Centre.
Certificateof secondary studies.See Intermediate or secondary school certificate.
Diploma. Qualification awarded after three or four years’ study (depending on the
speciality) by the Gulf Technical College.
Entrance examination. Entrance examination required of candidates by the College of
Health Science and the Hotel and Catering Training Centre.
Intermediateor secondary-schoolcertificate.Secondary-school-leaving certificateawarded
after six years’primaryeducationfollowed by twoyears’secondaryeducation in the first cycle
and three years’in the second cycle;entitles the holder to enter higher education.
Professional qualification.Qualification awarded by the College of Health Sciences in
various technical subjects after two years’study.

Bangladesh
In the People’sRepublicofBangladeshhigher educationtakesplace mainly in six universities:
the Bangladesh Agricultural University in Mymensingh; the Bangladesh University of
Engineeringand Technologyin Dacca;the UniversityofChittagong;the University ofDacca;
the JahangirnagarUniversityin Dacca;and the UniversityofRajshahi.All the universitiesare
autonomous.Statutes framed by universities are,however, subject to the sanction of the
Government.
The universitiesin Bangladesh are both teaching and affiliating bodies (i.e.they lay down
the courses of study and conduct examinationsfor the colleges) except for the Agricultural
University,the Engineering University and the Jahangirnagar University,which are purely
22 BANGLADESH

teaching universities.Besides a number of affiliated colleges providing teaching at honours

level in some subjects,all affiliated colleges offer coursesat the pass degree level.Professional
teaching at the pass degree level is done by the constituent colleges. Apart from their o w n
faculties which are subdivided into departments some of the universities have a number of
institutes. The affiliated and constituent colleges are under the academic control of the
universities.Administrative matters are controlled either by the Government or by the local
bodies.
The universities are mostly financed by the Government, whose grants total nearly ninety
per cent of their annual income. The remainder is provided by tuition, examination,
registration and other fees. Government grants to universities are provided through the
University Grants Commission (UGC), constituted by the Government, university and
people's representatives. Affiliated colleges are either government-financed or privately
managed with some government grants.
The Association of Universities of Bangladesh (formerly Inter-University Board of
Bangladesh) co-ordinatesactivities of the universitiesboth in the academic and administrative
spheres. It has an executive body called the Standing Committee of Vice-Chancellors
composed of the vice-chancellors of all the universities. Besides co-ordinating activities
among the universities, it liaises with the Government and the UGC concerning
administrative and financial matters respectively.
Both English and Bengali (mother tongue) are the languages of instruction and
examination. English, however, remains a compulsory subject in the bachelor's pass degree
courses in arts and commerce.
Access to higher education is based on the higher secondary-schoolcertificateobtained after
12 years of schooling.Candidates for some departments may have to take prescribed options
(e.g.for engineering:mathematics,physics and chemistry). Candidates for degree courses are
chosen on merit, according to the number of places available.
Foreign studentsare considered for admission:they have to contact the Bangladesh mission
in their o w n country.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, higher-secondary school certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education (post- B M
graduate entry)
Arts B B M D
Fine arts B
Architecture B
Law B
Science B B M D
Engineering B M
Medicine B
Pharmacy B
Agriculture B M D

B bachelor's degree D doctor's degree M master's degree

BANGLADESH 23

The first stageofhigher educationleads to the bachelor’sdegree after two years(passdegree)

or three years (honoursdegree). The bachelor‘s pass degree in arts (BA),science (BSc) and
commerce (BCom) may be taken after two years’study in an affiliated college.Honours
candidates must take two subsidiarysubjectsother than their honourssubject;they take their
subsidiaryexaminationat the end ofthe secondyear afteradmissionto the honourscourse.In
engineering,the first degree is taken after four years’ study; in fine arts,pharmacy and
medicine,after five years.
Honours degrees are classified as first,second or third class,pass degrees as first, second or
third division.
The second stageleads to the trzmter’sdegree.This is taken after one year’sstudy following
upon an honours degree, or two years’study following upon a pass degree. The bachelor’s
degree in education (BEd,BEd Tech,BPEd) is taken after one year’sstudy followingupon the
bachelor’sor master’sdegree.The master’sdegree in education (MEd) is taken one year after
the BEd, or two years after a pass or master’s degree.The buchelor’s degree of law (LLB)is
taken two years after a first degree (BA,BSc or BCom).
The third stageleads to the highest degree--the doctor’sdegree,doctor ofphilosophy (PhD),
and requires two to three years’specializationand individualresearch following upon a good
master’s degree. Candidates are required to submit a thesis for a doctor’sdegree.

GLOSSARY
Affiliated college. Institution of higher education whose syllabuses are laid down by a
university.The university also examines.Affiliated colleges are either government-financed
or private, and the university is concerned only with maintenance of standards through
syllabuses and examinations.Affiliated colleges provide courses for bachelor’spass degrees
and,in some cases,honours degrees.
Bachelor’s degree (firstdegree). First degree ofhigher education,taken after two years’(pass
degree) or three years’ study (honours degree). The bachelor’spass degree may be taken in
affiliated colleges.Honours candidates must take two subsidiary subjects other than their
honours subject,and take a subsidiary examination after the second year of the honours
course.In engineering,the first degree is taken after four years’study.In fine arts,pharmacy
and medicine (MB,BS) it is taken after five years’study.
Doctor’s degree. The highest university qualification,usually awarded following two or
three years’individual research following upon a good master’s degree. Candidates have to
submit a thesis.The qualification is known as docror of philosophy (PhD).
Higher secondary school certificate.Secondary-school-leaving certificate,obtained after 12
years of schooling.The examinationis held by the various boards set up by the Government.
This qualification gives access to higher education.
Master’s degree. Second degree of higher education,awarded after one year to candidates
holding a bachelor’shonours degree and after two years to holders ofapass degree,who have to
take a qualifying examination one year after their admission before they may proceed to the
final examination for the master’s degree.
24 BARBADOS

Barbados
In Barbados, higher or tertiary level education is provided in five institutions:the Barbados
Community College; the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill);Erdiston Teachers’
Training College; the Hotel School;and the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic (cf.also
Jamaica).
The Community College is an intermediary institutionbetween secondary level education
and university or university-type education. The University of the West Indies at Cave Hill
offers courses in arts,law and economics,medicine,science and socialsciences.There is also a
school of education,an institute of social and economic research (branch in Barbados), an
institute of mass communication and a department of extramural studies. The Caribbean
Agricultural Research and Development Institute, affiliated to the university, also has a
branch in Barbados. The School of Education provides initial training for graduate teachers.
Erdiston Teachers’ College provides training for nongraduate teachers of primary and
secondary (comprehensive) education. Both the Hotel School and the Samuel Jackman
Prescod Polytechnic keep a watchful eye on the growing demands of local industry and
structure their courses accordingly.
Codrington College is a specialized institution preparing students for ordination in the
ministry of the Anglican Church. It works in close collaboration with the University of the
West Indies but retains its links with the University of Durham (England).
Higher education is integrated into the system of the English-speaking West Indies.

Belgium
In Belgium,higher education comprisesuniversity studies on the one hand, andstudiesat the
highest level in technical subjects, economics, agriculture, the paramedical fields, social
studies, art and pedagogy on the other.
University studies are provided by the universities or by institutions which have the same
legal status as universitiesand which award qualificationsin economics.Divided according to
language,they are the following:the Université de I’Etat à Liège;the Université Catholiquede
Louvain; the Université libre de Bruxelles; the Université de 1’Etat à Mons; the Faculté
Polytechnique de Mons; the Faculté des Sciences agronomiques de 1’Etat à Gembloux; the
Facultés universitaires Notre-Dame de la Paix à Namur; the Faculté universitaire catholique
de Mons; the Facultés universitaires Saint-Louisà Bruxelles;the Rijksuniversiteit te Gent;the
Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven;the Vrije Universiteit Brussel; the Universitaire Instelling
Antwerpen; Rijksuniversitair Centrum te Antwerpen; the Universitaire Faculteiten Sint-
Ignatius te Antwerpen;the Universitaire Faculteiten Sint-Aloysiuste Brussel;the Universitair
Centrum Limburg.
The constitution permits both state and private higher education. State institutions of
higher education come under the authority of the Minister of Education.However, university
authorities are not entirely under his control as a certain number of activities remain their
BELGIUM 25

responsibility.Private higher education has considerable importance:it takesplace either in

religious institutions, such as the Catholic University of Louvain, or in non-religious
institutionssuch as the Free University ofBrussels.The free universitiescome under a special
régime which gives them greater autonomy.The State is responsible for official education.
The free institutionsofhigher educationreceivefinancialaid from the Statewhich is subject to
certain conditions.
Each university is composed of faculties,specializedschoolsand institutes.Facultiesoffer
the following subjects: arts,law,political science,social sciences and economics,science,
medical sciences, applied sciences, agronomy and occasionally Catholic theology. The
Conference of Rectors of Belgian Universities,together with the Inter-universityCouncil of
the French community and the Vlaamse interuniversitaireRaad,examinematters ofcommon
concern to all universities.
There are two distinct types of régime in higher education.The laws regulatinguniversity
programmesand degrees provide for a state degree (gradelégal) which may be obtained after
studies in philosophy and arts, law and notarial studies, science, medicine, dentistry,
pharmacology,veterinary medicine,agriculturalscience,applied science.In these studiesand
in other studies not regulated by law students may also obtain an academic degree (grade
scientifique).Academic degrees may differ greatly from one university to another,since each
institution sets entrance requirements, programmes and denominations. However, the
structure of studies leading to academic degrees is similar to that leading to state degrees.
Non-university higher education falls into one of the following seven legal categories:
higher technical education; higher economic studies; higher agricultural studies;higher
studies in the paramedical fields;higher social studies;higher studies in the arts; higher
pedagogical studies. These studies prepare for a vast number of professions but mainly in
industry,commerce,agriculture,paramedicaland social professions,teaching,interpreting,
applied arts and media. They are sanctioned by a great number of titles such as:degrees in
architecture, industrial engineering; teacher in a primary school;lower secondary school
teacher;social worker;educationalist.
There are short-termcourses of higher education (a single phase which lasts between two
and three years) and in certain institutionsthere are long-termcourses of higher education (a
first phase which lasts two years and a second phase which lastsbetween two and three years).
Access to higher education takes place after six years of secondary education following six
years of primary education.Holders of a secondary-school-leavingcertificate may only enter
university after success in an examination leading to a diplôme d'aptitude 2 accéder ù
renseignement supérieur. The specialization open to students in higher education is largely
determined by the type of studies followed at secondary level. Moreover,students in civil
engineering must pass an examination organized by the relevant institutions.
A number of stages in higher education can be distinguished.The first stagecovers a period
of two to three years devoted to broadly plun-disciplinary studies.It leads to the first
university degree,the candidature.
The second stage, after a period of study in depth which takes place at least two years after
the candidature, generally leads to the licence, although in certain subjects three and
sometimes four years of study are necessary.For future teachersin secondaryeducation the
teaching certificate (agrégationde ïenseignement secondaire supérieur) is taken at this stage.
The third stage correspondsto a second phase or third phase of specialization,or to an
initiationin scientific researchwhich leads to a doctorate aftera minimum ofa furtheryear,in
theory.
Lastly,a final phase leads to the degree of agrégation in higher education or to a special
doctorate after a variable number of years-a minimum of two years-in specializedresearch
in depth after obtaining a doctorate,
26 BELGIUM

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, diplôme d’aptitude à accéder à l’enseignementsupérieur)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education, C L/ASS D DSP

psychology
Letters C WASS D AES
Religion, theology B L D
Fine arts C L D DSp
Law C L D AES
Notarial studies C L AES
Social, political and C L/ASS D DSp
administrative sciences
Applied economics C L/ASS D DSP
Exact and natural C L/ASS D AES
sciences
Engineering C I AES
Medical sciences
medicine C D AES
dentistry C L AES
pharmacology C P AES
veterinary medicine C D D AES
Agriculture C I AES

AES agrégation de l’enseignementsupérieur A S S agrégation de l’enseignementsecondaire

supérieur B baccalauréat C candidature D doctorat D S p doctorat spécial
I ingénieur L licence P pharmacien

GLOSSARY
Aggregatie (Dutch). See agrégation.
Agrégation de l’enseignement secondaire supérieur. University qualification acquired at the
same time as, or after the licence. It entitles its holder to teach various subjects in general
secondary schools. The examination includes a paper on educational studies, a period of
teaching practice and the giving of two lessons in public.
Agrégation de l’enseignement supérieur. This is the highest university qualification
conferring legal status (gradelégal)which may be obtained in Belgium. It is usually required
for teaching in universities.The examination consists of the successful submission of a major
thesis and three minor ones, and a lecture given in public.
The qualification may only be obtained a minimum of two years after one of the following
diplomas or qualifications has been conferred doctor of philosophy and humanities, law,
science, medicine, surgery and obstetrics, veterinary medicine;licence for the profession of
notary,dentist,pharmacist, civil engineer,agricultural engineer,or agriculturaland chemical
engineer.
Candidature. First university qualification, granted after two or three years’ study. It
terminates a period of broadly-based studies essential for further studies and specialization.
Diplôme d’aptitude à accéder à l’enseignement supérieur. This qualification has been
required since 1965 of all university candidates,whichever faculty they wish to join. The only
BELGIUM 27

exception is for candidates for studies in civil engineering (see examen d'admission). The
qualification is obtained after passing an additional examination following upon the
secondary-school-leavingcertificate (or a certificate from an upper-secondary technical
school). As with the school-leavingcertificate,this qualification has to be legalized by the
Commission d'homologation (see homologation).
Doctorat. In arts,philosophy,sciences,a university qualificationawarded after submission
and public defence of an originaldissertationand thesiswhich have been accepted by thejury;
and after passing an examinationat least one year (or more often two or three years)following
a licence in these subjects.
In law, a university qualification awarded after three years following upon two years'
preparation of the candidature in law.Until 1969,candidateswere not required to defend a
thesis. Since then,the doctorate without a thesis has been replaced by a licence. It is now
possible to acquire the qualification of docteur en droit after presenting and defending an
original dissertation.
In medicine, the doctorat is a university qualification granted after four years' study
followingupon threeyears'study forthe candidaturein medical sciences.No t h i s is required.
In veterinary medicine,this qualification is granted after three years'study following upon
two years' study in preparatory veteriiiary science and one year's candidature in veterinary
medicine.No thesis is required.
Doctorat spécial. This degree,which is a grade scientifque,corresponds to the grade légal
(state) qualification of agrégé de l'enseignement supérieur. It is awarded under the same
conditions.(See agrégation de l'enseignementsupérieur).
Entérinement. Legalizing of a university qualification by the Commission d'entérinement
which guarantees that all certificates and titles have been conferred by universities in
accordancewith legal requirements.Only entérinement gives a title its legal value and enables
its holder to practise the profession to which the qualification leads.
Examen d'admission. Entrance examination set by higher education institutions,and
compulsory for all candidates for civil engineering.
Geaggregeerdevoor het hoger onderwijs(Dutch). See agrégation de l'enseignementsupérieur.
Geaggregeerdevoor het hoger secondair onderwijs (Dutch). Seeagrégation de l'enseignement
secondaire supérieur.
Grade légal. Degree awarded on fulfilment of requirements set out by law. The
requirements relate to the granting of university degrees and the programme of university
examinations. Grades légaux lead to such professions as law, the magistrature, various
branches of the medical profession,teaching.Qualificationsrelatingto grades légaux have to
be legalized (see entérinement).
Grade scientifique.This qualification is granted either to a student who,having completed
studiesfor a grade légal,neverthelesshas not fulfilledall the conditionsfor one,or to a student
whose subject does not fall within the scope ofthe lawson the granting of university degrees
(for example:economics,politics,oriental philosophy). Courses for grades scLcntiPques are
entirely the responsibility of the university authorities.The qualificationdoes not need to be
legalized (entériné).
Homologatie (Dutch). See homologution.
Homologation. Legalization by the Commission d'homologation of the secondary-school-
leaving certificate (certificat d'études moyennes supérieures) and the diplôme d'aptitude à
accéder à l'enseignement supérieur. The Commission ensures that the course of studies has
followed the state teaching programme or a programme approved by the Ministry of
Education.
Ingénieur civil. See professional qualification.
Kandidaat (Dutch). See candidature.
Licence. University degree granted after two or three years following the acquisitionof the
28 BELGIUM

candidature.The student follows a course of specialized studies and has usually to present a
short dissertation.
Licentiaat (Dutch). See licence.
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after three years'
study following upon two years' preparation for the candidature;for example: ingénieur
agronome, ingénieur civil, pharmacien.

Benin
In the People's Republic of Benin higher education is given in one university, the National
University of Benin, Cotonou, as well as in three institutes of higher education: Higher
Polytechnical College, Cotonou; the National Institute of Physical Education and Sport,
Porto-Novo;and the National School of Social Workers.
The University of Benin is a national university which is open to students from all over the
world. It comprises faculties of: science and techniques; health sciences;letters, arts and
humanities;law and political science;a national institute of agronomy;a national instituteof
economics; a teacher-training college;and a centre of training in administration and further
training. The language of instruction is French.
Teachers in primary education are usually trained in secondary-level teacher-training
institutions.Teachers in secondaryeducation (which,in Benin,is called 'general medium level
education') are trained at the teacher-training college, which admits holders of the diplôme
universitaire d'études scientifiques(DUES) and of the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires
(DUEL).It trains them for two years, after which they are awarded a certificatd'aptitude au
professorat de l'enseignement secondaire (CAPES), which includes theoretical and practical
examinations. Teachers of physical education and sport are trained for five years by the
National Institute of Physical Education and Sport.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat or its equivalent. Candidates w h o
have passed the special entrance examinations are also admitted to the University of Benin.
The first stage of higher education varies in length according to whether it constitutes a
terminal phase leading to a professional qualification,or whether it constitutes the first phase
of long-term studies. In the first case, a three-year training course after the baccalauréat is
offered by the Higher Polytechnical College for high level technicians in engineering,
industrial mechanics, motorized/electronic/electrotechnic equipment, general adminis-
tration,finance,statisticsand applied economics,executive secretaryship,radiology,medical
laboratory work, and laboratories of studies and research. The National School of Social
Workers also trains specialists in three years. In the second case, two-yearstudies lead to the
diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL), the diplôme universitaire d'études
scientsfiques (DUES),the diplôme d'études juridiques générales, or the diplôme d'études
économiques générales. During this stage students acquire basic knowledge.
The second stage of long-term studies also usually lasts two years and leads to themaîtrisein
science, letters, law and economics. Submission of a thesis is obligatory. The faculty of
agricultural sciences offers a six-year training course for engineers after the baccalauréat
BENIN 29

which leads to the diplôme d'ingénieur agronome. In medicine,studieslastsix years(instead of

three, as before), after which students are awarded the title of docteur en médecine after
defence of a thesis.
A third stage lasting sixteen months in which theoreticalstudies and practical experience
alternate is offered by the Centre of Administrative and Further Training to holders of the
maîtrise of law,economics or arts who have passed the concours d'entrée,in order to prepare
them for managerial posts in public and private administration.These studies lead to an
administration degree in management, magistracy, diplomacy, social work sciences and
financialadministration.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6

DU/DE P M/CAPES DidDdm

CAPES certificat d'aptitude au professorat de l'enseignement secondaire

Ddm diplôme de docteur en médecine
DE diplôme d'études juridiques générales
diplôme d'études économiques générales
Dia diplôme d'ingénieur agronome
DU diplôme universitaire d'études scientixques (DUES)
diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL)
M maîtrise
P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained after six years of primary
followed by seven years of secondary education divided into two phases of four and three
years.The first phase leads to the brevet d'études du premier cycle and the second phase to the
baccalauréat. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education.
Brevet d'études du premier cycle.See baccalauréat.
Certificat d'aptitude au professorat d'enseignement secondaire (CAPES).Title of higher
educationawardedto the holders ofthediplôme universitaired'études littéraires (DUEL)or of
the diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques(DUES),after two yearsofstudy,entitlingthem
to teach at 'general medium level education' (secondary education).
Certificat de fin d'études secondaires.See baccalauréat.
Concoursd'entrée. Competitive entranceexaminationset by the Centre of Administrative
and Further Training for holders of a maîtrise in arts,economics or law,before following
training courses which prepare them to hold managerial posts in public and private
administration.
Diplôme d'études économiques générales, Diplôme d'études juridiques générales. Titles of
higher education obtained after two years' study respectively in economics and law.
Diplômeuniversitaired'études littéraires(DUEL).Title of higher educationobtained after
two years of study in humanities(English,modern literature,history,geography,sociology
and anthropology,philosophy and Marxism).
Diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques (DUES).Title of higher education obtained
30 BENIN

after two years of study in science in the following specializations:mathematicsand physics

(MP),physics and chemistry (PC), chemistry,biology and geology (CBG).
Maîtrise.Degree of higher education awarded on submissionof a dissertation at the endof
the two-year second phase of higher education in the following specializations:science
(mathematics and physics,physics and chemistry,natural science); arts (English,history,
geography,modern literature,sociology and anthropology,philosophy and Marxism); law
and economics.

Bolivia
In Bolivia higher education is provided in nine universities (one of which is private, the
Universidad Catolica Boliviana, La Paz), a technical institute, six higher professional
institutionsand eight teacher-trainingcolleges.T w o universitiesare technicaluniversities:the
Universidad Técnica de Oruro and the Universidad Boliviana Técnica ‘José Ballivihn’,
Trinidad-Beni.
The basic law of the Bolivian university (Ley Fundamental de la Universidad Boliviana)
(1972) re-confirmed the principle of university autonomy, but limited this to academic
problems. It installed a new body, the Consejo Nacional de Educacion Superior (CNES)
(National Council for Higher Education) which is responsible for the co-ordinationand
general administration of the universities.The Conferencia de la Universidad Boliviana
(CONUB)(Conferenceof the Bolivian University), which is made up offour representatives
of the C N E S and of all the rectors of the universitiesin the country,is nonethelessthe most
important university body.
The universities offer courses in traditional subjects (letters and humanities,sciences,
health,pure science and natural science) as well as in the higher branches of technology,
architecture,the arts and agronomy (since 1977).
The teaching language is Spanish.
Teacher-training is provided in teacher-training colleges: five escuelas integradas
(integratedcolleges)in the urban zoneswhich trainteachersinevery subjectat every level;five
escuelasnormalesespecializadas(specializedteacher-trainingcolleges), which train teachersat
primary and secondary level in certain specific subjects (arts,music, physical education,
technical branches); many escuelas rurales(rural colleges), which train teachersat the primary
level and technical level;two institutos superiores de educacidn (ISE) (higher institutes of
education) at postgraduate level at La Paz and Tarija.Access to teacher-trainingcolleges is
based on the bachifleraio (secondary-school-leavingcertificate) and success in an entrance
examination;since 1977,the title ofprofesor and fiveyearsofpractical experience are required
for the ISE.
Access to higher education for students who begin studieswhich lead to the title oflicenciado
or iécnico superior is based on the bachillerato en humanidades (baccalaureate in arts and
humanities), which is awarded after eightyears ofprimaryeducationfollowedby fouryears of
secondaryeducation.Since 1972,those studyingfor the licenciadoalso have to pass a national
BOLIVIA 31

entrance examinationset by theNationalCouncilforHigher Educationconcurrentlywith the

universities.
Relativdy shortstudieslead after one,three,or four yearsto a professionalqualifkitiunof
técnico (technician)in tourism or nursing.and to one of high-gradetechnicianin industry or
commerce.Universitiesor otherauthorizedinstitutionsconferat this levelthe qualificationof
técnico superior which requires the preparation of a tesina (short dissertation).
The main stage of long studies leads to the licenciaturu after four to seven years of study.
Studies in letters and humanities usually last four years,in law,economics,engiiieeriiigand
dentistry five to six years and in medicine six to seven years,depending on the institutions.
A further stage may lead after the licenciatura to a doctorado. This degree requires the
preparation of a thesis embodying research.

P R O F I L E O F H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 12 years,buchillerato en humanidades)

years 4 5 6

P/L D

D doctorado L licenciatura P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato en humanidades. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained after eight
yearsofprimary educationdivided in two phases,followedby fouryearsof secondarystudies
also divided in two phases.The bachillerato en humanidades gives access to higher education.
Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education,awarded after the licenciaruru or a
professional qualification on submission and defence of a thesis.
Licenciatura.Degree of higher education awarded after a course of study,the duration of
which is four to five years in letters and humanities,five years in law,economics,enginecring
and dentistry,and six or seven years in medicine,depending on the institution.
Maestria. See professionai qualification.
Professionalqualification.Qualification of higher education,usually awarded with the tirle
of técnico superior,by certain universities ci institutionsafter studies of varying Icngrii: one
year for tourism,three years (agriculturalexpert,industrialor commercialtechnician,nuisc),
four years for book-keeping.The state qualification of primary school-leacher(marsiro)
requiresthree years;that ofsecondaryschool-teacher, fouryears.The duration oi the irainirig
given by the institutos superiores de educacih (ISE)is two years,after which the proiÈsores
who have five years ofpracticalexperienceobtain,on submissionofa thesis,iîie qualification
of experto for the programmes which are orientated towards educationaladministration,and
of maestria for those which are orientated towards pedagogical techniques.
Técnico superior. See professional qualification.
Tesina. Short dissertation required for the title of técnico superior.
Titulo profesional. See professional qualification.
32 BOTSWANA

Botswana
Higher education was provided by the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland until
1975 when its R o m a campus became the National University of Lesotho. The University of
Botswana and Swaziland comprises two university colleges,one at Gaborone, Botswana,the
other at Manzini, Swaziland (see also Lesotho and Swaziland).
The University College of Botswana provides instruction in humanities,science,economics
and social sciences, and education. It includes the Institute of Adult Education and the
National Institute for Research in Development and African Studies. Each of the university
colleges is governed by a council; the academic body deals with questions relating to the
universities. The teaching language is English.
Primary school teachers are trained in secondary level establishments and secondary
teachers at university.
Access to higher education is based on the Cambridge overseas school certipcate,which is
taken after seven years’ primary and five years’ secondary education. This examination is
organized in the United Kingdom. Under certain conditions,holders of thegeneralcertificate
of education,and adults over twenty-five years of age may also enter higher education.
Shorter courses in higher education lead after one or two years to professional
qualifications (certificatein business studies; certipcate in statistics).
The first stage (undergraduate) of higher education leads to the award of the bachelor’s
degree (first degree), taken after four years’study in the humanities (BA)and in science(BSc).
(Information given in this paragraph is based on the regulations proposed and is liable to
modification.)
The second stage (postgraduate)leads via examinationsand the submissionofa dissertation
to the degree of master of arts (two semesters full-time education and three part-time) or
master of science (18 to 24 months, full-time,48 maximum part-time education). This stage is
open to holders of the bachelor’s degree.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 12 years, Cambridge overseas school certificate)

years 2 3 4 5

D/C B M

B bachelor’s degree C certificate D diploma M master’s degree

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education awarded for four years’undergraduate
study in arts or science.The bachelor’sdegree in education is awarded after four years’study as
a first degree.
Cambridge overseas school certificate. Secondary-school-leavingcertificateawarded after
seven years’primary and five years’ secondary studies. This examination is organized in the
United Kingdom. It entitles its holders to enter higher education.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
First degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded in the form of a
BOTSWANA 33

certiJicate or diploma after one or two years of undergraduate studies (administration,

statistics).
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See Cambridge overseas school certificate.

Brazil
In Brazil,establishments of higher education may be run either privately or by the state.The
latter depend for their administration upon either the federal or the state government or the
municipalities.The FederalCouncilfor Education(ConselhoFederalde Educaçao), an organ
of the Ministry of Education and Culture, establishes the educational standards and
programmes for the higher education system nationwide.It is also through this Councilthat
the Government authorizes the setting up of a federal or private establishment of higher
education (state and municipal establishments are authorized by the State Education
Councils).
After a period of two years an establishment may receive approved status,which then
makes the qualifications it awards nationally valid.The law allows each establishment to set
its own entrance examination,but the Federal Council reserves the right to lay down the
minimum length and programmes of those courses which give the right to enter the
professions.
Higher education is provided in 30 federal universities, eight state universities, two
municipal universities, and 21 private universities or in other establishments-seven
federations (see below) and 836 independent establishments,of which 657 are private (1976
figures).
The universities are composed of faculties or schools of higher education offering
instructionin a wide range of disciplines:teacher-training,humanities;fine arts,architecture,
law,social or economic sciences,exact and natural sciences,engineering,medicine,etc. To
obtain recognition as a university, an establishment musï include at least three faculties,
schools, or institutes.Although the basic teaching unit is the professorship,facultiesand
schools tend to be organized by departments.Currently the tendency is also toward the
creation of large-scaleunits for the provision of basic studies;these are called institutesand
concentrate teaching and research around a professorship or a group of professorships in
related subjects.
The Council of Brazilian University Rectors is a liaison body on which are represented all
the federal,state and private universities.It carries out inquiriesand promotesthe exchange of
information.
The Federationsare associations of establishments formed with the goal of offering more
varied and better integrated courses and greater administrative efficiency.
The independent establishments consist of faculties, schools, centres, academies or
institutes with relatively few students (sometimes as few as 500) and normally offering
instruction in one or two subjects only (technology, law, economics, social sciences,
administration,librarianship,fine arts,medicine,nursing training,preparationfor secondary
34 BRAZIL

teaching). They are for the most part private and normally dependent upon some further
organization (foundation,company, association, council, etc.).
The federal universities are financed by the federal government, but may also have other
sources of finance.
Teaching takes place in Portuguese.
Primary teachers for grades one to four are trained in teacher-traininginstitutionsat the
secondary level.The training of secondary teachers takes place in the faculties of philosophy,
the faculties of education, or the faculties of humanities and philosophy. These are either
incorporated into the university or are frequently independent institutionsspecializing in the
preparation of secondary teachers. There are also higher training institutions for physical
education.
Short courses are provided in technical training-professional training in very specific
fields,provided either in specialized technologicalcentres or in higher education institutions
(title of technician,etc.).
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate (SSLC),
which is awarded on successful completion of eleven years of primary and secondary
education. Moreover, in order to enter higher education, candidates must pass a concurso
vestibular or entrance examination. Thus every establishment requires the candidate to take
an examination in three or four subjects determined by law,to which, in different fields and
establishments, further compulsory subjects may be added. A numerus clausus has been
adopted in view of the disproportion evinced in the application and graduation figures.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education:1 1 years,secondary-school-leavingcertificateand entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 I 8

Education B/L M
Arts B/LM D
Theology B M D
Fine arts P
Architecture P
Law B/L D
Social and political sciences P B/L/P M
(including social work)
Economics B D
Exact and natural sciences B/L M D
Engineering P B/P M
Medical sciences
medicine B/P D
dentistry B/P
pharmacy P B D
veterinary medicine BP
Agriculture P BP M D

B bacharelado D doutorado L licenciatura M mestre P professional qual-

ification
BRAZIL 35

The main stageofhighereducation entailsthe award ofa universitydegree,thebacharelado,

or ofa professional qualification,and is usually reached after between three and five years of
study,depending on the institution and the subject studied (dentistry and agriculture,four
years;architectureand law,fiveyears;medicine,six years). The bacharelado or the licenriaiura
are generally awarded after four years’ study to students of philosophy,human science or
science who wish to become secondary teachers.
The second stage,and the first stage of postgraduate studies,leads to the mestre,awarded
upon completion of at least one year’s study following the barharelado or lirenciaiura to
studentswho have followed a certainnumber ofcourses,taken examsandsubmitted a thesis.
The third stage leads to the doutorado. The requirements for this degree are identicalto
those for the mestre: the doutorado, however,normally requires two further years of study.

GLOSSARY
Bacharelado.Firstdegree ofhigher education,awardedaftera three-to five-yearcourse(six
in medicine). Examinations for this take place at the end of each semester and during the
course ofthe year,and there is no finalexamination.The degree ofbarhareladogivesthe right
to practise the corresponding profession.
Concurso vestibular. Entrance examination taken by students who have successfully
completedtheir secondarystudiesand wish to enter highereducation.Each establishmentsets
an examination includingthree or four subjectsdetermined by law with the possible addition
of further compulsory subjects.
Doutorado.The highest degree of higher education,awardedto studentshaving passed an
exam and submitteda thesis,normallyafter twoyears’study followingthe award ofthe inesire
or licenciatura.
Licenciatura.This degree of higher education is awarded only in relationto secondaryor
higher level teaching (generally after four years’studies). It is obtained contemporaneously
with the bacharelado,the conditions being the same for both courses.
Mestre. Degree of higher education awarded after at least one year’s studies subscyuent
upon the award of the barharelado or licenciaturu.
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded by faculties after
courses generally lasting between three and five years (six in niedicine).

Bulgaria
In the People’sRepublic of Bulgaria,higher education is the responsibilityofthe Ministry of
Education.The latterensuresthat highereducation matches therequirementsofthe country’s
social,cultural and scientific developmentwith respect to the training ofyoung specialistsin
the institutionsof higher education.It controlsthe number ofstudentsin the higherinstitutes,
sets out regulations governing all institutions of education and ensures their pedagogical,
methodological and ideologicalcontrol. All higher education is free.
Most ofthe studentsare granted scholarshipsbased on theirgradesas well ason theirfamily
36 "%
.I : BULGARIA

income. The rest get individual financial assist8Pce. The outstanding students are granted
scholarships irrespective of their family income. >!

Higher education takes place in 30 higher institutions,as follows: three universities (one
with a branch), the Academy for Social Sciences and Social Management, ten technical
institutes, the Medical Academy comprising four medical institutes (with branches), three
economic institutes, two agricultural institutes,four art institutes (for music, fine arts and
dramatic art), a teacher-training institute, an institute for sport and an institute for foreign
students.Apart from the Ministry of Education,part of the higher institutionsin the People's
Republic of Bulgaria come under the authority of the relevant ministry or committee (the
Ministry of Public Health, the Committee of Culture,the National Industrial and Agrarian
Union). The Academy of Social Sciences and Social Management is under the direct
responsibility of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party.
All institutions of higher education have equal rights and obligations to prepare specialists
in different fields. The Institute for Foreign Students ensures language training and special
preliminary preparation of the foreign students w h o are going to study in other higher
institutions. Studies in higher education may be on a regular, evening or correspondence
basis. This enables many people to continue their education beyond secondary school.
Specialistsare trained in about 145 specialities,most of which are mastered in theuniversities,
the technical and art institutes. T o improve the tuition process as well as the adaptation of the
graduates, the specialities in the higher institutions are gradually expanded.
The language of instruction is Bulgarian.
Access to higher education is based on the diplom za zavarfeno sredno obrazovanie
(secondary-school-leaving certificate) or equivalent qualification from an institution of
general (gymnasija)or technical secondary education. This qualification is obtained after
eight years of primary school and four years (five for some special secondary schools) of
secondary general education, which terminates with matriculation. Candidates to higher
institutions must pass a competitive entrance examination (konkursen izpit). Secondary-
school-leavingresults are also taken into consideration.
Teachers of primary education take a two- to three-yearcourse in semi-specializedtraining
colleges at postsecondary level. Teachers of secondary education obtain higher education
diplomas after four to five years of postsecondary studies (at a university or higher teacher-
training institute), during which period they receive special training for teaching. Necessary
steps are being taken to ensure the training of teachers for all kinds and grades of schools
(from nursery schools to secondaryschools)at higher institutions.Teachers having graduated
from semi-specialized training colleges at postsecondary level are allowed, if they wish, to
continue their education on a correspondence basis at higher teacher-training institutes
(provided they meet the age requirements).
The social,economic and cultural progress of the country requiresthe specialistshaving the
diploma of higher education (diplom za ruvarSeno visSe obrazovanie)to study at an advanced
level. The training course lasts four to six years, and leads to the acquisition of an advanced
professional qualification. At universities the main stage of studies lasts four to five years.
Courses in other institutions of higher education last five to five and a half years (six in
architecture and medicine). This term of education alone does not furnish the students with
any rights or professional qualification.Higher education terminates with a state examination
(darfaven izpit) and (for most of the specialities)individual research resulting in a thesis. All
this leads to a diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie (diploma of higher education).
This may be considered a basis for a further stage ofpostgraduatework. Postgraduatework
branches into two,as follows.The holder of adiplomaofhigher education may continue with
his studies in different courses which provide further qualification and narrow specialization
on the basis of his general qualification (for medical students, for instance,specialization in
cardiology, orthopaedic surgery, etc.). Postgraduate work ensures further training of the
BULGARIA 37

specialists in new fields of their speciality.The different forms of postgraduate work are in
conformity with the constantly changing demands of the country. Another form of
postgraduate work prepares specialistsfor scientific research.It leads to two qualifications:
kandidat na naukite and doktor na naukite (doctorate of science),
The kandidat na naukite qualificationisobtained after individualresearch(aspirantura)and
a thesis.The forms of education are on a regular,correspondence and unrestricted basis.The
regular qualification term lasts three years,while the correspondenceterm is four years.The
unrestricted qualification is an independent form of obtaining the degree.
The scientific results obtained during the period of research are defendedbeforeascientific
board in the form of a thesis.Members ofthe scientificboard are outstandingspecialistsin the
appropriate field.In Bulgaria there is a scientific board for each branch of science.The thesis
must meet one basic requirement-it must constitute a contribution to science.
A third stagemay lead to the doktor na naukite,obtainedonthe basis ofindividualresearch
and after presentation of a furtherthesiswhich must representan importantcontributionto a
given branch of science. The thesis is defended before the appropriate scientific board.
Extensive work is being done in the country to select thesis themes relevant to problems of
major importance for the national economy.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation:12years,diplom za zavari’enosredno obrazovanie or zrelostno svidetelstvo
and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education YPP/Di
Arts Di K D
Fine arts Di
Law Di K D
Economics Di K D
Exact and natural Di K D
sciences
Technology,engineering Di K D
Medical sciences
medicine Di K D
dentistry Di K D
pharmacy Di K D
veterinary medicine Di K D
Agriculture Di K D

D doktor na naukite Di diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie K kandidat na

naukite YPP udostoverenie za praktika pedagogiteska.

GLOSSARY
Aspirantura. See kandidat na naukite.
Dariaven izpit. State examination for students who have attended the full course of
specialized studies in a higher institution.Success in this examination(togetherwith defence
of a thesis for most of the specialities) ensures a professional qualification,which allows
further higher education.Students obtain the diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie (diploma
38 BULGARIA

of higher education) enabling them to apply their professional qualification or to carry on

with their studies.The number of subjects in this state examination dependson the speciality.
Diplom za zavarSeno sredno obrazovanie. School-leaving-certificateawarded to studentsat
technical or art schools after four years of secondary following upon eight years of primary
education.This diploma enables holders to sit the competitive entrance examination giving
access to higher education. The diploma for the priesthood, obtained after six years’
secondary education,gives access to higher ecclesiastical studies.
Diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie. Obtained at the end of four to six years’study.
Candidates must pass yearly examinationson the whole rangeofsubjectsstudiedbefore being
admitted to the following year. At the end of their studies,they must pass a darfaven izpit
(state examination)or submita thesis(formost ofthe specialities). Thisdiploma isregardedin
many fields as a professional qualification.
Diploma of higher education. See diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie.
Doktor na naukite. Scientific qualification obtained as a result of individual scientific
research representing an important contribution to a given branch of science.Candidates
must submit a thesis containing the results of the scientific research.The thesis is defended in
public before a scientific board and candidates are awarded a diploma.
Kandidat na naukite.Obtained after three years’study after the diplom and the presentation
of a thesis.
Primary teacher’squalification. See udostoverenie za pedagogireska rabota.
Professional qualification. See diplom za zavarSeno visSe obrazovanie; darfaven izpit.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.See zrelustno svidetelstvo.
Udostoverenie za pedagogifeska rabota. Teaching qualification obtained in a training
college at an intermediatelevelbetween secondaryand higher education.It enablesholdersto
become primary teachers (first form through to eighth form).
Udostoverenie za poluvisSa tehnifeska praktika. Technician’s qualificationobtained after a
short course ofstudy (twoor threeyearsin an institutionofintermediateeducation,tp institut,
ip institut).
Zrelostno svidetelstvo. Secondary-school-leaving
certificate awarded after eight years of
primary education followed by four years of general and polytechnic secondaryeducation.
This certificate entitles its holders to sit the competitive entrance examination to higher
education.

a
In the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma,higher education is given in two types of
institutions: universities and university institutes,and specialized institutions of higher
education.
There are two universities and nine university institutes: Rangoon Arts and Science
University,with three affiliated colleges;Mandalay Arts and Science University,with three
affiliated colleges;the Institute of Medicine I, Rangoon,the Institute of Dental Medicine,
Rangoon, two institutes of medicine (Mingaladon,Mandalay); institutes of technology,
economics,education (in Rangoon); of agriculture (Mandalay); and ofanimalhusbandry and
veterinary science,in Insein.
BURMA 39

The specialized institutions are teacher-training colleges and schools, technical and
professional institutes,and an institute for foreign languages.
The language of instruction is Burmese,except in some subjects at postgraduate level,
where English is used.
All universities and colleges are state institutions under the control of the Department of
Higher Education of the Ministry of Education (except for the university institutes of
medicine, transferred to the Ministry of Health), but they are independent units. Each
university has an academic board and an administrative board. Policies are framed by two
bodies: the Universities Central Council,which frames broad policies and co-ordinatesthe
work of the universitiesand colleges,and the Council of University Academic Bodies,which
framesall academic regulationsand co-ordinatesall academicwork.Statutesand regulations
are uniform for institutionsofferingthe same courses.All universitiesand collegesare totally
financed by the State. ii nominal fee is charged for studies, but one-fifth of students are
exempt.
T w o innovationshave been initiatedsince 1976 to ‘deconcentrate’the institutionsofhigher
education.One is the opening. between 1977and 1979,of 20 two-yearregionalcollegesin the
various states of the country,and the other is the introductionof university correspondence
courses.The regional colleges have been created to train middle level techniciansengaged in
production and industry who are currently in great shortage.The scheme is at an early stage
and is still being improved.The university correspondencecourses were set up in 1975-76 to
satisfy the increasing demand for higher education. The administrative control of the
University Correspondence Education Department (responsible for the university
correspondence courses) lies with the Universities’ Central Council and the University
Correspondence Education Management Board.The academic control lies with the Council
of University Academic Bodies. The syllabuses and courses are those approved by the
Rangoon Arts and Science University Academic Body. Course books and assignments are
prepared by the professors and heads of departments at the Rangoon Arts and Science
University and the Institute of Economics,Rangoon.
Teachers of primary and lower-secondaryeducation are trained in two years at upper-
secondary level in teacher-trainingcolleges.A four-yearcourse in education at the university
leads to the award of a bachelor’s degree (BAEd). There is a one-yearpostgraduate course
leadingto a diplomaand a two-yearcourse leadingto thebachelor’sdegreeofeducation (BEd)
for holders of a bachelor’s degree in a teaching subject.
Access to higher education is based on success in the basic education high school
examination,taken after 11 years of schooling.Candidatesare chosen from the ‘A’ list,which
denotes eligibility for university admission.
The first stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’sdegree,obtained after four years’
study in humanities,science and economics.These facultiesoffer a bachelor’sdegree (pass)
after four years, and a bachelor’s degree (honours) after five years. In agriculture and
education,the degree is awarded after five years’study,in engineering, architecture and
forestryafter six years,in dentistry,veterinary scienceand medicine,after six anda halfyears.
in law, the course only takes two years but candidates have to hold a bachelor’s degree.
Professional qualificationsare awarded in the form of certijicares or diplomas after one to
three years’study.
The second stage is reached after two to three years,and leads to the master’s degree.
The third stage is reached after three to four years following upon the master’sdegree,and
leads to the doctor’s degree. Both higher degrees are awarded in almost ali subjects.
40 BURMA

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 1 I years, basic education high school examination)

years 4 5 6 7 8

Bu Bh M D

B h bachelor’s degree (honours) B p bachelor’s degree (pass)

D doctor’s degree M master’s degree

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree usually obtained afterfouryears’study.The faculties of arts,
science and social science offer two levelsof bachelor’s degree:a bachelor’sdegree (pass)in four
years, and a bachelor’s degree (honours) in five years. The bachelor’s degree in engineering,
veterinary science and forestry is taken in six years. In law and medicine it is obtained in two
years’ study following upon a bachelor’s degree in arts, science or social science, which is a
prerequisite.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Diploma of education. Qualification obtained by candidates w h o already hold a bachelor’s
degree. This takes one year’s study following upon the bachelor’s degree. Holders of a
bachelor’sdegree may obtain a degree of bachelor of education in two years following upon the
bachelor’s degree.
Entrance examination. See matriculation examination.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Mastership. See master’s degree.
Master’s degree. Qualification of higher education,obtained in two to three years after the
bachelor’s degree.
Matriculation examination. University entrance examination open to candidates who have
completed four years’ primary and six years’ secondary‘educationand hold the secondary-
school-leaving certificate. 1’

Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.

Professional qualification. Higher education qualifjfation which may be awarded as a
certificateor a diploma. In technology,three years’stddy lead to the award of a diploma. In
education,a diploma may be obtained in one year by thoie already holding a bachelor’sdegree
in a teaching speciality. ,I

Secondary-school-leaving certificate.Qualification obtained after four years’primary and

six years’ secondary education. It gives access to higher education in technology, to the
teacher-training colleges and to the matriculation examination. ,
BURUNDI 41

Burundi
Higher education in Burundi is provided by the University of Burundi.which was created in
1977 by the amalgamation of the Université Officielle de Bujumbura (UOB)and the Higher
Teacher Training School.The decree enacting the creation of the University endows it with
organic.technical and administrativeautonomy.It is under the supervisionof the Ministry of
Education and is directed by an Administrative Council. a Rector,a Vice-Rector,and a
Secretary-General.The staff are administered under two statutes,governing administrative/
technical and teachinglscientificstaff respectively.Under the sponsorship of the State,the
University of Burundi receives an annual grant from the Ministry of Education.
Teaching takes place in French in the following:the faculties of letters and human sciences
(African, French and English language and literatures, history and geography). law,
economics, and administration, psychology and education, science, agriculture, and
medicine;and the institutes of physical education and pedagogy.
The faculty of economics and administration offers a two-year short course training
students of commerce and administration to diploma level and a longer course in economics
and in administration and management.
The faculty of science comprises: a sciences’section training candidats in chemistry,
agriculture,pharmacy,geology and mineralogy and offering licence courses in biology,and a
‘polytechnic’section offering two-yearcourses for the candidature in mathematics,physics,
and civil engineering.There is also a three-yearcourse for students who have not taken or
passed the entrance examination for the polytechnic ‘A’ course (two years).
In the context of continuing education,the University of Burundi offers evening courses in
Arabic and Swahili which lead to the award of a certificate of attendance.
Increasinglythe Universityitselforganizesthe secondphase ofstudiesin Burundi.Teachers
are sent from Switzerland,Belgium, France, and the Soviet Union under co-operation
agreements. The Association of Partiaily or Wholly French-Language Universities
(AUPELF)regularly sends teaching staff.The University of Burundi also enjoys privileged
relationships with the universities of Zaire,Yaoundé and Belgium in exchanges of students
and of teachers. Co-operation agreements have also been signed with some French
universities,notably in the field of medicine.
Access to higher education is based on the certificatd‘humanités complètes,a school-leaving
certificate awarded after seven years of secondary education. This certificate must be
confirmed by a Commission established by the Ministry of Education to ensure that the
courses have been regularly carried out in the manner required by the State.Civil engineering
‘A’studies are open only to those who have passed a special entrance examination.The new
system adopted by the Ministry of Education entails selectionbeing made among holders of
the secondary-leavingcertificate by an OrientationCommission.The lattertakes into account
the places available in the University and national requirements;candidatespresent a list of
three subjects which they have chosen,and their academic performance over the last three
years of secondary education is taken into consideration.
The firststageofhigher studieslastsbetween one and threeyearsand is devoted to basic and
often multidisciplinary studies.The baccalauréat is awarded in law afterone‘syear study,and
the candidature after two years’ study and success in the final examinations in other
disciplines. A n exception to the above is the civil engineering ‘B’course, in which the
candidature is awarded after three years.In many cases the first year of studies is common to
different candidatures. This is the case for economics and administration, psychology and
education,chemistry,mineralogy,pharmacy,geology and agronomy.
A two-yearcourse diploma is awarded to studentswho have completed their studiesat the
Institute of Pedagogy,in the commerce and administration section,and in the co-operative.
42 BURUNDI

The second stageofhigher educationlaststwo yearsand leadsto thelicence.Inagricultureit

lasts three years,and in medicine,four years.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,certificat d‘humanités complètes)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 I

Pedagogy Di
Psychology,education C L
Physical education L
sports

administration
Commercial and Di
administrative studies
Exact and natural C L
sciences
Engineering C(A) C(B)
Medical sciences
medicine
pharmacy C
Agronomy C IA

B baccalauréat C candidature D doctorat Di diplôme IA ingénieur agro-

nome L licence

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat en droit. Law diploma awarded after one year in higher education.
Candidature.First degree of higher education awarded after two or three years’study.It
represents the basic training required to continue in higher education at a more specialized
level.
Certificatd’humanités complètes.Qualificationobtained after six yearsofprimary followed
by seven years of secondary education,giving access to higher education.
Diplôme. Degree awarded after two years in commerce and administration and also after
two years (diploma of lower-secondaryteaching) in the Institute of Pedagogy.
Doctorate.Degree of higher education awarded exclusively in medicine after seven years’
study.The first doctors of medicine of the University of Burundi will graduate in 1982.
Ingénieur agronome.Diploma awarded after five years’study at the faculty of agriculture,
the two years of the candidature being taken at the faculty of science.
Licence. Diploma awarded at the completion of four years’university studies.
CANADA 43

Canada
In Canada post-secondary education is offered in both degree-grantingand non degree-
granting institutions.According to the Canadian constitution,education comes under the
jurisdiction of the provincial governments.Howeverthe federalgovernmentis involvedinthe
financial support of post-secondaryeducation.
Degree-granting institutionsderive their powers from the government of the province in
which they are located or,for certain older institutions,from a royal chartergranted before
Canadian confederation (1867)by the British Crown.Some universities hold their degree-
granting powers in abeyance while in federation or affiliation with another institutionand
prepare students for degrees granted by the parent institution.
In the past, the words ‘university’and ‘college’were almost synonymous.At present,
however,the word ‘university’is reservedfor institutionswhich offer programmesleadingto a
degree and have the power to grant the degree.The word ‘college’,though at times used to
denote a degree-granting institution,most often refers to an institutionwhich offers post-
secondary courses for transfer to a university,or courses which are occupationally oriented,
or both.
Canadian universities are autonomous institutions.Most of them use English as the
language of instruction,some use French,and some offer programmes of study in both
French and English.The greatest source of financialsupportfor the universitiesis the public
purse;other sources of income are student tuition fees, endowments and gifts.
A university is composed of faculties,departments,schools and institutes which exercise
teaching,research and community service functions.The institutionsare usually governed by
a senate for academic matters, and a board of governors for administrative and financial
matters. They are headed by a president, principal or rector. Co-ordination between
universities is achieved through official governmental bodies within provinces or regions and
through non-governmental provincial,regional and national associations.At the national
level, the Association of Universitiesand Colleges of Canada represents 69 universities and
colleges,virtually all of Canada’s degree-granting institutions.
Until the mid-sixties,the universities were expected to provide almost all of the available
opportunities for education beyond the secondary school.Since then,however,there have
been established nearly 200 non-university institutions-known by the generic term
‘communitycollege’ or, in the Province of Quebec, as CEGEP (college of general and
professional studies). These colleges offer programmes of study leading to diplomas and
certificates,but not to degrees.Their emphasis is on vocational education,although some of
them (in British Columbia,Alberta and Quebec) offer preparatory courses of study after
which students may transfer to university programmes.Private institutions,generally profit-
making enterprises,preparestudentsfor secretarialwork and other technical occupationsand
offer corresponding certificates.
For most full-timestudents,the academic year consists of two terms or semesters of a little
less than four months each,Septemberto December and January to April.In addition,most
universities organize a summer session of six weeks from the beginningofJuly to mid-August
and some offer,as well,a four-weekintersession in late spring.A variation in effect at a few
universities provides for year-round operation with three terms or trimesters, the third
running from May to August.
More than a dozen universitiesorganize studies in some faculties on what is called the co-
operative plan, alternating full-time study on campus during one term with full-time
employment providing supervised work experience during the next.
Most universities operate departmentsof continuing educationwhich offer courses,mostly
to part-time students,in the late afternoon or evening during the regular university term.
44 CANADA

These courses may be conducted on campus or elsewhere within the area served by the
university.
In recent years,institutionshave been established in British Columbia,Alberta and Quebec
which are primarily concerned with teaching at a distance,and thus offer opportunities for
university study to individuals who are either unable or unwilling to attend a conventional
university. These institutionsare involved in the production and delivery of self-instructional
materials and make use of media technology for the delivery of live instruction.
Each province has its own pattern of schooling.In all provinces except Ontario,Quebec and
Newfoundland, students are eligible for admission to university after the completion of 12
years of elementary andsecondary schooling.In Ontario,students must normally complete 13
years of study prior to admission to university. Some Ontario institutions admit students
following 12 years of schooling.In Quebec, studentsmust complete a two-yearprogramme of
preparatory studies in a CEGEP following 11 years of primary and secondary schooling
before being admissible to university. In Newfoundland,the provincial schools have 1 1 grades
after which students enter university at a level beyond which four years are required to
complete a general degree in arts and science.
Each university sets its o w n admission requirements which are expressed in terms of the
school-leaving certificates of the province in which the university is located. There are no
nationwide admission tests, nor do individual universities administer their o w n admission
tests. For purposes of admission, most universities require a number of documents from
candidates including an official report of school marks and a recommendation from the
school principal or counsellor. Access to a particular programme may depend on the
programme of study the candidate has followed in secondary school, where a variety of
optional courses is available. Admission requirements vary from one programme to another
and students may be requiredto follow certain additional courses before being admittedto the
programme of their choice.
Some professional degree programmes may be entered directly from secondary school.
Others require the applicant to have completed some or all of a first degree programme. The
stated minimum requirement for admission to dentistry,medicine and law, for example,m a y
be one or more years of arts or science;in practice,however, a full degree is almost a necessity
because competitionfor entry is keen.Still other professional faculties,such as library science,
require a bachelor’s degree for entry.
Most universities are flexible about admitting to first degree courses,usually in arts and
science, persons with unconventional patterns of previous schooling.Normal requirements
include that the candidate has reached the age of 21,has been out of school for two or more
years and can show promise of success in university.
All Canadian universities admit students from other countries.However, applicantsfrom
abroad face special conditions. They must obtain a student authorization and visa from a
Canadian government office in their home country and they must give assurance of having
sufficient funds to finance their studies and stay in Canada and to cover the expenses of their
return journey. It is normal for students from abroad, whose schooling was not in the
language used in the university in which they propose to study,to be required to demonstrate
their proficiency in that language.It is usual for Canadian universities to require that records
of former schooling be accompanied by notarized translation into French or English. Also,
some universities impose quotas on the number of foreign studentswho may be admitted to
certain faculties. In six of the ten provinces, the tuition fees charged to students from other
countries are considerably higher than those for Canadians, ranging from $800 to $1,500or
more per two-semester year.
The main stage of university studies leads to a bachelor’s degree or to a first professional
degree. The bachelor’s degree may be obtained after three or four years of study,depending
upon the length of secondary school studies.The curriculum of the first year,or an equivalent
CANADA 45

period spread over two years,usually consists of general non-specializedsubjects.In some

institutions,two types of degree may be obtained: a general bachelor’s degree or an honours
bachelor’s degree. The general degree is normally a terminal degree while the honours degree,
requiring an additional year of study,prepares the student for direct admission into a
postgraduate programme of studies.
The curriculum for a first professionaldegree may vary in length but is normally of four
years’duration. The degree obtained is usually a bachelor’s degree,except that in medicine,
veterinary medicine and dentistry the degree is ordinarily that of doctor.
The goal of undergraduate education in arts and science is to provide programmes which
will enable students to develop their potential abilities.This education is, in most cases,not
job-specific,although there are some fields in which a bachelor’sdegree may constitutea form
of professional education,e.g.economics.The majority ofuniversitystudentsterminatetheir
post-secondarystudiesupon completionof the three-or four-yearundergraduatedegree and

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 11/12 or 12/13 years, school-leavingcertificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Education P P B M/P M D
Arts B M D
Religion,theology B B M D D
Fine arts B
Architecture B B/M/P M/P
Law B M B/D B/M B/D
Social sciences
Administrative sciences
Commercial sciences
Science B M M D
Engineering B M/P M D
Medical sciences
medicine P M M D
dentistry P B P P P M M
pharmacy B M/P D
veterinary medicine P M P M D
Agriculture B B/M D

B bachelor’s degree; baccalauréat D doctor’s degree; doctorat M master’s degree;

maîtrise P professional qualification;titre professionnel

N.B. The academic requirements vary considerably from one university to another; in
particular, in law, the bachelor’s degree may be obtained after different periods of study
depending on whetheranotherbachelor’sdegreehas been requiredbefore the beginning oflaw
studies (on the other hand,the licence en droit is a title which is conferred in the province of
Quebec); in dentistry, there exist diplomas at different levels indicated according to the
universities;in veterinary medicine,the professional qualification(P)and the master’sdegree
(M)are independentdegrees which do not follow each other.One obtains them at different
levels depending on whether a previous bachelor’sdegree is required or not.
46 CANADA
compete in the marketplace for employment, either in the public or private sectors.
Professional programmes of study at the undergraduate level provide students with the
necessary skills and knowledge to exercise their profession upon completion oftheir studies:
facultiesof medicine exist to traindoctors,facultiesof educationto train teachers,facultiesof
engineering to produce engineers,and so on.
The second stage correspondsto postgraduatestudies leadingto the master’s degree.To be
admitted to a master’sdegree programme a candidatemust hold an honours bachelor’sdegree
(exceptionally a strong candidateholding only a generalbachelor’s degree might be allowed to
enter a master’s programme after a qualifyingyear). The master’s degree normally requires
two years of study beyond the correspondinghonours bachelor’s degree and may be obtained
in arts (MA), in the sciences (MSc) or in given specialities such as education (MEd) and
engineering (MEng). The master of philosophy degree (MPhil) may be obtained at a few
universities but only in arts subjects;however, it requires a minimum of two years’study
beyond the corresponding honours bachelor’s degree.
The third stage is that of the P h D or doctorate and requires at least two years of study
beyond a master’sdegree or a minimum of three years beyond the honours bachelor’s degree.
This degree may be obtained in a variety of disciplines,including the applied sciences,and is
known under the generic term ofP h D althoughit may be granted under the specificterms of
DLitt,DSc,DScA,D M u s and LLD.A variety of postgraduateprogrammes leading to post-
secondary certificates or diplomas is also available.
Graduate education is usually separated into the preparation of professionals and
education in the humanities,the natural sciencesand the socialsciences.While graduate level
studiesare undertaken by those who wish to pursue in depth researchand scholarshipin their
chosen field, they also act as professional programmes: the humanities as training for
university and college teaching, in the natural sciences for post-secondary teaching or for
careers in research in the public and private sectors,and in the socialsciencesfor teaching or
for professional service in government departments or in industry.

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. See bachelor’s degree.
Bachelor’sdegree.First qualification of higher education.It is usually awarded after four
years’study (three for candidateswho are holders of the seniormatriculationcertificate or of
the diplôme d‘études collégiales). This first qualification is either a general (pass)bachelor’s
degree,or an honours bachelor’s degree. The former does not usually lead to further studies.
The latter, which comprises more specialized studies,usually takes one year longer,but
normally enables holders to obtain the master’s degree in one year less. Candidates for
professional studies are usually required to have undergone one or two years of higher
education or even to have obtained a bachelor’s degree. In French-languageuniversities,the
first university qualification is usually the baccalauréat,but certain universitiesaward as first
degree a licence, e.g.in law.
Doctorate or doctor’sdegree.The highest qualification of higher education,awarded after
at least one or two years of graduate studiesfollowing upon the master’sdegree.Candidates
must submit a thesis. In certain subjects, the doctorate (PhD) involving research is
distinguished from a ‘speciality’doctorate which emphasizes participation in lectures and
practical work.In veterinary medicine and dentistry,the qualificationofdoctor is obtained at
the end of the first stage of studies (see professional qualijïcation).
First professional degree. Seeprofessional qualification.
General bachelor’s degree or Pass Degree.See bachelor’s degree.
Honours bachelor’s degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Maîtrise. See master’s degree.
Master’sdegree.Postgraduatequalificationof higher education.It is usually awarded after
CANADA 47

one or two years’ study following upon the bachelor’s certificate.Holders of a bachelor’s
degree with honours spend one year less before obtaining the master’s degree. In certain
specialities,there are two types of master’s degree: the master of arts degree (MA)and a
speciality master’sdegree;the former requires individualresearch and submissionof a thesis,
the latter requires following of lecturesand practical work. In French-languageuniversities
this qualification is called maîtrise.
Pass degree. See buchelor’sdegree.
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education obtained after a varying
number of years,consistingusually of a certificate or diploma.There are numerous courses
leading to a first professionaldegree and to more advanced qualificationsfollowing upon the
first professional qualification.The first qualification is usually obtained after four years’
study,but the length of studies may vary from one to five years. In medicine,veterinary
medicine and dentistry,the first qualification is that of doctor.

Central African Republic

In the Central African Republic,higher education is provided by the University of Bangui,
founded in 1969, which comprisestodate four faculties,three university institutes and two
research institutes.
The faculty of law and economics offers three-yeardegree (licence)courses in public law,
private law, and economics. Instruction in the capacité (certificate of professional
competence) programme was phased out in 1977, but the faculty each year holds capacité
examinations at Bangui for the benefit of those who have prepared this diploma
independently.
The faculty of letters and humanities offers two-yearcourses for the diplôme universitaire
d’études littéraires in English literature,history and geography,modern literature,and,
starting in October 1979, for the diplôme d’étudesuniversitaires in education,which will be
confined to students intending to teach the humanities in colleges of general education.
The faculty of science offers courses in mathematics and physics and chemistry, and
chemistry-biologyand geology.From October 1979 it offers a diplôme d’étudesuniversitaires
in education,confined to studentsintendingto teach science at colleges of general education.
The faculty of health sciences offers courses leading to the doctoral en médecine and to a
number of diplomas.
The institutes are: the University Institute of Management;the University Institute of
Agriculture of M’Baïki,which trains agriculturalengineers over three years (the course was
increased to four years as from October 1979);the University InstituteofMining Technology,
Geology and Construction;the InstituteofApplied Linguistics,which has the declared aim of
improving the level of teaching in schools,lycées and colleges,of the official language of the
nation-that is, French;the InstituteofResearch into the Teaching ofMathematics,which is
intended to adapt the teaching of mathematics to the Central African cultural context and to
advise the mathematics teachers of the primary and secondary schools of the country.
48 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Besides the University, there exist other higher education establishments.The National
Pedagogical Institute comprises five departments having the following functions:research
into teaching methods; refresher courses and employee-training;psychology and academic
and professional orientation; the elimination of illiteracy and continuing education; and
production of teaching methods.
The Teacher-TrainingCollege trains students over four years for the certificatd'aptitude
professionnelle, which entitles the student to teach in colleges of general education. From
October 1979,this establishment will begin a close co-ordinationwith the faculty of lettersand
humanities and the faculty of science in the training of teachersfor the first andsecond stages
of secondary education over three and four years respectively.The Teacher-TrainingCollege
will provide the teacher-training and the faculties the basic instruction.
The function of the National School of Administration and Magistracy is to train the
administrative and legal officials of the country for the different official grades. Three
successivetwo-year courses are offered;as from October 1979,the third is exclusively open to
graduates-graduates in public law taking the administration course, economics graduates
taking the treasury service course and graduates in private law being trained for the
magistracy.
The teaching language is French.
Access to higher education is generally limited to students w h o have passed the baccalauréat
or the entrance examination of the faculties,institutes or teacher-trainingcollege.There are,
however, some exceptions to this rule.
The capacité course in law is open to those w h o do not have the baccalauréat but the brevet
of the first cycle of secondary studies.Holders of the capacité in law with average marks in this
examination above 12 out of 20 may go on to take the degree courses in law and economics.
Access to the first two-year course of the National School of Administration is by
competitive examination open to candidates not having the baccalauréat. The competitive
examination for the second cycle is open exclusively to holders ofthe baccalauréat unless the
candidates are already members of the civil service.
The faculty of health sciences accepts for its para-medical departments candidates not
having the baccalauréat.Advanced health technicians are trained in four years;nurses,social
workers, midwives and community development agents are awarded a diplôme d'Etat after
three years' study and health assistants a diploma after one year.
The first stage of higher education lasts two years and leads to a non-terminalqualification:
in the humanities, the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires; in science, to the diplôme
universitaire d'études scientijïques;in law, to the capacité en droit.
The second stage,of two years' duration,leads,in law,economics,and mathematics to the
licence (first terminal degree). In mathematics amaitrise is conferred one year after the licence.
Professional qualifications are also awarded at this stage: a diploma in agriculture at the
Institute of Agriculture (diplôme d'ingénieur des travaux agricoles); a diplôme supérieur de
gestion after three years' study at the InstituteofManagement; a diplôme d'ingénieur after four
years at the Institute of Mining, Geology and Construction.In the faculty of health sciences a
six-yearcourse leads to the doctorat in medicine which is the only doctorate awarded by the
University.
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 49

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Law,economics C* L
Mathematics DUES L M
Natural and exact DUES L
sciences
Education DEUP CAP-CEG? CAP2è
cyclef
Humanities (English, DUEL L
modern literature,
history,geography)
Management DSG
Mining,geology, P
construction
Medicine D
Para-medicalsciences
Agriculture
- P* P*
P

C capacité en droit
CAP-CEG certificat d'aptitude professionnelle à l'enseignement dans les collèges
d'enseignement général (ler cycle)
CAP 2e cycle certificat d'aptitude professionnelle à renseignement du second cycle dans
les lycées
D doctorat
DEUP diplôme d'études universitairespédagogiques
DSG diplôme supérieur de gestion
DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires
DUES diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques
L licence
P professional qualification
* The baccalauréat is not required for admission to these courses.
t See text.

GLOSSARY
See entry on Ivory Coast.
50 CHAD

Chad
No detailed information having been received recently this text is mainly repeatedfrom the 1976
English edition of this Guide.

In Chad, higher education is provided largely through the university and is under the control
of the Ministry of Education and Culture. Several other institutions of higher education are
under the jurisdiction of other ministries:the National School of Administration (Ministryof
Public Administration); the Institute of Animai Husbandry and Veterinary Studies and the
Institute of Stockbreeding, the Institute of Forestry and Agriculture (Ministry of
Agriculture).
The university comprises four faculties: education; humanities; law, economics and
management studies;pure and applied science.The faculties are subdivided into departments.
The language of instruction is French.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat (secondary-school-leaving
certificate), obtained after six years of primary and seven years of secondary education.
Candidates for the diplôme de capacité en droit do not need a baccalauréat.
The main stage of higher education is divided into two phases. The first phase leads after
two years’ study,to adiplôme universitairede lettres modernes (DULMO)in humanities,to the
diplôme universitaire de sciences (DUS) in science, or to the diplôme universitaire de sciences
juridiques,économiques et degestion (DUSJEG). These are not terminal qualifications.In law,
the capacité en droit is awarded to those w h o do not hold the baccalaauréat.
The second phase leads,after one year’s study following upon the first qualification,to the
licence (first degree) in modern literature, history and geography, law, business
administration and biology. The National School of Administrationawards a licence in law
after three years’ study.Diplomas are awarded in administration and in law. Where there are
no facilities in Chad, students continue their studies abroad.

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R S T U D I E S

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education; 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3

D L

D diplôme universitaire L licence

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate, obtained at the end of six years of
primary followed by seven years of secondary education in a general or technical secondary
school. Secondary education is divided into four years’ lower and three years’ upper
education,and there are three main options (mathematics,scienceor literature).Programmes
are adapted from the French curriculum;the baccalauréat gives access to higher education.
Capacité en droit. Qualification obtained after two years’ study in law. Access is open to
those w h o do not hold the baccalauréat; they must be 17 years old and pass an entrance
examination.
CHAD 51

Diplôme universitaire de lettres modernes (DULMO).Non-terminalqualificationobtained

after two years’study in humanities.
Diplôme universitaire de sciences (DUS). Non-terminal qualification obtained after two
years’ study in science.
Diplôme universitaire de sciences juridiques, économiques et de gestion. Non-terminal
qualification obtained after two years’study in commerce,economics and administration.
Licence. First degree awarded after one year’s study following upon the diplôme
universitaire;the National School of Administrationawards a licence in law after three years’
study.
Special entrance examination. Examination for those who do not hold the baccalauréat,
giving access to studies leading to the capacité en droit.

Chile
In Chile,higher education is provided in eight universities,two of which are stateuniversities
(University of Chile, State Technical University), and six are private (two Catholic: the
Catholic University of Chile and the Universityof Valparaiso;four secular:University of the
North,Technical University Federico Santa Maria,University of Concepcion,and Southern
University of Chile). The private universities are very largely financed by the State,the state
universities entirely so. The universities are autonomous. The co-ordinating body is the
Council of Rectors. Planning of courses and curricula is the responsibility of a University
Council.Each university is headed by a Rector and is organized into faculties,schools or
departments,each of which corresponds to a speciality or set of specialities.(It should be
noted that higher education in Chile is in the process of reform.)
The training of primary and secondaryschool-teacherstakes place in the universities,in the
institutes of education. Secondary school technical teachers are trained in the technical
universities.Universitiesalso provide summer and refresher courses for teachers.There is in
Chile a Centro Latino-americanode Formacion de Especialistas en Educacion.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Access to higher education is based on theprueba de aptitudacadémica(PAA),which is taken
by students who have already passed the secondary-school-leavingcertificate (licenciade
educacion media). Certain facultiesand schools further requirethe candidateto take a special
examination.Theprueba is the national university entranceexamination;it is organized by a
commission attached to the Council of Rectors.Depending on the subjects tested,the prueba
de apritud académica allows candidates to apply to one or more faculties.
Certain shortcourses lead to the award ofabachiller(for example,in theology,philosophy,
biology,etc.,at the Catholic University of Chile) in three years,and more especially to the
award of a technician’s diploma, for the most part after four years, in many technical,
administrative and other fields (for example,electrical,chemical,mechanical,electronic,
52 CHILE

halieutic, agricultural or laboratory technician, technician of topography, nursing or

midwifery).
The main stage of long-term higher educationtakes between four and six years (or as many
as seven in medicine). It impliesa high level of knowledge and experience of the subject matter,
and leads either to the licenciaturu or to a high level professional qualification.
The second stage leads in certain universitiesand certain subjects to the degree of magister.
This is a postgraduate degree awarded for advanced studies in a particular field.
A third stage is available in certain disciplines in certain universities;this comprises the
submission of a thesis involving specialized work and leads to the award of the doctorado.
The universities provide continuing education in the Escuelas de Temporada, the Cursos y
Seminarios de Difusion, etc.
Foreign students may generally be accepted in Chilean universitiesif they have successfully
completed their secondary education but each university has its o w n entry requirements.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, licencia de educacih media)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
~

Education P P P L M
Humanities, philosophy B L L
Catholic theology B L D
Fine arts B L P
Architecture P P
Law
Social and economic B P/L
sciences
Business studies P L L M
Natural and exact B L M D
sciences
Technology, engineering Di/P L P P
Medical sciences
medicine P/L/D
dentistry P
pharmacy P P
veterinary medicine P
nursing P P
Agriculture P/L M

D doctorado Di technician's diploma L licenciatura M magister P profes-

sional qualification

N.B. The duration of studies,the conditions of award and the nomenclatureof diplomas may
vary between establishments.

GLOSSARY
Bachiller. First degree of higher education awarded by some universitiesin certain subjects
(for example by the Catholic University of Chile) usually after three years of basic non-
CHILE 53

specialist study.This qualification is not a pre-conditionfor the award of higher degrees.

Doctorado. The highest degree of higher education, awarded in certain faculties to
candidates who have submitted a thesisafter a period of study subsequentto the award ofthe
licenciatura or a professional qualification.
Entrance examination.Examination required by certainfaculties(after thepruebade aptirud
académica) of students wishing to enter higher education;it may be accompanied by further
special requirements.
Licencia de educacih media.Secondary-school-leaving certificateawarded aftersix years of
primary followed by six years of secondary education,in two cycles of three parts. The
examination is organized by the heads of secondaryeducationand includes written and oral
tests and an assessment of the candidate’spersonality.Those students with sufficiently high
marks in the written examinations may be exempted from the oral part. To enter higher
education,the candidatemust pass first the licenciade educacibn media,and then thepruebade
aptitud académica.
Licenciatura. First degree of higher education in most universities.The licenciatura is
awarded after studies lasting normally between four and five years, but sometimes six
(engineering)or seven (medicine). Candidates must normally submit a dissertation.
Magister. Degree of higher educationawarded in certainestablishments normallyafter two
years’studies subsequent to the award of the licenciatura.
Professionalqualification.Qualification of higher education awarded by certain faculties.
The period of studiesis normallybetween five and six years(seven in medicine)and studiesare
carried out under the same conditions as those leading to the licenciatura.
Prueba de aptitud académica.Universityentry examination required of students wishing to
enter higher education who have already passed the secondary-school-leavingcertificate
(licencia de educacibn media). The subjects of this examination are taken from the curriculum
of secondary education. It comprises a comprehension paper, a foreign language paper,
and three papers on subjects related to the candidate’sspeciality.The examination may be
taken not more than three times and the candidate may vary the subjects related to his
speciality.Depending on the subjects tested,theprueba entitles the candidate to apply to one
or more faculties.
Technician’sdiploma.Qualification in higher education awarded in certain facultiesafter a
period of technical studies varying between establishments,but normally of four years.

China
In the People’s Republic of China,higher education,which is undergoing major reforms,is
provided in some 600institutionsofvarious types including ‘general’universities(human and
natural sciences,social sciences), technical universities,specialized institutions (medicine,
agriculture,foreign languages,etc.) and teacher-trainingcolleges.
The Central Ministry of Education is responsiblefor the general direction,co-ordination
54 CHINA

and administration of these institutionsand has overall responsibility for teaching methods
and choice of programmes and textbooks.At the local level,there is a dual authority structure
involving the traditional academic leadership and the local authorities. The day-to-day
administration of each university institution is in the hands of a President and several Vice-
Presidents with functional responsibilities.
In 1977, the ‘key’university system was re-introducedwith 89 such institutions,of which
some thirty are directly responsible to the Central Ministry. The others are responsible to a
wide variety of the jurisdictions including provincial governments and, in the case of
specialized institutions,other ministries and academies. The primary purpose of these key
universities is to train research scholars and academic staff for other universities,academies
and research institutes throughout the country. Major emphasis is placed on the teaching of
subjects in the fields of science and engineering-659 out of 819 subjects.
In addition to the above-mentioned universities and institutions of similar rank,there are
also other institutions including workers’and peasants’ collegesand correspondenceschools.
These are operated by factories, people’s communes, provincial, municipal and rural
authorities and by industrial departments under the State Council.They play an important
role in quickly training the large numbers of technicians needed in the agricultural and
industrial sectors. They also help to raise the general educational level of the workers and
peasants.The courses in the workers’schoolsare normally of two or three years’duration and
students attend either full-time or part-time.
Since 1979 an open university has been functioning under the authority of the Ministry of
Education and the Central Broadcasting AdministrativeBureau. The three-yearcourse,given
by television,is addressed to workers of senior-secondary-schoollevel, school-teachersand
other young people and is designed to provide basic knowledge in the fields of science and
engineering.There are also other radio and television courses,including one in Shanghai for
teachers in senior secondary and secondary technical schools.
Policy in matters of access to higher education is determined by the Central Ministry of
Education in collaboration with other ministries and government departments and the
universities themselves. Selection is normally based on a nationally unified entrance
examination established in 1976 and taken mostly by secondary school students.The length of
courses for the first stage of university study is four years but,in some subjects,it may be three
or five years. Academic work is linked with practical and field work and a dissertation is
prepared during the final year.
The second stage, which is one of postgraduate study and research, may be undertaken in
more than two hundred approved institutions.Admission to them is normally by entrance
examination,re-introduced in 1979. The duration of postgraduate courses varies from two to
four years.
COLOMBIA 55

Colombia
Higher education in Colombiais givenin93university institutions,25 institutesoftechnology
and five military academies;the first two types of institutions comprise both official and
private institutions.
Colombian universities provide two types ofstudies:long studiesleading to the licenciaturu
or to a professional qualification,and short technological studies leading to the title of
tecnologo after six semesters.They are autonomousinstitutions;the number of courses varies
from one institution to another.One hundred and thirty-fivedifferent programmes are thus
provided throughout the country,both in long courses of study and in technological courses
of study (law, economics, book-keeping,medicine, dentistry, nutrition and dietetics,
agronomy,differentspecializationsin engineering,various fields oftechnology).For the most
part,each faculty is divided into departments,but sometimesone department is serviced by
several faculties (for example a mathematics or language department). Evening classes are
very highly developed and usually lead to the same titles as traditional forms of teaching,
although the number ofteaching hoursis sometimesgreater and the duration ofstudiesis thus
greater too.
Two associationsof institutes of higher education now exist in Colombia:the Colombian
Association of Universities (ASCUN) and the Colombian Association of Institutes of
Technology (ACIET),and most institutions of higher education are members of these
associations.
The Colombian Institute for the Development of Higher Education (ICFES)is the state
body appointed by the executive to carry out the constitutionalfunctions of supervising
university education.It must therefore fix the minimum contents of the various courses,fix
the subsidiesallocated by the State to the universities,fix the normsofhigher education,carry
out studiesconcerning costs in matters of education for the various universitiesand institutes
of technology,grant technical and pedagogical assistance to these institutions,work out
programmes and supply consulting bodies for this according to needs. There is also
intermediary training at post-secondary level,but not at the level of higher education.The
institutions which give this kind of training are under the authority of the Ministry of
Education.These studies last,respectively,four or five semesters in traditional courses or
evening courses and lead to the qualification técnico intermedio profesional. Their purpose is
to train technicians who will easily find jobs.
Teachersfor primary education and agricultureare trained in schoolsat the secondary level
or in technical institutes ofagriculture (ITA).Teachersfor secondaryeducation are trainedin
the faculties of education of institutionsof higher education.
Likewise at post-secondary level there exist a number of institutionsfor training special
categories of teachers:a national school of physical education,a higher training school for
agriculture, a training school for industrial teachers,and an experimental school for rural
education.The latter trains in two yearsinspectorsfor primaryeducation,certain teachersfor
agriculturalschoolsand monitors for community development organizations (co-operatives,
literacy campaigns,etc.).
The teaching language is Spanish.
Access to higher and intermediateeducation is based on the bachilleruto which is obtainedin
the different types of institutions (teacher-traininginstitutions, classical and industrial
secondary schools,etc.). It is awarded after six years of secondary education followingfive
years of primary education.However,most universities also imposean entrance examination,
or aptitude or intelligence tests, which are organized by the ICFES (Servicio Nacional de
Pruebas) or,in some cases,by the universitiesthemselves.
56 COLOMBIA

Short-term studies are those in technology which lead to a qualification as tecndogo after
six semesters.
The main stage of long-term higher education is reached after four to five years. It is
characterized by a high level of knowledge and practical experience or by the acquisition of a
high-level professional qualification. It leads to the licenciatura or to a professional
qualification as a lawyer,an engineer,an architect,etc. Studies for the licenciatura last four
years; they are offered in pedagogical universities or faculties of education in which the
courses concurrently teach a subject and pedagogical techniques.
A further stage of postgraduate studies may be undertaken in several universities.The title
awarded after this stage of specialization is that of magister or doctor,according to the level
reached.
In certain professions (e.g. medicine) the last stage correspondsto a ‘specialization’which
includes two or three years of training in some field of practical experience in the profession.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 1 1 years, bachillerato)

years 2 3 4 5 6 I

Education
Arts
Religion theology L D
Fine arts L
Architecture P
Law P
Economics Téc Tecn L P M
Exact and natural L M D
sciences
Natural resources P M
Technology, engineering Tecn
Medical sciences
medicine P Esp
dentistry P ESD

D doctorado Esp especializado L licenciatura M magister P pro-

fessional qualification Téc técnico Tecn tecnblogo

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after five years of primary
education followed by six years of secondary education. Pupils having finished their
secondary education may have the right of access to the universities, the institutes of
technology and intermediate studies.However, all these institutionsusually set an examen de
admisibn (entrance examination) for candidates.
Bachillerato industrial.See buchilleruto.
Diploma de técnico profesional intermedio. Intermediate diploma for professional
technicians-post-secondary diploma obtained after two or two and a half years of study,
giving a professional qualification as a technician (telecommunications,industry,electricity,
accounts, etc.).
COLOMBIA 57

Diploma de tecnologo. Degree of higher education,obtained after three years of study

leading to the professional title of tecnblogo (business technology,industrial technology).
Doctorado. Title awarded after postgraduate specializationstudies in the same way as the
magister.It requires a completemastery ofthe specializationand an effective contribution to
the advancement of knowledge through extensive research.
Entrance examination. See examen de admisibn.
Especializado. See magister.
Examen de admision. Entrance examination which must normally be taken by candidates
for higher education who have already obtained the bachillerato. Each university sets the
papers for its own examination;these are normally based upon subjects in the secondary-
school syllabuswhich are particularly relevant to those studied in the faculty.In certaincases
tests of aptitude must also be taken; often candidates also have to be interviewed by a
psychologist,the dean of the faculty or another official.
Licenciatura. Degree of higher education awarded after four years of study.
Magister or especializado. Degree awarded after obtaining a degree of higher education.
Candidates must carry out one or more years of study in the subject in which they wish to
specialize. The magister requires extensive and up-to-date knowledge and initiation to
research work.
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded after four or more
years of study.A thesis or a monograph and/or preliminary work in the main subjectsare
sometimes compulsory. The level corresponds to that of long-term studies and the
licenciatura.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See bachilierato.

Congo
In the People's Republic of the Congo higher education is provided by the Marien Ngouabi
University,formerly known as the University of Brazzaville. The University is a public
institutionwhich is responsibleto the Ministry of Education;its resources come from a state
subsidy and receipts of its own. It comprisestwo faculties (arts and humanities,science), an
instituteof rural development,a teacher-trainingcollege,a higher instituteofeconomics,law,
administration and management,a higher institute of physical education and sport,and a
higher institute of health. It also has correspondence courses.
Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level and those of secondary
education at the university.
The language of instruction is French.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréai or other qualificationsrecognizedas
equivalentand on successin a special entrance examination.In law,studentswho do not hold
a baccalauréat may obtain a capacité en droit after two years of study.If they have an average
ofat least 12 out of 20 they may immediatelygo on to study law.The teacher-trainingcollege
awards the certificat d'aptitude au professorat dans les collèges d'enseignement général (CAP-
CEG).
The main stage of higher education,after three years of study,leads to a licence in letters,
science,law and economics,sociology,psychology and educational sciences.
58 CONGO

The second stage leads,two years after the licence and on presentation of a dissertation,to a
maîtrise in letters, science and educational science. The faculty of science also confers a
diplôme d‘études approfondies (DEA)in solar energy and tropical botany.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R S T U D I E S

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 3 4 5

L M

L licence M maîtrise

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leavingqualification obtained after six years of primary
followed by seven years of secondary education in a classical or technical secondary school.
Secondary education is divided into two cycles, the first lasting four years and the second
three. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education.
Capacité en droit. Qualification which may be obtained after two years of study by students
who do not hold the baccalauréat. Holders of this certificate m a y continue their studies and
obtain a licence in law.
Certificat de fin d’études secondaires.See baccalauréat.
Examen spécial d’entrée. Examination imposed on non-holdersof a certificatdejïn d‘études
secondaires w h o wish to have access to higher education.
Licence. First degree of higher education obtained after three years of study in letters,
science,law, economics, sociology,psychology and educational sciences.
Maîtrise. Second degree of higher education obtained after two years of consecutive study
after the licence by candidates having presented a dissertation.

Costa Rica
In Costa Rica higher education is given in four public institutions (the University of Costa
Rica, the Institute of Technology of Costa Rica, the National University and the State
Distance University), a private university (the Autonomous University of Central America),
two university colleges and various private post-secondary institutions which are more
specifically devoted to commercial studies.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
COSTA RICA 59

Public institutionsare mainly financed by credits allocated by the State,by the revenue
derived from certain taxes,by students’feesand by gifts.The oldestinstitution,the University
of Costa Rica (whose main centre is in San José), has regional university centres in other
towns, and offers courses in five different branches (arts,basic sciences,social sciences,
engineering and health sciences). It also comprises annex faculties.
The National University,which is situated in the province of Heredia and also has other
university centres,comprises the following faculties:philosophy and arts,health sciences,
exact and natural sciences,geology and oceanography,and social sciences.
The Instituteof Technology of Costa Rica,whose main centre is situated in the province of
Cartago, offers courses in the following seven subdivisions:agronomy, civil engineering,
forestry,industrial engineering,management,research,technological development,univer-
sity and student services,which are concerned with teaching methods and research,as well as
with administrative procedures.
The State Distance University (UNED),whose main centre is in the province of San José,
opened at the beginning ofMay 1977.Its main purpose is to give higher education courses to
as many people as possible who were unable to have access to the traditional system of
education for various reasons,and more particularly to the rural and adult population. It
offerscourses in education,management and hygiene.
The administration of the universities usually comes under the authority of the University
Assembly,of the University Council,of the Rector and Vice-Rector(in hierarchical order).
The most important governing body of the Institute of Technology is the Board of
Administration,which is made up of the Rector,ofrepresentatives ofthe centralgovernment,
of private enterprise,of the students and of the Association of Former Students.
Access to higher education in the public institutions of higher education,for national
students,is the completion of secondary education (five years of classical education or six
years of technical and professional studies,followingsix years of primary education)and an
examen de admisibn (entrance examination), except at the State Distance University where
only the first of these two requirements is necessary. Foreign students must present a legal
certificate proving successin certain subjects,an identificationcard grantedby the Consulate,
a certificate proving that they have followed compulsorystudiesor their equivalent,and must
apply to benefit from the agreements passed by the Government of Costa Rica with their
country of origin recognizing these qualifications.
~

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 11 or 12 years,bachilleraio and entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
~~ ~

Art and letters Di B L E M D

Science Di B L E M
Social sciences DI B L M
Engineering DI B L E M
Agricultural sciences,
husbandry B L M
Medicine Di B L M

B barhiller D dociorado Di diplomado E especialidad L hcenciatura M

maestria
60 COSTA RICA

Short-term studies lead to a first qualification,the diplomado, at the end ot two years and
students may choose whether or not to continue their studies.If they do continue,students
may go on to study for the title of bachiiler which constitutes the main stage of higher
education: during the first phase a bachiileraio is awarded after four years. Alicenciatura m a y
be awarded, either one or two years after, or directly as a first degree.
A further stage leads to an especiaiidad (specialization)or amnestria two years after the title
of bachiller. In certain subjects a final stage leads to a doctorado (approximatelyfour years
after the title of bachilier).

GLOSSARY
Bachiller. Qualification awarded after a minimum duration of eight periods of study (four
years), sometimes called bachilierato.
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after five years of classical
education or six years of technical and professional studies following six years of primary
education. This is also the name given to the first degree awarded in higher education.
Diplomado. Title awarded at the end of short-term studies after between four and six
periods of studies of fifteen weeks (two or three years) during which the students must have
obtained between sixty and ninety créditos (credits).
Doctorado académico. The highest degree of higher education. Minimum duration of
studies: seven periods of study after the bachilier (three and a half years).
Especialidad profesional. Part of postgraduate studies, except that it is centred on
specialized practical training in a given field of the profession. No time limit is imposed,
because these specializations are of a non-university kind.
Licenciatura.Minimum duration of two periods of supplementary studies (oneyear) after
the bachilier, or of ten periods of studies (five years) if the student does not hold this
qualification. In order to reach university level students must successfully complete diploma
work which corresponds to the specific requirements of each branch of study.
Maestria.Degree awarded after four minimum periods of study (twoyears) after the title of
bachilier.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.See bachilierato.

Cuba
In Cuba higher education is provided in four universities (Universidad de L a Habana,
Universidad de Las Villas, Universidad de Oriente,Universidad de Camagüey), as well as in
23 institutes of higher education (including three higher polytechnics) and six university
centres.The Ministry of Education heads, guides,controls and carries out policy in matters of
graduate and postgraduate education. It controls teaching, methodology, courses and
programmes, the allocation of student numbers and the specialization courses offered by the
CUBA 61

centres of higher education which come under the control of other institutions (medicine,
pedagogy,arts and physical education).
In Cuba higher education,books and other teaching material are free.
Many centres of higher education provide courses for workers in addition to their
traditional full-timecourses.
The universities,the institutesof higher education and the higher polytechnics all have the
same status,although their purposes differ slightly.Universities are institutions which are
responsible for training specialists,and more especially specialistsin natural sciences,exact
sciences,social sciences,humanities and economics.The institutes of higher education are
responsible for training specialists in specific fields and concrete sectors of the country’s
development (for example the Institut0 Superior de Ciencias Médicas). The higher
polytechnics are responsiblefor training specialistsin technical sciences,and more especially
for various sectors of the national economy.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Access to higher education is based on the certifcado de fin de estudios secundarios
(secondary-school-leavingcertificate), which certifies that the student has followed twelve
years of primary and secondary education.Access to higher education is also based on the
marks previously obtained.
The main stage of higher education usually lasts five years,although the length of studies
may vary between four and six years.The ordinary courses that are offered to workers usually
last a year longer than traditionalcourses.At the end of the first stage studentsare awarded a
titulo profesional (professionalqualification).
A further stage corresponds to a period of study in depth and research which leads to the
candidato a doctor en ciencias,which is the first scientific degree.In medicine,the first stageis

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,certi3cado de f n de estudios secundarios)

varied
years 4 5 6 7 8 9 duration

Education
Arts P C
Fine arts P C
Law P C
Economics P C
Exact and natural P C
sciences
Engineering P C D
Medical sciences
medicine -
C D
dentistry P C D
pharmacology P C D
veterinary medicine P C D
Agriculture P c D

C candidato a doctor en ciencias D doctorado P professional qualipcation

62 CUBA

usually followed by a course of professional specialization leading to a specificspecialization.

Another stage,which is of varying duration,leads to the degree of doctor en ciencias,which
is the second scientific degree. It is awarded after the student has defended a thesis containing
the solution of a scientific problem and which contributes to the progress of knowledge in that
specific field.

GLOSSARY
Candidat0 a doctor en ciencias.The first scientific degree;it requires a minimum of two years
of advanced studies. There are two régimes: full-time studies (maximum duration-four
years) and part-time (maximum duration-six years). The course leading to the award of the
degree includes: research or ‘development’work which must provide results and include
original aspects which may be of importance for production,services or science;advanced and
specialized studies; studies in philosophy;the study of a foreign language.
Certificado de fin de estudios secundarios. Certificate obtained after six years of primary
education followed by three years of secondary;and then by three years of pre-university
education or technical and professional training.
Doctor en ciencias.The highest degree of higher education.It is awarded after astudent has
submitted and defended a thesis which includes general theoretical conclusionsand the study
of an important scientific problem which represents a valuable contribution to the
advancement of science and its applications.It gives evidence that the student knows h o w to
work on his o w n and that he has reached a very high level.
Professionalqualification.First qualification of higher educationawarded after five years in
most faculties (six in medicine).
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See Certijïcado de jïn de estudios secundarios.

Cyprus
In Cyprus higher education is at present provided in nine post-secondary institutions:the
PedagogicalAcademy for the training of pre-primaryand primary teachers;the Pedagogical
Institutefor the in-servicetraining of primary teachers;the Higher Technical Institutefor the
training of engineering technicians; the Hotel and Catering Institute;the School of Nursing
and Midwifery; the School of Psychiatric Nursing; the Forestry College; the Productivity
Centre for postgraduate training in management; the School of Public Health Inspectors,
which operates according to demand, once every five years approximately.
All these institutionsare state-financed and supervised by the Ministries of Health (three),
Labour (three), Education (two) and Agriculture (one). Cyprus provides third level education
to less than 10 per cent of its students;the remainder continue their higher education in some
1000 institutions,located in some 30 countries,but mainly in Greece or the United Kingdom
(about 60 and 20 per cent respectively in 1976-77).
CYPRUS 63

A decision was taken by the Government in 1978 to establish a university,in order to meet
primarily the needs of Greek Cypriots;special arrangements will be made to meet the
requirements of Turkish Cypriot students.
A small number of part-time,public institutionsoffer post-secondary training to prepare
students for university entrance examinations and to teach languages,accounting,etc.Some
ten private institutionsoffer third level education in business administration,etc.
With the exception of the PedagogicalAcademy,where the medium ofinstructionisGreek,
the other institutionsare intercommunaland teaching takes place in English.
Access to higher education is based on the school-leaving-certificate(apolytirion or
apodeiktirion for Greek Cypriot schools,bitirme diplomasi or Cprus certificateof education
for Turkish Cypriot schools). This is normally obtained after six years’primaryandsix years’
secondaryeducation (dividedin the Turkish Cypriot system into two three-yearphases). The
number of vacancies in ail public,third level institutionsin Cyprus is fixed annually by the
Council ofMinisters,in accordancewith the estimated requirements of the Cyprus economy.
All candidates are required to pass an entrance examination and competition is high.
Access to higher education for Cypriots outside Cyprus is determined:(a)in Greece,by the
numerus clausus in force in Greek universitieswhich varies between five per cent of the total
student enrolment in the case of the National Metsovion Polytechnic,and 15 per cent in the
case of schools of humanities,law,economics and business administrationof other Greek
institutionsof higher education;(b) in the United Kingdom,by the obligation to satisfy the
normal requirementsof entry to British universities.Special provisions for the admission of
foreignstudents have long existed in the case ofthe Forestry College,where a high percentage
of vacancies is traditionally reserved for overseas students from the Commonwealth and/or

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education:12 years,apolytirion or apodeiktirion in Greek Cypriot schools,bitirme
diplomasi or Cyprus certificateof education in Turkish Cypriot schools)

years 1 2 3 4

Pedagogy (Pedagogical Academy) PPTD/PTD

Pedagogy (PedagogicalInstitute) D
Technical engineering D
Forestry D
Nursing,midwifery C D
Psychiatricnursing C D
Management (Productivity Centre) D
Public health C

C certificate D diploma PTDprimary teacher’sdiploma PPTDpre-primary teach-

er’s diploma

In addition,short or part-timecourses,sandwich and distanceeducationcoursesare provided

by: the Higher Technical Institute where civil, electrical and mechanical engineering are
taught,as well as repair of medical equipment(which is sponsored by WHO);the Hotel and
Catering Institute;the Pedagogical Institute which organizes workshops for teachers; the
Productivity Centre which runs courses for supervisors in industry;the ‘PopularUniversity’
which runs short programmes in the form of lectures,to be repeated on radio broadcasts.
64 CYPRUS

other friendly countries, especially in the Middle East and Africa. Similar provisions were
recently made for the comparatively new institutions under the Ministry of Labour, such as
the Higher Technical Institute,the Hotel and Catering Institute and the Cyprus Productivity
Centre; a percentage of vacancies is reserved for foreign students sponsored by Unesco,
WHO,the Commonwealth and Arab countries.It is hoped that the Co-operativeCollege will
develop into a regional educational centre for the countries of the Middle East and North
Africa, in accordance with a relevant resolution passed by the Near East and North Africa
Regional Agricultural Credit Association (NENARACA),under the aegis of the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO).
Except for the special diplomas of the PedagogicalInstitute and the Productivity Centre
(which require one year or less), studies in higher education last two years (at the Forestry
College) to three or four years (in midwifery and nursing) and lead to a diploma in a special
field (there are also certificates).

GLOSSARY
Apolytirion or apodeiktirion (Greek Cypriot schools). Secondary-school-leavingcertificate
awarded after six years of primary education and six years of secondary education, giving
access to higher education.
Bitirme diplomasi or Cyprus certificate of education (Turkish Cypriot schools). Equivalent
in the Turkish Cypriot schools of the apolytirion (see above).

Czechoslovakia
In Czechoslovakia higher education is provided in: comprehensive universities offering
education in humanities,social sciences,natural sciences,medicine and pharmacy,as well as
veterinary medicine (faculties of education in universitiestrain teachers of primary and lower-
secondary education; some teacher-training institutions are independent); technical
universities and specialized technical institutionssuch as schools of economics, agricultural
colleges providing courses in agriculture, forestry and wood technology and schools of fine
arts.
All these institutionsare administered and financed by the State,by means of the National
Ministries of Education (in Prague for the Czech Socialist Republic,and in Bratislava for the
Slovak Socialist Republic). All higher education in Czechoslovakia is free.
The contents and duration of higher education are fixed for each subject through
programmes which are applied nationwide. The development of university evening and
correspondence courses allows many of those already in employment to gain access to higher
education.These courses last one year longer than conventional courses.
The language of instruction is Czech and/or Slovak;theses may also be presented in other
languages.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 65

There are six theologicalfacultiesfor the trainingofpriests(twoCatholic,three Evangelical

and one Orthodox); these come under the Ministries of Culture.
Most institutions of higher education are divided into faculties. These are usually
subdivided into the basic teaching unit,which is the department.
Primary school-teachers are trained for five years at post-secondarylevel in faculties of
education;the latter exist either within the framework of the universities or independently.
Secondary teachers are trained in the faculties of humanities, science, education,
mathematics, physics and physical education and sport, where they receive concurrent
training in educationand the subjectsthey have chosen.The technical universities,schools of
economics and colleges of agriculture train secondary teachers of professionally orientated
subjects (e.g.agriculture and economics).
Access to higher education is based on the maturitni vysvëdc‘eni(secondary-school-leaving
certificate). This is awarded after four years ofsecondaryeducation in a secondary school,
following upon eight or nine years of primary education.
A n admissionsboard is appointed by the rector of a university or college or the dean of a
faculty and makes its selections on the basis of a complete evaluation of every applicant’s
qualifications,taking into considerationa report on his or her general secondary education
and the results of the university entrance examination.
The main stage of higher education is of differing duration for different subjects: for
economics,four years;engineering,four to five years;education,fourto five years;veterinary
studies,five and a halfyears;architecture and medicine,six years.It leads,after successin the
state final examination,to thequalificationofabsolvent (graduate)and the award of a diploma
in the respective branch of study.In some cases this diploma is accompanied by a degree,i.e.
‘engineer’(Ing.) at the technical faculties,agricultural colleges and schools of economics;
‘doctorof medicine’(MUDr); ‘veterinarydoctor’(MVDr); ‘academicarchitect’(akademickj
archirekr),‘academicpainter’(akademickirnalir)or ‘academicsculptor’(akademickjsochal)
at the school of fine arts.
Absolvents may sit an additionalexamination,the rigoroznizkouSka.They then obtain the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,maturitni v-vsvëdcëniand entrance examination)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Education
Arts
Fine arts,architecture
Law
Economic sciences
Engineering
Medical sciences
medicine P K --!DL
dentistry P P K-BL
veterinary medicine
Agriculture P
P K -DL
K ---
Dv
-
A absolvent D doktor D v doktor vëd K kandidat vëd P professional quali-
fication
66 CZECHOSLOVAKIA

degree of doktor: doctor of philosophy (PhDr), doctor of law (JUDr), or doctor of natural
science (RNDr).
A further stage is spent either in institutions of higher education or at scientific research
institutes-especially that of the Czechoslovak Academy of Science. Aspirantura or
postgraduate studies last three years and lead, after submission of a thesis (which may be in
Czech or Slovak) to the kandiddt vëd or candidatus scientiarum (CSc).
Another stage which varies in length, leads to the award of the doktor vëd or doctor
scientiarum (DrSc), the highest degree of higher education.This requires the submission of a
thesis (in Czech or Slovak) reflecting a very high level of research and making a significant
contribution to the subject in question.

GLOSSARY
Absolvent. First degree of higher education,awarded after between four and six years’study
(depending on subject) of traditional university kind (see also doktor).
Aspirant.Absolvent holder doing scientificresearch according to his individualplan of study
in a particular subject, on a wide scientific base. The aspirant must have two languages of
international status and study the philosophical questions raised by his subject. The
aspirantura course leads to the ‘candidateexamination’and the submission of a thesis for the
degree of kandidut vPd (candidatusscientiarum).
Aspirantura. Guided postgraduate studies of an absolvent w h o is preparing himself for
scientific or scientific research work. Studies normally last three years; the maximum is five
years, for students who are already in employment. Aspiruntura studies take place in a
university or higher education establishment,in the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences or a
research institute.The supervisor must have the correspondingscientific qualification of the
relevant institution.
Candidatus scientiarum. See kandidut vëd.
Diplom. This is the university qualification issued by a higher education institution to
successful candidates to the final state examination w h o have become graduates.
Doctorate. See doktor;doktor vZd.
Doctor scientiarum. See doktor, doktor vZd.
Doktor. This is a degree conferred upon the graduates of some branches of study on the
basis of a special examination (see rigorozni zkoucka).
Doktor vëd. The highest degree of higher education, normally awarded after that of
kandidut vëd. It demands the submission of a thesis which must be the product of original
research and represent a contribution to knowledge.
Entrance examination. See maturitni vysvëdreni.
Kandidat vëd. Postgraduate scientific degree awarded after the completion of aspirantura
studies or the award of a professional qualification.The student in the first period of study
must master two modern languages,and study his o w n specializationand Marxism-Leninism.
For the rest of the time, he prepares a thesis which must reflect original research work on a
scientific problem.
Maturitni vysvëdfed. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, awarded after eight or nine
years’primary and four years’ study in a general secondary school.It is required for access to
higher education.The number of students entering each faculty is determined annually by a
national plan. in each institution the board of examiners of the university appointed by the
rector (or the dean of the faculty) takes its decisions concerning the admission of the
applicants on the basis of the general secondary school report of the applicant and the results
of the entrance examination.
Professional qualification. First degree of higher education awarded as a diploma in a
particular specialization, e.g. inzenir (engineer); doktor mediciny (doctor of medicine);
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 67

akademicki architekt (architect). TI.,s degree is awarded after a five-yearcourse of study (six
in medicine and architecture).
Rigorozni zkoulka. Examination taken by a candidate already holding the degree of
absolvent in order to obtain the degree ofdoktor.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See maturitni vysvëdreni.

Democratic Kampuchea
No information having been received recently thepresent text is repeatedfrom the I976 English
edition of this Guide.

In DemocraticKampuchea higher educationtakesplace in five universities.TheUniversity of

Phnom-Penh offers courses in the following faculties: law and economics, commerce,
medicine and related sciences,pharmacy,letters and human sciences.science,education.The
University has attached to it a higher teacher-traininginstitution(distinctfrom the faculty of
education), a primary teacher-training institution and an institute of languages. The
Technical University has faculties of industrial,electronic and civil engineering;it also has
higher schools of chemical engineering and of civil aviation, as well as institutes and
technological centres.The University of Agricultural Sciences gives a wide range of courses:
agriculture, forestry, veterinary medicine,sociology and economics,fisheries and stock-
breeding. It has also a number of research institutes.There are also a university of fine arts,a
Buddhist university and a school ofadministration.All theseinstitutionsare situatedeither in
Phnom-Penhor nearby.Universities in provincial centres (Battambang,Kompongcham and
Takéo-kampot) are being developed. Depending upon the institutions and the various
subjects,courses are given in either Khmer or French.
Teacher-training takes place within the faculty of education of the University of Phnom-
Penh and comprisesa two-yearspecialized course,which awards a qualification for primary
and lower-secondaryeducation.Teachersfor upper-secondaryeducation are trained in three
years in a higher teacher-traininginstitution.
Higher education is entirely financed by the State,but the responsibilityfor it lies with the
Ministry of National Education.However,the facultyofmedicine ofPhnom-PenhUniversity
is under the Ministry ofPublic Health and the schoolofadministration dependsdirectly upon
the office of the President of the Council of Ministers.
Access to higher education is by the buccalauréut. However,some courses are open to
studentswho possess lowerqualifications.Thuscoursesleadingto thecapacité en droit may be
entered by holders of the lower-secondary-school certificate(baccalauréat,premièrepartie)or
a similar qualification,or by civil servants of at least three years’standing.The faculty of
medicine also admits to the trainingcourse for health officerscandidateswho are holders only
of the lower-secondary-schoolcertificate.
The first stage of studies lasts two or three years in some fields. Thus, in various
68 DEMOCRATIC KAMPUCHEA

technological fields,a higher technician’sdiploma (diplôme de technicien supérieur) may be

gained in three years. A professional qualification in the fields of commercialadministration
or management may also be awarded after three years. In certain fields-such as the
humanities, science or medicine-a preparatory course of a general nature lasting one year
must be followed.This leads respectively to the following qualifications:certificate of general
literary studies (certificatd‘études littéraires générales) for French and Khmer studies; in
science,a certificate ofpreparatory studies (certificatd‘étudespréparatoires);for medicine,the
certificate of studies in physics, chemistry and biology (PCB,certificatd‘études physiques,
chimiques et biologiques) must be obtained in the faculty of science.
In technology a higher diploma of general science (diplômed‘études supérieures du premier
degré) is awarded after a two-year course which represents the first stage leading to the
qualification of engineer. A diploma of higher studies,first stage (diplômed‘études supérieures
de premier degré) is awarded after a three-year course at the Buddhist University.
A longer course lasting at least four years leads to the licence degree or to the professional
qualification of dentist (four and a half years), pharmacist (five years), doctor of medicine
(seven years), etc.
A further stage consisting of specialized courses and research may be undertaken in certain
fields. In law,for example,a thesis for the doctorate may be submitted after the diploma of
higher studies (diplôme d‘études supérieures).

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Certificate awarded at the end ofsecondary education. Secondary education
is divided into a first phase of four and a second phase of three years, and follows upon six
years of primary education. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education.
Capacité en droit. Qualification awarded after two years’ study of law. T o enrol in the
course for this qualification it is not necessary to possess the baccalauréat,but only either to
hold a lower-secondary-schoolcertificate (diplômedétudes secondairesdupremier cycle)or to
be a civil servant of three years’ standing.
Certificat d’études Littérairesgénérales.Certificate of general literary studiesawarded after a
preparatory course in the faculty of humanities,as an intermediate stage to the licence degree.
Certificat d’études préparatoires.A certificate of preparatory studies in science. Several
types of certificate exist,with a bias in either mathematics,the physical and chemical sciences
or the biological sciences.Such a certificate is a necessary qualification for proceeding further
towards the licence degree. For medicine the correspondingintermediate qualification is the
certificate of studies in physics, chemistry and biology (PCB,certificat de sciencesphysiques,
chimiques et biologiques).
Certificatd’études supérieures.The licence degree in humanitiesor scienceis awarded after a
certain number of these certificates have been obtained.
Diplôme de technicien supérieur. Higher technician’s diploma awarded after three years’
study beyond the baccalauréat.
Diplôme d’études secondaires du premier cycle.Lower-secondarycertificateawarded at the
end of the first four years of secondary education.
Diplôme d’études supérieures (DES).In law and economics the DES is an intermediate
qualification obtained after the licence but before the doctorat. It is usually taken one year
after the licence and compriseswritten and oral examinationsand the writing of a dissertation.
Diplôme d’études supérieures de sciences générales. Qualification awarded in various
faculties or higher technical institutionsafter a two-year basic scientific course,possession of
which allows the holder to continue his studies for an engineering qualification.
Diplôme d’études supérieures du premier degré. Diploma of higher studies (first stage)
awarded after three-year course at the Buddhist University.
Doctorat. Highest university degree, awarded in certain faculties. It corresponds either to
DEMOCRATIC KAMPUCHEA 69

the completion of specialized research undertaken after the licence and,where appropriate,
the diplôme d‘études supérieures.
Licence. University degree awarded in the faculties of law and economics, commerce,
humanities and scienceafter a minimum course of four years.In humanitiesand science the
award of the degree is conditionalupon having acquired the requisite number of certijïcuts
d’études supérieures.

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

In the DemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea highereducation is provided inuniversitiesand
other higher education establishments,numbering 168.All highereducation is subjectto the
State Education Committee.
Nursery and primary-schoolteachers are trained over three or four years at secondary
school leaving standard,secondary school-teachersat university level.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded
after eleven years of free compulsory schooling.
There are four years of primary school followed by seven years’ secondary study,
comprising a first cycle of three years and a second cycle of four years consistingof either
technical or general studies.
There is also an eleven-year instruction programme in general studies and in foreign
languages,music, dance or plastic arts.
The first stage of higher education involves four- or six-year courses leading to a
professional qualification.
The second stage of higher education leadsafter three or four years’study and researchto a
first doctorate.
The title ‘doctor’is granted after study and research pursued over several years. It is very
rarely awarded and is bestowed exclusively upon scholarswho have performedscientificwork
of the highest value.
70 DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF KOREA
~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies (First Stage)

(Previous education: 11 years, secondary-school-leavingcertificate)

years 4 5 6

Education P/S
Humanities, fine arts P/S
Law, social sciences, P/S
economics
Science P/S
Engineering, technology P/E
Medicine P/M
Agriculture P/E

E engineer M medical doctor P professional qualification S specialis1

Democratic Yemen
In the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, higher education is given in the University of
Aden which was founded in 1975,incorporatingfivecolleges founded between 1970and 1975:
the Higher College of Education;the Nasser College of Agriculture;the College of Economics
and Administration; the College of Medicine and the College of Engineering.
Teaching takes place in Arabic.
The College of Education offerscoursesin humanitiesand sciences.Both departments offer
two courses: (a) a two-yearcourse leading to a diploma for teachers in intermediate schools;
(b) a four-yearcourse leading to a bachelor’s degree for teachers in secondary schools.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-schoolcertificate.Bachelor ofArts and
Bachelor of Science degrees are conferred by the University.Nasser College ofAgriculture (AI
Hewta) offers four-year courses leading to a bachelor’s degree in agriculture.
The College of Administrationand Economics offerscourses leading to a bachelor’sdegree
in administration, economics and accountancy.
DENMARK 71

Denmark
Higher education in Denmark is provided in universities and other higher education
institutions.
Denmark has three universities (Arhus, Copenhagen, and Odense) which comprise
faculties of medicine, humanities, theology, economics and politics, and science. The
Technological University (Danmarks Tekniske H~jskole),has five faculties (chemistry,
science,mechanical and civil engineering,and electricity). T w o other establishments, the
Danmarks IngenkrakademiK~benhavnand the DanmarksIngenbr-akademiAIborg train
engineers in civil,mechanical,chemicaland electrical engineering,etc. During the lastdecade
two new university centres have been founded:the RoskildeUniversitetscenter(1972)and the
AIborg Universitetscenter (1974), the latter including various previously existing
establishments.These two centres constitute an important breakthrough in Danish higher
education.They have decided on new methods of imparting and reception of knowledge,
based on an ‘integrated’approach to higher education,with special emphasis on working in
groups. The konsistorium is the supreme governing body of a university which is
administrated by a rector assisted by collegial boards and committees.
There are a great many other higher education establishments in Denmark of specialized,
technical or professional kinds;most of them are connectedwith the Ministry of Education,
others being attached to other Ministries (Music,Fine Arts,etc.).
Teaching takes place in Danish.
Although placed under the Ministry of Education,the universitiesand university centres
are autonomous institutions.The Conference of Danish Rectors promotes co-operation
between the universities and the other higher education establishments.A ‘directorate’of
higher education and continuing education (the Direktoratet for de videregiende
uddannelser), which includes a national council and six national planning committees,was
formed in 1974.
Teachers at primary school and first cycle secondary(realskole)level are normally trained
in colleges of education,which may be state or privately run.The course lastsbetween three
and a half years and four;while basically theoretical in outlook,it nevertheless includes
periods of teaching practice. The course leads up to an examination common to all such
colleges. It may be followed up at post-secondary level in the various longer and shorter
courses offered by the Danmarks Laererh~jskole(the Danish advanced teacher-training
college) and by the centres deriving from that establishment.The training of teachers for the
second cycle of secondary education (gymnasiums) takes place in the universities ana
university centres. Students intending to become teachers must follow a teacher-training
course at postgraduatelevel of one semester.The training ensuresa proper balance of theory
and practice.
Shorter studiesare offered in subjects such as social work (threeyears)or in engineering(in
the teknika where the teknikum ingenlar diploma may be obtained after three years or in the
Danmarks Ingeni~rakademiwhere the title of akademingenlar is awarded after three and a
half years).
Access to higher education is generally based on the srudenrereksamen or secondary-school-
leaving exam, which is awarded after ten years of primary and first cycle of secondary
education,followed by the three years ofthe second cycleofsecondarystudies.In practice,the
hjere forberedelseseksamen, a ‘higher’entrance examination, gives access to higher
education;this is taken after two years of preparation.Since 1977,a system regulatingaccess
to higher education has been operating (exclusivelyfor longer courses)and quotas have been
fixed.This takes into account probable future demand for qualified persons,the numerical
12 DENMARK

capacity of the institutions,the candidates’place of origin in Denmark,and the places offered

by the establishments. Candidates may apply to several establishments and for several
differentcourses, thereby increasing their chances of success.
The first stage of longer studies lasts two or three years and is devoted to the acquisitionof a
fairly extensive programme of basic knowledge. Although the student does not always qualify
for a university degree,he may take an examination to establish that he has reached this level.
(This is sometimes called candidatus artium or examinatus artium).
The second stageof higher education leads to the degree of kandidat,which is awarded to the
student w h o has passed the final examination or embedseksamenafter studies lastingbetween
four and a half and eight years or to a professional title (civil engineer) after five years’study.
The kandidat is the normal preparation for teaching in the second cycle of secondary
education. The degree of licentiat (graduate) is awarded after two or three years’ study
subsequent to the award of the kandidat or magister,and involves supervisedresearchwork at
postgraduate level. It could in a sense,constitute a third stage of higher education,before the
doktorgrud,which is awarded after the submission of a thesis and an oral examination on the
thesis and which reflects a high level of specialization.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12/13 years, studentereksamen)

varied
years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 duration

Education P K L D
Arts K/M L D
Religion, theology K L D
Fine arts P
Architecture P
Law, economics D
Political sciences D
Social sciences D
Commercial sciences P HD/P K L D
Exact and natural K M L D
sciences
Engineering,technology P1 P2 P3K L D
Medical sciences
medicine P4 K L D
dentistry K L D
pharmacy K L D
veterinary medicine K L D
Agriculture,forestry K K L D

D doktorgrad; doctor HD handelsvidenskabeiig diplomprave K kandidat; candi-

datus L licentiat;lieentiatus M magister P professional qualification:Pl, tekni-
k u m ingenim; P2,akademingenbr; P3,civilingenim; P4,nurse, midwife, etc.

GLOSSARY
Doktorgrad.The highest degree of higher education, granted after a variable number of
DENMARK I3

years of study to candidates on submission and defence of a thesis. It is rarely awarded.

Embedseksamen. Final examination for the qualification kandidat.
Entrance examination.See hejere forberedelseseksamen.
Hejere forberedelseseksamen.‘Higher’entrance examination for universities and other
higher education establishments,taken after two years’preparatory studies.
Kandidat. First degree of higher education, awarded after a period of studies lasting
between four and a half and eight years.The length of studies depends on the ability of the
students and the time they devote to them. When ready, the student arranges with the
administration of the institution to sit the final examination.Some faculties (e.g.science)
prescribe a detailed syllabus.In some cases,the studentmust take an examinationat the end of
the first phase of study.This often serves as preparation for secondary-school(secondcycle)
or university teaching.
Licentiat or Licentiatus. Degree of higher education granted after that of kandidar to
students who have undertaken two or three years’guided research at postgraduate level.
Magister.Degree of higher education awarded after studies lasting at least five years.It is
normally a preparation for research.The final examination is called the magister-konferens.
Professional qualification.Qualificationafter studies taking place in certain ‘intermediate’
or ‘higher’level establishments.It may consist of the name of the profession it qualifies the
holder to exercise (for example. reknikum ingenim, civil-ingenim) or that of the final
examination (for example,in business studies,handelsvidenskabelig diplomprnve,HD).
Realeksamen.Secondary-school-leaving certificate phased out in 1975.It was taken after
seven years’primary education followed by three years’secondary education in a first cycle
teaching establishment (realskole).
Secondary-schoolleaving certificate.See sîudentereksamen.
Studentereksamen.Secondary-school-leaving certificate,awarded after nine to ten years’
primary and first cycle secondary education, followed by three years’ second cycle. The
courses are the same throughout the country. In theory,this examination gives the holder
access to higher education.

Dominican Republic
In the DominicanRepublic higher educationis given in two kinds ofinstitutions-universities
and other institutionsof higher education.
There are six universities.The Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo (UASD), which
is the oldest university in America (1538). is a state university.Its two main governingbodies
are the Claustro Universitario and the Consejo Universitario. It draws its income from
governmentalfunds,studentfeesand statesubsidies.It comprisessevenfaculties(engineering
and architecture,economics and social sciences,law,medical sciences,arts and humanities,
science,agronomy and veterinary medicine),as well as a preparatoryuniversitycollege,and it
also has three regional university centres (Suroeste,Nordeste,Este).
74 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

The Universidad Catolica ‘Madrey Maestra’in Santiagois a private university which draws
part of its funds from the State. It comprises six faculties(businessadministration,education,
engineering,law, social work, nursing) and four departments (languages, theology,history,
Spanish).
The Universidad ‘PedroHenriquez Urefia’ in Santo Domingo is also aprivateuniversity. It
comprises faculties of agronomy and veterinary medicine, arts and humanities, law and
political science, architecture and fine arts, sciences,engineering,health sciences,education,
economics and social sciences, as well as four affiliated institutes.
The Universidad Central del Este, San Pedro de Macoris, a private institution which was
founded in 1970 and recognized by the Government in 1971, receives credits from the
Government. It comprises a faculty of medicine which meets the educational needs of foreign
students (and more particularly of Puerto Ricans), faculties of engineering, arts and
humanities, economics and social sciences and journalism.
T h e Universidad Tecnol6gica de Santiago,which was founded in 1974 and recognized in
1978,is made up of facultiesof economics and social sciences,engineering and architecture,a
department of secretarial studies, and a language school.
The Universidad Nordestana (UNNE),San Francisco de Macons, which was founded and
recognized in 1978, comprises faculties of engineering, medicine, sciences, economics,
agronomy, arts and humanities.
The other institutesare: InstitutoTecnologico de Santo Domingo; Instituto de Formacion
Integral; Instituto de Estudios Superiores; Centro de Estudios Técnicos; Centro de
Investigation, Formacion y Asistencia Social;Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Exactas;Centro
de Estudios de la Educacion; Centro Educativo Fray R a m o n Pané. The InstitutoTecnologico
de Santo Domingo is a private institutionwhich was founded in 1972 by young professionals
who wanted to contribute to the transformation of Dominican society by developing a
university institution which would serve as a model for the Third World. It draws its funds
from student fees and subsidies from the central government. It offers courses whose main
characteristic is a new approach in the social sciences and the humanities (including
economics), in civil and industrial engineering,in health sciences (medicine)and in lifelong
education. The Instituto de Estudios Superiores is a private institution which comprises
departments of management, accounts, secretarial work, modern languages, marketing,
nursing and fine arts.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Primary teachers are trained in teacher-traininginstitutionswhich are at the level of upper-
secondary education. Their courses last three years. Secondary teachers and teachers in
teacher-traininginstitutionsreceive their training in university facultiesof education.Courses
in them last three years and lead to the licenciatura degree.
Access to higher education is based on the bachillerato,normally obtained after six years of
primary education followed by five or six years of secondary education (the Instituto de
Estudios Superioresalso imposes an entrance examination). Secondary schooling comprises
two phases. The first, which lasts two years, is c o m m o n to all students w h o wish to continue
their studies.The second phase, which lasts four years,leads to the bachillerato and prepares
for higher education.
The main stage of higher education leads to a professional qualification or to a licenciatura
after studies whose duration varies according to the institution and to the subject chosen.
Studies may lead to a professional qualification as a journalist after three years,as a iécnico in
physics (three years), or medical science (fouryears), as an ingeniero(five or six years), or as an
arquitecfo (six years). The professional title of doctor is obtained after four and a half years at
the Instituto Tecnol6gico de Santo Domingo, after six years at the Universidad Central del
Este,and after seven years at the Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo.The licenciatura,
for instance,is obtained after three years in sociology, and after six years in law.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 75

Certain institutions,such as the Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo and the

InstitutoTecnologicode Santo Domingo,also offer postgraduatetrainingcorrespondingto a
second stage.In the first,postgraduatecoursesare offered by the facultyofmedical science in a
great number of specializations;and in the second,professional recycling courses of one year
leading to diplomas are offered. The Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo confers a
doctorado in law after a year’s studies immediately following the licenciaturu and on
submissionof a thesis.The Universidad Central del Este also confers a doctorate in law,after
five years of studies.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 11/12 years,bachillerato)

years 4 5

L D

D doctorado L licenciaturu

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six years of primary
education followed by five or six years of secondary schooling divided into two phases.The
first phase lasts two years and is common to all those who seek to carry their studies further.
The second phase lastsfour years and prepares for higher education.Schoolingends with the
bachillerato, which gives access to higher education.
Doctorado.The highest degree in higher educationawarded after a minimum of one year’s
studies after the licenciaturu and on submission of a thesis.
Examen de admisibn. Entrance examination imposed by the Instituto de Estudios
Superiores for holders of the bachillerato who wish to enrol in this institute of higher
education.
Licenciatura.First degree of higher education awarded after a course wlxh may vary in
length between three and six years.
Professionalqualification.Qualification of higher education awarded after courses which
may vary in length betweeen three and seven years.The qualification of doctor is awarded
after four and a half years and after submission of a thesis at the InstitutoTecnologico de
Santo Domingo,after six years at the Universidad Central del Este,after seven years at the
Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo. The doctorates in dentistry and in veterinary
medicine require fiveyears.In other subjectsstudieslastbetween three and fiveyearsand lead
to the title of ingeniero.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.See bachillerato.
76 ECUADOR

Ecuador
In Ecuador higher education is given in 14 universities and three polytechnics of university
rank, the majority of which are stake institutions.The others are private, including some
Catholic universities.Some institutionsoffer courses in a broad range of disciplines,others
are technological and professionally oriented.
Both the public and the private universities are autonomous, but they are all partly or
entirely financed by the State. They are divided into faculties, institutes and specialized
schools.
Primary teachers are trained at the level of secondary education. Secondary teachers are
trained either in universities in the faculties of philosophy, humanities or education, or in
higher teacher-training institutions.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate (bachilleraio)
or its equivalent. Candidates for higher education have to submit a testimonial from the head
of the institution in which they had their secondary schooling.Moreover,many universities
also require candidates to pass an entrance examination.The maximum number of students to
be admitted is determined by the administrative council of each faculty.Students coming from
certain vocational or technical institutions of secondary level may enter courses in higher
education in the corresponding subjects.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, bachillerato and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 I 8

Education L P D
Arts L D
Fine arts P
Architecture P
L a w and political L P/D
sciences
Administrative and L D
social sciences
Economics P D
Exact and natural D
sciences
Engineering P D
Medical sciences
medicine P P D
dentistry P D
pharmacy D
veterinary medicine D/P
Agriculture P D

D doctorado L Iicenciaiura P professional qualipcarion

(The duration of studies and the names of degrees vary according to the institutions.)
ECUADOR 77

Studies of shorter duration,lasting two, three or four years,may lead to a.professional

qualification as topographer,librarian,social worker,nurse or midwife.
The main stage of higher education comprisesa period of four to six years’study (seven in
medicine). This stage,according to the subjects studied and the type of institutioninvolved,
leads to the award of the licenciatura degree, or a professional qualification (engineer,
economist,etc.), or to the dociorado degree.
Studentsintending to teach in secondaryschoolsmay obtain,after four or fiveyears’study,
the qualification of licenciado in education or of profesor de ensefianza secundaria.
A further stage may he followed in certain disciplines,after the award of a licenciatura or a
professional qualification.This leads to the submission of a thesis for the doctorado degree.
Those with the licenciado degree in education may obtain after two years’further study,a
doctorado degree in education,which gives the right to teach in higher education.

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato en educacih.Secondary-school-leaving certificate,awarded after six years of
primary education followed by six years’study in a teacher-traininginstitution.It entitlesthe
holder to teach in a primary school and gives access to the faculties of philosophy,arts and
educationand to certain otherfaculties,afterpassing an entrance examination(pre-university
course).
Bachillerato en humanidades.Secondary-school-leaving certificate,awarded after six years
of primary followed by six years of general secondaryschooling.In the last year pupils must
choose between three options:literatureandphilosophy:physicsand mathematics:chemistry
and biology. The certificate is endorsed humanidades clusicas (classical humanities) or
humanidades modernas (modern humanities). It gives access to higher education but many
faculties require candidates to sit an entrance examinationin addition(pre-universitycourse).
Bachillerato técnico O comercial. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded after six
years of primary education followed by six years of schooling in a secondary technical
institutionof an industrialor commercial type.It givesaccess,afterthe passing ofan entrance
examination.to the faculties of economics,agriculture,veterinary medicine and,in certain
cases, to the faculty of engineering, depending upon the specialization chosen by the
candidate.
Doctorado.The highest degree of highereducation,awardedafter at least one year’sfurther
study beyond the licenciatura or the obtaining of a professional qualification. A thesis
representing original work must be submitted and in certain cases courses must also be
followed.
Entrance examination.Examination obligatoryfor entrance to some ofthe facultiesthat are
open to holders of a secondary-school-leavingcertificate (cf. bachillerato en educacibn;
bachilleraio en humanidades; bachillerato iécnico O commercial).This examination usually
consists of topics drawn from the secondary school syllabus which are relevant to the
particular faculty the candidate seeks to enter. In some cases the candidate must pass a
scholasticaptitude test or examinationsbased more specifically upon the type of studies the
candidate wishes to pursue.
Licenciatura. First degree of higher education, awarded after a course lasting usually
between four and six years. During each successive year the candidate must pass three
examinationsand obtain a mark of at least 18 out of 30 in order to be eligible to sit for the
annual examination,successin which is necessary in order to start the following year’s work.
The annual examination may be taken again by unsuccessful candidates at the beginning of
the new university year,but if they fail again,the whole year must be repeated.
Primary teacher’s certificate.See bachillerato en educacibn.
Professionalqualification.Qualification of higher education,awarded in those facultiesor
for those specializations in which there exists no licenciaturu degree. The qualification is
78 ECUADOR

awarded after studies which vary in duration between three and seven years (more usually,
from four to six years). Such courses are at the same level as a licenciatura course.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato en educacibn; bachillerato en
humanidades; bachillerato técnico O comercial.

Egypt, Arab Republic of

In the Arab Republic of Egypt higher education is provided in 12 state universities (Ain-
Shams, Al-Azhar,Alexandria,Assiut, Cairo, Helwan, Mansourah, Minia, Menoufia, Tanta,
Zagazig,Suez Canal), one private university (the American University), and ten institutionsof
professional and technical training-some public,some private.T h e Islamic University of Al-
Azhar, the oldest,dates from 970.The following universitieswere founded during the 1970's:
Helwan, Mansourah, Tanta, Minia, Menoufia. The Suez Canal University is still in a
preparatory stage.
Responsibility for higher education is vested in the State and is exercised by the Ministry of
Higher Education.Financing of higher education is largely from public funds.Organization
and administration as well as the academic programmes are determined by laws,decrees and
government regulations.The autonomy of the universitiesis established by law.The Egyptian
universities have full academic and administrativefreedom and direct their o w n affairs;they
are concerned not only with teaching but also with scientific research.
The Supreme Council of the Universities, whose President is the Minister of Education,is
formed of the President and Vice-president of each university, a dean elected annually to
represent the university in Council meetings,and five persons external to the universities but
competent in university matters. The Council determines the overall policy of higher
education and scientific research in the universities along lines suggested by the national,
social, economic, scientific and cultural goals to which the nation aspires. It co-ordinates
studies and awards, and the instruction given in the various different establishments. It
decides the number of students to be taken by the faculties of each university. The Council
may call upon the services of sixteen committees each responsible for a particular university
discipline,plus committees of equivalences and cultural relations respectively.
The universities are divided into faculties which offer courses for diplomas of higher
education. The majority of these have affiliated instituteswhose teaching is more specialized.
Instruction in the faculties is offered in a wide range of subjects:law,archaeologyand letters,
medicine, pharmacy, engineering, agriculture, veterinary medicine, economics and politics,
commerce, basic sciences, dentistry, Islamic studies, education, hotel management, social
work, fine art, etc.
T h e institutions of professional and technical training are of various kinds. M a n y are
affiliated to a university.Others are private institutions.Their intake is governed by the same
conditions as for the universities,and they normally award a qualification equivalent to the
first diploma conferred in the universities.
EGYPT,ARAB REPUBLIC OF 79

Short courses (one to one and a half years) take place in training centres affiliated to the
higher technicalinstitutes,leading to professional qualificationsin the industrial,commercial
and agricultural fields.
The institutesof higher studies not affiliated to the universitiesoffer courses of specialized
instruction at a high level for students already holding a higher education diploma.They are
the Institute of National Planning,the Higher Instituteof Public Health,and the Instituteof
Higher Arabic Studies.
Primary school teachers are trained in teacher-trainingcolleges which take students at the
completion of their lower secondary studies.The course is of five years,that is, two years
longer than the remaining general secondary programme.Secondary teachers are trained in
university in theeducation facultiesand higher teacher-trainingcolleges.There are also higher
institutes of physical education,art, music and domestic science. The Higher Institute of
Industrial Education trains teachers for the preparatory and secondary industrial and
technical schools.
The teaching languages are Arabic and English.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate.Holders of
the school-leavingcertificate of a technical secondary school may,under certain conditions,
enter higher education in their own speciality.Holders of the certificate of primary school
teaching may enter higher education in institutes of domestic science or education. The
number of candidates for higher education is sometimes restricted,and some organizations
impose entrance examinations.A limited number of students are authorized to enrol in
certain faculties as affiliated students,and they are not then required to follow the coursesor
conform to other academic conditions.
Higher education consists initially of one or more years of generally multi-disciplinary

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,secondary-school-leavingcerti3cate)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education B M D
Arts B M D
Islamic studies B M D
Architecture B M D
Law B D
Political sciences, B M D
commerce
Exact and natural B M D
sciences
Technology,engineering Di B M D
Medical sciences
medicine B M D
dentistry B M D
pharmacy B M D
veterinary medicine B M D
Agriculture B B M D

B baccalaureos D doktora Di technician's diploma M magistr

80 EGYPT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF

studies in basic subjects,.especiallyscience or medicine, in which one year’spreparatory study

is standard.
There are various stages of higher education reflecting the various degrees awarded.
The main stage normally lasts between four and five years,depending on the establishment
in question.In medicine,however, it lasts six years with one additional year’spractical work,
and in scientific subjects it often lasts five years. The courses constitute a strong overall
grounding in a subject and lead to the award of the baccalaureos degree.
In the higher institutions of professional and technical education courses last from four to
five years. In technology,an intermediate qualification, that of technician,may be awarded
after three years.
The second stage is a more specialized one and a training in individual research work. It may
be undertaken in a university or in a specialized institution of higher education. In the
universities,courses last two years and comprise a one-year course of study followed by one
year of research culminating in the submission of a thesis. The degree awarded is that of
magistr. Students w h o already hold a university degree may sit for the magistr in a faculty of
education.
The third stage leads after at least two further years’ study after the award ofthemagistr,to
the doktora, the highest degree of higher education. This degree is awarded for advanced
research work culminating in a thesis.In certain cases, after the dokrora,a degree of doctor of
science is awarded.This is reserved for researchersw h o have undertaken a substantial body of
research work.

GLOSSARY
Baccalaureos.First degree of higher education,awarded usually after four years of higher
education,preceded in some faculties by a preparatory year (in medicine,the course usually
lasts six years; in science and engineering,five years). Students are examined at least once a
year in every subject.Examinations may be oral, written or practical. In order to proceed to
the next year of their course,students must have passed all the examinationsof the preceding
year, and may only repeat a year of study once.
Doktora.The highest degree of higher education,awarded after at least two years’research
after the award of the magisir and requiring the submission of a thesis.In medicine,a dokiora
in medical sciences may be prepared concurrently with the professional qualification of doctor
of medicine.
Magistr. Degree of higher education awarded after two or three years following upon the
baccalaureos,usually after submission of a thesis.Normally the course takes two years-one
year of study and one year of research.
Primary teacher’s certificate. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after six years
of primary education followed by three years of classical secondary education and five years
of study in a teacher-training institution.The certificate not only gives the right to teach in
primary schools but also to enter higher education to study domestic science or education.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.Certificate awarded after six years’ primary followed
by six years’ secondary education undertaken in an establishment of general secondary
education. The secondary studies are divided into two cycles of three years each.In theory the
secondary-leaving certificate gives access to higher studies. The number of applicants
admitted toany facultyis fixedannuallyby the Supreme Council.Students are selected among
those who have performed best in the secondary-leaving certificate or in the technical-
secondary certificate,the latter being limited to the faculty corresponding to their o w n
specialization, and applying for a single degree or diploma course only.
Technician’s diploma. Qualification awarded in certain higher professional institutes after
some three years’ study. These studies may be continued for a further two years for the
baccalaureos degree.
EGYPT,ARAB REPUBLIC OF 81

Technical-secondary-schoolcertificate.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded after
six years of primary education followed by six years of secondary education in a technical
school (commercial,agricultural or industrial)divided into two phases of three years each.
Candidates for higher education possessing this certificate are subject to the same conditions
regarding entry as holders of the secondary-school-leaving ceriijïcate.

El Salvador
In El Salvador higher education is given in two types ofinstitution:in four universities,andin
specialized institutionswhich may be either state or private.
The Universidad de El Salvador is an autonomous state university which draws its funds
from credits from the State,gifts and from fees paid by students.It compriseseight faculties
(medicine,dentistry,law and social sciences,agronomy,science and humanities,engineering
and architecture,chemistry and pharmacy,economics). It has two regionaluniversitycentres
(Oriente,Occidente). The Universidad Centroamericana ‘José Simeon Canas’ is a private
university which is financed by gifts,and by fees paid by students.It comprises facultiesof
economics,industrial engineering,humanities and natural sciences.The Universidad ‘José
Matias Delgado’,a private institutionfounded in 1977and financed by fees,creditsfrom the
Government and private donations,comprisesschools of law,of humanitiesand fine arts,of
applied arts, of book-keeping,of business administration and marketing, and of public
administration. The Universidad ‘Albert Einstein’, which was also founded in 1977,
comprises faculties of architecture and civil and industrial engineering.
The specialized institutions are: a school of social work, a higher teacher-training
institution,a higher school of physical education,a higher school of tourism,the Instituteof
Technology of San Salvador and the Central-AmericanInstitute of Technology.
Primary teachers are trained at the Ciudad Normal ‘AlbertoMasferrer’,an institution
which gives courses varying from nine months to three years’duration at the end of which a
certificate is awarded.This givesholders accessto the faculty of humanities,to the School of
Social Work. or to another specialized institution of higher education.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Access to higher education is given through the bachiileraio (secondary-school-leaving
certificate), which is normally awarded after nine years of primary education followed by
three years of secondary education. The Central-American Institute of Technology only
requires the bachilleraio, whereas all the other institutionsimpose an examen de admision
(entrance examination).
The length of higher education courses variesaccording to the type of studies followed.In
the faculties,the first years of study are a transitionalperiod in which the student completes
his general education and is helped to adapt to higher education. Studies must be
accompanied or followed by a year of state social service.They lead to a professional
qualification,or to a licenciaiura,or to a degree of doctor, depending on the specialization.
82 EL SALVADOR

The School of Social Work awards a professional qualificationas social worker after three
years of study and submissionofa thesis.The Universidad de El Salvadorawardsprofessional
qualifications as técnico (technician) in statistics, demography,clinical laboratory work,
physiotherapy,anaesthesiology,and maternal and infant hygiene,after three years.The title
of ingeniero in agronomy requiresfiveyearsofstudyand that ofarquitecto fiveand a halfyears
at the Universidad de El Salvador;at the Universidad ‘José Simeon Canas’ the title of
ingeniero in various specializations requires five years, and five and a half years at the
Universidad de El Salvador.
At the Universidad de El Salvador,the title of licenciado is obtained after four years in
science and in journalism,and five years in letters (after defending a thesis), philosophy,
sociology,educational sciencesand economics (the length ofstudiesin thissubjectis the same
as at the Universidad ‘José Simeon Canas’). The latter university awards a licenciaturu in
administration after six years.
The title of doctor in dentistry is awarded after five years,and the title ofdoctor in medicine
after seven.

PROFILE OF HIGHER S T U D I E S

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 12 years,bachillerato and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6 7

P L/P D D
D doctorado (medicine,dentistry) L licenciado P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after nine years of primary
education followedby threeyearsofsecondaryeducationand giving access,aftersuccessin an
examen de admision (entrance examination), to higher education.
Doctorado. Degree of higher education and professional qualification in dentistry,
pharmacologyand medicine,awarded after five,six or seven years and which usually requires
the preparation of a thesis.
Examen de admisibn. See bachillerato.
Ingeniero. Professional title awarded after five years at the Universidad ‘José Simeon
Canas’and after five and a half years at the Universidad de El Salvador.
Licenciado. Degree awarded by the Universidad de El Salvadorand the Universidad ‘José
Simeon Canas’ after four (science, journalism), five (letters, economics), or six years
(administration), generally on presentation of a short thesis.
Professional qualification.Title obtained after a varying duration of studies(técnico,three
years;arquitecto,five and a half years: doctor in medicine,seven years).
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato.
ETHIOPIA 83

Ethiopia
At present in Ethiopia, higher education is offered in two universities, Addis Ababa
University and the University of Asmara,in junior colleges and specialized institutions.
Although Addis Ababa University started its programme in limited areas,i.e. education,
health, engineering and administration, it has demonstrated a remarkable growth by
presently running 18 facultiesand collegesand more than 75 departmentswithin Addis Ababa
and in other administrative regions.
The colleges and faculties under the umbrella of Addis Ababa University are: Alemaya
College of Agriculture,Awasa Junior Agricultural College. Academy of Pedagogy,Debre
&it Junior Agricultural College,Debre Zeit Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,Gondar Public
Health College with a Faculty ofMedicine,SchoolofGraduate Studies,Instituteof Language
Studies,Faculty of Law, Faculty of Medicine,College of Pedagogical Sciences,School of
Pharmacy,College of Social Sciences,Faculty of Science,Faculty ofTechnology,Divisionof
Continuing Education,Separate programmes with specific objectives are run by teacher-
training institutions. In addition to the above faculties and colleges, there are research
institutes,both in Addis Ababa and in other places, to co-ordinateresearch work.
The University of Asmara,founded by a non-Ethiopianreligious group,has faculties of
arts,commerce and science. A special relationship is now emerging between Addis Ababa
Universityand the UniversityofAsmara.Exploratory studieshave already been conducted by
the Commission for Higher Education, with a view to strengthening and diversifying the
courses offered by the University and making it play a more importantnational and regional
role.Teaching is given in Amharic and English.
Outside these two universities,the institutesoffering post-secondaryprogrammes can be
categorized into four areas according to fields of concentration:

(a) Agricultural institutions-The A m b o Agricultural Institute and the Jimma Agricultural

Instituteoffer a two-yeardiploma programme in general agriculture;the Wondo Genet
Forest Resources Institute which provides a two-yeardiploma programme for forest
rangers; and the Assistant Veterinary Training Institute at Debre Zeit, which trains
animal health assistants for two years,leading to a diploma.
(b) Pedagogicalinstirutions-The College of Teacher Education at Kotebe which offers a
two-yeardiploma programme for would-be secondary school teachers and the Ecole
Normale supérieure de Français,which offers first degrees that enable the graduate to
teach French and Amharic in secondary schools.
(c) Engineering und technology-The Polytechnic Institute at Bahar Dar which offers a two-
year diploma programme,and the Municipal Technical College (three-yearcourse).
(d) Commercial institutions-The Addis Ababa Commercial School,which offers a two-
year post-secondary diploma programme in accounting,banking,etc.

All these institutions operate under the direct control of the Commission for Higher
Education, which was set up after the revolutionary changes of 1974,to co-ordinate the
activities of post-secondaryeducational institutionsand to promote innovation and reforms
which are still under way.
Other post-secondary institutions,such as the TelecommunicationTraining Centre,the
Ethiopian Airlines Training Centre,the Institute for Banking Studies etc.,are attached to
specialized ministries and operate outside the control of the Commission.
Access to higher education is based on the Ethiopian School-Leaving Certificate
Examination (ESLCE)or its equivalent. Lately, a study has been carried out by the
84 ETHIOPIA

Commissionto replacethe ESLCE with a higher educationentrance examination.Generally,

admission to diploma programmes is possible with a pass in three subjects at ‘C’level or
completionfrom a recognized specializedsecondaryschoolor its equivalent,aftera minimum
of two years ofsuccessfulwork experience.Successfulcompletion ofpersonal interviews and
special tests might be required.To be enrolled in a degreeprogrammepasses in five subjects
and in the aptitude test with a ‘C’ average are required.
Foreign examinations that are considered equivalent to the Ethiopian school-leaving
certificateare:The General Certificateof Education (GCE)of the University of London;the
Cambridge Overseas, West African School Certificate,or the Oxford Examination.The
Committee for selection and admissions may grant equivalence to other secondary-school-
leaving certificates in individual cases.
The first stage in higher educationleads to a diploma awarded by higher institutionsafter a
successfulcompletionofa two-yearprogramme.The first degreein higher educationis the BA
or BSc which normally is obtained after three or four years of study (five for veterinary and
medical science). Postgraduate programmes leading to M A or MSc degrees normally take
from one and a half to two years.

~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,Ethiopian school-leaving-certificateexamination)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education Di B M
Arts B M
Architecture B
Law Di B
Social sciences, Di R
economics
Administration B M
Business,commerce Di B M
Exact and natural B M
sciences
Engineering,technology Di B M
Medical sciences
public health Di MD
pharmacy
veterinary medicine
Agriculture

B bachelor’sdegree Di diploma DVM doctor in veterinary medicine M master’s

degree MD medical doctor

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’sdegree. Firstuniversitydegree awarded,depending upon the subject,after three
to five years of study.It takes three years in most cases except for the BSc in engineering,
technology and pharmacy and the LLB degree in law which are obtained after four years.
Examinations are administered at the end of each semester or term and generally the success
of the student depends on his cumulative performance throughout the programme.
ETHIOPIA 85

Diploma. Qualification obtained at a university or in an independent institute after

successfulcompletionof a two-yearprogramme.The only exceptionsin terms ofthe length of
time for obtaining a diploma are the Gondar Health College,which requiresfrom two to two
and a half years in nursing.environmentalhealth and laboratory technology,the Municipal
Technical College and the facultyofbuilding technologywhere programmesofstudies extend
to three and two and a half years respectively.
Doctorate. Professionalqualification conferred in medicine and veterinary medicine.Five
years are required to obtain the M D and the DVM.
Ethiopian secondary-school-leavingcertificate. Certificate awarded after twelve years of
primary and secondary schooling.

Fiji
In Fiji,higher education takes place mainly at the University of the South Pacific,founded in
1970.Other institutionsof higher education are the Fiji School of Medicine,the Fiji Institute
of Technology and the Western Division Technical Centre,which opened in 1978,the Fiji
School of Agriculture and four teacher-trainingcolleges.
The University of the South Pacific serves ten English-speakingterritories in the South
Pacific.It is financed by fees,funds from the Fiji government and other territories and by a
grant from the United Kingdom.
The university consists at present of four schools.The school of social and economic
development offers courses in accounting,economics.sociology,history,geography,politics
and public administration, and trains social scientists and administrators.The school of
education offers courses in education, English and mathematics, and trains secondary
education teachers,as well as providing a correspondencecourse leading to the diploma of
education.The school of natural resources offers courses in biology,chemistryand physics.
The Schoolof Agriculture was established in 1977by means ofthe integrationofthe Regional
College of Tropical Agriculture in Western Samoa with the University.The University also
includes:a centrefor applied studies in development:an instituteof education;an instituteof
marine research; an institute of natural resources;an institute of Pacific studies and an
institute of social and administrativestudies.These were established to provide research and
consultancy services for governments and agencies in the region.
The Fiji institute of Technology is concerned mainly with the training of apprenticesand
with the provision of post-trade courses; it also offers courses leading to an ordinary
technician diploma in engineering as well as a diploma in business studies.It comprises the
following schools: building and civil engineering;electrical engineering;maritime studies;
food and fashion;business studies;general studies;printing;mechanical engineering.
The Fiji School of Agriculture offers two three-yeardiplomacoursesin tropicalagriculture
and tropical fisheries.
Teachers of primary education are trained in two years at post-secondary level at Nasinu
86 FIJI

Teacher’sCollege,Corpus Christi Teacher’sCollege,Fulton College and Lautoka Teachers’

College.Teachers of secondary education obtain a diploma of education (DipEd) after three
years’trainingin the University’sSchool of Education,or they read for a bachelor’s degree in
arts or science and then do a further year’s postgraduate study leading to a certifcute of
education. Teachers already in employment may do a year’sin-servicetrainingleading to the
certijïcate of education.
The teaching language is English.
Access to first degree courses is open to candidates holding a secondary-school-leaving
certificate and who have satisfactorily completed the foundation programme or other
programmes of study of comparablestandard,such as,for instance,a one-yearfull-time‘post
New Zealand University entrance course’.T w o pre-degreeprogrammes,each lasting one
academic year,provide a basis for further programmes of study: Preliminary I (not open to
applicantsfrom Fiji) accepts entrantsat a standard equivalentto New Zealandschool-leaving
certificate;foundation at minimum entry standard equivalent to New Zealand university
entrance.The University also provides teaching for first year students of the Fiji School of
Medicine and the Fiji School of Agriculture at the foundation and preliminary I levels
respectively.
The first stage ofhigher education leads,after three years’study,to the bachelor’s degree of
arts (BA)in the school of socialand economic development,or science (BSc)in the school of
natural resources.Candidates for the graduatecertificate of education do a further one year’s
course after the bachelor’s degree. Students at the school of agriculture are awarded the
diploma in tropicalagriculture after three years’study for the schoolcertificateor a diplomain
tropical fisheries,two years after Preliminary I.
There is as yet no secondstageleadingto a higher degree;there are no postgraduatecourses,
but in special circumstances,individualcandidates may be considered for admissionto MA,
MSc or P h D studies.
External courses (adult education) are provided throughout the university region for
DipEd by correspondence.Regional centres are established in Cook Islands,Gilbert Islands,
Niue,Solomon Islands,Tonga and Western Samoa.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12/13 years,secondary-school-leavingcertificate)

years 3 4

Social and economic BA

development
Natural resources BSc
Education DipEd C
Agriculture DTA
BA bachelor of arts BSc bachelor of sciences C Certificateof education DipEd dip-
loma of education DTA diploma in tropical agriculture
~~ ~ ~ ~ ~

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree.First qualificationofhigher education,obtained in arts or sciencegenerally
after three to three and a half years’ study. Normal full-time programme comprises four
courses in each semester of the first year and three courses in each semester thereafter.
Students are required to emphasize two particular areas of study in their programmes.
FIJI 87

Certificate of education. Postgraduate qualification, obtained after one year’s study

following upon the bachelor’s degree in arts or science.
Diploma of education.Non-graduatediploma for secondary school-teachersawarded after
three years’ training at the school of education. External courses for it are provided
throughout the region by correspondence.
Diploma in tropical agriculture.Awarded after three years’post-secondarystudies by the
school of agriculture.

Finland
In Finland higher education is provided in nine universities-the Abo Akademi and the
Universities of Helsinki,Joensuu,Jyvaskyla,Kuopio,Oulu, Tampere.Turku and Lapland
(the last of these,the University of Lapland,Rovaniemi,was founded in 1979,since when it
has offered courses in law and education);in three technical universities.those of Helsinki,
Lappeenranta,and Tampere:and in specializedhigher schoolsofeconomics,administration,
social work, and veterinary medicine. Finland has 20 institutions of higher education.
Continuing education is widely available;there are 19 summeruniversities open to all-comers,
regardless of qualification,and an ‘open’university still in the experimental stage.
In the University of Abo,the Abo School of Economics,the Swedish School ofEconomics
and Business Administration, and the Swedish School of Social Work and Local
Administration,Swedish is the main teaching language.At the University of Helsinki, the
Sibelius Academy and the College of Veterinary Medicine,Finnish is the principal language
used.The traditional universitiescomprise faculties of:human sciences,mathematics,social
sciences and politics,chemistry,engineering,theology,law,medicine (including dentistry),
science (including pharmacy), agriculture and forestry, education, physical education,
technology (including architecture),economicsand business administration,as well as often
containing institutes and research centres. Of the technical universities, Helsinki and
Lappeenranta have departments for each speciality (civil engineering, mechanical
engineering,etc.), while Tampere is divided into faculties.
The University of Helsinki is a state university, financially and administratively
autonomous though almost entirely financed by the State. The other higher education
establishmentsare also under thedirect supervisionofthe Ministry ofEducationand are,with
two exceptions,state property.They are all autonomousboth administrativelyand in relation
to matters of teaching and research.
Each university is under a rector (rehtori). A numerus clausus is applied rather strictly
throughout all higher education institutionsand fields of study.
Primary school-teachersare trained in three years in teacher-trainingcolleges,secondary
school-teachersat university.Teachersof the first cycle ofsecondaryeducation must pass the
first and lower kandidaaffi diploma in humanities or in natural science (over three or four
years). Those ofthe second cycle must pass the kandidaattiexaminationin philosophy (which
88 FINLAND

takes five to six years). The university courses must be followed by a training period of two
semesters in specialized institutions of school administratibn called normaaliiyseo where
students take an examinationin education.Before this they must followa preparatory course
in education.
Various establishments offer short (two-to four-year)intermediatecourses often taken by
students having average secondary level qualifications.These are schoolspreparing students
for careers as nurses,midwives,or socialworkers,and technical collegeswhose entrantshave
normally done professional work in one or other field of technology.The latter train their
students as technicianswho may then continue their studies in an institute of technology.
Access to higher education is based on the enrolment examination, in Finnish the
ylioppilastutkinto,in Swedish thestudentexamensbetyg,awarded after fouryears’primary and
eight years’secondary education,the latter divided into two phases of five and three years in
that order. It consists of two certificates, one of which is awarded by the Enrolment
Examination Board,the other,a secondary-school-leavingcertificate(lukionpüüstotodistusin
Finnish,in Swedish dimissionsbetygfrün gymnasiet),awarded by the school itself. Faculties
often require candidatesto take entrance examinations.Teacher-trainingcollegesalso impose
entrance examinations open to ylioppilastutkinto holders.Some institutionsof socialscience
or economics accept candidates from secondary level professional schools.
In higher education generally,three stages are distinguishable.The main stage leads to two
levels of the first degree-the kandidaatti. The lower level of the kandidaatti is not,however,
available in all institutionsor all disciplines.The lower level is comparable to a bachelor’s
degree and often has a specific name:in humanities HuKand, in natural science Luonnontiet
Kand, etc. Professionaldiplomas from the faculties of agricultureand forestry(agronomi)or
economics schools(ekonomi)are generally considered comparableto a bachelor’sdegree.The
lower level requires between three and four,the higher between five and six years’study.The
higher level of kandidaatti in philosophy (FilKand), social sciences (valtiotKand), and
architecture (ArkKand), is better compared to the master’s degree. In medicine, the
kandidaatti is not considered as a first degree.
Some universities (for example,Helsinki) award the maisteri, second diploma of higher
education, simultaneously with the first. In law, a lower level diploma, the alempi
oikenstutkinto is reached after two years,when students may continue their studies for the
kandidaatti degree. This reflects the first two stages common to many countries.
This system is, however,in process of revision,following the instigationby a jointworking
party of the Ministry of Education and the higher education establishments themselves,of
fifteen laws governing the award of higher education qualifications.The new system defines
fifteen basic degrees and diplomas whose relation the above laws determine. For each
qualification,there are between one and ten curricula differing widely one from another.The
studiesrequired for a basic diploma vary between 160and 240weeks (four to six years). These
laws came into force as follows:1977,law,medicine,dentistry;1978,economics and business
administration, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, physical education; 1979, theology,
engineering,architecture,agriculture and forestry,education;1979-80,humanities,natural
sciences,social sciences,and 1980,psychology.The trainingprogramme is itselfcomposed of
periods of study of between one and several weeks. These are divided into differentkinds of
study: general (25 per cent), studies confined to the student’s subject (50per cent), and
specialized advanced studies (25 per cent). The impact of the reform of the basic diplomas
system is felt above all in the field of ‘liberaleducation’,that is,humanities,socialand natural
sciences.In these subjects,studiesinvolving one principal and two subsidiarytopics are being
relegated in favour of a more generalized syllabus.The lower level of university diploma
previously awarded (humKand in the humanities,luonnont.Kand in natural science) is being
phased out altogether.In medical sciences,in contrast with all other subjects,the basic
FINLAND 89

qualification is the lisensiaaiii in medicine (Iüüket-lis),dentistry (hammaslüüket-lis),or

veterinary medicine (elai~ilüaketieten-lis).
A further stage (third) normallyrequires between one and three years’postgraduatestudies
after the completion of the preceding stage. It reflects advanced knowledge of the subject,
usually at a more specialized level requiring a greater personal contribution.It leads to the
award of the lisensiaatti degree. In many subjects this serves as a professional qualification
after the successful candidate has completed the required periods of work experience.
The higher degree of tohtori (doctor) is available in all subjects. It consists of personal
research leading to the publication of original work and normally requiresbetween one and
three years’study,with submissionof a thesis.
It should be noted that,in many traditional universities,the philosophy faculty is alone
responsible for both scientific instruction and instruction in the humanities.For this reason,
the degrees kandidaatti,maisteri and lisensiaatti are awarded in both literary and scientific
fields.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, ylioppilastutkinto (in Finnish), studentexamensbetyg (in
Swedish) and,generally,entrance examination)
years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education P K L -
To
Arts L H u K FilM FilK L To
Religion,theology K To
Law,political A0 K To
sciences
Social sciences, P/L MValK To L To
economics
Exact and natural LuK FilK To
sciences
Technology,engineering, P L To
architecture
Medical sciences
medicine L To
dentistry L To
pharmacy P To
veterinary medicine L To
Agriculture P K L To

A0 aiempi oikenstutkinto
FilK fil.kandidaatti
FilM filosofianmaisteri
HuK humanist.kandidaatti
K kandidaaiti
L lisensiaatti
LuK Iuonnontiet kandidaatti
M maisteri
P professional qualification
To tohtori
ValK valtiot. Kand.
90 FINLAND

GLOSSARY
Basic degree. See kandidaatti.
Diplom (Swedish). See diplomi.
Diplomi (Finnish). Higher education qualification awarded in certain faculties instead of
the kandidaatti (for example, in engineering-diplom-ingenjor).
Doctor (Swedish doktor) See tohtori.
Entrance examination. See ylioppilastutkinto.
Kandidaatti (Swedish: kandidat). First degree of higher education,awarded after studies
lasting between three and six years. Most faculties offer the student considerable freedom in
the constitution of his syllabus. Some subjects (medicineand agriculture,for example) are less
flexible. Participation in group discussions (Finnish seminarii, Swedish seminuria) is
compulsory. Also important is personal work undertaken under the professor’s direction.
Three grades of pass exist for each examination: approbatur (pass), cum laude approbatur
(good), and laudatur (excellent). For entrance and inter-course examinations a certain
proportion of the superior grades is required. Thus for the lower level of the kandidaatti
( H u m K a n d and luonnontiet Kand) the cum laude approbatur is required in two subjects and at
least the approbatur in a third. The full kandidaatti entitles its holder maisteri (magister)(see:
maisteri).
Licenciat (Swedish); Lisensiaatti (Finnish). Degree of higher education awarded after
between one and three years’ study after the award of the kandidaatti. Under the old system,
the student must (a) submit a more extensivethesis than that submittedfor the kandidaattiand
(b) pass three examinations obtaining at least Iaudatur in his main subject and at least cum
laude approbatur in two subsidiary subjects. In medicine, the lisensiaatti is the first
professional qualification.
Maisteri. Formal higher education qualification awarded in certain universities in solemn
ceremony and qualifying holders of the full kandidaatti (see: kandidaatti).
Professional qualification. Higher education qualification awarded in certain faculties (in
technology), in agriculture (agronomi)or economics (ekonomi). Holders of a professional
qualification m a y often pursue their studies toward the kandidaatti and lisensiaatti degrees.
(This is not always the case-in medicine, for example.)
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See ylioppilastutkinto.
Studentexamen (Swedish). See ylioppilastutkinto.
Tohtori (Swedish doktor;doktorsgrad).The highest degree of higher education,awarded
after between one and three years’research and study following the award of the lisensiautri.
Submission of a thesis is required.
Ylioppilastutkinto (Swedish: studentexamen). Secondary-school-leaving certificate,
awarded after four years’ primary followed by eight years’ secondary education, the latter
divided into two phases of five and three years in that order.The second of these phases is the
lukio phase. The certificate in principle gives access to all faculties,but in fact many of these
and indeed many higher education establishments impose an entrance examination.
FRANCE 91

France
Higher education in France has three main characteristics:(a) the predominance of state
institutions,financedby the Stateand alone entitled to award state diplomas;(b) the factthat
instructionin the majority of state institutionsis nearly or completely free;(c) the existence of
‘grandesécoles’awarding state-recognizeddiplomas or qualifications,access to whose courses
is by competitive examination.
Higher education establishments comprise the universities founded under the law of 12
November 1968 on the orientation of higher education, other state establishments of
scientific,administrative or culturalnature,some of which are independentofthe universities
(for example,certain ‘grandes écoles’),and private establishments.
The National Council for Higher Education and Research,which includes representatives
ofteachersand students in universities and higher institutions,aswell as representativesfrom
outsidethe system,is consulted by the Minister on all matters relatingto higher education.A
conference of university presidents has also been set up;this meets as it thinks fit, or at the
initiativeof the Minister,who is its chairman.The General Assembly of Directors of Schools
and Establishmentsawarding the Engineering Diploma(AGREEPDDI)has a status similar
to that of the conference of university presidents.
The universities are divided into ‘unitsof teaching and research‘(UER)in the following
fields: humanities, social sciences,law, economics, politics, exact and applied sciences,
pharmacy, medicine, and in exceptional cases, theology. They have a dual purpose-to
further knowledge and culture while training the student for a professionallife in accordance
with the economic and social needs of the nation.The universitiesare autonomous,being
administered by a council and president chosen by election, and controlling their own
budgets.They are also multi-disciplinary.Their councilsincludeuniversityteachers,research
workers,students and representatives from outside the university.They may award national
diplomas regulatedby the Ministry ofEducation or theirown diplomas.Other bodies forming
part of the universitiesare:institutesof politics (IEP),higher schoolsof engineering (ENSI),
university technological institutes(IUT),institutes offering specialized instruction at a high
level,and establishments independentof the universities,such as the polytechnical institutes.
The public and private institutions of a scientific, cultural and administrative nature,
among which are included the grandes écoles, offer courses:(a) for an engineering diploma
(about 140 institutions); (b)for commercialor managerial employment;(c) for certain specific
careersin the French civil service-teaching, administration,specializedtechnical posts,etc.;
(d) careers in the arts. The majority are public institutions depending in the main on the
Ministry of Education,such as the écoles normales supérieures (advanced teacher-training
colleges), the national schools of arts and crafts (écolesnationales darts et métiers) and the
national institutes of applied sciences (institutsnationaux de sciences appliquées,INSA).
A certain number of institutions are attached to other ministries: national defence,
industrial and scientific development,supply,post and telecommunications,agriculture-or
even directly linked to the government.This is the case with the École Polytechnique,the
schoolsof mining,the school ofaeronautics,the schoolsoftelecommunications,ofveterinary
science,and of agriculture,and the International Institute of Public Administration.After
graduation from a grande école such as the École Polytechnique,many students go on to
another more specializedgrandeécole, such as the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées or
the École des Eaux et Forêts.Specialinstitutionsprepare for artisticcareers,such as the École
Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts,the Conservatoire National d’Art Dramatique or the
conservatoires of music.
 FRANCE

Special mention must be made of special institutions such as the Collège de France, the
National Museum of Natural History, the Paris Observatory, the Longitudes Office, the
Practical School of Higher Studies (EPHE),the School of Higher Studies in Social Sciences
(EHESS),and the National Foundation of Political Science,all of which offer instruction at
the highest level.
Extra-university instruction is available at all levels in the context of continuing education;
training courses and evening classes may lead up to various higher education qualifications.
Thus the national school ofarts and crafts and its centres in the provinces offer evening classes
to all-comers which may lead up to the award of an engineering diploma.The French Open
University, the Centre National de Télé-enseignement, also offers throughout France an
instruction in every respect comparable to that of other state institutions.Some universities
also have centres of televised instruction.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat which is the secondary-school-
leaving certificate. Secondary studies are increasingly specialized over a range of different
options, but are intended to give the student a general culture in French language and
literature,mathematics, ancient and modern languages,arts and social sciences and various
exact and natural sciences. The baccalauréat has different sections (see Glossary).
Entrance to higher education is restricted to: holders of the bacca/auréar (or a recognized
equivalence), although there are certain requirements of correspondence between
baccalauréat option and the course chosen (this is the case in management, politics,medicine,
etc.); and candidates who have passed a specialentrance examination (ESEU);for the capacité
in law, the baccalauréat is not required.
Foreign students wishing to enrol in French universitiesto work for French qualifications
must undergo a pre-enrolmentprocess. This involves obtaining and completing enrolment
forms between the 15 December and the 15 February of the previous academic year;this may
be done at the French cultural service of the relevant country.
In other higher education establishments foreign and French studentsare admitted on the
basis of qualification and academic record or competitive exam, or after between one and
three years' study in the preparatory classes of some lycées.The competitive examinationsare
national in extent and in some cases c o m m o n to several schools. Selection is more or less
severe according to the level of the school and the number of applicants.
In higher education a number of stages, extending over a period of five to seven years or
longer,can be distinguished.The definition of these stages varies according to whether they
relate to general studies (e.g. arts subjects) or a particular professional qualification (e.g.
social and economic administration). Degrees and diplomas corresponding to the various
stages set out but awarded outside France may, especially where the higher education system
of the relevant country resembles that of France, be officially recognized as equivalent or
homo/ogué.The French higher education system has three stages of training,instruction,and
research which constitute its three cycles. For the first two,the teaching unit is the unité de
valeur (UV)(see Glossary). There are three categories of UV according to the field of studies
chosen (compulsory,optional or free).
The firststage (or cycle) lasts two years and in letters and human sciences,in science,law,
and economics involves a first phase of largely multi-disciplinary basic studies.This leads to
the diplôme d'études universitaires générales (DEUG).The detail of the diplôme is decided by
the predominant orientation of the studies undertaken, thus DEUG mention droit (see
Glossary). In medicine, pharmacy and in studies preparatory to the entrance to various
schools, the same period is devoted to the acquisition of an essential grounding in the basic
sciences.In this field,as in dentistry,the examinationsconditioning entry into the second year
are highly selective.
The universitiesalso offer short courses in technology,given in the university technological
institutes, whose full-time courses lead after two years to the diplôme universitaire de
FRANCE 93

technologie,which automatically has a more technical orientation.This also holds for studies
leading to the brevet de technicien supérieur (BTS) and certain other short professionally-
orientated higher courses (those, for example, of primary school-teacher or chartered
accountant).
The second stage (or cycle)is devoted to the provision ofa scientifictrainingat an advanced
level designed to prepare the student for the exercise of professional responsibilities in
working life.Such studiesare rewarded in the humanities,in science,in law and economicsby
the licence after one year and the maîtrise after two.In certain fields,however,(e.g.medicine
and pharmacy), this period does not have any particular formal significance.
W e should also note the existence of 'multi-disciplinary'training courses which comprise
first and second cycle courses leading to pre-professionalqualifications in the following
subjects: economic and social administration, applied modern languages, applied
mathematics and social sciences,maîtrise in science and technology,maîtrise in management
application of computer science,maîtrise in administrative sciences.
This second stage constitutesthe normal requirementfor secondaryschool-teacherswho,
after passing the licence and the maîtrise, must take the certificatd'aptitude au professorat de
/'enseignement secondaire (CAPES) or the agrégation of secondary education,which are
competitive exams.Preparationfor the agrégation involvesstudies at a level similar to that of
the third stage.
The third stage (or cycle) involves a high degree of specialization with training in the
techniques of research. in it are awarded professional qualifications (diplômes d'études
supérieures spécialisées (DESS),diplômes de docteur-ingénieur)or those whose orientationis
that of research (doctoratsde troisièmecycle or d'Etat). The docteur-ingénieurdiploma and the
doctorat de troisième cycle include a first-year course leading to the diplôme d'études
approfondies; their second and third years are devoted to research work leading to the
production and defence of a thesis.
The doctorat dEtai is awarded for originalscientificresearchof a high order.Thereare also
doctorats d'université which are not state diplomas.
In medicine,pharmacy,and dentistry full professional qualificationsare awarded,as for
example the diplôme d'Etai of doctor of medicine and of pharmacist. and doctor of dental
surgery. These may be extended by courses of specialization. for example, diplômes de
spécialité in medicine,doctorats de troisième cycle in dentistry and pharmacy,and doctorat
dEtat in pharmacy

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,baccalauréat)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Arts, languages DEUG L M/ DEA D3C D

MST
Theology DEUG L M DEA D3C D
Fine arts DNSEP
Architecture Di
(DPLG)
Human and social DEUG L M/ DEA/ D3C D
sciences MST DESS
94 FRANCE
years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Sciences DEUG L M/ DEA/ D3C D

MST DESS
Law DEUG L M DEA/ D3C D As
DESS
Economic and DEUG L M/ DEA/ D3C D As
administrative MST DESS
sciences
Politics Pr L/Di DEA/ bEA D3C D3C D
DESS/
M
Technology, BTS/
management DUT
Commercial Di Di
studies
Engineering Di DEA Sp/DG DG
Medical sciences
medicine PCEMl PCEMZ DCEM D CES As
pharmacy Di DEA/ D3C D
DESS
dentistry PCEMl Di CES D3C
human biology PCEMl PCEMZ DCEM M/ D/ D
CERBH DERBH
veterinary medicine CPr Di
Agriculture CPr Di
Multi-disciplinary DEUG L M
studies (mathemat-
ics applied to the
social sciences etc.)
As agrégation de renseignement supérieur
BTS brevet de technicien supérieur
CERBH cycle d'étude et de recherche en biologie humaine
CES certificatd'études supérieures
CPr preparatory classes
D doctorat d'Etat
DCEM deuxième cycle d'études médicales
D3C diplôme de troisième cycle
DEA diplôme d'études approfondies
DERBH diplôme détudes et de recherches en biologie humaine
DESS diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées
DEUG dplôme d'études universitaires générales
Di diplôme (de pharmacie, d'ingénieur, d'architecte DPLG,etc.)
DG diplôme de docteur ingénieur
DNSEP diplôme national supérieur d'expression plastique
DUT diplôme universitaire de technologie
L licence
M maîtrise
MST maîtrise de sciences et techniques
PCEM premier cycle d'études médicales
SP speciality
FRANCE 95

In other subjects,certain professionalspecialitieshave their own institutions,such as the

Centre of Tropical Agriculture for agricultural engineers, or the Institute of Veterinary
Medicine and Animal Husbandry for Tropical Countries,for veterinarians.
University teaching appointments are subject to a competitive exam,candidatesfor which
must be holders of the doctorat dEtar.
In some subjects access to university teaching posts is restricted to those who have passed
the agrégation de /‘enseignement supérieur (pharmacy,medicine,law and economics).

GLOSSARY
Agrégation de l’enseignementsecondaire.Advanced professional competitive exam open to
holders of the maîtrise. Those who pass are qualifiedagrégés,and may be allocated a teaching
post in secondary education,or become assistant lecturers in higher education.
Agrégation de l’enseignement supérieur.Higher education competitive examination which
entitles the holder to occupy a higher education teaching post in certain subjects (law,
economics,pharmacy, medicine).
Attestation d’étudesapprofondies (AEA).In science this denotes that the theoreticalpart of
the diplôme d‘études approfondies has been passed.
Baccalauréat d‘enseignement général. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after
five years’primary followed by seven years’secondary schooling.Secondary education has
two phases.The first lastsfour years,and takesplace in a college.It is intendedto orientate the
student in the following ways: after two years towards a lycée d’enseignementprofessionnel
(LEP,professional high school) or in the fourth year towards an LEP (two- or three-year
courses) or technicallycée (LT)or generallycée (LEG)(three-yearcourses), where he follows
the second phase ofsecondaryeducation.Qualificationsgiving accessto higher education are
the baccalauréats taken in the LEG’Sand LT’sand the brevets de technicien in the LT’s.The
baccalauréat may be taken in a range of literary options (Al to A7), a range of economics
options (B), a mathematics and physics range (C),a mathematics and natural sciences range
(C),a mathematics and natural sciences range (D),an agricultural range (D’), and a
mathematics and technology range (E).
Baccalauréat de technicien.Qualificationobtainable in various sections of an industrial(F)
or commercial (G)kind or relating to computer science (H). Studies must take place in a
technicallycée for most sections or in certain professional lycées for the G section.The aim is
to give a general education equivalent to that of the traditional baccalauréat as well as a
vocational training as a technician: the qualification obtained affords access to higher
education more easily than does the brevet de technicien.
Baccalauréat en théologie.Initiaiqualificationawarded after two years’study in a university
or religious institute,or at Strasbourg II.
Baccalauréat technique. See baccalauréat.
Brevet de technicien. Qualification which can be prepared in certain technicallycées over
three years.It has four categories(industry,hotel management,agriculture,and para-medical
professions). This diplomaadmits to higher education,but entrance is restricted to university
institutesof technology or technical lycées which prepare for thebrevet de technicien supérieur
(see also baccalauréat de technicien).
Brevet de technicien supérieur. Qualification of higher education, or of the higher
technicians sections (STS), awarded after two years’ study in the preparatory classes of
technical lycées,to which candidates are admitted aftera normal or competitiveexamination,
or on their qualifications,depending upon their speciality.BTS holders may,under certain
conditions,continue their studies at university.
Capacité en droit. Certificateawarded after two years’study of law.Thebaccalauréat is not
required,but candidates must be over 17 years old. Holders of the capacité may enrol for
higher studies in law.
96 FRANCE

Certificat d’aptitude au professorat de l’enseignement secondaire (CAPES). Competitive

recruitment examination open to those who already have alicencein the subject in which they
take the CAPES.Successful studentsundergo a year’s training at a centrepédagogiquerégional
at the end of which they take a practical examination. Those who pass are entitled to
employment in secondary school-teaching and are qualified as professeurs certifiés.
Certificat d’étudesspécialisées.In medicine and dentistry,a qualification normally obtained
after the doctorat,after two or three years’ study of a specialization.
Certificat d‘étudessupérieures.Qualification of higher education,awarded after a period of
study lasting between six months and a year in certain scientific subjects (e.g. biology).
Concours d’entrée. Competitive entrance exam of certain establishments known as grandes
écoles. Success in this exam normally requires two years’ preparation following the
baccalauréat in the special classes of certain lycées. Access to these classes is limited to
outstanding students.
Diplôme. Higher education qualification awarded in certain fields (for example the diplôme
dEtat de pharmacien, which entitles the holder to run a dispensing chemist’s) and by a
considerable number of schools and institutes (diplhesof engineering,architecture,etc.). It
often serves as a professional qualification.
Diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA). In scienceor humanities,the compulsory first year of
the doctorat de troisième cycle spent in preparation for research work.
Diplôme d‘études supérieures spécialisées.Diploma of the third cycle which prepares the
student for professional life.It signifies a high level of specialization attained in the course of
research work.
Diplôme d‘institut d’étudespolitiques.Qualification awarded upon successful completion of
four years’ study in an institute of political studies.
Diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT).Diploma awarded to those w h o pass the final
examination of a two-year course in a university technologicalinstitute. In some cases, the
holder may continue his studies in the first cycle of university.
Diplôme universitaire d’études universitaires générales (DEUG).Diploma awarded at the
end of the first cycle of university studies. It is specified in the following subjects: law;
economics; economic and social administration; humanities and art (section A, literary
studies; B,literary studies and foreign cultures;C,applied modern languages;D,plastic arts;
E, music; F, history of art); human sciences (section A, philosophy; B, sociology; C,
psychology;D,history; E,geography); science (section A,science and structure of matter; B,
natural and life sciences); applied mathematics and social sciences; physical education and
sport;theology (section A, catholic; B, protestant).
Docteur-ingénieur (or ingénieur docteur). Qualification of higher education in science,
awarded after two years’ studies and submission of two theses relating to technological
applications of the science in question.
Doctorat d’Etat. The highest degree of higher education.It is awarded in the humanities and
science after some years’study following the maîtrise. A thesis must be submitted on a subject
acceptable to the university; the candidate therein sets out personal research work
constituting an original contribution to the subject. In most subjects university teachers are
required to have this degree. It is not sufficient qualification in law, economics,or medicine
(see agrégation de l’enseignement supérieur). In medicine, it is conferred at the end of
professional training after submission of a (normally)rather shorter thesis. In medicine,the
doctorat is a professional qualification.Candidates for the doctorat d‘Erat in pharmacy must
have the diplôme d’Etat in pharmacy and a DEA or DESS.
Doctorat d’université.Diploma of the third cycle. Except in humanities,it is not a national
diploma, but organized by the universities themselves, who accept candidates on their
academic record.
Doctorat de 3ème cycle. Diploma awarded after two or three years’study in the third cycle
FRANCE 97

involving submissionof a thesisor preparation ofindividualor collectivework.The first year,

the DEA (or DESS for certain disciplines) is obligatory.
Equivalence.Equivalence is distinguishedfrom homologation or full ratification (validitéde
plein droit) in that it merely allows the student to continue his studies.
Examen spécial d’entrée dans les universités (ESEU). Examination open to candidatesof 20
years of age having two years of professional activity behind them,or of24 years ofage.The
papers are varied to match the nature of studies the candidate intends to pursue.
Homologation.Homologation is possible where foreigndiplomas have been awarded in the
same conditions, relative to initial qualifications,of duration of studies, curricula and
examinations,as the correspondingFrench diplomas:the student may then requestthe award
of the relevant French diploma. The list of foreign diplomas which may be so dealt with is
published annually.Homologution is restricted to certain countries and certain subjects.
Ingénieur-docteur.See docteur-ingénieur.
Licence. Higher education diploma awarded after the first year of the second university
cycle (see maitrise).
Maîtrise. Diploma awarded after the second and last year of the second cycle.Maîtrises of
basic trainingleadingto careers in teaching and researchare to be distinguishedfrom the more
recent kind which have professionalrather than academicendsand prepare the studentfor his
working life.
Unité de valeur.These are awarded for a semester or year’swork on a well-definedsyllabus
in both compulsory subjectsand those in which the student has completeor restricted freedom
of choice.

Gabon
The Republic of Gabon is,togetherwith the Central African Republic,the Republicof Congo
and the Republic of Chad,one ofthe countrieswhere higher education was formerly provided
under the auspices of the Foundationfor Higher Education in Central Africa (Fondation de
l’EnseignementSupérieuren Afrique Centrale). Today,higher education in Gabon is given in
the Omar Bongo University (the former National University of Gabon), Libreville.This is a
state institution under the control of the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research.
The University is autonomous. It comprises faculties of arts,science,law and economics,
exact and natural sciences,a university centre for health sciences, a national school of
engineering,an advanced teacher-trainingcollege,an advanced teacher-trainingcollege for
technical studies,a national school of forestry,a school ofadministration,a nationalinstitute
of business management and an institute of agricultural studies. A national school of
magistracy is affiliated to the University.
There is also the African Institutefor Data Processing,situated at Libreville,which wasset
up in 1971 by the member states ofOCAM (Common Afro-MauritianOrganization)and is an
international institution. It offers a two-year course leading to a diplôme danulyste-
98 GABON

programmeur (programme analyst). Access to the institute is by competitive examination

open to holders of the baccalauréat.
The language of instruction is French.
The advanced teacher-training college awards a certificat d'aptitude au professorat des
collèges (CAPC)after three years and trains inspectors of primary education and teachers.
Qualifications awarded in Gabon are recognized in France and in the other three countries
mentioned above as legally valid, as are French qualifications in Gabon.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat or secondary-school-leaving
certificate,obtained after six years of primary and seven years of secondary education,or on
an equivalent qualification.Those who do not hold the baccalauréat may gain access through
success in a special entrance examination.
The main stage of higher education in the University is divided into two phases. The first
phase leads,after two years' study,to the diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires (DUEL)in
arts, to the diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques (DUES)in science, to the diplôme
universitaire d'études juridiques (DUEJ) in law and to the diplôme universitaire d'études
économiques (DUEE)in economics. The University also awards a brevet de technicien
suptrieur de secrétariat de direction,a brevet d'aptitude aux fonctions de greffier and a diplôme
de magistrat (in three years). The National School of Engineering (ENSIL)awards a diplôme
de spécialité de I'ENSIL.
The second phase leads to the licence en lettres after a furtheryear of study and to the licence
en droit et sciences économiques after a further two years. The National Instituteof Business
Management awards a maîtrise de gestion one year after the licence.T h e University Centre for
Health Sciences confers a doctorate after six years of study,the Advanced Teacher-training
~~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education CAPC/
CAPET
Arts DUEL L
Law DUEJ P L
Economics DUEE L M
Engineering DSQ P
Science DUES L
Medicine D

CAPC certificat d'aptitude au professorat des collèges

CAPET certificat d'aptitude pédagogique à l'enseignement technique
D doctorat
DSQ diplôme de spécialiste qualifié
DUEE diplôme Universitaire d'études économiques
DUEJ diplôme universitaire d'études juridiques
DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires
DUES diplôme universitaire d'études scientifl4ues
L licence
M maîtrise
P professional qualification
GABON 99

Collegefor Technical Studies (ENSET)and the National School of Engineeringrespectively

award a certificatd’aptitudepédagogique à renseignementtechnique(CAPET)and thediplôme
d‘ingénieur after five years of study.Holders of a DUEL or DUES may carry on with their
studiesin France and in countriesthat are members of the ConseilAfricain et Malgachepour
l’Enseignement Supérieur (CAMES).

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leavingqualification,obtained at the end of six years of
primary followed by seven years of secondary education,in a general or technicalsecondary
school. Secondary education is divided into four years’ lower and three years’ upper
education.There are three main options(mathematics.scienceor literature). Programmesare
adapted from the French curriculum.The baccalauréat gives access to higher education.
Certificat d’aptitude au professorat des collèges (CAPC).Qualification awarded by the
advanced teacher-trainingcollege at the end of three years’study.
Certificat d’aptitude pédagogique à l’enseignement technique. Qualification awardedby the
advancedteacher-trainingcollegefortechnicalstudies(ENSET)which givesthe rightto teach
in a technical school.
Diplôme de spécialiste qualifié. Qualification awarded by the National School of
Engineering at the end of two years of study.
Diplôme universitaire d‘études économiques (DUEE). Qualification obtained after two
years’ study in the faculty of law and economics.
Diplôme universitaire d’étudesjuridiques (DUEJ). Qualification obtained at the end oftwo
years’study in the faculty of law and economics.
Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL).Qualification obtained after two years’
study in the faculty of arts.
Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES). Qualification obtained aftertwo years’
study in the faculty of science.
Docteur. See professional qualification.
Doctorat. Qualification awarded by the University CentreforHealth Sciences(CUSS)afteï
six years’study.
Licence. First degree ofhigher education,obtained at the end ofthreeyears’studyin letters
and science,and at the end of four years’study in law and economics.
Maîtrise. Postgraduatedegree awarded by the National Instituteof BusinessManagement
after one year following upon the licence, on presentation of a dissertation.
Professional qualification.Degree of higher education awarded after two years’study in
technology,three years’study in law,five years’study in engineering and six years’study in
medicine.In medicine,the title awarded is that of docteur.
100 GAMBIA

Gambia
No information having been received recently, the present text is repeatedfrom the 1976 English
edition of this Guide.

In the Republic of the Gambia higher education is provided in a teacher-trainingcollege,

(Brikama New College) and a number of vocational institutionsprovide training at post-
secondary level.
Access to the teacher-trainingcollege is based on the secondary IVth examination,taken
after six years of primary and four years ofjunior secondaryeducation,or through the West
African Examination Board general certificate of education,obtained after six years of
primary,five years of senior secondary (leading to ‘O’ level qualifications) followed by two
years of sixth-formsecondaryeducation leading to ‘A’ level.Candidates also have to take an
entrance examination.
Students wishing to attend higher educationgo abroad,mostly to the USA and the USSR.

G e r m a n Democratic Republic
The universities,colleges (Hochschuten)and technicalschools (Fachschulen)of the GDR are
state institutions of higher education within the unified socialist education system and
represent a continuation of the progressive traditions in the German universities.
In the institutions of higher education are embodied the established principles of GDR
higher education such as the equal right to education forevery citizen,the right to work,the
unity of training and education,teaching and research,and theory and practice.The Ministry
of Higher and Technical Education (Ministerium fiir Hoch- und Fachschulwesen)
implements the unified central management and planning of the whole complex of higher
education. In preparing and carrying out his decisionsthe Minister consultsrectors,teaching
staff,students and other members of the educational institutions.Hisdecisions are based on
recommendations of the Council for Higher and Technical Education (Hoch- und
Fachschulrat), the Research Council (Forschungsrat)of the GDR,the scientific advisory
boards (WissenschafflicheBeirüte),the scientific councils (WissenschaftlicheRate),the social
councils (GeseltschafflicheRate) and other bodies at the universitiesand colleges.In higher
education in the GDR there are institutionsat two levels.
The engineering schools and technical schools(Zngenieurund Fachschuten)are institutions
of higher education below university level.T o be accepted for a course at one of them the
normal requirements are the school-leavingcertificateof the ten-yeargeneral polytechnical
secondary school (zehnklassige altgemeinbildende potytechnische Oberschule-POS) and a
completed vocational training.Graduates from these institutions (e.g.Zngenieur,û k o n o m )
G E R M A N DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC 101

take up responsiblepositions in industry,farming and in other fields.By continuing their

studies they may advance to the qualification level of university graduates.
There are 53 universities and colleges (institutionsat university level) in the GDR.These
include the universitiesin Berlin,Leipzig,Rostock,Greifswald,Halle-Wittenberg.and Jena,
the Freiberg Mining Academy and the Technical University in Dresden. Together with
collegesin fieldssuch as technology,medicine,economics,farmingand educationthey are the
highest places of learning and at the same time importantinstitutions ofscience and research
and of adult education.They are the scientific and also the intellectualand culturalcentresof
the country in each field.Each university or college is divided into departments(Sektionen),
encompassing the special disciplines of a unified field of training and research. The
department is further divided into special areas of scientific work (Wissenschaftsbereiche).
Access to higher education is based on the universityentrancequalification(Hochschulreifè).
This includes a thorough knowledgeof mathematics.the naturalsciences,the mother tongue
and literature,two foreign languages,music and art,history,social sciencesand geography,
and also basic skills in the polytechnical subjects.The main waysto acquirethisqualification,
after completion of attendance at the POS. are courses at the extended secondary school
(erweiterteallgerneinbildende Oherschule) leading to theAbitur after two years,or a completed
vocational training plus Ahitirr (Berufshildung mit Abirur-three years). In addition there are
special classes and preparatory courses at universities and colleges. Those at work may
acquire the entry qualification for university level education by means of courses at adult
education institutes.courses for young skilled workers at engineering colleges,study at the
workers’and peasants’faculty (Arbeiter-und-Bauernfakultat)of the Mining Academy in
Freiberg and other special entry examinations.
For some coursesofstudyaparticularvocationaltrainingor at leastone year’sprofessional
experience in a related field (Vorpraktikurn)is required.Admission is accordingto the levelof
achievement while taking account of the social structure and the needs of society and the
economy.
Citizens of other statesare admitted to higher educationcoursesin the G D R on the basis of
international agreements and arrangements with social organizations of other states or
internationalbodies.A precondition for admission is that as a rule a studentis delegated by
the relevantorgan of the home country.Applicants for study at a university or collegeneed a
certificate that would admit them to a course of university level education in their own
country.For a course at a technicalschoolan educationallevel corresponding to that of the
ten-year school (POS)and proof of knowledgein the professional field are required.Apart
from this it is desirable that applicantsshould not be older than 25.A medical certificate is
needed to confirm that the applicant is physically fit to study.
The main stage of higher education.usually lasting fourand a halfor five years depending
on the field of study. consists of courses,examinations and practical work.A distinction is
made between basic and specialized training.The basic training includes the technical and
other training required by all students on the course in question.The specialized training
serves the further acquisition of knowledge and skills needed for the later transition to
professional work. Here students learn to a greater extent methods of applying and
developing scientific knowledge in their futureprofessional practice.Followingthe passing of
the diploma examinations and the defence of the diploma paper,the first academic degree.
Diplom eines Wissenschaftszwei~es(diploma of a scientific discipline), is conferred.One may
then bear the corresponding title (e.g.D@lomchemiker, Diplomlehrer).
By means ofassistantships,research studies(Forschungsstudium)and researchprogrammes
for serving teachersin higher education (Aspirantur),talented young scholarsare encouraged
and prepared for their research degree which constitutesa further stage.After the defence of
the thesis submitted and the successful conclusion of the procedure for gaining a higher
academic qualification (Promotionsve~fahren),the degree of Dokror eines Wissen-
102 G E R M A N DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

schaftszweiges (doctor of a scientific discipline), e.g. Dr.rer.nat. is conferred. In order to be

awarded the degree of doctor of science (Doktor der Wissenschaften, e.g. Dr.sc.rer.nat.) a
higher level of scientific work has to be demonstrated encompassing results of research
influencing the international level in the field of science and technology.
Since 1950 it has been possible for people at work qualified to enter university level
education and possessing several years of professional experience to follow external courses of
study at a university or college without interrupting their professional work. These external
courses,combining fairly long phases of private study with class work in the form of tutorials,
lectures, practical work and seminars, last from five and a half to six years. The degree
acquired is recognized as having the same status as that gained by the internal student.
Factories and other institutions are obliged in law to give the external student favourable
conditions to study (depending on the course,between 48 and 36 days per year additional paid
leave, and also several weeks’ paid leave to complete the final diploma paper). T h e
universities,colleges and technicalschoolsalso offer graduates scientifically orientated work-
based postgraduate or further education courses.

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 10/13 years,Reifezeugnis,Abitur, Hochschulreife)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Education Di Dr DW
Arts Di Dr DW
Religion,theology Di Dr DW
Law Di Dr DW
Social sciences, Di Dr DW
economics
Commerce Di Dr DW
Mathematics Di Dr DW
Science (other Di Dr DW
fields),
natural sciences
Engineering Di Dr DW
Medical sciences
medicine Di Dr DW
dentistry Di Dr DW
pharmacy Di Dr DW
veterinary medicine Di Dr DW
Agriculture, forestry, Di Dr DW
fisheries

Di Diplom Dr Doktorat DW Doktor der Wissenschaften

GLOSSARY
Abitur. Leaving certificate of the extended secondary school (erweiterre allgemeinbildende
Oberschule) or a completed vocational training plus Abitur (‘Berufsausbildung mit Abitur’).
The entry requirement for a course of higher education at university level.
AbschluBzeugnis der 10. Klasse. The leaving certificate of the 10th class followed by a
GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC 103

completed vocational training togetherform the entry requirementfor a courseofstudyat an

engineering or technical school (institution of higher education below university level).
Diplom. The degree at university level is conferred following success in the diploma
examinationsand in the defence ofthe diploma paper,the degree gained being the ‘diplomaof
a scientific discipline’(Diplomeines Wissenschaftsl>ceiges).Entitles the graduate to enter the
professional field and to bear the relevant professional title.
Doctor/Doktor der Wissenschaften.There are two doctorates:the first,the degree of‘doctor
of a scientific discipline’(Doktoreines Wissenschafsz>~eige~), is conferred after the defence of
the doctor thesissubmitted and the successfulconclusion ofthe procedurefor gaining a higher
degree (Promotionsverfahren).The second,the degree of ‘doctorof science’(Doktor der Wiss-
enschaften), is conferred after successin defending a second higher degree thesis,thisbeing the
product of a period of further research in which results are presented contributing to the
international development of the scientific field.
Eignungsprüfung. A n examination for entry to university level education,demanded of
applicants for courses requiring particular talents (for example. study at an art college).
FachschulabschluB. Lower level degree gained in higher education, conferred after
successfully completingat least a three-yearcourse of studies at an engineering or technical
school.
Fachschulreife. For entrance to a technical school (institutionof higher education below
university level) the normal requirement is the leaving certificate of the ten-yeargeneral
polytechnical secondary school (zehnklassigeallgemeinbildende polytechnisrhe Oberschule)
and a completed vocational training. In addition, a substantial period of professional
experience is of advantage for those training to be engineers or economists.
Hochschulreife. Level of qualification permitting entry to higher education at university
level (Abitur or special school-leaving examination).
Ingenieur/Okonom. See FachschuIabschluJ.
Vorpraktikum. A period of professional experience normally forming the first part of
particular courses of study,for example in the fields of technology,medicine or agrarian
sciences.

Federal Republic of Germany

In the FederalRepublic ofGermany,the Lander that make up the federationare the legislative
and administrative authorities in the organization of education. Issues that affect all the
Lander or severalof them are the responsibilityofthe StandingConferenceofthe Ministers of
Education and Culture of the Lander, whose purpose is to co-ordinatethe educational and
cultural policies of the Lander. Its decisionsmust be unanimous.The federalgovernment may
moreover contribute to the advance of science and of higher education by appropriate
legislative and financial measures.
Higher education establishments of university standard comprise various categories of
104 FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

institution.There are traditional universities offering instruction in: philosophy,humanities

and human sciences, theology, natural and exact sciences, medicine, law, economics and
social sciences, and, more rarely,agriculture or veterinary medicine. There are technological
universities,colleges of theology and schools of education. If these last are excluded (for
details see below), all of these institutionshave certain featuresin common. These are the close
connection between teaching and free research, a large degree of autonomy, the right to
appoint the teaching staff, the right to award the doctorate and the right of Habilitation.
Almost every establishment of higher education is in fact an institution of the Lundat the
same time as having legal personality. This has two consequences. O n the one hand, the
Lander have an overall responsibility for the higher education establishments and must
provide for their personal and physical needs. It is the Lander which finance them in general,
and they normally have no other resources with the exception of some private endowments.
The Lander controltheir budgets and see to the application of the regulationsthat govern their
public function. O n the other hand, each establishment is autonomous in relation to its
internal structure, its teaching methods and its study and research programmes. As the
representative body of the higher education establishments,the Westdeutsche Rektorenkon-
ferenz (Conference of West German Rectors) is the counterpart at the federal level of the
Standing Conference of Ministers of Education and Culture ofthe Lander.It ensures a certain
degree of'harmonization in many fields (examinations,conditions of admission,international
exchanges, legislation,planning and administration affectinghigher education,etc.). There is
also a scientific council that oversees the programmes ofscientificdevelopment worked out at
federal level and in the Lander.
The majority of the establishments of higher education are divided into faculties,and these
sub-divided into departments. Each faculty is responsible for fixing its o w n programme of
study and teaching.The faculties often include departments in disciplinescomplementary to
their principal subject. The technologicaluniversities further include faculties of philosophy
and politics and, in some cases, those of literary studies,human sciences and fine arts. Some
also teach the basic sciences.
Training of both primary and secondary school-teachers takes place at post-secondary
level. Primary school-teachers are trained in the universities,the schools of education,and,
sometimes, in the schools of educational sciences. In general,the schools of education form
part of the universities. In some cases, they are independent establishments having
characteristics similar to the other university institutions. Teachers of the second cycle of
secondary studies are invariably trained at university.
Vocational higher education in Federal Germany places particular emphasis on relatively
short courses.The technical colleges (Fuchhochschulen)train students to one of two levels of
professional qualification: the Gruduierung (graduation) which comprises short, practical
courses,and the Diplom whose courses are longer and more theoretical.These courses cover
aspects of engineering, economics, and professions relating to social work and social
assistance. In scientific or artistic fields, their courses are orientated toward practical
problems. The subjects they offer are similar in some respects to those offered by the
university, but the courses themselves are shorter and more practical. They also include
compulsory periods of work experience.For these reasons,distinctionsare made between the
professional qualifications awarded by the technical colleges and those awarded by the
universities.
Access to higher education is based on the Hochschulreife,which is awarded after thirteen
years of primary and secondary education.It usually corresponds to a full course of general
secondary education, at the end of which the secondary-school-leaving certificate
(Reifezeugnis)is awarded. Entrance to the specialized professionalschools is by the Fuchhoch-
schulreife,which is reached after twelve years of primary and secondary education followed by
a practical training course. It is also possible to enter higher education under certain
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF G E R M A N Y 105

conditions by different routes.By and large,arrangementshave been made in all the Lander
for persons in employmentto receiveinstructioneitherfull-timeor part-timeenabling them to
meet the entrance requirementsfor higher education.
In many subjects of a technical nature a preliminary work experience is required lasting
between three months and one year.
The length of studies varies with the subject and sequenceofcoursechosen.At university,
students have,within certain limits,the right to fix the programme they follow themselves,
and they often exceed the required minimum length of studies.It is regarded as normaland,
indeed,desirablethat not all of the student’scoursesbe followed in the same establishment;
and there are no annual examinations.It is therefore far from easy to define the level ofany
particular course of higher education in the Federal Republic of Germany.
The first stage of higher education may perhaps be identifiedwith the fouror five semesters
devoted to the study of basic subjects.These are normally multi-disciplinarystudies in exact
and natural sciences, social sciences and economics, psychology,applied sciences,and
medicine. In medicine, this stage corresponds to the first cycle of preclinical studies.In the
other subjects it leads to an intermediate examination often called Vorprüfung,
Zuischenprüfung or Vordiplom.
The main stagerepresentingthe normal period ofstudy corresponds to the acquisition of a
high standardof learning and experienceor to a professionalqualification.This stageleadsto
a terminalexamination,the Staarsexamen (state examination), or to a universityexamination

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation: 13 years,Hochschulreije)

varied
years 4 5 6 7 duration

Arts,human sciences SP/MA SP/MA D

Theology (P/Di) D
Law (SP) SP D
Economics,social (Di) Di D
sciences
Exact and natural, (SP*/Di) (SP*/Di) D
technical sciences
Medical sciences
medicine (SP) SP D
dentistry SP D
veterinary medicine SP D
Agriculture (Di) Di D
D Doktor Di Diplom M A Magister Artium P professional qualification
SP Erste Staatsprüfung

* Only for those intending to teach at secondary level.

A qualification in brackets shows the minimum duration according to the 1979 regulations;
where only one qualification is given,without brackets,minimum and average duration are
given.
106 FEDERAL REPUBLIC O F G E R M A N Y

organized according to the rules of the institution of higher education concerned (Diplom,
Magister Artium).The stateexaminationsare compulsory forthe exerciseofthe professionsof
medicine,pharmacy,law and primary and secondaryschoolteaching.Outstandingresultsare
normally required in these final examinationsif the candidate wishes to take a doctorate,
which constitutesthe last stage and is conferredafter presentationofa thesisand successin an
examination (Rigorosum).This stage may vary in duration.

GLOSSARY
Abitur. See Reifezeugnis.
Diplom.University qualification awarded to students who do not wish to take the teacher-
training course for secondary teaching but who have passed the final examinationin certain
subjects (e.g. technical studies, exact and natural sciences,economics and social science,
political sciences). This examination normally includes the submission of a memoire,and
written and oral tests. Recently this qualification has also been awarded by the technical
colleges in the majority of the Lander (see:Magister Artium, Erste Staatsprüfung).
Doktor.University qualification awarded to studentswho have passed an examination(the
Rigorosum) on a number of subjects in the appropriate discipline,and submitted a thesis of
scientific value (Dissertation). The student may also be required to defend his thesis. In
general,for admission to the doctorate course,outstanding results must be obtained in the
final examination (ErsteStaatsprüfung,Diplom,Magister Artium).The duration of doctorate
studies varies with the discipline chosen and the subject of the thesis.
ErsteStaatsprüfung.Qualification ofhigher educationawarded by the stateto studentswho
have passed a final examination;a basic requirement in medicine,pharmacy, law and for
primary or secondary teaching.
Fachhochschulreife. Entrance requirement for the specialized professional schools,
requiring twelve years of primary and secondaryeducation followed by a period of practical
work experience.
Habilitation.Qualification required of teachersofhigher education.It is normally awarded
to candidateswho have spenta period of time(varyingbetween disciplines)as assistant doing
personal research work.The candidate must normallyalready have the doctorate,and must in
addition pass a special examination and submit a thesis.
Hochschulreife. Entrance requirement for higher education,requiring thirteen years of
primary and secondary education and success in the final examination (see Reifezeugnis,
Fachhochschulreife).
Intermediate Examination.See Vorprüfung, Zwischenprüfung.
Magister Artium. University qualification awarded after a final examination in arts and
human sciences to students not intending to teach at secondary level.It is equivalent to the
Diplom.
Matura.See Reifezeugnis.
Reifeprüfung.See Reifezeugnis.
Reifezeugnis. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate, normally awarded after four years’
primary and nine years’ secondary education.The transition from primary school to an
establishment of secondary education may also take place after the sixth or tenth years of
schooling. The certificate indicates that the student has passed the final examination of
secondaryeducation.In theory,it qualifiesthe holder to enter higher educationin any field.In
fact,in some subjects the candidate is required to undergo a period ofwork experiencebefore
admission,although thismay in somecases be undertaken simultaneously with his studies(see
also Hochschulreife).
Staatsexamen.See Erste Staatsprüfung.
Vordiplom. Intermediate examination taken after some two years’ study, in exact and
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY 107

natural sciences,economics,politics, and social and technical sciences.In arts and human
sciences,this examinationis generally called the Zwischenprüfung.
Vorprüfung. See Vordiplom.
Zwischenprüfung. Intermediateexaminationtaken after some two years’study in the fields
of arts and human sciences (see Vordiplom).

Ghana
In Ghana higher educationtakes place in three universities-the University of Cape Coast,
the University of Ghana (Legon) and the University of Science and Technology at
Kumasi-and in specialized institutions of higher education.
The universities are divided into facultieswhich are themselves divided into departments.
The governing body of a university is its council comprising ex-officio members and
appointees,as well as members elected by the University staff.The senateor academic board,
composed ofmembers ofthe academicstaff,has authorityin all academicmatters.About 90
per cent of resources are provided by the State and 10 per cent from student fees. The
University of Ghana offers a variety of part-timecourses for adults.
The specialized institutions of higher education are the schools of veterinary medicine,
forestry,law,librarianship,mining and nursing.institutes of journalism,management and
public administration,teacher-trainingcolleges,as well as fourpolytechnics.Resourcescome
almost entirely from government grants.These institutions are autonomous but each is
administered by its board ofgovernorswhose members are usually appointed by the Minister
of Education.
The National Council for Higher Education is responsible for higher educationplanning.
The language of instruction is English.
Teachers are trained at three levels.Primary school-teachersare trained in two years at
upper-secondary level,following eight years’primary and four years’secondaryeducation.
After eight years’primary and at least fiveyears’secondaryeducation,prospectivesecondary
teachers may pursue educationalstudies at Cape Coast University.leadingto the award of a
bachelor‘sdegree in education.A further one-yearcourse leads t6 the master’s degree in
education.The University also offers a one-yearcourse leading to the diploma of education.
Access to higher education is based on thegeneralcerrificateof education,normallyobtained
after eight years’ primary and five years’secondary education and taken at two levels:
ordinary (‘0’) level and advanced (‘A’)level. Minimum entrance requirements are five ‘O’
levels and up to three ‘A’levels,accordingto the field ofstudy.Candidatesare selectedfrom
those suitably qualified.
The first stage in higher education (undergraduatestudies)leadsto the bachelor’sdegree.In
the University of Ghana all courses,except medicine,have a three-yearduration and are
offered at the honours level;students who fail to reach honours level but otherwise perform
satisfactorily are awarded apass degree.In the University ofCapeCoastand the Universityof
108 GHANA

Science and Technology,a bachelor’sdegree may be obtained in three orfour yearsaccording

to the disciplineand type of degree(generalor honours).Coursesin basic and applied sciences
and education includelong vacation assignmentsin laboratories,industry,farmsand in class-
room teaching.Professionalqualificationsare marked by the award ofcertificatesor diplomas
after one or two years of study.
Graduate studies lead to the award of the master’s degree and doctor’s degree (higher
degrees) and to various postgraduate diplomas and certificates. A master’s degree may be
obtained following two years’course-workand research after the bachelor’s degree;a thesis
must be presented. In science studies may last one year after a four-yearhonours degree. T o
obtain a doctor’sdegree three years’researchon an approvedsubjectand the presentationofa
thesis are required. Advanced professional qualifications are awarded as certificatesand
diplomas following one or two years’study after the bachelor’s degree.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,general certificate of education)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 I 8

Education P P B M R
Arts B M D
Religion,theology L P
Fine arts B P
Architecture B P
Law B M D
Economic and social B M D
sciences
Administrative sciences B P
Mathematics B M D
Science B B M D
Engineering B M D
Medical sciences
medicine
pharmacy B M
Agriculture

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree L licentiate M master’s degree

P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree (undergraduatestudies) obtained in three or four years
depending on the disciplineand type of degree. Sometimes there is a preparatory year (as in
medicine). In certain fields the bachelor’sdegree may be obtained as a general degree or as an
honours degree.The courses of study differ.In somecases,an honours degree requires one year
more.
Certificate.See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’sdegree.Higher degree which follows the master’s degree.To obtain it, three years’
research on an approved subject and the presentation of a thesis are required.
GHANA 109

General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate normally obtained

after eight years’primary and fouryears’secondaryeducation.This examinationcomprisesa
choice of subjectsat two levels:ordinary leveland advanced level.The studentmust obtainthe
number and combination of passes required by the branch of higher education he wishes to
enter. Usually one and sometimes two more years’preparatory study are needed for the
advanced level. These examinationsare organized by the West African ExaminationsCouncil
or by a United Kingdom body,usually Cambridgeor London University.This system is also
known as school certificate.
Master’s degree.Higher degree (graduate studies)obtained following two years’course-
work and research after the bachelor’sdegree. A thesis must be presented.In science,studies
may last one year after a four-yearhonours degree.
Professional qualification. Higher education qualification marked by a certificate or a
diploma after one or two years’studyat the levelofundergraduate studiesor.after a bachelor’s
degree or a first professional qualification,at the level of graduate studies.
Secondary school-leavingcertificate.See p w u l certificate of education.

Greece
In Greece higher education is provided in fourteen institutions of higher education. In
addition to the University of Athens, the National Technical University of Athens
(Polytechnion),the University of Thessalonica,the University of Patras and the Universityof
Ioannina,there are now the University of Thrace (founded in 1973 and comprising two
faculties:one ofhumanitiesand the other of natural scienceand mathematics), the University
ofCrete (foundedin 1973 andcomprisingtwo faculties:lawand techno1ogy)and the technical
University of Crete (beingset up). The other institutions of higher education are a schoolof
economics and commerce,the PanteiosSchool of PoliticalScience,a school of agricultural
studies.the two schoolsof industrial studiesin Piraeusand Thessalonica,and aschooloffine
arts.
The universities offer courses in the following branches:orthodox theology,philosophy
and arts, law, exact sciences, medicine and dentistry, veterinary medicine. agricultural
sciences,and technology. In 1976-77. two new schools of medicine were opened at the
Universities of Patras and Ioannina.
In 1974,the State met the need for renewingeducationalstructuresand for reorganization
by introducingvarious innovationsinmatters ofeducation.Secondaryeducationwas divided
into two phases,the gymnasium and the grammar school,which both last three years.Under
the new Constitution (1975,Article 16), higher education can only be provided by state
institutions which are autonomous, and state-financed and controlled. The system of
admission to institutions of tertiary education which,until 1979,was based on an entrance
examination for holders of the secondary-school-leavingcertificate has been modified.In
1980,the entrance examinationsystem was replaced by the following procedure:candidates
110 GREECE

are admitted to institutionsof higher education on the marks obtained during the last two
years of grammar school in certain basic subjectsand in school-leavingexaminations.For the
sake of uniformity,examinationsin these subjectsare now the same throughoutthe country.
Lastly,the system ofuniversity studies has been modified according to Law 815/1978. The
former administrative structure of the institutionsof higher education which was based on
chairs,divisions and schools has been replaced by a system in which the department is the
basic unit.The departmentis governed by its council,made up offulland associateprofessors,
assistant professors, a representative of the assistant teachers and one or two student
representatives (dependingon the number ofprofessors). Thisis the first timein the history of
Greek higher education that representatives of assistant teachersandstudentstake part in the
meetings of a university administrative body with the right to vote. Moreover, higher
education has been democratized: enrolment and examination fees have been abolished and
the cost of textbooks is met by the Government.These measures only partly apply in the case
offoreignstudents.They receive the basic books they need for their studiesfreeofcharge,but
they must pay registrationfees of between 36,000and48,000drachmasper annum,according
to subject,except if they hold scholarships;it sometimeshappens that,on the proposal of a
university,a student is exempted by the Minister of Education from paying these fees.
Summer courses have been createdat the universities ofAthens and Thessalonicaand at the
Balkan PeninsulaInstitute of Studies to enable students to learn the Greek languagein order
to follow courses and sit for examinations.
In addition,five centres of higher technical and professional studies (KATEE)have been
created at Thessalonica,Patras,Larissa,and Herakleion.Four other centres will be created
before 1983. Their purpose is to give students the necessary theoretical and practical
knowledgeto become high level techniciansand thereby contributeto the developmentofthe
national economy.A cross-channelsystem has been created between the universitiesand the
KATEE.
Primary teachers are trained in two years in numerous teacher-training colleges,
~

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,apolytiuion lykiou)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Di
Arts P D
Theology P D
Law,political sciences P D
Economic sciences P D
Exact and natural P D
sciences
Engineering, P D
technology
Medical sciences
medicine P D
dentistry P I1
veterinary medicine P D
Agriculture,forestry P

D didaktorikon Di primary teacher’sdiploma P piychion

GREECE 111

recruitment for which takes place at the end of secondaryeducation.There is also a special
college for the training ofnursery teachers and a National Instituteof PhysicalEducation,in
which studies last three years.Secondary teachers are trained at university level.
The language of instruction is Greek.
The basic level for higher education is the upo/vtirion (vkiou (secondary-school-leaving
certificate)to which the marks obtained in certain basic subjectsduring the two last years of
grammar school are added.This certificate is awarded after six years of primary education
followed by three years at gymnasium and three years at grammar school.
Severalstagesmay be distinguished in higher education.The main stage may be carriedout
either at a university or in another kind of institution of higher education.The length of
studies varies according to subject:from four years in theology,philosophy,law etc.to six
years in medicine.These studieslead to a first qualification,thepî.vchion.This stage entails a
thorough acquisitionofknowledgeand ofpractical experienceand correspondsto a high level
professional qualification.
A second stage leads to a diploma of advanced studies after an entrance examinationand
one or two years of study.
The third stage awards the didukîorikon (doctorate)which is usually obtained after two or
more years of research and submission and defence of a thesis.

GLOSSARY
Apolytirion lykiou. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,obtained after six years' primary
education followed by six years of secondary education,which is divided into two phases of
three years each.
Didaktorikon.Degree of higher education conferredin certain facultiesafter two or more
years' studybeyond theprychionand obtained afterthesuccessfulpresentation and defence of
a thesis.
Doctorate. See diduktorikon.
Ptychion. Qualification of higher education,conferred after studies varying between four
years (in theology, philosophy, law, humanities, economics, science, political science,
industrialstudies), five years (veterinarymedicine,dentistry), five or six years (engineering,
depending on the specialization) and six years (medicine). Attendance at courses is
compulsory. Examinations in June and October (and sometimesin December) determine
promotion to the following year's course.Five subjects in all are examined. For the other
subjects the marks obtained during the year count as examinationmarks.Candidates pass
only ifthey have obtainedan averageoffiveout often.The finalexaminationoftheptychion IS
in eight subjects,in which candidatestake a written paper and an oral examination.Practical
examinations are set in science and medicine.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See upolytirion lykiou.
112 GUATEMALA

Guatemala
In Guatemala higher education is provided in five state and private universities. The
Universidad de San Carlosde Guatemalais an autonomousstate university which is governed
by a Consejo Superior Universitario in which both professorsand studentsare represented.It
comprises faculties of agronomy, architecture,economics, law, social sciences,medical
science, chemistry and pharmacology, letters and humanities, engineering, dentistry,
veterinary medicine,schools of psychology,history,social work,together with six regional
university centres.
The other four universities are private and the qualifications they confer are officially
recognized in Guatemala.The Universidad del Valle de Guatemalahas three faculties(science
and humanities, social sciences,and educational sciences), as well as a research institute
divided into a research centre in education and aresearchcentre in demography,environment
and natural resources.
The Universidad ‘FranciscoMarroquin’,which was founded in 1971 and is financed by
student fees and gifts from private organizations,comprises four schools (economics,law,
architectureand medicine), three institutionsofferingpostgraduate studies in economics and
business administration, social sciences and clinical and medical psychology,as well as a
department of lifelong education.
The Universidad ‘MarianoGklvez’is a private university recognized by the State which
comprises schools of business administration, engineering, economics, law and social
sciences,applied arts,management,and educational sciences.
The Universidad ‘RafaelLandivar’,a private institutionrecognized by the State,comprises
faculties of law and social sciences,letters and humanities (as well as teacher-trainingand
training in socialwork), economics,engineering;a school ofrural socialsciences,an institute
of political and social sciences,and a centre of social development.
Teaching is given in Spanish.
Primary teachers are trained in three years at upper-secondary level. The holders of a
diploma obtained in a faculty of letters and humanities of a university may teach at -the
secondary level.Qualificationsto teach at secondary level are also given after three years at
the Universidad ‘FranciscoMarroquin’and four years at the Universidad ‘RafaelLandivar’.
Access to higher education is through the bachillerato (certificate at the end of secondary
school) or its equivalent,which is generally obtained after six years of primary education
followed by five or six years of secondary education. A n examen de admision (entrance
examination) is moreover generally required for candidates to higher education(especially at
the Universidad ‘FranciscoMarroquin’).
The length of studiesvariesaccordingto the subject.The main stage leadsto the licenciatura
or to a professional qualification.The licenciatura is awarded after four or six years,
depending on the universities and the subjects chosen. A professional qualification of
jngeniero is delivered after five or six years of study,and a professional qualificationofdoctor
in medicine and veterinary medicine after six years.
At the Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala, at the Universidad del Valle and at the
Universidad ‘FranciscoMarroquin’,the second stage leads to a maestria after one or two years
of study and on submissionof a thesis.The firstconfersmaestria in specialitiesin engineering,
medical sciences, chemistry and pharmacy, and veterinary medicine; the second in
anthropology and teacher-training;the third in economics and business administration,in
clinical psychology and medical psychology,in social sciences and family medicine (reserved
to doctors).
At the Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala. at the Universidad del Valle and at the
GUATEMALA 113

Universidad ‘FranciscoMarroquin’,the third stage leads to a doctorado in certain subjects.

This title is conferred after two consecutive years of study after the maestria and on
submission of a thesis.
~~~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER S T U D I E S

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previouseducation: 11/12 years,bachillerato)

years 5 6 7 8

L/P M D

D doctorado L licenciaturu M maestria P professional qualifiration

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate generally awarded after six years of
primary education and five or six years of secondary education,which is divided into two
phases. The bachillerato gives access to higher education to those who pass the examen de
admision (entranceexamination).
Doctorado.The highest degree of higher education awarded after two years of consecutive
studies after the maestria and on submission of a thesis.
Examen de admision. See bachillerato.
Licenciatura. First degree of higher education awarded after four to six years of studies
depending on the universities and subjects.
Maestria. Awarded after one or two years’study after the licenciaturu and on submissionof
a thesis.
Professional qualification.Qualification ofhigher educationawardedafter five or six years
of study and six ycara in medicine.where the qualification is called doctor.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See bachillerato.

Guinea
No information having been received recentiv,the present text is repeutedfrom the 1976 English
edition of this Guide.

In Guinea higher education is given in the followinginstitutions:the Polytechnic Instituteof

Conakry,the Ngéréré PolytechnicalInstitute,a higherteacher-traininginstitution,a national
school of arts and crafts,and a higher school of administration.All these institutions are
114 GUINEA

public and are controlledby the Ministry ofNationalEducation,Youth and Culture,with the
exception of the higher school of administration, which is controlled by the Ministry of
Justice.Teaching is mainly in French.
The PolytechnicalInstituteof Conakry is a higher scientificand technical institutionwhose
task is to train both engineers and secondary teachers.It includes faculties of humanities,
science,civil engineering,geology and mining, and agriculture,to which are being added
faculties of medicine,pharmacy and electrical engineering.
The Ngéréré Polytechnical Institute is divided into departments (mathematicsandphysics,
chemistry and biology, physics and chemistry, humanities, history and geography, and
philosophy).
The National School of Arts and Crafts at Conakry is concerned with technology.
The National School of Administration trains higher civil servants.
Primary teachers and teachers for the ‘middle’phase of schooling(see below) are trained
respectively in the primary teacher-traininginstitution and in the secondary teacher-training
institution,whose level is equivalent to that of upper-secondary education.Teachers for
upper-secondaryeducation are trained in the Polytechnical Instituteor in the higher teacher-
training institution.
Access to higher education is dependent upon passing the baccalauréat which is taken at the
end of 12 years’schooling. Schooling is divided up as follows:a first phase of four years,a
second or ‘middle’phase of five years, which takes place in a lower-secondaryschool of
general or technical education,and a third phase lasting three years which takes place in a
classical or technical lycée. This third or upper phase may,in a classical lycée be either in a
scientific or literary option. Schooling given in a primary or secondary teacher-training
institution,also at the level ofthe third phase,lasts one or two yearsand leadsto a primary or
secondary school-teacher’scertificate.Entrance to the PolytechnicalInstitute of Conakry is
also controlled by means of an entrance examination,candidatesfor which must normally
have passed the baccalauréat.
The main stage of higher education lasts three or four years and leads to a professional
qualification (engineeringdiploma,teaching diploma)or to a licence degree in the humanities
or in science.
A second stage may be undertaken in the fields of the humanities or science beyond the
licence. It leads to a diploma of higher education (diplôme d‘études supérieures).
A third stage,in the form ofresearch,leads,afterpresentationofa thesis,to the award ofthe
doctorate,which is the highest degree.

PROFILE OF HIGHER S T U D I E S

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 12 years,baccalauréat).

years 4 5 6 7
L DES D
L licence DES diplôme d’études supérieures D doctoral

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Qualification awarded after three years of secondary education(third phase)
given in a classicalor technical lycée. The course in the classicallycée has either a literary or a
scientificoption.The third phase followsupon asecondphaseoffiveyears(‘middle’phase) in
GUINEA 115

a secondaryschoolofgeneral or technical education and upon a first phase lastingfouryears.

The baccalauréat gives access to higher education,although sometimes there is also a
competitiveentrance examination.
Competitive entrance examination.See c'encours d'entrée.
Concours d'entrée. Competitive examination open usually only to holders of the
baccalauréat and taken by those who wish to be admitted to certain institutions of higher
education.Such an examination must be passed by those who hold a baccalauréat in the
scientific option and who seek entrance to certain faculties of the Polytechnical Institute.
Diploma of higher education. See diplôme d'études supérieures.
Diplôme.Qualification awarded at the end of higher education.The diplôme d'ingénieur
(engineeringdiploma)ofthe PolytechnicalInstitute ofConakry,forexample,is awardedafter
a four-yearcoursein civil engineering,agriculture,or geology and mining,and the diplômede
professeur de I'enseignemenrsecondaire (secondary-school-teachingdiploma)is awardedafter
a three-yearcourse.
Diplômed'études supérieures.Diploma usually awardedaftera licence degree in humanities
or science.The candidate submitsa dissertationwhich represents a minimum of one year's
research.
Doctorat.The highest degree of higher education,awarded after the licence and often also
after the diplôme d'études supérieures. It represents the results of several years' research
submitted in the form of a thesis.
Licence. Degree of higher education,awarded in the humanities or science,usually after
three years of higher education.
Professional qualification.Qualification awarded at the end of higher educationin certain
facultiesand certain higher institutionssuch as the diplôme d'ingénieur (engineeringdiploma)
or diplôme de sortie (graduation diploma)of the national school of administrationor of the
higher teacher-traininginstitution.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate.See baccalauréat.

Guyana
In Guyana higher education takes place in a university-the University of Guyana,
Georgetown-and in specialized institutions of higher education.
The University of Guyana comprises faculties of agriculture, arts, education, natural
sciences,social sciences,engineering and technology.The specialized institutionsof higher
education are: the government technical institutes,the school of agriculture,Lilian Dewar
College of Education (formerly College of Education for secondary teachers), Cyril Potter
College of Education,and theManagement DevelopmentTrainingInstitute.Resourcescome
from government grants.
The language of instruction is English.
Teachersof primary education are trained in a two-yearcourse given at the Lilian Dewar
116 GUYANA

College of Education while teachers of secondary education are trained in a three-yearcourse

at the Cyril Potter College of Education. Both courses lead to a certificate.A two-yearpart-
time postgraduate course at the University leads to a diploma for teachers of secondary
education. A n accelerated one-year course is organized as necessary to ensure an adequate
supply of teachers, and there is a one-year evening course for teachers in service.
Access to higher education is based on the general certificateof education,ordinary level,
obtained after seven years’ primary and five years’ secondary education. However, ‘general
proficiency’ and ‘basic proficiency’ certificate examinations mounted by the Caribbean
Examinations Council are n o w being phased in, and it is planned that the Caribbean
Examination Council secondary education certificatewill in time completely replace the GCE
examination.
The main stage in higher education leads to a bachelor’s degree obtained in four years in
architecture, three to four years in arts,natural sciences,social sciences and technology.The
University of Guyana also offers a one-yearcourse in law for students preparing the bachelor
of law at the University of the West Indies (Barbados).Three-yearcourses lead to the award of
a certificatein medical technology and to various diplomas:radiographyand physiotherapy in
three years, public administration and general technology in two years.For other diplomas,a
first degree is a prerequisite only in education.The Government Technical Institute awards
diplomas and gives full-time and part-time courses leading to a United Kingdom (national
certificate or the higher national certificate (see entry for United Kingdom). The Farm
Institute awards diplomas.
The second stage leads to the acquisition of a master’s degree in arts, science, or social
sciences,after a minimum of twelve months after initial registration in the case of part-time
students, but not more than six years after initial registration in either case.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, general certificate of education)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education
Arts
Architecture
Law
Social and economic
sciences
Administration P B
Exact and natural B
sciences
Engineering,technology P B
Paramedical studies P

B bachelor’s degree P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree (undergraduate studies) obtained after four years’ study.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
GUYANA 117

General certificate of educatiodcaribbean Examination Council secondary education

certificate.Secondary-school-leaving certificate,obtainedafter sevenyears’primary and five
years’secondary education.For admission to higher education,the candidate must obtain
passes in five subjects according to the requirements of the course he wishes to take.
Professional qualification. Higher education qualification awarded as a certificate or a
diploma after two or three years,generally part-time.These studiesmay be below the level of
the first degree (undergraduatestudies) or follow it.

Haiti
In Haiti higher education is given in the State University of Haiti at Port-au-Princeand in
other institutionsof higher education,often privately run,in Port-au-Princeor Cap-Haïtien,
Gonaïves or Les Cayes.
The teaching language is French.
The State University of Haiti comprises the following faculties:law (including economics
and administrativesciences), medicineand pharmacy,dentistry,ethnology,science(including
civilengineeringand architecture), letters,agricultureand veterinary medicine.A n advanced
teacher-training college and an institute of administration, management and higher
internationalstudiesare attached to the University,and so are four schools of law.Though
part of the University,they are entirely autonomous as regards staff appointments and
financial resources.Other institutions include a school of laboratory technology,a higher
technical institute,an institute of higher commercialstudies,and severalschoolsof nursing.
O n the whole,higher education is the responsibilityof the Ministry of Education.But the
faculties of medicine and pharmacy and dentistry are the responsibilityof the Ministry of
Health.
Shorter courses lead to vocational and professional qualifications in the Institute of
Technology (diplomas in surveying and engineering)after one year’s study,in schools of
nursing after three years’study,in schoolsfor laboratory technicians,etc.
Teachers of primary educationare trained at secondary levelinteacher-trainingcollegesto
which holders of the brevet élémentaire du premier cycle (see glossary,baccalauréat) gain
access by competitiveentrance examination.Teachersof secondaryeducationare trained at
the Advanced Teacher-TrainingCollege in the following sections: humanities,philosophy,
social science,languages,mathematics,natural science.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat (secondary-school-leaving
certificate)obtained after six years ofprimary followed by sevenyearsofsecondaryeducation
(divided into four years’ lower and three years’ upper secondary education), or other
equivalent qualificationsfrom French or francophonesecondary education.Candidatesto
the faculties of medicine and pharmacy, dentistry,science, as well as to the Advanced
Teacher-TrainingCollege must pass a competitive entrance examination.
The main phase ofhigher educationusually laststhreetofiveyears.(In law,thebaccalauréat
118 HAITI

en droit is obtained at the end of the first two years’study.)Studies in higher education lead,
depending on the subject,to:a licence in law (four years), social and administrative science
.
(three years), or humanities(threeyears); a certificatd‘études supérieuresin letters or science;a
professional qualification,e.g.in civil engineering(fouryears), agriculture,pharmacy etc.(five
years); a certificat d’études supérieures which is awarded after three years’ study by the
Advanced Teacher-TrainingCollege and qualifiesholdersto teach in secondaryeducation.In
medicine,the qualificationofdocteur en médecine and the professionallicence to practise are
awarded after a total of seven years,after periods of internship and practical training.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 I

Education CES
Arts CES~L
Human sciences DES
(anthropology)
Architecture P
Law BD L
Social and admini- L
strative sciences
Science CES
Engineering,technology D P
Medical sciences
medicine
D
pharmacy
Agriculture

B D baccalauréat en droit CES certificat d’études supérieures D diplôme

DES diplôme d’études supérieures L licence P professional qualipcation

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat.Secondary-school-leaving qualification,obtained at the end of six years of
primary followed by seven years of secondaryeducation (divided into four years’lowerand
three years’upper secondaryeducation). The first ‘lower’phase of secondaryeducationleads
to the brevet élémentaire du premier cycle which gives access to secondary level teacher-
training colleges. The second, ‘upper’phase offers a variety of options: Latin/Greek,
Latidscience,sciences and languages,and leads to the baccalauréat, which gives access to
higher education.
Baccalauréat en droit. Qualification awarded by some schools of lawaftertwo years’study.
Certificat d‘études supérieures. Qualificationawarded after three years’study in letters and
science.Also the diploma awarded by the Advanced Teacher-TrainingCollege at the end of
three years’study.This is also a professional qualification.
Competitive entrance examination. Candidates to certain facultiesof the State University
(medicine and pharmacy,dentistry,science) and to the Advanced Teacher-TrainingCollege
have to pass a competitive entrance examination.
Diplôme d’études supérieures.Qualification of higher education awarded in humanities by
HAITI 119

the ethnology faculty of the State Universityafter one year’sstudy following upon the licence
in anthropological science.
Doctorat.Qualification of higher education awarded in medicine: the title of docteur en
médecine is awarded after a period of internship and practical training following upon
theoretical studies.
Licence.Qualification awarded in certainsubjectsaftera period ofthree tofouryears’study
(law,anthropology).
Professional qualification.Qualification awarded by institutions of higher professional
education (universityfaculties or institutes) after a period of usually four to five years’study
(e.g.qualification as a dentist,civil engineer or architect).

Holy See
At the level of higher education the essential preoccupation of the Holy See,as the central
organ of the Catholic Church,is the teaching of the Christian Revelationand those subjects
related to it. These studiesare in fact closely linked to the ministryofevangelizationwhich the
Church recognizesas its own mission.However,certain institutionsalso teach other subjects.
Institutionsdependent upon the Church belong to the Holy See of to other ecclesiastical
bodies such as the dioceses,religious congregationsand ecclesiastical associations.
Institutionsmay be classified into two categories.depending upon whether they are ofthe
university type or not. Institutions of university type include:ecclesiastical universities or
faculties,whose programmes consist entirely of sacred subjects and the subjects related to
them or to the evangelizing mission of the Church;and Catholic universitiesand faculties,
which teach secular subjects as well as sacred ones,or even secular ones only.Institutionsof
non-university type give vocational training in the mode of the seminaries,in which
candidates for the priesthood are prepared for the exercise of their functions.
Institutions of higher education are controlled, at the central level, by the Sacred
Congregation for Catholic Education,which is one of the Ministries of the Roman Curia at
the Vatican;at the national level institutionsare controlled by the national conferences of
bishops;and at the diocesan level by the diocesan bishop assisted by his council.
Teaching is given in Italian and/or Latin,depending upon the institution.
Access to higher education is given by a secondary-school-leavingcertificate,which,as for
admission to a secular university, allows enrolment in the first phase of studies in an
ecclesiastical faculty.Some faculties (of ecclesiasticalhistory,liturgical studies,missiology,
Oriental ecclesiastical studies, psychology and Christian archaeology) impose additional
requirements:students must have followed the usual theologicalcourses in an institutionof
non-university type,or hold a baccalaureate in theology.Access to medieval studies is only
open to studentswho have completed their university studies.Access to studies in theology is
only open to students who have followed courses in philosophy for two years.Holders of an
120 HOLY SEE

academic degree from an ecclesiastical faculty or a secular faculty ofletters,law or history

may also be admitted to a course in Christian archaeology.
In ecclesiasticalfaculties or universitiesthree stages may usually be distinguished.Theyare
of variable length.The first stage,which lastsbetween one and threeyears,usually leadsto the
baccalaureate (thiscertificate,however,does not existin every subject), which generally marks
the end of the first phase of study in ecclesiastical faculties.
The second stage, after a further one or two years’ study, leads to the licence, which is
awarded at the end ofthe secondphase ofstudy in ecclesiasticalfaculties,and to the magistère,
which requires at least one year’sfurther study following upon the licence.
The third stage leads to the doctorate which is awarded one or two years after the licence on
submission of a thesis.
In theologicalfacultieswhich form an integralpart ofstateuniversities the period ofstudy is
generally shorter,so as to be in line with studies in other faculties.For the same reason the
studies in theological faculties are not always divided into three successive phases;in most
cases the diploma in philosophicaland theologicalstudiesis awarded after a five-yearcourse,
and the doctorate two years later.
- ~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education:secondary-school-leavingcertificate)
years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Philosophy,theology *
(seminaries)
Arab-Islamicstudies L
Christian archaeology B L D
Biblical studies
Canon law (Latin or L D
Oriental)
Canon and civil law L D
Ecclesiastical history B L D
Classical and Christian B L D
letters
Liturgical studies L D
Medieval studies L D
Missiology B L D
Sacred music B L M D
Ancient Orient (studies) L D
Oriental (ecclesiastical B L D
studies)
Pedagogical (studies) L D
Philosophy B L D
Psychology (studies in) B L D
Religious Catholic M
(studies)
Sociology (studies in) B L D
Theology B L D

B baccalaureate D doctorate L licence M magistère

* See Glossary,baccalaureate.
HOLY SEE 121

GLOSSARY
Baccalaureate. Degree awarded at the end of the first phase of studies in ecclesiastical
faculties.It shows global knowledgeof the basic subjects of the programme at the facultyand
a firstinitiationtotheuse ofscientificmethods.In the facultiesofphilosophyand theology the
baccalaureate may be awarded to students who have followed the two-year course in
philosophy prior to their theological studies,or the coursesin philosophy and theology (which
last six years) in an institution of non-university type,on condition that such courses are
linked to the faculty.
Diploma. Without necessarily being considered as a universitydegreeproper,the diploma is
in certain cases a qualification awarded after study in higher education.In other cases it is
merely a certificate awarded to a student who has successfully followed a course of
ecclesiasticalstudies ofvariable length.The diploma gives the right to teach in certainschools
below university level, although it may also merely indicate that the holder possesses a
qualification in a specified field of knowledge (for example,the expert diploma).
Doctorate. The highest research degree of higher education,awarded after the licence.
Candidatesare not bound to follow special third phase courses of study,hut must submit a
substantial thesis which representsa real contributionto knowledge,the greater part ofwhich
mus! he pnb!ished. The Uxtcrâte givcs the fight iû teach in a faculty.
Licence. Degree of higher education awarded at the end of the second phase of study in an
ecclesiasticalfaculty.The licence is sometimes considered as equivalent to the masier’sdegree
(as defined in the French-speakinguniversity world), sometimesbelow or above it,according
to how it is characterized by the awarding faculty.The licence gives the right to teach in a
seminary or in an equivalent school.
Magistère (master’s degree). University degree, awarded after at least one year’s study
following the licence by certain institutesgiving specialized courses within a faculty (usually
the faculty of theology)or by the institutes of sacred music.It is also awarded at the end ofthe
four-yearcourses of the institutes of Catholic religious studies.

Honduras
In Honduras higher education is given in two types of institution:a university and state
faculties,and specialized state institutions.
The Universidad Nacional Autonoma of Honduras at Tegucigalpa includes six faculties
(medical sciences,engineering,law,economics,chemistry andpharmacy,dentistry), a Centro
UniversitarioRegionalAtlintico which trains specialistsin agriculturalsciencesand forestry,
a Centro Universitario de Estudios Generales,a Centro UniversitarioRegional Norte,which
offers courses in science,letters and the arts.The University is completely autonomous.It
draws its funds from credits granted by the Government,fees,gifts and entrance fees for
access to certain professions.The claustro pleno (University Assembly) and the University
Council have as many student members as administrative and teaching staff.
122 HONDURAS

T h e other state institutionof Honduras is the Escuela Superior del Profesorado‘Francisco

Moradn’, under the control of the central government, which finances it. It includes
departments of natural sciences, social sciences, mathematics, languages and literature,
domestic economy and physical education.
Primary teachers are trained in teacher-training institutions in the last three years of
secondary education.The course leads to the qualification of maestro de educacibn primaria.
The ‘Francisco Morazhn’ advanced teacher-training college trains secondary teachers in a
four-year course and offers training courses for primary and secondary teachers during their
career.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Access to higher education is given by the bachiflerato en cienciasy ferras,normallyawarded
after six years of primary schooling followed by five years of secondary schooling.Secondary
education is divided into two phases:the first phase, ciclo c o m h de culturageneral,which lasts
three years; and the second phase which may be either two years of continued general
education or three years of specialized education. The qualifications of maestro de educacibn
primaria and perito mercanti1 y contador also give access to higher education (see Glossary).
An examen de ingreso (entrance examination) is compulsory for entrance to courses in social
work, nursing and agriculture.
The length of the courses varies according to the subject.In theuniversityallstudents must
spend their first year in the Centro Universitario de Estudios Generales.This is a compulsory
preparatory year given over to general studies in classical and scientific subjects and is aimed
at allowing the students to fit in better to the various professional courses offered in the
different faculties.The courses lead either to the licenciatura or to a professional qualification.
In general the licenciatura may be awarded after a course lasting four years in nursing and five
years in economics, business management, accountancy, journalism, mathematics and

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 1 1 years, bachillerato en ciencias y letras)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 I

Education P L
Law
Social sciences
Chemical sciences
Economics
Business management
Mathematics, natural
sciences
Medical sciences
medicine D
dentistry D
pharmacy D
nursing L
Technology, engineering P P P
Agriculture P

D doctorado L licenciatura P professional qualification

HONDURAS 123

natural sciences (six years in law and social science). The doctorado (doctorate)may also be
obtained in dentistry (six years), chemical sciences and pharmacy (six years) and medicine
(seven years).
Other qualificationsare awarded after courses whose duration ranges from one and a half
years (for laboratorytechnicians)to five yearsfor engineers(chemicalengineers,mechanical
engineers, electrical engineers, agricultural engineers and engineers in forestry) (in civil
engineeringcourses last six years). At the University,in order to be awardeda degree or other
terminal qualification the student must sit for a general written examination and submit a
thesis.

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate, awarded after six years of primary
schoolingand five years ofsecondary schooling,the latterbeing divided intotwo phases.The
first phase (ciclo comun de cultura general), comprises three years of general studies.The
secondphase is more specialized,with twoyearsina schoolofgeneraleducationor threeyears
in a more specializedone leadingto the bachillerato en ciencias y letras. This gives access to
higher education.However,an e-xamende ingreso (entranceexamination)is also required for
higher education in certainfields(socialsciences,nursing,agriculture). Ifthesecondphase of
secondaryeducationis undertaken in a three-yearcourse in a teacher-traininginstitutionor a
commercial school,this leads respectively to the award of the qualificationsof maestro de
educacibn prirnaria or ofperito mercantily contador,both of which conferthe same rightsas
the bachillerato and give access to higher education.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctorado.Professional qualificationof doctor,awarded in chemical sciences,pharmacy,
and dentistry (six years), and in medicine (seven years) (see licenciatura, professional
qualification).
Examen de ingreso (entrance examination). See bachillerato.
Licenciatura.Degree of higher educationawarded after a course usually lasting five years
(six in law and socialsciences). All studentsspend the first yearin the CentroUniversitariode
EstudiosGenerales.This preparatory year is devoted to general classical or scientificstudies,
the aim of which is to fit studentsfor the professional qualificationsawarded in the various
faculties.In order to obtain the degree the student must pass a general written examination
and submit a thesis.
Maestro de educacion primaria.Secondary-school-leavingqualification awarded after the
end ofthe second phase (threeyears)ofsecondaryeducationundertakenina teacher-training
institution.It gives the same rights as the bachillerato.
Perito mercantil y contador.Secondary-school-leavingqualificationawarded after the end
ofthe second phase (three years)ofsecondaryeducationundertakenin a commercial school.
It gives the same rights as the bachillerato.
Professionalqualification.Qualification ofhigher educationawardedat the end of a course
with a duration of from one and a halfyears (for laboratory technicians)to fiveto six yearsin
engineering (according to subject) and to seven years in medicine. The title of doctor is
awarded in chemicalsciencesand pharmacy and indentistry(six years)and inmedicine (seven
years). In the universityfacultiesthe first year is spentin the CentroUniversitariode Estudios
Generales (see licenciatura). The term titulo or diploma is often used to describe the
qualification (es, titulo de agronomo, diploma de técnico).
Secondary-school-leaving certificate.See bachillerato,maestro de educacibn primaria,perito
mercanti1 y contador.
124 HUNGARY

Hungary
Higher education in the Hungarian People’sRepublic is provided in three kinds of institution:
universities and associated establishments,higher professional and art schools,and teacher-
training colleges. Institutions of higher education are financed by the State.
The universities are divided into faculties made up of departments corresponding to the
various subjects taught. The traditional-styleuniversitiesare made up of varying numbers of
faculties (letters, science, law, social sciences, economics, and education). The technical
universities offer instruction in various fields of technology or architecture. There also exist
specialized universities:several for medicine, one in economics, one in veterinary medicine,
several for agriculture and one in forestry. The aim of the universities is to train highly
qualified specialists and research workers.
The higher professional schools, which recruit their students on criteria that are
comparable to those observed by the universities,prepare directly for occupations in very
diverse fields of technology,agriculture and economics,but unlike the universitiesthey do not
award the highest degrees.The same is true for the schools of fine arts.
The training of pre-primary and primary school-teachers takes place at post-secondary
level in teacher-trainingcolleges over two or three years. Secondary teachers are trained over
four or five years in the advanced teacher-training schools or in the universities.
Studiesare organized in accordance with curriculaprogrammes which are drawn up by the
Ministry of Education and which lay down guidelines on the content of instruction. The
detailed programmes are worked out by each university council and by special committees.In
all institutions,and for all students, there are compulsory courses in the social sciences and
one or two foreign languages.
Those w h o are already in employment may also follow courses in higher education,either
through evening or correspondence courses and by being given weekly study leave or being
allowed to work shorter hours.
Access to higher education is based on the érettségi (secondary-school-leavingcertificate)
obtained at the end of a secondary course in a general,technical or professional school,or its
equivalent. However, in order to enter higher educationcandidatesmust be between 18 and 35
and pass an entrance examination. Preference is given to students w h o have taken
employment after passing the secondary-school-leavingcertificate. The total number of
students admitted each year is determined by the National Planning Office in accordance with
the needs of the national economy.
The shortest courses available in some professional schools provide training in, for
example, construction, commerce, cartography, mechanics, and electricity for the
qualification of advanced technician.
The main stage of higher education generally comprises a course, usually of four to six
years’ duration,ending in a state examination (dlZumvizsgu),which confers the first higher
education qualification of oklevél (in the technical and agricultural universities the state
examination also includes the submission of a thesis). As in most socialist countries, at the
outset of higher studies, two years are devoted to basic studies before specialization is
attempted. This reflects the pattern of the first two stages c o m m o n to many other countries.
Those holding the university qualification of oklevél may either practice a profession or
continue their studies to the doctorate (doktordtus),which is obtained after submission of a
thesis. In certain fields (law, medicine, veterinary medicine, dentistry) the doktordtus is not
properly speaking a degree, but is awarded upon the completion of studies.
A further stage (therefore,the third), which includes both research asid specialization,
HUNGARY 125

allows some ofthe best students to proceed to the kandidutusqualification.This is to a certain

extent a post-universityqualificationsinceit is awarded after severalyearsin employmentby a
specialcommittee ofthe Academy ofSciences.It is normallyrequired in orderto obtain a full-
time post in higher education.
Another stage is open to persons already teaching in higher education.It consists of the
submission of a considerable number of research studies which are assessed by a special
national qualificationbody appointedby the Academy ofSciences.It leads to the award ofthe
tudomanyok doktora (doctor of science).
~~ ~~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation: 12 years,évettségi)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education O O
Arts K
Fine arts
Law Dç K TD
Economic sciences O O 0 K TD
Exact and natural O K TD
sciences
Technology,engineering O 0 0 K TD
Medical sciences
medicine Ds* K TD
dentistry Ds K
TD
pharmacy O K TD
veterinary medicine Ds K TD
Agriculture,forestry K TD

Ds doktoraius K kandidatust O oklevél TD tudomanyoh-dokiorat

* See text.
t Varied duration according to the students.

GLOSSARY
Allamvizsga. State examination which leads to the first university qualification.In certain
faculties the state examination also requires the presentation of a thesis (see oklevél).
Doktoritus. (a) First university qualification in certain faculties,awarded after five years’
study (law,dentistry and veterinary medicine) or six years’(medicine). The organization of
studiesfor the dokrorurus is similar to that of studies which lead to the qualificationofoklevél
in the other faculties.(b) Qualification of higher education awarded in certainfacultieswhere
the doktorutus is not the first qualification obtained.Those students who already hold the
oklevél qualification may proceed to the doktorutus in arts,science,economics,pharmacy,
engineering and agriculture,after the submission of a thesis.
Entrance examination. Competitive examination for the final selection of students for
higher education (see érettségi).
Érettségi.School-leaving-certificate awarded after eight years of primary and four years of
secondary education in an institution of general, technical or artistic education. This
126 HUNGARY

certificate may be considered a necessary qualificationin order to enter higher education.The

final selection of candidates is made upon the results in an entrance examination.
Kandidhtus. Post-university qualification awarded by a committee of the Academy of
Sciencesafter submissionof a thesisand an oralexaminationwhich includesthe use offoreign
languages and questions on the particular field of study, including philosophy. This
qualification is essential for all full-timeuniversity teachers.
Oklevél. First qualificationof higher education,awarded after a period ofstudy which may
vary from two years (for pre-primary teachers) to six years.A course which extends over
severalsemestershas an intermediateexamination(rigorosunt).For the finalresult,the marks
awarded in practical exercises are taken into consideration.The whole course leads to the
a//amvzzsga(state examination) which,for technologyand agriculture,also includesa thesis.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See érettségi.
Tudomhnyok doktora. The highest post-universitydegree, awarded by the Academy of
Sciences after the award of the kandiddtus,to teachersofhigher education,on submissionofa
considerable number of research studies.

Iceland
No information having been received recently thepresent text is repeatedfrom the 1976 English
edition of this Guide.

Higher education is given principally in the University of Iceland and in a teacher-training

institution.
The University of Iceland is a state institutionand wholly financed by the Government.
Although placed under the control of the Minister of Education, it nevertheless enjoys
considerable autonomy. It comprises faculties of theology, of philososophy (arts and
sciences), sociology,law and economics, medicine (including pharmacy), dentistry, and
engineering,which has subdepartments of mathematics,physics,chemistry,engineering,
biology,and geology.There is also a course in sociology.Each academic year is divided into
two semesters.
Shorter courses take place outside the university for midwifery (two years) and nursing
(three years).
Primary teachersand teachersin the first two years of secondaryeducation are trained in a
teacher-traininginstitution which is at the same level as the university.Teachers for these
levels are also recruited from those who have completed their secondaryschooling,in which
case they follow a one-yearcourse only.Teachers of higher classes in secondaryeducation
must have obtained a university degree.
The requirementfor entry into higher education is the studentsprbf, a general secondary-
school-leaving examination with a choice of literary or scientific options. Success in this
examinationopens the door to higher education,althoughfor engineeringthe candidate must
ICELAND 127

obtain a predetermined minimum mark in the scientific option of the leaving examination.
There are two types of studentsprb/, both obtained on completion of six years of primary
plus six years of secondary education. They carry equal status and both admit to the
University of Iceland.The menntaskdli studentspro/is obtained on completion of a two-year
general secondary plus a four-year upper secondary phase in an ‘academic’school. The
verzlunarskbli Islands studenispub/ is awarded on completion of a six-yearcourse at the
commercial college.
Periods of study are not subject to any fixed limits.In certain subjects,such as pharmacy
and some kinds of engineering,it is possible to complete only the first part of the course,
lasting three years. A special examination,the fyrrihluta pr@ is then taken. Study in the
facultyof engineeringleads to the BSprbjïnmost kindsofengineering,mathematics,physics,
chemistry,biology and geologyand takes threeyears.Thisenablescandidatesto teachscience
in secondary schools.
In the facultyof philosophy,for languages,science,etc.,a three-yearcourseleads to theBA
prci/(baccalaureatus artiuni). This gives the right to teach in lowersecondaryeducation.After
that it is possible to take another course for two to three years. which leads to the
kandidatsprbJ For arts subjects the length of course leading to this degree is three to four
years.
The principal stage in most faculties is reached with the kandidatsprbf or randidatus
examinationafter fourand a halfto sevenyears of study,accordingto the subject.In literary
subjectsa furtheryearafter the candidutusleads in the philosophy faculty to the nzeisteraprcif
or magister artiitrn (degree of master of arts).
A furtherstageofstudy may be undertaken,which consistsofresearchand the preparation
of a thesis,leading to the doktorsprof(doctora1 examination). The degree of doktor may also
be awarded as an honorary title.
__ ~~

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES
Usual Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,studentsprdf)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

B B K M D

B Baccalaureatus artium (BA prbfi D dohtorJprb/ K kandidatsprci/ M metsteraprof

GLOSSARY
Baccalaureatus artium.See B A prbJ
BA prof. Examination which may be passed in the faculty of philosophy in a variety of
subjects (languages, sociology, history, etc.) after three years’ study. Success in this
examinationgives the right to teach in the first phase of secondary education.
BS prof.Examination which may be passed in the faculty ofengineering after three years’
study.
Candidatus.See kandidatsprb/.
Doctorate.See doktorsprb/.
Doktorsprof.Examination consisting of the presentationof a thesis which must represent
personal research,success in which gives the doktor degree.
Fyrrihluta prof. Examination taken at the end of the first part of a course of study in,for
example,subjectsin pharmacyand engineering.Successenablessuchstudiesto be continued,
if so desired,in a foreign university.
128 ICELAND

Kandidatsprbf. Examination leading to the award ofthe degree ofkandidat in most faculties
after a period of study which varies between four and a half years (in economics)and seven
years (in medicine). The degrees are designated as follows:cand. theol.(kandidatin theology),
rand. m e d et chir. (kandidat in medicine and surgery), cand odont. (kandidat in dental
surgery), cand.jur. (kandidatin law), cand econ. (kandidatin economics), cand. mag. (kandidat
in literary studies). The examinations take place at the end of every semester and in
September. In most subjects they are both written and oral,and sometimes there are also
practical tests. In order to sit for the examinations students must have obtained sufficient
marks in a trial examinationand have followed preparatoryclasses.In the event offailurethe
student may re-sit within one year.N o time limit is fixed for the duration of courses.
Magister artium (Mag. art.). See MeisteraprbJ
Meisteraprof.Examination which may be taken in the faculty of philosophy,after about
seven years of literary studies,success in which leads to the degree of mag. art.
Studentsprbf.Secondary-school-leavingexamination.After six yearsofprimaryeducation,
secondary schooling comprisesa first phase of three years and a second phase of four years.
From the second year of the second phase onwards,pupils follow a curriculum with either a
literary or a scientificbias.There are two types of studentsprhf,both obtained on completion
of six years ofprimary and six years ofsecondaryeducation.They carry equal statusand both
admit to the University of Iceland.The menntaskbli studentsprbfis obtained on completionof
a two-yeargeneral secondaryplus a four-yearupper secondaryphase in an ‘academic’school.
The verzlunarskoli Islands studentsprbf is awarded on completion of a six-yearcourse at the
commercial college.

India
Higher education in India is provided by eighty-eightuniversitiesand technicaluniversities,
twenty agricultural universities,six establishmentsfor technical,and twelvefor professional,
training. Over the last six years ten new universitieshave been founded:Avadh University,
Faizabad; Bhavnagar University, Gujarat; Bundel Khand University, Jhansi; Chandra
Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,Kanpur; Kakatiya University,
Waranjad;Maharshi Dayanand University,Rohtah;Nagarjuna University,Guntur;Narendr
Dev University of Agriculture and Technology;PerarignarAnna Universityof Technology,
Madras; Rohilkhand University,Bareilly.
All Indian universities are established by Acts of state legislatures or by the central
government.The following universitieshave been established by an Act of Parliamentwhile
the rest have been established by Acts of the state legislatures:Aligarh Muslim;Banaras
Hindu;Visva-Bharati;Jawaharlal Nehru; North-EasternH ill and the University of Delhi.
There are three kinds of institutions having degree-granting status: (a) Universities
established by Acts of Parliament or state legislaturesas mentioned above;(b) institutionsof
national importance having been declared such by an Act of Parliament (nine in number);
INDIA 129

institutions ‘deemedto be universities’(ten in number). The Indian InstitutesofTechnology

(Delhi,Kanpur,Bombay,Madras and Kharajpur), the All India InstituteofMedical Sciences,
etc.,are all institutionsdeclared to be of national importance under an Act of Parliament.
Under s. 3 of the Act governing theUniversityGrantsCommission,powers have been given
to the central government to notify, on the advice of the University Grants Commission,
institutionsas ‘deemed to be universities’.These are institutionspreviously established and
continuing to provide instruction at a fairly specialized level in particular disciplines.For
example,the Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages,the latest addition to the
category of institutions ‘deemed to be universities’,is an institution specializing in the
methodology to be adopted for teaching the English language.
Indian universities were originally conceived as purely examining bodies,all the teaching
being done in collegesaffiliated to them.Owing to the developmentsthat have taken place in
their form and activities,they now fall into three categories:

(a) the affiliating type, where some teaching work, especially at postgraduate level, is
undertaken by the university itself;
(b) the unitary type,where all teaching and research is provided by the university itself;
(c) the federal type, normally situated in a major city,with a number of university or
constituent colleges closely associated with the work of the university.

Under the Constitution of India,education,including higher education,falls within the

legislative competence ofthe member statesofthe Union.The universitiesare mainly financed
by grants from the state and centralgovernments.The centralgovernment,however,exercises
direct authority in certain fields over the institutionsknown as central universities,such as
Banaras Hindu University,and institutionsfor scientific,technical,or professionaleducation
financed by the centralgovernmentand responsibleto it. The UniversityGrants Commission,
set up by Act of Parliamentas an autonomousbody,has centralresponsibilityatthe national
level for promoting and co-ordinating university education,for maintaining academic
standardsand for allocating and disbursing government grants to the universities.
The autonomy of the universities means that they are solely responsible for decisions in
matters of admissions, courses of study,appointments and administration,and the state
governments intervene only when their advice is requested. The Association of Indian
Universities,previously known as the Inter-UniversityBoard of India,acts as a liaison body
between the universities, the central government and other official and non-official
organizations.Various bodies,such as the Indian Medical Council and the Bar Council,are
concerned with the establishment and maintenance of common standards in institutionsof
higher education and research,and in scientific and technical institutions.
Generaland technicalhigher educationin theuniversitiesare provided in separatefaculties.
Many generaldisciplines(languages,history,geography,political sciences,economicsand the
various natural sciences) are taught in general colleges.Medicine, pharmacy,technology,
commerce and law are usually taught in separate institutions.
Some universities/colleges offer studies in the form of morning or evening courses for
studentsin employment.Correspondencecoursesare also offered by a number ofuniversities.
Many polytechnic schools offer short courses of higher studies lasting between one and
three years.To study in these institutions,it is not necessary to have the qualificationrequired
for university entrance (see below). These studies do not lead to the award of university
degrees,but of technical diplomas in various fields.
The training of teachers for primary education is undertaken in special training colleges
under the same conditions as for the professions mentioned above.Secondary teachers are
trained within the universities.There are also courses for the training of teachers of physical
education.
130 INDIA

The situation with regard to languages used for teaching varies from institution to
institution.By and large,higher education is provided in Hindi (the national language), in
English,and,according to the location of the institution,in one or other of the languages of
wide regionaldiffusion.Some sixty universitieshave sanctionedthe use ofan Indianlanguage
for undergraduate level teaching.National languages are generally used at undergraduate,
English at postgraduate,level.
Access to the longer courses of study in higher education is by the higher secondary-school
certificateobtained after 11 or 12years ofprimary and secondaryeducation.The practice by
which some universities organize their own admission examinations (matriculation
certificate) is now being abandoned. However, the universitiesdefine the requirementsfor
admission and the qualificationswhich students must already possess before commencing
study in a particular field.The normal pattern of ten years of secondaryeducation with one
year in a pre-universitycourse plus three years at university(except in Bombay and the state
universitiesof Uttar Pradesh where it was 10 + 2 t 2)evolved in the sixtiesis now changingto
10 t 2 + 3. Over the next few years all states are likely to switch to the 10 t 2 + 3 pattern.
In many professionally oriented disciplines,the first year of study is a preparatory year.
Thus in medicine,engineering,agriculture,etc. it is first necessary to study basic scientific
subjects and pass a pre-professional(or intermediate)examination.In universitiesin which
the threeyear ‘integrated’courses have been introduced,pupils who have completed the
school-leaving certificate course have to spend one further year in a pre-university course
either in a higher secondaryschoolor in a college before they are permitted to enter upon the
degree course.
The first stage of higher education leads, after a period of three years’ study,to the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,secondary-school-leavingcertificate)

y e a r s 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Education B M PhD
Arts B B(hons) M PhD D
Fine arts Di
Law B M P h D LLD
Economic and commercial Di B B(hons) M PhD
sciences
Exact and natural B B(hons) M PhD D
sciences
Technology,engineering Di B M
Medical sciences
medicine MBBS M PhD D
dentistry
pharmacy B M
veterinary medicine B M PhD
Agriculture D
i B M PhD

B bachelor’s degree B(hons) bachelor’s degree (honours) D doctor’s degree

Di diploma LLD doctor in law M master’s degree MBBS bachelor’s degree
of medicine and surgery P h D doctorate in philosophy
INDIA 131

bachelor’s degrée or to a professional qualification. Candidates usually have to take an

examination at the end of the second year.The bachelor’s degree with honours is sometimes
awardedin the humanities,sciences,commerce,etc.afterthreeyears’study only;at Lucknow
University a further year’s study is neverthelessrequired.In law,studies for the bachelor’s
degree are open only to those who possess a university degree-a bachelor’sdegreein letters
and humanities, or even a master’s degree. Prospective secondary school-teachers may
similarly obtain the bachelor’s degree in education subsequent to a first or second degree.
In engineering,the firstdegree is obtained after five or six years’study and practical work.
In medicine,the bachelor’s degree in medicineand surgery(MBBS)requiresfiveyears’study
and one year’sinternship.
The second stage is reached after further study and often some individual research.It
requires two or three years’study after the award of the bachelor’s degree and leads to the
master’s degree in the humanities, engineering,commerce, social sciences,agriculture or
pharmacy.
The third stage requires at least two years’ specialization and research work after the
master’s degree.Thisenablesthe best studentstopresent a thesisfor the award ofthedegreeof
doctor of philosophy (PhD). In sciences and arts there are two doctorates,the one more
advanced than the other.Thus three or more years of research over and above the P h D can
lead to the award of the degrees docror of science (DSc) or doctor of literature (DLit)
respectively.In medicine,following the master’s degree in surgeryit is possible to specializein
a particular field or acquirea universitydoctoratein medical science(PhD in medicine). The
title of doctor of medicine requires considerable experience and original work.

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’sdegree.First degree of higher education,awarded after three to six years’higher
studies following ten years in secondary education. Certain establishments of higher
education offera one-yearpre-university course destined for those candidates who spent ten
years in primary and secondary education according to the structure in force prior to the
recent reform,or who have not completedthe lastyearofsecondaryeducationrequiredby the
new structure.In the comingyears,all statesare likely to adopt the 10 + 2 + 3 structure.Since
the number of places is limited,each faculty determines its own entrance requirements,
usually requiringhigh marks in theschool-leavingcertificate.Studentsofprofessionalstudies
leadingto a bachelor’s degree are frequently required to have already completed one or two
yearsof higher education,or even,inthe caseoflawor teachereducation,to hold a bachelor’s
degree in relevant subjects. Certain professionally oriented faculties themselves organize
preparatory courses.Examinations are held at the end of each year.They comprise written
examinationswith,in scientific and technical subjects,additionalpracticaltests.One or two
written examinationsmay sometimesbe replacedby a dissertationor a thesis.Some faculties
award a bachelor’s degree (honours)to candidates taking additional papers in a subject;
Lucknow University,however, requires a further year’s study for this degree. The title
bachelor includes references to the field of study;thus bachelor of arts (BA),bachelor of
commerce (BCom),bachelor of education (BEd),bachelor of law (BL),bachelor of medicine and
bachelor of surgery (MBBS)etc.
Diploma.Qualificationawarded after one to three years’study,at the end ofshortcourses,
especially in polytechnic and agricultural schools.
Doctor’s degree. University qualification, normally awarded after at least two years’
research subsequent to the award of the master’s degree. It is designated by the initials P h D
(doctor of philosophy). A higher doctor’s degree may be awarded in science (DSc) or the
humanities (DLit)after three or more years’ study following upon the PhD. In medicine,
besides the researchdoctoratein medical science(PhD in medicine) the qualificationdocror of
132 INDIA
medicine may be obtained by severalyears of professionalspecializationin combination with
original work leading to a thesis.
Higher-secoiidary-school certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate,awarded at the
end of 11 or 12years of primary and secondaryeducation.It gives access to establishments
which have adopted the new structure of studies for the first degree (see bachelor’s degree,
school-leaving certificate).The examinationsfor this certificateare held by regional bodies.
The examinationsmay be taken one or two yearsafter the secondary-schoolcertificate or the
secondary-school-leavingcertificate.
Indian school certificate examination. A form ofgeneral certificate of education,ordinary
level (see United Kingdom, Glossary) organized under the supervision of the Cambridge
Overseas Syndicate (United Kingdom). This examination is taken by a small number of
students only.
Master’s degree. University qualificationawarded after a period of study lasting normally
two,but sometimesthree years,subsequentto the award of the bachelor’s degree. Studiesare
undertaken under conditions similar to those leading to the bachelor’s degree.
Matriculation certificate. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after ten years of
primary and secondaryeducation,and giving access to institutionswhich have retained the
traditionalstructure of studiesleading to the first degree (see bachelor’s degree,school-leaving
certificate).The examinationsfor this certificate are organized by boards of education.It is
the prerequisite qualification for the one-year pre-university course organized by most
universities.
Pre-university course. In some states,these courses,of one or two years’duration,are now
given in secondary schools rather than in colleges as before. They lead to a pre-university
examination parallel to the higher-secondary-schoolcertificate.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. School-leavingcertificate awarded after ten years of
primary and secondary education and giving access to institutionswhich have retained the
traditionalstructure ofstudies leading to the first degree (see bachelor’sdegree,school-leaving
certificate).The examinationsfor this certificate are held by the regional boards. (See also
higher-secondary-schoolcertificate,matriculation certificate,pre-university course).

Indonesia
In Indonesia higher education is given in both state and private institutions:universities,
institutes,academies,and institutesfor the trainingofsecondaryschool teachersand lecturers
in the lower teacher-traininginstitutions(SPG,sekolah pendidikan guru).The higher teacher-
training institutes are known as IKIPs (institutkeguruan dan ilmu pendidikan).
Universities have a variable number of faculties for all the main subjects.The institutesof
technology of Bandungand Surabaya,the AgriculturalInstituteofBogor,and IKIPsare state
institutionsof university rank.
The importance of private universities and other private higher education institutions
INDONESIA 133

varies,though there is a large number.Private institutionsare classed as ‘approved’,if they

may organize their own examinations,‘recognized’if the Department of Education and
Culture (Ministry)isrepresentedon the examiningboards,or ‘registered‘ifthe Departmentof
Education and Culture (Ministry) organizes the examination. In the first two cases the
examinationsare recognizedas having the same status as those in stateinstitutions.Thereare
also private IKIPs but these are fewer than state institutes.
The Department of Education and Culture,Directorate General of Higher Education,
exercises authority over both state and private institutions.
There are eleven consortiaassigned by the Director-GeneralofHigher Education to set up
a minimum curriculum in each field ofstudies.There is a consortiumforeach ofthe following
areas: education;mathematics and natural sciences;social studies;psychology;medical
science;technology;agriculture;economics;law;letters and philosophy;‘antarbidang’,i.e.
‘between studies’,e.g. sports and health, library-science,etc. Each higher educational
institution elaborates the minimum curriculum in accordance with the needs of the local
community it serves.
The financingof state institutions is a charge upon public funds.Private universities may
receive state subsidies,under certain conditions,but generally they providetheir own funds.
either from fees or from the bodies which support them,e.g.a religiouscommunity.
Primary teachers are trained in teacher-traininginstitutions (SPG)at the secondarylevel.
Secondary school teachers are trained at tertiary level in the IKIP or in the universities
(faculties of teaching and education FIP/FKg). A n IKIP comprises:a faculty of education,
which trains teachersfor primary teacher-traininginstitutions,guidanceand counselling,and
rural social workers; a faculty of social sciences (history,geography, civics and moral
education); a facultyofartsand humanities;a facultyofbasic sciences;a facultyoftechnology
(which trains teachers for secondary technical schools); and a faculty for sportsand health
education. In practice,not all students in an IKIP later enter teaching: some go into the
economic or industrial sectors.
It should also be noted that a ministerial decision in 1979 created two additional
programmes for IKIPs and FIP/FKgs designed to eliminate teacher shortages:(a) The
Diploma programmes (Diploma I, II and III) for those who select education as their
profession after secondary school;(b) The AKTA programmes (in IKIPs) for persons who
have studied outside the education and teaching faculties,but who wish to become teachers.
Candidatesare required to add twenty credit hours of education and teaching to their prior
qualifications and are eligible for placement within the school/university system in
accordance with their level of attainment at the point ofentryinan.4KTA programme.AKTA
programmesare thus graded I,II,III,IV.AKTA V comprisesa programme forthe training of
teachers in institutions of higher education.
The languageof instructionis the nationallanguage(BahasaIndonesia). Theuse ofEnglish
is also officially encouraged and in some institutions and faculties,demonstrated reading
competency is a prerequisite for graduation.
Access to higher education is attained by possessingthe ijazah sekoluh inenengah aras,the
secondary-school-leavingcertificate,which is taken at the end of 12 years of primary and
secondary education.This certificate is awarded on the results of regional examinations,at
present; however, introduction of state leaving examinations is envisaged for the future.
Candidatesare selected for higher educationalinstitutionson the basis of:(a)grade record in
the last three years of secondaryschool;(b)principal’srecommendation;(c) results in their
school-leavingexamination; and (d) results in an entrance examination.Three high status
higher educational institutions,the Institute of Agriculture at Bogor, the Institute of
Technology at Bandung,and Gajah Mada University,have conducted pilot projects for the
past two years whereby candidates are accepted without an entrance examination.Special
classes were set up for students so admitted.At this time,the success of these students as
134 INDONESIA

compared with their contemporaries who were admitted on the basis of an entrance
examination suggeststhat the use of prior school records,principal’srecommendationsand
leaving examinations are adequate for predicting success,eliminating the need for entrance
examinations. However,all other universities and IKIPs,as well as the three institutions
mentioned above,except for their pilot classes,require entrance examinations.
The first year of higher education usually comprises courses in a number of compulsory
subjects taken by all students in all faculties. In addition each faculty has a number of
compulsory subjects which must be taken by students in that faculty.Beginning with the
academic year 1979,430, entrants must choose electives which, in combination with the
compulsory subjects,comprise a major and a minor course.Each course is assigned a certain
number of credit hours in accordance with the number of contact hours of practice,theory,
and applicationinvolved to a maximum set by the faculty,no more than 10credithours above
the national minimum.
For all facultiesexcept medical science,veterinary science,dentistry,and pharmacy,the
first stage lasts four years and leads to a sarjana degree.In IKIP/FIP/FKgs,candidates who
intend to become teachersoftwo subjects in secondaryschools must carry their studies up to

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,ijazah sekolah menengah aias and entrance examination)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Medical sciences SM/B P P Der

Engineering SM/B P Dor
Teacher-training Dl/Al D2/A2 D3/A3 A4 AS
(new system)
Various studies SM S PS/Sp 1 Dor/Sp2
(new system)

(The table gives the minimum duration of studies.)

Al AKTAI
A2 AKTA II
A3 AKTA III
A4 AKTAIV
A S AKTA V
B bakalaureus or bakalaureat
D1 diploma I
D2 diploma II
D 3 diploma III
Der dokter
Dor doktor
P professional qualification
PS pasca sarjana
S sarjana
SM sarjana muda
Sp 1 spesialis I
Sp2 spesialis II
INDONESIA 135

this level.The former three-yeardegree,sarjanatnuda,hasbeen retained by universities,but is

regulated as an integral part of sarjana.
The second stage lasts fortwo yearsafter the award ofthe firstdegree.Thisstage leadsto the
acquisition of the degree ofpasca sarjana or to a professional qualification.
The third stage leads to the degreeofdoktor,two yearsbeyond thepascasarjana.The degree
of doktor is awarded after submission of a thesis and the presentation of various
‘theorems’-namely, original and critical exposition of the various intellectual concepts
involved.
It should be noted that provision is made forawards of professional spesialis certificates I
and II-equivalent, respectively, with pasca sarjana and doktor. These certificates are
awardedin accordance with specialistprogrammesdesigned and modified within the various
faculties and entail six years of work (spesialis I)or eight years’work (specialis II). Both
usually demand original research or special contributions to a field of study.

GLOSSARY
A K T A I, II, III, IV.Teaching licence,certificateintegral with the diploma programmes for
those entering the profession from education faculties,but comprising special training in
education and teaching for those who enter the profession of teaching from other faculties.
The level of the licence IS commensuratewith previous academic attainments at the point of
entry for the professional training.Levels I, II. and III awardsequivalentqualificationsand
access to the school as diplomas I,II,and III.AKTA IV qualifies the candidateto teach two
subjects at the higher-secondary level.
A K T A V. Teaching licence-certificate which qualifies university and institute lecturersto
teach in appropriate faculties.
Bakalaureus or Bakalaureat. Terminal degree obtained at the end of three years’study at
academies or IKIPs prior to the study leading to the sarjana degree (old system).
Diploma I. Undergraduate diploma qualifying a secondary-school graduate after one
additional year of study (20-30 credit hours academic, 20 credit hours education and
teaching)to teach one subject at lower-secondaryschool level.
Diploma II. Undergraduate diploma qualifying a secondary-school graduate after two
additional years of study (60-70credit hours academic,20 credit hours of education and
teaching) to teach two subjects at lower-secondary school level or one subject at higher-
secondary school level.
Diploma III. Undergraduate diploma qualifying a secondary-schoolgraduate after three
additionalyears of study (90-100credit hours academic,20 credit hours of education and
teaching) to teach one subjectat the higher-secondaryschool level.For DiplomasI, II and III
courses are available in faculties of education as well as others but descriptions are not yet
available.
Dokter. Third and full professional degree of higher education awarded in faculties of
medical and veterinary medicine.
Doktor. Degree of higher education,awarded after submission of a thesis following upon
the completion of a minimum of eight and a maximum of eleven years of study (minimum
228/maximum 233 credits hours). T w o years beyond pasca sarjana.
Entrance examination. Selection examination taken by candidates for entrance to most
university faculties;candidatesmust,in any case,have completed a fullsecondarycourse(see
ijazah sekolah menengah atas).
Ijazah sekolah menengah atas. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awardedafter six years
of secondary educationfollowingupon six years of primaryeducation.Secondary education
is divided into two phases of three years each. In the second phase,in schools of general
education, pupils may choose between three options: (a) languages and literature;(b)
mathematics,i.e. theexact sciencesand economics;and (c) thesocialsciences.Pupilschoosing
136 INDONESIA

options a and c,as well as those coming from secondary technical institutions(technology,
agriculture, home economics,business and commerce,etc.) may enter only those faculties
corresponding to their particular fields.Option b gives access to almost all faculties.
Pasca sarjana. Degree of higher education,awarded after submission of thesis or major
paper following upon the completion of a minimum of six and a maximum of eight years of
study (minimum 180/maximum 194 credit hours). T w o years beyond sarjuna degree.
Professionalqualification.Qualificationawarded after professionalstudiesin the old system
but still in use in some faculties:ingenieur after five years in the faculty of engineering;
apoteker after six years in the faculty of pharmacy; doktorandus medis after five years in
medical sciences;doktergigiaftersix years in dentistry,etc.All facultieswill eventuallyfollow
the new 4-6-8scheme.It is at present a period of transition.
Sarjana. Degree of higher education,awarded upon completion of undergraduatestudies
of a minimum of four years and a maximum ofsix years (minimurn 144/maximum 160credit
hours).
Sarjana muda. First degree of higher education awarded at the end of a three-yearcourse
(now an integral part of savjana programmes in some universities under the new system
1978-79). In theory,attendance at the course is compulsory and the student must sit for
regular examinationswhich he may re-sit only a limited number of times.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See ijazah sekolah menengah atas.
Spesialis I. Certificate of higher education having equivalent status with pasca sarjana,
awarded upon completionofsignificantcontributionsto a field ofstudy and upon completion
of a minimum of six and a maximum of eight years of study (minimum 180/maximum 194
credit hours).
Specialis II. Certificate of higher education having equivalent status with doktor,awarded
upon completion of significantresearch of original contributionto a field of study and upon
the completion of a minimum of eight and a maximum of eleven years of study (minimum
228/maximum 233 credit hours). Faculties other than education will offer Spesialis I and II
courses of equivalent status,but descriptionsare not yet available.

Iran
In Iran higher education is given in 24universities,50 technical education institutions,some
110 professional education institutions,affiliated to various governmentalorganizations,24
institutes of educational guidance and several teacher-training colleges and centres
(information received in 1978).
The universities are mainly state institutions.The University of Tehran,which offers the
widest range ofcourses,receives some 14per cent of all studentsin higher education.AS well -
as a number of institutes,it includes 17 faculties (education,theology,fine arts,humanities,
law,economics, public administration and commercial management,science,engineering,
medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, public health, agriculture,natural
IRAN 137

resources,social science).Several other universitiesalso possess faculties of agriculture and

engineering.One of them is a completely technologicaluniversity (AryamehrUniversity of
Technology)comprisingboth scientificand technical departments.The Tehran Polytechnic
has departments of engineering (mechanical and hydraulic,electrical and electronic,civil,
textile,chemistry and petroleum,mining and metallurgy).
The higher institutions are more specialized in one or more branches of professional
training (agriculture, commerce, fine arts, social affairs, nursing, telecommunications.
aeronautics,cartography,various fields of technology,medicine and pharmacy,etc.). Some
are postgraduate institutions like the IndustrialManagement Institute in Tehran.
Primary school-teachersare trained mainly at various levels of secondary education,in
various types of institution (teacher-training institutions of general education, of rural
education.of tribal education). Training of secondary teachers takes place at an advanced
teacher-trainingcollege at Tehran (Danechsaraye-Ali).University graduates take a one-year
course only. The Technical Teacher-training Institution (Narmak) trains teachers for
technical schools (honarestans).
Evening courses are given in most institutions of higher education.With the exception of
private institutions,all institutionsofhighereducationare financedby the State.The Ministry
of Science and Higher Education has the task of co-ordinatingtheir activities.
Access to higher education is given by the secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded
after four years of general or technical secondary education following upon a three-year
guidance phase and five years of primary education.Entrance to higher education is also
conditional upon passing a competitive entrance examination.Moreover,certain faculties
(science,agriculture,medical sciences)requirea secondary-school-leavingcertificate with a
scientific or mathematical bias.
Generally the first one or two years of higher educationare devoted largely to the teaching
of the basic disciplines,since a large number ofthe basic subjectsare taken by all studentsat
this stage. In certain schools and higher specialized technical institutions,a diploma or a
professional qualification may be obtained after two years’study Cfovgh-e diplome).
The first main stage of longer studiesnormally demands four years’study.It culminatesin
the award of the bachelor’s degree or a professional qualification.
A second stage leads,after two years’postgraduate study,to the master’sdegree orfovgh-e
lesans. Candidates undergo an examination and have to submit a short dissertation.
A third stage of study leadingto the submission of a doctorate thesis may be undertaken in
certain institutions.The doctorate is awarded after a period of two years followingupon the
master’sdegree. In pharmacy,dentistry,veterinary medicine and medicine,it isa professional
qualification awarded after five to seven years’studies. In architecture a town planner’s
diploma may be obtained under the same conditions.

P R O F I L E O F HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 12 years,secondary-school-leavingcertificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

FD B FL D

B bachelor‘s degree D doctorate F D fovgh-e diplome FL fovgh-e lesans

(master’sdegree)
138 IRAN

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree.Qualification usually awarded after four years’study.The first one or
two years are devoted to a course of a general nature on basic subjects,preceding study in a
specializedfield.In engineering the course lastsfiveyears.The bachelor’sdegreeis sometimes
called the lesans or licence.
Doctorate.Highest degree of higher education,awarded in certain universities after the
bachelor’sdegree or thefovgh-e licence.It requires the submissionof a thesis.In medicine,the
qualification of doctor is awarded after six or seven years; in dentistry and veterinary
medicine,six years.In pharmacy,five years.
Fovgh-ediplome. Qualification awarded after two years of higher education.
Fovgh-elesansor licence.Universitydegreeawarded in certainfields ofstudy two yearsafter
the bachelor’s degree.
Lesans.See bachelor’s degree.
Master’s degree. Seefovgh-e lesans.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.Qualification awarded after four years of general or
technical secondary education following upon a three-yearguidance phase and five years of
primary education.For entrance to higher education holders of the certificate must also pass
an entrance examination.

Iraq
Higher education in Iraq is provided in six state universities and twenty-one technical
institutes.The universitiesexist as legal entities in their own right,financed for the most part
by the State but capable of owning resources and receiving gifts.They are controlledby the
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. A Higher Council for Universities
plans and co-ordinatestheir activities.
The University of Baghdad is the most important,and comprisescolleges in the following
subjects: administration, law and political sciences, humanities (including sociology,
psychology,languages,Islamic studies,archaeology and journalism), agriculture,science,
medicine,pharmacy,dentistry,veterinary medicine,nursing,physicaleducation,engineering,
and fine arts. It also includes centres offering a more specialized instruction (Palestinian
studies,psychologyand educational research,research in administrationandeconomics,and
medical research).
The University of Basrah comprises colleges of humanities, education, engineering,
administration and economics,science,agriculture,and medicine.It also includesa centre for
studies of the Arabian Gulf area,a computercentre,a cultural centre,a medical centre and a
centre for maritime science.
The University of Mosul comprisescolleges of medicine,veterinary medicine,engineering,
science,agriculture and forestry,humanities,administrationand economics,and education;a
IRAQ 139

department of continuing education;a medical centre;a centre for research in management

and economics;and a centre for applied agricultural research.
The Sulaymaniyah and Al-MustansiriyahUniversities offer instruction in engineering,
administration, education and humanities, and medicine (the former); and humanities,
science,medicine,education,administration and economics,law and Islamic studies (the
latter).
The Technical University of Baghdad,founded in 1975,offers instruction in mechanical,
electrical and chemical engineering,in construction,and in metallurgy.
Sixteen of the twenty-one technical institutes belong to the Foundation of Technical
Institutes,an independentorganization established in 1972and connectedto the Ministry of
Higher Education and ScientificResearch,which fixesits annual budget.The function ofthis
body is to provide the country with the trainedpersonnelit needs in fieldslike administration,
agriculture, medicine, and technology. The institutes are located at Baghdad, Basrah,
Sulaymaniyah,Arbil, Misan,Mosul,Kirkouk,Hillah,Ramadi,and Najaf.
The teaching languages are Arabic and English.
Primary school-teachersare trained in teacher-trainingcolleges at secondary school level,
the course however lasting one year longer than normal secondary education. Secondary
school-teachersare trained in the universities.
Access to higher education is based on the adadiyah (secondary-school-leavingcertificate).
This is awarded after six years’primary followedby six years’secondary(general,technical or
professional)schooling.Entrance to the various streams of higher education depends overall
on the level and nature of a candidate’sprevious education.
The duration of studies varies between disciplines. Shorter studies take place in the
technicalinstitutesand lead after two yearsand practicaltrainingto a diploma (oftechnician).

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,adadiyah (secondary-school-leavingcertificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education Di B
Arts Di B M
Law B
Social sciences, B
economics
Administration Di B
Commercial sciences B
Exact and natural B M
sciences
Engineering,technology Di B M
Medical sciences
medicine Di B M
dentistry B M
pharmacy B
veterinary medicine B
Agriculture Di B M

B bachelor’s degree Di diploma M master’s degree

140 IRAQ

The main stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’s degree in humanities and
agriculture (four years), in science (four to six years,depending on the university) and in
engineering(fiveyears). Thisdegreereflectsextensiveknowledgeand experienceofthe subject
matter and leads in certain fields with a defined professionalgoal (for example,medicine) to
an advanced professional qualification.The bachelor’s degree in medicine,awarded after six
years’study,is sometimes designated doctor in medicine.
The second stage, in which the student attains even deeper knowledge of his subject and
begins his own research,leads,aftertwo years’study subsequentto the award ofthe bachelor’s
degree, to the master’s degree in the humanities or science.

GLOSSARY
Adadiyah. Diploma awarded after six years’ primary followed by six years’ secondary
schooling.Secondary education is divided into two cycles:a first intermediatecycle of four
years,and a second cycle of two years.The first cycle consists of general studies,while the
second includes the options ‘science’or ‘humanities’.Official examinationstake place at the
end of each cycle,both ofwhich entail the award ofcertificatesof completionof studies.The
second,the school-leavingcertificate,gives access to higher education.
Bachelor’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded by the universities and generally
referred to by an abbreviation which reflects the speciality in which it has been awarded,thus:
bachelor’s degree, BA,in the humanities;bachelor of science, BSc, in science;bachelor of
veterinary medicine, BVM,in veterinary medicine;and bachelor of medicine and surgery,M B
and ChB respectively.The bachelor’s degree in medicine,awarded after six years’study,is
sometimesalso designated doctor of medicine. The duration ofstudiesrequired for thisdegree
varies between four years in humanities and agriculture,five in engineering,and four to six
years in science,depending on the university.
Diploma. Qualification of higher education awarded by technical institutesafter two years’
study.
Doctor in medicine. See bachelor’s degree.
Master’s degree. Universitydegree awarded after two years’study consequentto the award
of thebachelor’s degree.It is generally referred to by an abbreviation reflectingthe specialityin
which it has been awarded,thus:master of arts, M A (humanities); master of science,M S c
(science).
Secondary-school-leaving certificate.See adadiyah.

In Ireland higher education takes place at two universities and institutions of specialized
higher education.
The National UniversityofIrelandis a federaluniversity,with a central officein Dublinand
three constituentcolleges-University College,Dublin;University College,Cork;University
IRELAND 141

College,Galway-and six recognized colleges:St.Patrick’sCollege,Maynooth (whichis also

a Catholic seminary), the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (medicine), St. Patrick‘s
College of Education and our Lady of Mercy Collegeof Education (both in Dublin), Mary
Immaculate College of Education (Limerick)and St.Angela’sCollege ofEducation (Sligo).
The last four are teacher-trainingcolleges.Dublin University consistsof one college.Trinity
College.Each college is divided into faculties and departments.Universitiesare financed for
the major part hy the State in the form of annual grants-in-aidand non-recurrentgrants for
capital purposes,in a proportion varying from 68 to 82per cent,as well as by students’fees,
endowmentsand private donations.Each college has its own governing body and exercises
full control of its finances.
Among other institutionsof higher education leadingto professional qualificationsare the
Royal Collegeof Physicians;the Dublin College ofTechnology;institutes of higher technical
education;colleges of commerce;teacher-trainingcolleges;the Dublin InstituteforAdvanced
Studies(Celtic,and theoreticaland cosmicphysics);agriculturaland horticultural colleges;a
college of art and a college of music. There is also the newly created National Institute of
Higher Education at Limerick and a similarNationalInstitute ofHigher Education is about
to open in Dublin.(Degreesare at present awarded by the Councilfor National Educational
Awards).
Teaching takes place in English and,for certain courses,in Irish.
Teachersof primary educationattend,after successin an entrance examination,two-year
courses at teacher-training colleges, which are part of the higher education system.For
graduates,the course lasts one year only.Teachers of technicaleducationalso followa two-
year course,those of domestic science a three-yearcourse.Teachers ofsecondaryeducation
obtain,after a one-yearuniversitycourse following upon a first degree,a higher diploma in
education.
In addition to the traditional type universities, the two national institutes for higher
education at Limerick and Dublin and the colleges of technology,there are now also regional
collegeslocated in thesmallercitiesand largertowns which provide post-secondaryeducation
in applied scientific.technologicaland business subjects.Coursesare from one to three years
in duration.Degrees and diplomas are awarded by the National Council for Educational
Awards. Possibilities are also being developed for the very best studentsat these courses to
proceed to degreecoursesin the universities.Shortcoursesand sandwichcoursesareprovided
in the regional colleges,the colleges of technology and the national institutes for higher
education for people at the ‘apprentice’stage in certain careers (e.g.medical laboratory
technicians and trainees in technological employment).
Access to higher education is gained through the matriculation examination (or leaving-
certificate examination,Ardfeistmeireachf in Irish), taken at the end of six years of primary
education followed by six years of secondary education.This examination may be sat more
than once,and is held annually in June.Candidates must have passes in a number ofsubjects
and at specified levels which vary according to the course to be followed. Admission
requirements are set out by each university,and may vary from one to the other,depending
also on the number of places available.
Overseas students may be admitted,in limited numbers,to the facultiesofarts (excluding
socialscience), commerce,science,agricultureand law.Application should be made before 15
December ofthe yearprecedingentry.Applicationsforadmissionto the facultiesofmedicine,
veterinary medicine, engineering and architecture will be considered from students from
developing countries on/y.Places are strictly limited,and a very high standard is required.
Post-secondaryeducationis availableat varying levels.For entry to universitycoursesand
to the NIHE’scompletionof secondaryeducationat a high standardisrequired.Completion
of secondary education,not necessarilyat such a high standard,is necessary for entry to the
regional colleges.For students who may not have completed the full course of secondary
142 IRELAND

education,there are courses of further education in vocational schools.Both academic and

technical subjects are offered;on the academic side it is possible to complete the course of
secondaryeducationand proceed to a university.O n the technical sideit is possible to trainfor
skilled commercial and technical employment.The vocational schools also provide a means
for mature students to resume and complete secondary education.
The main stage ofhigher educationleadsto a bachelor’sdegree,which may be a professional
qualification (professional degree). The length of study varies from three or four years,
depending on the subjectand university,to fiveyears (veterinarymedicine,architecture)or six
years (medicine,dentistry). There are two types of bachelor’s degree, thepassdegree and the
degree with honours(or moderatorship);the length of study is the same for both types.
Professionalstudiesextending overat least two years lead to award of aprofessionaldegree
(diploma or certificate). Non-degree professional qualifications may be obtained at
universities and other institutions of higher education (i.e. diploma in administration,
information systems analysis,librarianship)in one to three years.
The second stage consists of more advanced (graduate) studies,and leads to the master’s

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,matriculation examination)

varied
years 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 duration

Education P M D
Arts B M D DLitt
Religion,theology B DD
Architecture B M/D
Law B B B/M D LLD
Social sciences, P B M D DEconSc
economics
Administration B P D
Commercial sciences B M M D
Exact and natural B M D DSc
sciences
Engineering,technology B M M/D
Medical sciences
medicine B M D
dentistry B M/D
pharmacy
veterinary medicine B M D
Agriculture,forestry, B M/D
fisheries

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree DD doctor of divinity DLitt doctor of

letters DEconSc doctor of economics DSc doctor of science LLD doctor of
law M master’s degree P professional qualijïcation
(Asfar as the doctorates are concerned the duration of studies is approximate.)
IRELAND 143

degree.These studies last between one and four yearsafter the award ofthe first qualification.
Candidates must present a thesis based on research.
A third stage leads to the doctor‘s degree, called doctor of philosophy (PhD).
A higher doctor’s degree may be awarded,after a minimum of five years (usually longer)
followingupon the first degree,for originalwork already published,for example the DEconSc
(economics), DLitt (arts), LLD (law), DSc (science) and DD (theology).

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First higher-educationqualification,usually acquired after three or four
years’study,five in architecture and veterinary medicine,six in medicine and law.In some
subjects,the bachelor’sdegree with honours (or moderatorship) is granted after four years,as
for the pass degree, but the programme for the honours degree covers a wider field.
Certiïicate. See professional degree.
Diploma. See professional degree.
Doctor’s degree. Higher-educationqualification, acquired after four years of research
following the bachelor’s degree, for which candidates must present a thesis.The title for the
holder of a doctorate is P h D (doctor ofphilosophy). A higher doctor’sdegree may be awarded
following advanced research and publications: DEconSc (economics),DLitt (arts), LLD
(law),DSc (science), DD (theology). The minimum period of study is fiveyears,often longer.
First degree. See bachelor’s degreu.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Leaving-certificate examination. See matriculation exutnination.
Master’s degree. Higher-educationqualification obtained one to three years after the
bachelor’s degree,involving research and the presentation of a thesis.
Matriculation examination. School-leavingcertificate granted at the end of six years of
secondary education followingupon six years of primary education.Candidates must obtain
passes in subjects,the number and choice of which depends on the course in higher education
they wish to follow.
Moderatorship.See bachelor’s degree.
Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Professional degree. Higher-educationqualification entitling its holder to practise a
profession.Professional degrees follow the same progression as others.
School-leaving certificate. See matriculation examination.

Israel
In Israel higher education is given in five different kinds of institution:in universities or in
institutions classified as universities, in the Everyman’s University which operates by
correspondence,radio and television,in teacher-trainingcolleges,in technologicalcolleges
and art and music colleges.
144 ISRAEL

Israel has the following institutions classified as universities,engaged in teaching and

research: the Hebrew University of Jerusalem;Bar-IlanUniversity,Ramat Gan; Tel-Aviv
University;Haifa University;Ben-GurionUniversity ofthe Negev;the Weizmann Instituteof
Science (a postgraduate research and teaching institute); and Technion,Israel Institute of
Technology.Except for the last,all offerundergraduateand postgraduatecourses.They offer
a range of courses in humanities,law,naturalsciences,andsocialsciences.Some ofthem offer
courses in medicine, dentistry, para-medicalstudies,pharmacology,agriculture,applied
sciences,all branches of engineering and architecture.
The universitiesare autonomousin the conduct oftheiracademicand administrativeaffairs
within the framework of their budgets.Though about 70per cent ofthe total recurrentbudget
and about 50per cent of the total development budget comes from public funds,they are not
state universities.
The licensing and accrediting authority for higher education is the Council for Higher
Education,a statutory body whose chairman is the Minister of Education and Culture (ex
officio). In addition to the chairman,the Councilhas 19-24memberspersonallyappointedby
the President of the State on the recommendation of the Government.At least two thirds of
them must be academics of standing.The Councilhas the sole power to authorizerecognized
institutionsof higher education to award academic degrees.It is authorized by law to advise
the Government on the development and financing of higher education and scientific
research.The Council constitutedthe Planning and Grants Committee whose functionsare:
to propose and supervise the allocation ofbudgets for higher education,taking into account
the needs of society and the State,whilst safeguardingacademic freedom and assuring the
advancement of research and learning;to propose to the Government and to the Councilfor
Higher Education plans for the development ofhigher education,includingtheir financing;to
express its opinion on all higher education matters;to promote efficiency in the institutionsof
higher education and co-ordinationbetween them.
Outside the universities,a large number of institutionsgive post-secondaryeducationin a
variety of fields:fine arts,music,nursing,textile technology,etc.Universityleveleducationis
offered in the form of evening classes by several institutions such as Technion and the
University of Tel Aviv or in the form of correspondence,radio and televisioncourses,in the
humanities,social sciences,natural sciences and in mathematics by Everyman’sUniversity.
Teaching is in Hebrew and in English.
Access to higher education usually comes after a minimum 12 years of primary and
secondaryeducation.A precondition is successin the bagruth (matriculation)examinationor
its equivalent.Certain faculties require a threshold weighted grade composed of the bugruih
and the entrance examination results.
There are two special programmes for overseas undergraduatestudents.The first is a one-
year programme for which credits may be given abroad.The other is a special four-year
programme leading to a bachelor’s degree.No specialprovisions exist in postgraduatestudies.
The fist stage of higher education is provided by the universities and the colleges.It
comprises three or four years’study aIid usually leads to a bachelor’s degree.
The second stage is of greater specialization and is open to candidates having completed
good undergraduate studies.It leads in most cases to the degree of master or magister and in
medicine and dentistry to the degree of MD.A secondary school-teacher’scertificate,a
diploma in courses such as criminology and librarianshipmay be obtained after afurther one
or two years of studies.
The third stage leads to the research degree,P h D or DSc,which is awarded after specialized
research including a thesis. Candidates for the P h D must have achieved very good results in
the preceding stage.
 ISRAEL 145

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,bagruth (matriculation)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
~

Art,design B
Arts,humanities
Architecture B M D
Law B M D
Social sciences B M D
Exact and natural B M D
sciences
Engineering,technology B/Di M D
Medical sciences
medicine MD
dentistry MD
pharmacy B M
Agriculture B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctorate (PhD) Di diploma M master’s degree

MD doctor of medicine

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded in most disciplinesafter three or
four years of study.
Bagruth (matriculation). Examination taken after completion of twelve years of primary
and secondary education.This certificate is a requirementfor higher education.In certain
cases an entrance examination must also be passed or additional faculty requirementsmet.
Certificateor diploma.Qualification which may be obtained after the first university degree.
Doctor’s degree. Highest university degree (PhD) awarded after the degrees ofbachelor and
master, usually afterat leastthreeyears ofresearch.Professionalqualificationin medicine and
dentistry (MD).
Engineer. Degree awarded after four years.
Entrance examination. Competitive examination that must be taken in certain cases by
holders of the bagruth (matriculation)certificate.
Master’sdegree. Degree ofhigher education awarded after a period of one to three years of
study beyond the degree of bachelor. The degree of doctor in medical sciences is a second
degree.
Matriculation. See bagruth.
Professional qualification. See diploma, doctor’sdegree, engineer.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. Certificate awarded on the results of an examination
taken at the end of secondaryeducation in a technical institution(beit sefer miqzoi) or in an
agricultural institution (beit sefer haqlai). Success in the examination may lead to access to
higher education in the respective fields after passing special supplementaryexaminations.
146 ITALY

Italy
In Italy higher education takes place at universities,polytechnics,and university institutes.
These are divided into state institutions and free (libere) or assimilated (pareggiate)
institutions,which are private in character.There are also some higher institutesgoverned by
special rules (istitutisuperiori con ordinamento speciale),like the Oriental University Institute
(Istituto Universitario Orientale) and the University Naval Institute (Istituto Universitario
Navale) of Naples, that award particular diplomas of Iaurea in the field of Oriental and
European languages and literatures and in the field of maritime commerce andindustry.Also
in this category are the Higher Normal School (Scuola Normale Superiore)and the Higher
School of University Studies (Scuola Superiore di Studi Universitari e di Perfezionamento)of
Pisa which do not award academic qualifications and have as their aims to promote the
highest cultural level in the field of humanities and science.
State universities are financed by the State. Institutions recognized by the State have the
right to award degrees.
Students have to pay fees, but there is a system of student assistance (scholarships and
presalario).
Each institutionofhigher education is autonomous within the limits fixed by law,but under
the control of the Ministry of Education-General Department of Higher Education
(Minister0 della Pubblica Istruzione-Direzione Generale dell'Istruzione Universitaria) as
regards administration, teaching and discipline.
Statutes are drawn up by the institutionsand approved by state authorities with a decree of
the President of the Republic. Statutes determine the establishment of faculties, special
courses and specialized courses. The pattern of studies in each university course, the
conditions of entrance,examinationsand the status of subjects are regulated by national law
(ordinamento didattico universitario).
There is no great difference between universities,polytechnics and university institutes.
Universities usually comprise several faculties offering the traditional subjects: humanities,
science, medical sciences, law, political, social and economic sciences and certain techno-
logical subjects.Polytechnics (there are two state polytechnics in Milan and Turin) comprise
the faculties of engineering and architecture.University institutes oftenhave one faculty only,
though this is not always so. Originally, university institutes were institutions of higher
education teaching 'non-traditionaï subjects (e.g. education, economics, architecture,
commercial science etc.); some have become faculties when integrated into a university.There
exist now polytechnics and university institutes specializing in sociology, architecture,
engineering and teacher training.
The StandingConference of ItalianUniversity Rectors (Conferenza Permanentedei Rettori
delle Università Italiane)is a non-statutoryassociation which informally collaborates with the
governmental authorities in matters concerning the university life and co-operatesto ensure
co-ordinationbetween universities.The final decision concerning educational policy in the
field of higher education is in the hands of the Ministry of Education. For many important
matters the Ministry is helped by a consultative body, the National University Council
(Consiglio Universitario Nazionale, CUN).
Teachers of primary education are trained at upper-secondary level in isrifutidi magistero.
Teachers of secondary educationare trained in almost all university faculties.Special courses
in education are given by faculties and university institutes of magistero which are also
concerned with sociology and psychology. There are also the higher institutes of physical
education (istitufi superiori di educazione fîsica), having full university status, where
ITALY 147

candidates are selected by competitive entrance examination principally for demonstrating

their athletic ability. Studies last three years. The aims of these institutions are to train
teachers of physical education in secondary schools.
The Italian system of higher education has nonumerusclausus foradmissionto courses.All
students holding a secondary-schooldiploma may enrol for a university course if they have
completed a five-yearcourse at secondaryschool.Exceptionally,there are two laurea courses
to which are admitted only candidateswho have completed two years ofstudiesin other laurea
courses.These are in geography and forestry sciences.Studies last two years.
Students holding a four-yearsecondary-schooldiploma (from istituti magistrali or licei
artistici] may gain admission to all university degree coursesafterattendingaone-yearcourse
called a corso integrativo.
The secondary-school-leavingcertificate (maturità)is generally acquired after five years of
primary education,followed by three years in a middle school (compulsory schooling) and
five years of secondary education in an upper-secondaryschool.Only the above-mentioned
istituti magisirali and licei artistici provide upper-secondarycourses having a length of four
years.There are several types of maturità related to the different types of upper-secondary
schools (maturità classica. maturità scientifca, maturità tecnica, maturità professionale,
maturità artistica, maturità magistrale,maturità per ïarte appiicata).
Studies at university level generally last from four to six academicyears (arts,law,political
sciences and most other courses have a length offour years;a few courses,such as chemistry,
architecture and engineering,have a length of five years;medicine lasts for six years). At the
end of the courses successful candidates in the final examination (esame di laurea) become
holders of the only Italian academic degree,the laurea diploma,and are also awarded the title
of doctor (dottore).There are exceptions to this system:the diploma of economics and law
(diplomadi tnagistero in econotnia e diritto)and the diplomaofmanagerial economics(diploma

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,maturità)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education PD L Di
Arts L Di
Fine arts La
Architecture L Di
Law, political sciences L Di
Economics PD L Di
Exact and natural L Di
sciences (except chemistry)
Chemistry,engineering L Di
Medical sciences
medicine PD L Di
pharmacy L Di
veterinary medicine L Di
Agriculture L Di

Di specialized diploma L laurea La licenza accademia di belli arti

PD professional diploma
148 ITALY

(6:magister0 in economia aziendale)are awarded afterone year ofstudiesto which are admitted
holders of the diploma of Iaurea in economics and commerce.
Only exceptionallyare other degrees awarded after shorter courses(twoor three years), but
their holders are not entitled to the title of dottore(statisticians, interpreter-translators,social
assistants,inspectors of primary education). These courses are either diploma courses (e.g.
courses for statisticiansand inspectorsofprimary education) or specialcourses,called corsia
finispeciali(e.g.coursesfor socialassistants). The formerare at universitylevel while the latter
are at tertiary level but not at university level. In accordance with certain conditions it is
possible to transfer from a special course to a university course and vice versa.
Degrees and qualifications granted by universities,polytechnics and university institutes
have only academic value. In order to practisethe profession corresponding to their studies,
candidates have to pass a state examination (esame di stato).
Holders of the laurea diploma may obtain admission to post-lauream courses of
specializzazione in several subjects.These courses vary in length from one to five years but
they do not end with the award of a second academic degree,like,for example,the British
master’s degree or the French maîtrise. The higher specialized diploma (diploma di
specializzazione) has a professional character.

GLOSSARY
Assegno di studio. See presalario.
Corso a fini speciali. Special course of tertiary education taken in universities but not at
university level.
Corso di diploma. Courseofhigher educationhaving a length oftwo or threeyears at the end
of which is awarded a diploma not entitling its holder to the title of dottore (see Iaurea).
Corso integrativo.See maturità magistrale and maturità artistica under diploma di maturità.
Diploma di abilitazione all’insegnamentoelementare.See maturità magistrale under diploma
di maturità.
Diploma di maturità. Qualification awarded to successfulcandidates in final secondary-
school-leavingexamination (esame di maturità). In the Italian system there are the following
types of maturità:

1) Maturità classica for students from a classical secondary school (liceo classico).
2) Maturità scientijïca for students from a science secondary school (liceo scientifco).
3) Maturità tecnica for students from technical secondary schools.This has many sub-
types,including:
(a) Maturità tecnica commerciale (commercial).
(b) Maturità tecnica nautica (nautical).
(c) Maturità tecnica per geometri (for surveyors).
(d) Maturità tecnicaper le attività technichefemminili (forgirls in technical activities).
(e) Maturità tecnica per il turismo (for managers in tourism).
(f) Maturità tecnica di perito aziendale e corrispondente in lingue estere (for firm
managers and translators of foreign languages).
4) Maturità professionale for students from vocational schools.
5) Maturitàper tarte applicata for studentsfrom schoolsoffinearts particularlyconcerned
with applied arts.
6) Maturità magistrale for students from schools for teachersin primary education,called
istituti magistrali.
7) Maturità artistica for students from licei artistici.

All these types of maturità, except numbers 6 and 7,are awarded after 13 years of general
schooling, comprising five years of primary education,three years of lower-secondary
ITALY 149

education in middle schoolsand five years of upper-secondaryeducation in upper-secondary

schools.The rnaturità magistrale and rnaturità artistica are awarded after 12years of general
schooling,the upper-secondarycourses having a length of four years.The maturità diplomas
give admissionto all universitycoursesbut the rnaturitàmagistrale and maturità artistica must
be followed by a one-yearcourse,called a corso integrativo.
Without the corsu integrativo holders of these two diplomas are admitted only to the
faculties and university institutes of magistero and to the faculties of foreign languages
(maturità magistrale),and to the faculties of architecture (maturitàartistica).
Diploma di perito. See maturità tecnica under diploma di maturità.
Doctorate. Status of being doctor.See dottore under laurea.
Entrance examination. Supplementary examination for candidates to courses of physical
education.
Esame di laurea. See laurea.
Esame di stato. State examination entitling successful candidates to practise a profession,
open only to holders of the required higher-educationqualification.The examination mostly
tests the practical aspects of the profession envisaged. The professional qualification is
granted by the Ministry of Education.Esame distato alsomeansa finalexamination,like that
of maturità, prescribed by law at the end of courses of upper-secondaryeducation.
Higher specialized diploma. Professional qualification granted to students who, having
obtained the laurea,have done from one to five years’post-laureamstudies,usually two years.
Studies leading to this qualification are called corsi diperfezionamento;they usually comprise
lectures as well as independent research.
Laurea.The only Italianacademic degree of higher education,generally obtained afterfour
years’study (five in chemistry,engineeringand architecture,six in medicine).Programmesfor
the laurea are fixed by law at nationallevel.In order to qualify for the laurea,and to obtain the
title of dottore, students must pass all prescribed examinations and then submit an original
thesis. Dottori must pass the state examination before they may practise the profession
correspondingto their qualifications.
Libera docenza. A diploma which used to be awarded to highly qualified persons,usually
holders of a degree of laurea,in order to demonstratetheir capability to teach in universities.
Candidates were required to have published works and they had to pass an examination
(esame di libera docenza).The diplomaof libera docenza was abolished by Law no.924dated
30 November 1970.
Maturità. See diploma di maturità.
Presalario. Assistance given to some university students in the form of a kind of salary.
Officially it is called assegna di studio.
Primary school teaching diploma. See maturità magistrale under diploma di maturità.
Professional qualification.See higher specialized diploma, esame di stato, laurea.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See diplunia di maturità.
Secondary-schoolteaching diploma. Also called diploma di abilitazione alïinsegnamento,
required for secondary school-teachers.It is taken after the laurea on the basis of an
examination at national level.
Vocational diploma. See maturità professiunale under diploma di maturiià.
150 IVORY COAST

Ivory Coast
Higher education in the Ivory Coast is provided in the National University and several other
colleges of higher education.
By intergovernmental treaty, qualifications awarded by the National University of the
Ivory Coast enjoy full parity with those awarded by the French higher education system.
Equivalence also pertains for member states of the African and Madagascan Higher
Education Committee (CAMES).The University has the following faculties: letters and
human sciences, law, economics, science, medicine, pharmacy (school of) and odonto-
stomatology (institute). There are various further centres and institutes.Under the faculty of
letters and human sciences are the following institutes:ethno-sociology,applied linguistics,
tropical geography; African history, art and archaeology;Black African literature and
aesthetics;and the following centres:audiovisual teaching and research,French studies for
foreign students, the Ivory Coast centre of applied psychology;architecture and town-
planning.Under the facultyof law there are the InstituteofCriminology,and the Ivory Coast
CentreofJurisprudence.Under the economics faculty is the IvoryCoast socialand economic
research centre. Under the science faculty are the institutes of tropical ecology and of
mathematical research,centres of floristics and data-processing.
The teaching language is French.
The other institutionsof higher education offer professional training.The National Higher
Technical Institute co-ordinatestechnical and commercial higher educationin IvoryCoast.It
includes:a national school of engineering,a higher school of commerce(fiveyears’study), an
institute of industrialtechnology,and an instituteoftertiary technology awarding a university
diploma of technology (two years).
Primary teachers are trained at the Teaching Research and Training Centre of assistant
teachers. The higher centres prepare primary teachers over one year. First-phasesecondary
teachers are trained over three years in the Higher Teacher-TrainingCollege.Second-phase
secondary teachers take the licence in education at the University or the Higher Teacher-
Training College (CAPES).Teachersin physical education and sportare trained in fouryears
by the National Institute of Sport. The Higher School of Agriculture trains agricultural
engineers in five years,with a further year of specialization.The Institut Agricole Bouaké
prepares the students for the diploma of applied agriculture over three years.The School of
Public Works includesan engineering school,a school of engineers of technology,of higher
techniciansand a continuing education centre.It offers a four-yearcourse for the diplomaof
technical engineer,and five-yearcourses for diplomas of engineering and higher technician
(after the brevet d‘études du premier cycle). The school of statistics offers longer (four-year)
courses for the qualification of engineers, but also two-yearcourses for the diplomas of
assistant technician in statistics and technical agent.The schoolof administration offers two
advanced courses,foradministratorsand administrativeattachés(highercycle)and has a civil
service school for category ‘B’opeïatives,and a continuing education centre for executives.
The computer centre trains students to a high level in computer science-two years for
programmers,three years for programmeanalysts,fiveyears for systemsanalysts-and offers
programmes in continuing education.The school of electricity trains both its operativesand
also higher technicians. There are also a National Police College, the Post and
TelecommunicationsTraining Centre,the Higher School of Navigation,the SocialWorkers’
College.
Lastly,the NationalSchool ofNursing and Midwifery offersa state diplomacourse,and the
para-medicalschool offers a two-yeardiploma of specialist nursing and midwifery.
IVORY COAST 151

Access to higher education is based on thebaccalauréat.Dispensationsand equivalenceswill

be considered on request.A n entranceexamination may also be taken.Capacité studiesinlaw
(twoyears) do not require the baccalauréat.Foreign studentsmay be admitted to study in the
NationalUniversityofIvory Coast but their number is limited to 50 per facultyexceptforthe

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9

Education CAE CAPCEG CAPES

Humanities.social DUEL L M DEA D s De
sciences
Law DEUG L M
Economics DEUG L M DEA Ds De
Administration B Di Di
Commercialsciences Di
Statistics Di I
Natural and exact DUES L M DEA D s DIng De
sciences
Public works Tsup I I
Engineering I
Technology DUT
Medical sciences
medicine
pharmacy
dentistry
Agriculture Di I I I

B brevet
CAPCEG certificatd'aptitude au projessorat des collèges d'enseignement général
CAPES certiJicaid'aptitude au professorat de I'enseignementsecondaire
CAP1 certificatd'aptitude professionnelle des instituteurs
D doctorat
De doctorat dEtut
DEA diplôme d'études approfondies
DEUG diplôme d'études universitaires générales
Di diplôme (school leaving,technical assistant,etc.)
DIng docteur-ingénieur
Ds doctorat de spécialité
DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires
DUES diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques
DUT diplôme universitaire de technologie
1 ingénieur (various levels)
L licence
M maîtrise
Tsup technicien supérieur
152 IVORY COAST

Institute of Odonto-stomatology (four) or the School of Pharmacy (five). Foreign students

registering for the first time must get an authorizationdelivered by the Ministry ofEducation.
Overall the following stages may be identifiedin higher education.In shorter studies,the
higher technician’sdiploma,the capacité in law,and the diplôme universitairede technologie
(DUT)requiretwo years’studies.Various other diplomasare awarded after coursesofsimilar
duration.
The firststage oflonger studies,lasting for a period oftwo years devoted to the acquisition
of knowledge on a broad multi-disciplinarybasis,leads to the diplôme universitaire d‘études
littéraires (DUEL)in humanities,to the diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques(DUES)in
science, to the diplôme d‘études universitairesgénérales (DEUG)in economics and law.In
medicine also the first cycle of studies is devoted to the necessary grounding in the relevant
sciences.The National Agricultural School has a competitive entrance exam open only to
holders of the D U E S in agriculture.
A second stage of more advanced studies leads, after the acquisition of a number of
certificatsd‘études supérieuresduring theyear’sstudy,to the licence in humanities,economics,
and law.(This is the level normally required of secondary school-teachers.)After two years
the maîtrise in science, economics, and law is awarded. Entrance to the school of
administrationis possible at differentstagesofthe licences in law,economics,and humanities.
A third stage,available in humanities, science, law and economics leads the student to
specialize.If his specializationis scientific,he may receive the diplôme d‘études approfondies
and submit a thèse de spécialité de troisième cycle. In medicine,technology,agriculture and
administration,it leads to a professional qualification (doctorat in medicine,professional
qualification in engineering or administration).
Studies continued beyond five to seven years open the possibility of a thèse de docteur
ingénieur (sciences)and above all the thèse de doctorat d‘Etat. The latteris traditionallya piece
of work of considerable substance and length.

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat.Secondary-school-leavingcertificateobtained at the end ofsix years’primary
and seven years’ secondary education (divided into four years of lower and three years of
upper secondary) in a general or technical secondary school. Programmes and teaching
conditionsare adapted from the French system of education.Thebaccalauréatgivesaccess to
higher education.
Capacité en droit. Qualification awarded after two years’ study.The course is open to
candidates who are at least 17years old and have passed a specialentrance examination.See
also professional qualification.
Certificat d‘aptitude au professorat de l’enseignement secondaire (CAPES).Qualification
awarded after fouryears’study in the advancedteacher-trainingcollege.Candidatesmay then
go on to obtain a licence d‘enseignement. Studies include courses in education.
Certificat d’aptitude au professorat des collèges d’enseignement général (CAPKEG).
Qualification awarded after two years’study in the advanced teacher-trainingcollege.
Certificat d’études supérieures (CES).Qualification of higher education,obtained aftera
year’s study.Several certificates are required for a licence or a maîtrise in arts and science.
Diplôme de technicien.Intermediate qualificationobtained after one or two years’study in
the national school of statistics, the national school of public works and several other
institutionsof professional higher education.
Diplôme d’études approfondies(DEA). Qualificationobtained at the end ofthe firstyear of
the third phase of higher education (troisième cycle).
Diplôme d’études supérieures. Qualification of higher education,which was awarded in
science after one year’s study following upon the licence. Candidates had to submit a short
thesis on an agreed topic,and undergo an oral examination.
IVORY COAST 153

Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL).Qualification obtained at the end of the

first two years’ study in humanities, available in general studies,philosophy, history.
geography,and modern languages (English,German,and Spanish).
Diplôme universitaire d’étudesscientifiques(DUES). Qualificationobtained at the end ofthe
first two years’study in science,available in fivesubject-groupings: mathematicsandphysics;
physics and chemistry;chemistry,biology and geology;introduction to agriculture;and
mathematics,physics,chemistry and technology.
Diplôme universitaire de technologie(DUT).Qualificationobtained at the end oftwo years’
study in the university institute of technology.
Docteur-ingénieur or ingénieur-docteur. Professional qualification of higher education,
obtained in science after threeyears’study and athesison the technologicalapplicationsof the
subject studied.Candidates must hold a diploma in engineering.
Doctorat.The highest degree of higher education,awarded to studentsalready holding one
or more higher degrees (see doctorat d‘Etar, doctorat d’université,doctorat de troisième cycle).
The professional qualification ‘doctor’is also awarded for studies of di!fering length leading
to the diplomas of doctor of medicine or docteur-ingénieur.
Doctorat d‘Etat. Degree of higher education, granted after at least two years’ study
subsequent to the award of the DEA and requiring the submission of a thesis. This
qualification is required for teachers of higher education.
Doctorat de spécialitéde troisième cycle.Degree of higher education,awarded following at
least one year’s study subsequent to the DEA and requiring submission of a thesis.
Doctorat d’université. Degree of higher education. awarded after one or two years’study
subsequent to the award of the licence. It does not entitle the holder to teach (see doctorat
d‘Etat). In humanities, the candidate must be a graduate or equivalent.A thesis must be
submitted on a topic compatible with the faculty in question.
Equivalences. The university-established list of national and foreign qualifications
recognized as equivalent to the baccalauréat.
Licence. Degree of higher education,awarded after three years’study.
Maîtrise. Diplomaof higher education,awarded in humanities after four years’study.The
first two years are the first stage and common to licence and maitrise,being devoted to basic
studies.The second phase,also of two years,involvesa deeper knowledge ofthe subject.The
first year of this course is equivalent to the licence.
Professional qualification. Qualification awarded in institutions of higher professional
education at various levels after three to five years’study (e.g.engineer,civil administrator
etc.).
Special entrance examination. Entrance examination for candidates to higher education
who do not hold the baccalauréat or its equivalent (see Equivalences).
154 JAMAICA

Jamaica
In Jamaica higher education is given by the University ofthe West Indies,the College ofArts,
Science and Technology and teacher-trainingcolleges.
The University of the West Indies was founded to serve all English-speakingterritories of
the region,with the exception of Puerto Rico.It is supportedby and serves 14territories in the
West Indies,six of which are independentcountries.TheUniversitycompriseseightfaculties:
natural sciences, law, arts and general studies, social sciences, education, medicine,
agriculture and engineering.The faculties of agriculture and engineering are in Trinidad.
Faculties are divided intodepartments.Thesupremeauthority oftheUniversityisthe council,
which comprises representatives of member territories,professors and appointed members.
The senate,composed of teaching members of the University,is responsible for academic
decisions.Deans of facultiesare elected yearly.The University is autonomous.More than 90
per cent of its resources come from contributing territories.
The College ofArts,Scienceand Technologyis autonomous.It is administeredby a council
whose members are appointed by the Government. The major part of its financialresources
comes from official sources.The College teachesfor general degrees of the University in arts
and sciences and is divided into departments.Access is based on the general certificate of
education,ordinary level.The College awards certificates afterone or two years,and diplomas
in three years.
Teachers of primary and lower-secondary education are trained in teacher-training
colleges,which are administeredand financed by the Government.Studies last two or three
yearsaccording to the lengthofprevious studiesand lead to a diplomaor a levelsimilarto that
reached one year after the general certificateof education,ordinary level.
The basic level for access to higher education is usually reached after six or seven years of
secondaryeducation followingsix yearsofprimary education.Passesin certain subjectsofthe
general certificate of education,ordinary and advanced levels,are required by certainfaculties
(e.g.mathematics,physics,chemistry for engineering). However,conditions of admission
vary from one faculty to another,and each candidate is considered individually.
The first stage ofhigher education (undergraduate studies)leads to thebachelor’sdegree or
licentiate, or to a professional qualification.The bachelor’s degree is usually obtained after
three years’study (four in medicine;in education,it is obtained in two years). In arts and
science,the bachelor’s degree may be either a general honours degree or a special honours
degree. In theology, candidates obtain a licentiate after three years’ study at the United
College of the West Indies or Codrington College,Barbados,or St.John Vianney,Trinidad.
A professional qualification, the certificate,may be obtained after one year’s study in
education,management studies,nursing and after two years for social work,and after one,
two or three years in engineering and technology;a bachelor’s degree is not required.
The second stage of studies (graduate studies) leads to higher degrees. The master’sdegree
requires two years’ study and submission of a thesis. Medical specialization leading to a
master’s degree is available in a rangeofspecialitiesafterfouryears ofan approved internship.
In education a diploma may be obtained after one year’s postgraduate study by those
intending to teach in upper-secondaryeducation.
The third stage leads,after three years’ study following upon the master’s degree, to a
doctorate (PhD). Candidatesare required to submita thesis.Professionalqualificationsin the
form ofa diploma may be obtained in oneyear followingcertaindegrees or qualifications(e.g.
in anaesthetics,education,internationalrelations).
JAMAICA 155

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation: 12 years,general certjficate of education)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education
Arts
Theology L/B
Law
Social sciences P
Administration P P
Economics B M D
Mathematics
Science
Engineering P P P/B M D
Technology P P P
Medicine B
Agriculture B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree L licentiate M master’s degree

P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. Degree obtained after three years of undergraduate studies (four in
medicine). In education the bachelor’sdegreemay be obtainedafter two years’studyfollowing
upon five years’teaching.In arts and science,there are two types of first degree:the general
honours degree and the special honours bachelor’s degree.
Certificate.See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualijication.
Doctorate. Higher degree obtained after three years’graduate studies followingupon the
master’s degree and requiring submission of a thesis.
General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained after six
years of primary followed by five years of lower-secondaryeducation.Candidates then sit
examinations at ordinary level. After at least one year of upper-secondary education.
candidates sit further examinations at ordinary and advanced level; subjects are chosen
according to future studies.
Higher degree. See master‘s degree, doctor’s degree.
Honours degree. See bachelor’sdegree.
Licentiate.First degree in theology,awardedat the United TheologicalCollege ofthe West
Indies and at Codrington College,Barbados,and St.John Vianney,Trinidad,after three
years’ study.
Master’s degree.Higherdegree of higher educationobtained after two years’postgraduate
studies following upon the bachelor’s degree. Candidatesare required to submit a thesis.
Professional qualification.Qualification of higher education.As a certificateit is awarded
after one year’sstudy in education,agriculture,nursing,and after two years in social work,
management studies, etc; and after one, two, or three years’ studies in engineering and
technology.Diplomas may be awarded one year aftercertain qualificationsor degrees (e.g.in
anaesthetics,education,international relations).
156 JAPAN

Japan
In Japanhigher educationis provided in about 430universities (daigaku),in about 520 junior
colleges (tanki-daiguku),and in 65 technical colleges (koto-senmongakko).These institutions
may be public (national,prefecturalor municipal) or private.The Ministry ofEducationmust
approve the foundation of institutionsof higher education,and they are under its control.
Seventy per cent of daigaku and 85 per cent of tanki-duigaku are private institutions.
Universities comprise one or several faculties offering four-yearcourses in a variety of
subjects.In some universities,institutesare attached to facultiesand enable students to read
for higher qualification. The administrative system in Japanese universities is extremely
varied.
Public universities,national and local,are financed mainly from national and local funds.
Private universities and colleges are financed by students’fees and private funds.National
government provides private institutions with grants for about one-third of current
expenditures.
A number of organizationsensure the co-ordinationand planning of higher education:the
National University Association of Japan, the Association of Public Local Government
Universities, the Association of Private Universities of Japan, the Japanese University
Accreditation Association as well as the Central Council for Education and the University
Chartering Council (which are consultativebodies of the Ministry of Education).
Junior colleges,of post-secondarylevel,provide two-to three-yearcourses which do not
lead to a first degree,but credits obtained at junior colleges may be counted as part of the
credits leading to a degree.
Technical collegesofferfive-yearcourses,the last two years ofwhich are at post-secondary
level. They train technicians,but do not grant university level qualifications.Holders of
technicians’certificates may, however,apply for admission to a university. Recently two
national universities,which are to providepostgraduatecoursesoffouryearsto the graduates
of technical colleges,have been established.
In addition,there are about 1500 special training schools (senmon-gakko),which require
completion of upper-secondaryschool for admission.They are institutionsgiving courses of
more than one year for the acquisition of necessary skills and knowledgein vocationalas well
as daily life.Around 85 per cent are privately established and completionof these courses is
not relevant to study in university or junior college.
Teacher-trainingis part of higher education.Pre-primary,primary and secondaryteachers
are trained in institutionsof higher education,mostly in four-yearteacher-trainingcoursesin
national universities;others are trained in two-or four-yearcoursesat a smallnumber oflocal
and private institutions of higher education. There are also several graduate schools of
teacher-training.
Correspondence and evening courses offered by Japanese universities and colleges are
almost entirely for degree programmes,the chiefaim being to give the possibility ofobtaining
a university education to working youths. In principle,evening and correspondencecourses
are virtually identical to daytime courses.Furthermore,the national governmentis going to
establish a formal university to provide courses of liberal arts utilizing television and radio
programmes (Broadcasting University).
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate,obtained
after six years of primary school (shogukko)followed by six years of secondaryeducation,
divided into three years of lower-secondary(chugakko)and three to four years of upper-
secondary (kotogakko) education, or equivalent qualifications.Given the extremely high
 157

number ofapplicants,universitiesapply a numerus clausus and studentsareselectedby means

ofthe competitiveentranceexamination set by each institution.The upper-secondary-school
record is also taken into account.
From 1979,applicantsto the nationaland public universities have been requiredto sit for,
as the first stage,the joint achievement test which is to be followed by the second stage
examinationto be administered by each university.The joint achievementtest is to judge an
applicant’slevel ofachievement at upper-secondaryschooland thesecond-stageexamination
is to judge an applicant’saptitudeforlearningat individualinstitutions.Thus the systemaims
at providing more data concerning an applicant for selection.
A growing number of institutions select a certain proportion (around 15 per cent) of
candidatessolely on the hasis of the recommendationsof school principals.
Foreign studentsmay enter universityby the same proceduresas Japanesestudents.There
are two kindsof foreignstudentsstudyingin Japaneseuniversities.Firstly,there are students
under the Japanese Government ScholarshipProgramme,which again may be divided into
two categories:research students and undergraduate students.The research students may
receive a scholarship for two or one and a half years,including the period for Japanese
language education.The undergraduate students may receive a scholarshipfor five years (in
the case of students of medicine or dentistry,sevenyears). Selection of the candidateswill be
made at the first stage by Japanese embassies through documents, written tests and
interviews.The second stage examination for the selectionwill be carried out by the Ministry
of Education.Research students will be finally selected by the Ministry of Education after
consultation with the university concerned. Undergraduate students should take basic
education at a designated Japanese language school for one year and then should pass the
entrance examination of the university.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation:12years,secondary-school-leavingcertificateand entranceexamination)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education G S H
Arts G S H
Religion,theology G S H
Fine arts G S H
Law G S H
Social sciences G S H
Economics G S H
Exact and natural G S H
sciences
Engineering
Medical sciences
medicine G H
dentistry G H
pharmacy G S H
veterinary medicine G S H
Agriculture G S H

G gakushi H hakushi S shushi

158 JAPAN

Secondly,there are foreignstudentsstudyinginJapan at their private expense.They have to

acquire entrance permission from the university in advance. Procedures and criteria for
selection differ from one university to another (documents or written tests). The Councilfor
InternationalEducation publishes annually a guidebook for foreign students who wish to
study in Japanese universitiesat their own expense.
The main stage of higher education consists of four-year(in medicine and dentistry,six-
year) courses.In addition to study in a specialized field,general education,which includes
humanities,social sciences and natural sciences,is obligatory for every student.The credit
system is followed and the minimum requirement for graduation is the acquisition of 124
credits (in medicine and dentistry, separately designated) including credits in general
educationsubjects.In the case ofjunior colleges,the minimum requirement is the acquisition
of more than 62 credits for two or three years.The degree awarded at the end ofthe firststage
is that of gakushi.
The second stage corresponds to further specialization.It takes place in postgraduate
schools (daigaku-in),which do not exist in every university.The degree it leads to isthe shushi
(postgraduate diploma), acquired after two years of study.It requires a number ofadditional
credits, a research thesis and a final examination.There is no postgraduate diploma for
medical studies,but doctorates may be obtained.
The third stage of higher education in universities correspondsto a period ofspecialization
and individual research. It leads to the highest university degree,the hakushi (doctorate).
Studies last a minimum of three years following upon the shushi (four years in medicine and
dentistry). Candidates to the hakushi must submit a thesis and undergo a final examination.

GLOSSARY
Doctorate. See hakushi.
Entrance examination. Competitive examination organized by institutions of higher
education where the numerus clausus applies. Results obtained in the secondary-school-
leaving certificate,as well as the school principal’sreport,are also taken into consideration.
There is no limitation on the number of institutionsthat the applicant may apply to and the
applicant may repeat applicationsevery year.Therefore in some universitiesthe number of
applicantsgreatly surpassesthe enrolment capacity.O n average it is around seven times for
university entry and 2.6 times for junior college entry.
Gakushi. First qualification of higher education,awarded after four years’study in most
subjects (six in medicine and dentistry). At the end of each semester,candidates must sit an
examination in each subject,usually in the form of written tests,and sometimesas research
progress reports.Candidatesfor the gakushi must obtain a certain number of creditsin given
subjects.In all fields except medicine and dentistry,candidatesmust,in the course of their
four years of study,obtain 124 credits,divided as follows:36 in general subjects (humanities,
social and natural sciences), 8 in foreign languages,4 in physical education and 76 in
professional subjects. In university and junior colleges, credits are uniformly defined. A
lecture class of one hour a week, requiring two hours of student preparation and of fifteen
weeks’ duration,constitutes one credit.A seminar class of two hours a week requiring one
hour of student preparation and of fifteen weeks’ duration,constitutes one credit,as do
laboratory classes of the same duration,requiring three hours’work per week. In medicine
and dentistry,the students must completetwo yearsofgeneraleducation(64credits)followed
by four years of professional training. The qualification here is that of igakushi and is a
professional one.
Hakushi. The highest degree,awarded to those who have completed a doctorate course at a
postgraduate school or those who have been approved as having equivalent academic
qualifications.The requirement for completionof the doctorate course is more thanfiveyears
of study (which may include the two-yearcourse for the shushi degree) at a postgraduate
JAPAN 159

school,with 30 or more credits, the submission of a dissertation and success in a final

examination.Those who have completedhighly qualified research work may be awarded the
hakushi after three years’ study at postgraduate school. In medicine and dentistry,this
qualificationis awarded after four years after the gukushi;candidatesare exemptedfrom the
second qualification.In medicine,this qualificationis called iguku-hakushi.and corresponds
to a doctorate in medical science.
Igaku-hakushiSee hakushi.
Igakushi. See gakushi.
Master’s degree. See shushi.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Qualification obtained after six years of primary
education followed by three years of lower-secondaryand three years of upper-secondary
education.The structure of studies is based on the American system (see the entry for the
United States of America). Candidates for higher education must sit a competitiveentrance
examination (see entrance examination) before gaining access to most universities.
Shushi. Completion of the shushi degreerequirestwo years of full-timestudy,including 30
credit hours and a substantial amount of research culminating in a thesis.

Jordan
In Jordan higher education is given principally in the University of Jordan a! Amman, at
Yarmouk University at Irbid and at the Agricultural Institute Al-Hussein.There are also
several teacher-traininginstitutions,an institute ofpublic administrationand an institute for
industrialadministration,universitycollegesofnursing,a centreforstatistics.and a collegeof
Islamiclaw.These institutionsare scatteredaround the country in varioustowns.Teachingis
in Arabic,but at the university teaching is also given in English.
The University of Jordan was founded in 1962 and has faculties of arts (including
archaeology,education,sociology),engineering,medicine,science.agriculture,economics
and business administration.Yarmouk University was established in 1976 with one faculty
called ‘FacultyofArts and Science’which includesthe followingdepartments:science,Arabic
literature, English literature, humanities, education, and economics and business
administration.A faculty of technology will be opened in 1980.
The Agricultural Institute is divided into two departments: agriculture. and science. It
trains qualified specialists in agriculture or specializedteachersof agriculture.The Institute
for Industrial Administration trains secretaries and accountants and also teachers in those
fields.Technical schoolsoffer a form ofpost-secondaryeducationaimed at training middle-
grade technicians.
Teacher training takes place in various institutions,separately for young men and women.
Certain teacher-traininginstitutions specializein ruraleducationand train teachersfor rural
primary schoolsas well as leadersof village community programmes.Other institutionstrain
primary teachers and teachers in lower-secondary education for work in urban areas.
160 JORDAN

Technical secondary schools give post-secondarycourses which train teachers of handicraft

techniques in primary classes or lower-secondary classes. The university trains other
secondary teachers.
Most institutionsare state-run.The university is an autonomousbody with a definite legal
status;it depends on a state budget.Most of the teacher-trainingschools areplaced under the
direct authority of the Ministry of Education on whom they depend in all financial matters.
Some of them are managed by organizations linked to the United Nations.
Access to higher education is given by the general secondary-schoolcertificate,which is
awarded after six years of primary education and six of secondary education.
Certain institutionsof higher education,such as the Agricultural Institute,require their
future students to be holders of a general secondary-schoolcertificate with specializationin
science.For university studies,applicationsfrom candidates go before a selectioncommittee.
The secondary-school-leavingcertificatesof other Arab countries,aswellas those awardedby
the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London are recognized also for admission
purposes. Secondary studies followed in the second phase of agricultural or technical
institutionsgive the right to enter one of the corresponding fields in higher education.
The courses in teacher-traininginstitutionslasttwo yearsand leadto a certificate.The post-
secondary courses in technical schools for the training of middle-gradetechnicians last three
years.
The first year of university may be spent following courses common to all subjects (e.g.in
the faculty of humanities).
The principal stage lasts four years and leads to a bachelor’s degree.
A further stage,reachedtwo yearsafter the bachelor’sdegree,leads to themaster’sdegree.In
the faculty of education this leads to the diploma of education. Here afurtheryear is necessary
in order to obtain the qualification of master of arts in education. The diploma of education
must not be confusedwith the diploma awarded by primary teacher-training institutionS. The
degree ofdoctor of medicine (MD) is awarded after a seven-yearcoursefollowedby one year’s
internship.

PROFILE O F H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,general secondary-schoolcertificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education D
i B DE MA
Arts B
Economics B
Exact and natural sciences B
Technology Di
Agriculture Di
B bachelor’s degree DE diploma of education Di diploma M A master of arts

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. University degree usually awarded after four years’study.
Diploma.Qualification awarded in various institutionsafter courses lasting usually two or
three years.The teacher-traininginstitutionsand the Agricultural Instituteaward a teaching
qualification after two years and the technical schools a technician’squalification after a
three-yearpost-secondary course.
JORDAN 161

Diploma of education.Postgraduate qualificationawarded in a faculty of education after a

one-yearcourse following upon the bachelor’s degree.
General secondary-schoolcertificate.Certificate awarded at the end of three years in the
second phase of general secondary education,following upon a three-yearsecondary course
in an intermediate school and six years of primary education.
Master’s degree. University degree awarded two years after the bachelor’s degree. In
education this degree is awarded one year after the award of the diploma of education.

Kenya
In Kenya higher education takesplace at the UniversityofNairobi and at Kenyatta University
College which is a constituentcollege of the University of Nairobi.
The University of Nairobi. formerly a constituentcollege of the University of East Africa
(Nairobi,Makerere and Dar es Salaam)is the main institutionof higher education in Kenya.
It offers courses in arts and socialsciences,physical sciences,engineering,law,surveyingand
photogrammetry, medicine, veterinary medicine, agriculture, architecture and related
subjects,education (at Kenyatta University College), commerce and journalism.In addition
there are four institutes functioning within the University: the Instituteof African Studies,
Adult Studies,Development Studies,and Population Studiesand Research.The University is
governed by a Council composed of lay and academic members.The senate is responsiblefor
academic matters and is composedofthe heads ofdepartmentsand staffmembers,grouped in
faculties.Government grants provide 88 per cent of resources,with three per cent coming
from foundationsand nine per cent from other sources.The Government has now introduced
a loan scheme to enable students to finance the non-tuition portion of their education.
Other specialized institutions of higher education include: two polytechnics (Kenya
Polytechnic and Mombasa Polytechnic),which offer training at both professional and sub-
professional level; three national vocational and industrial training centres (Nairobi,
Mombasa and Kisumu)-these institutions are under the authority of the Ministry of
Education;two governmentsecretarial colleges (Nairobiand Mombasa); the Kenya Institute
of Administration;Christian industrial training centres;an institute of agriculture (Embu),
animal health (Lower Kabete); the Kenya Institute of Mass Communication;a medical
training centre; the Kenya Institute of Education; and various training units-these are
managed by various government ministries and other bodies. Various institutes of
technologies and village polytechnics have been established on self-help(harambee) basis.
The Government,from time to time,gives aid in terms of personnel and funds to these
technological institutes and polytechnics. They too, function like the other specialized
institutionsabove.
Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level. A two-yearcourse for
candidates who have completed four years of secondaryeducation and have passed well with
more emphasis on creditsin English,mathematicsandat least one science subject.In addition
162 KENYA

candidates who have completed six years ofsecondaryeducation and fail to get the University
entry requirement or get the minimum entry requirement but are not selected for University
(and fail to enrol elsewhere) and are interested in becoming primary teachers,are also trained
as primary teachers.
Teachers of secondary education are now trained at Kenyatta University College.(The
faculty of education was moved from the University of Nairobi to Kenyatta University
College.)The teachers obtain a degree of bachelor of education in either arts or science.
Teachers of technical education are trained at the Kenya Science Teachers’College,at the
Kenya Polytechnic and at the Kenya Technical Teachers’College which has been established
recently.
There are many fields which post-secondarystudents may enter. A student may leave
secondaryeducation at form two (after two years of secondaryeducation) after sitting for the
Kenya junior secondary examination (KJSE) and join a village polytechnic,for instance.
Most of the institutionswhich train professionals or sub-professionalsalso train form six
students who have either not qualified for University entry or qualified but have not been
given entry because of the limited facilities at the University. The length of the period of
training in this case depends on the type of training.However,it rangesbetween two yearsfor
most of the courses to five years for technical courses at Kenya Polytechnic.
Graduates from these institutionsfind their way into either public or private sectorswithin
the country as electricians,mechanics, plumbers, secretaries,social workers, engineers,
surveyors,etc.
A number of institutions,including the University of Nairobi,organize courses of adult
education,which is concentrated in the rural areas.
T h e language of instruction is English.
Access to higher education is based on the East African advanced certificate of education,
obtained after a period of seven years’primary and six years’secondaryeducation,the latter
being divided into a four-yearlower phase and a two-yearupper phase. The higher school
certificateis similarly organized and confers the same rights.
Foreign students are admitted if they are accepted as being qualified by the senate.The
candidatemust fulfilthe faculty entry requirement or its equivalent.However,it is important
to mention that each case is treated on its own merit given the fact that the Universityisfaced
with the ever-increasingnumber of localcandidates who qualify for entry but are not selected
because of the limited facilities available to the University.
The first stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’sdegree.Thebachelor’sdegree may
be obtained in three years (humanities,education,science,engineering,law,home economics
and commerce), in four years in veterinary medicine or in five years in architecture and
medicine.A professionalqualificationmay be awarded as a certificate(e.g.home economics)
or diplomas (e.g.fine arts) after four years’study following the end ofthe lower phase of the
secondary education. A n advanced professional qualification is awarded as a diploma in
education,irrigationand urban and regional planning after one year’sstudy,in nursing and
journalism after two years’study.
The second stage leads,after a period of two years’graduatestudy following the bachelor’s
degree to a master’s degree; this is awarded in humanities,architecture,commerce,law,
science, engineering, education and medicine (where candidates have to do four years’
practical training). Candidates have to submit a thesis alone or do course-work as well,
according to the field of study.
A third stage leads,after a minimum period of two years’study after the master’s degree to
the doctor’s degree (PhD:doctor of philosophy) in all faculties.Candidates for this highest
degree have to submit a thesis.
KENYA 163

P R O F I L E OF HIGHER S T U D I E S
Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,East African advanced certifcate of education)
years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
~~ ~ ~

Education B M D
Humanities,religion. B M D
theology
Architecture P M D
Law B M D
Commercialsciences D
Natural sciences D
Social sciences D
Medical sciences
medicine B M D
veterinary medicine B M D
Agriculture B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M niaster’s degree P professional

qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree obtained in three years in humanities,education, home
economics,science,engineering,law and commerce.in fouryears in veterinary scienceandin
five in medicine and architecture.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professionul qualification.
Doctor’s degree. Higher degree (PhD,doctor ofphilosophy) obtained in a minimum of two
years (one in residence)after the niaster’s degree in all facultiesat the University of Nairobi.
General certificate of education.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained after seven
years’primary school and six years’secondaryeducationdivided into two cycles of four and
two years. The examinations are at two levels: ordinary level and advanced level. The
candidate takes someexaminationsat the end ofthefirstcycle,and usuallycontinuesto study
for a further two years to acquire the number and combination of passes required by the
branch of higher education he wishes to enter. The higher school certificate is similarly
organized and its results give the same rights.
Higher school certificate. See General certificateof education.
Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded in arts, science, engineering and veterinary
medicine after a minimum of eighteenmonths’and a maximum ofthreeyears’,studyafter the
award of a bachelor’sdegree upper second or firstclass honours.It comprisesthe preparation
of dissertationonly,or course-workas well,according to the field ofstudy.In medicine it is
obtained by examination after at least four years’practice.
Professional qualification. Higher-educationqualificationawarded at the level of the first
degree (see bachelor’s degree) after four years’study following the end of the first cycle of
secondary education.It is awardedas a certificatein home economicsand as a diploma in fine
art. At the level of a higher degree. a professional qualification is awarded after one year’s
study in education and two years in nursing,following a first degree or qualification.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See General certificate of education, higher school
certificate.
164 KUWAIT

Kuwait
In Kuwait higher education is given in the University of Kuwait. This is a state institution
under the Ministry of Education,and comprises faculties of science,letters and human
sciences,law and Islamic law (Shari’a),commerce and politics,a college of engineering and
oil, a college of medicine, a college of graduate studies, and a community service and
continuing education centre.
Primary school-teachersare trained at secondary level, secondary school-teachersat the
University.In arts and science it is possible to take an educationoption leadingto the award of
the bachelor’s degree in arts or science and education.
The teaching languages are Arabic,English and French.
Access to higher education is based on the shahadat al-thanawia(secondary-school-leaving
certificate) normally awarded after four years’primary followed by eight years’secondary
studies,the latter divided into two phases.
The main stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’sdegree,normally awarded after
four years’study in the followingsubjects:law and Islamiclaw,science,commerce(business
administration, accountancy and statistics) and politics; after four and a half years in
engineering and after seven years in medicine (bachelor of medical science).
The second stage leads,in some subjects only,to a more specialized qualification;to a
diploma in law or Islamic law after one, or in hydrogeology, accountancy, business
administration or applied statisticsafter two,years’furtherstudy.T w o kinds of diplomas of
education are awarded at this level:the general diploma of education after one,and the special
diploma in education after two,years’study after the award of the bachelor’s degree.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,shahadat al-thanawia)

years 4 5 6 7

Education B GDE SDE

Arts B
Law, Islamic law B- Di
Political sciences B
Commercial sciences (administration, B Di
accountancy,statistics)
Sciences B
Engineering B
Medicine B

B bachelor’sdegree Di diploma GDE general diploma in education SDE special

diploma in education

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’sdegree. Firstdegree of higher education awarded after four years’studiesexcept
in engineering (four and a half years), and medicine (seven). It is normally designated by the
abbreviation B followed by the speciality in which it has been obtained:BSc (science), BPSc
(political science), etc.
KUWAIT 165

Diploma.Higher education qualificationawarded after one or two years’studysubsequent

to the bachelor’s degree, as are the general (one-year)and special (two-year)diplomas in
education.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See shahadat al-thanaicia.
Shahadat al-thanawia. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after twelve years’
primary and secondary education.

L a o People’s Democratic Republic

Higher education in the Lao People’sDemocratic Republic is given in the Sisavangvong
University,which was founded at Vientiane in 1973.and which comprisesan institute of law
and administration. a school of medicine,an institute of Buddhist studies and a higher
teacher-training institution,which were founded between 1958 and 1964. All the above
institutions are financed by the State. but certain expenditure,in particular the salaries of
people who teach in them,comes from aid provided to the Lao People’sRepublic through
bilateral arrangementsand through international organizations.
The school of medicine comprises two sections: one for medical ancillaries (nurses,
midwives,auxiliary doctors and pharmacists), and the other for doctors.
The languages of instruction are French and English.
Primary teachersare trained in teacher-traininginstitutionsand in one sectionofthe higher
institution for teacher-training.Teachers for lower-secondaryeducation are also trained in
this latter institution.Courses last three years.It also organizes in-serviceand othercourses
for teachers.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat.This qualification is required for
entrance to that section of the higher teacher-training institution which trains secondary
teachers,as well as the sectionof the schoolof medicinewhich trainsdoctors.Candidatesfor
entranceto the institute of law and administration must also pass an entrance examination.
O n the other hand,the studies which lead to medical ancillary qualifications,which last
roughly four years,may be entered by holders of the brevet d’étudesdu premier cycle. The
University awards diplomas after three to four years’study.
Final studies at the institute of law and administration lead to a doctorate (doctoratde
troisième cycle), and studies at the school of medicine lead to the doctorate in niedicine
(doctorate en médecine),which is awarded after seven years of study.

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.Secondary schooling is divided into a
first phase of fouryears and a secondphase ofthreeyears.followingupon six yearsofprimary
education.The baccalauréat admits to higher education:an entrance examination must be
passed to enter the institute of law and administration.
 LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Brevet d’étudesdu premier cycle (BEPC). Qualificationawarded at the end ofthe firstphase
of secondaryeducation.It givesentranceto certaincoursesat the schoolofmedicine (nursing,
midwife,medical auxiliary).
Diploma.Qualifications awarded by the University after three or four years’study.
Doctorat. Qualification of higher education awarded by the institute of law and
administration (doctoratde troisième cycle). In medicine,the doctorat is awarded after seven
years of study at the school of medicine.
Secondary-schoot-leavingcertificate. See baccalauréat.

Lebanon
In Lebanon higher education is provided in five universities (the Lebanese University,the
American University of Beirut,St.Joseph University,the Arab University of Beirut and the
University of the Holy Spirit), and in five institutionsof higher education which offer a wide
variety of courses.
The Lebanese University is a state institution, under the control of the Ministry of
Education, financed by the State, and autonomous. It comprises faculties of arts and
humanities,education,law,public administration and science,as well as institutesof social
sciences,fine arts and journalism.
Teaching is given in Arabic,as well as in French and English.
The American University of Beirut is a private institution comprising faculties of arts,
science,medical sciences,health sciences,engineering and architecture,agriculturalsciences
and nutrition.A division of education and programmes of lifelong education was founded
there in 1976. Its purpose is to promote the study of education by teaching and research.
Teaching is given in English and Arabic.
Saint Joseph University is a Catholic university which has enjoyed full administrative,
financial and academic autonomy since 1975.It comprises faculties of theology,medicine,
pharmacy, dentistry, engineering, law and political science, economics and business
administration, and arts and humanities. The following institutes are also part of this
university:a school of nursing and midwifery (affiliated to the facultyof medicine), a centre
for modern languages,the Lebanese school of socialwork,a centre for studies of the modern
Arab world, and the Lebanese Institute of Educators (Institut libanais d’Educateurs),
affiliated to the faculty of arts and humanities.The regionalcentres at Tripoli and Zahlé also
offer first phase university courses.Lastly,the University helps the autonomous institutions
(institutesor centres for research) which were founded in its buildings in collaboration with
the professions concerned. They are under an autonomous régime (Lebanese Law
Association,Centre for Banking Studies,Centrefor Insurance Studies,Instituteof Research
in Applied Economics). The University awards degrees in theology,medicine,nursing,
pharmacy and biology, dentistry, engineering, law and political science,economics and
LEBANON 167

business administration,commercial studies,and arts and humanities,as well as high-level

technician degrees.Teaching is given in French and Arabic.
The Arab University of Beirut is a Moslem-inspiredinstitution which is affiliated to the
University of Alexandria.It is financedby the Moslem SocietyofSocialWork,Beirut,and by
the fees paid by the students. It comprises faculties of arts (including sociology), law,
commercial studies.architecture,science and engineering.The language in which teaching
takes place varies according to the subject:Arabic for arts,and English for science and
engineering.
Lastly,the University of the Holy Spirit was founded in 1949 by the Lebanese Maronite
Order and was recognized by the Government in 1962.This private institution of higher
educationcomprisesfaculties of theology,philosophy and humanities,arts,law,commercial
studies,fine arts and applied arts, as well as institutes of liturgy,musicology and history.
Teaching is mostly given in French,but English is used in certain subjects.It awardslicences,
DEAs and doctorates, as well as diplomas in engineering,architecture and decoration.
Other institutionsof higher educationinclude:the Haïkajan College,a ‘liberalarts college’,
which gives teachingin Englishand awardsbachelor of arts and bachelor of science degrees;the
Beirut University College which is the only institute in the regionconceived to meet theneeds
foreducationofwomen who have followed high-leveltraining,and which is now opento men
students.Teaching takes place in English and Arabic.The Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts,a
higher institute of law and the Middle East College also provide courses.
Teachers of primary education are trained in colleges located throughout the country.
Secondary education teachers are trained in the universities. In the American University,
studiesin education are takenin parallel specializedcoursesin the facultiesofartsand science.
Access to higher education is usually based on the Lebanese baccalauréar IIe partie or
equivalentquaiification obtained at the end ofseven years of secondaryeducation;however,
conditions for access to institutions of higher education may vary. A competitive entrance
examination must be taken by students who wish to enter the faculty of business
administration at the Lebanese University and by those who wish to enter the faculties of
medicine,dentistry,pharmacy and engineering at the St.Joseph University.This university
also organizes entrance examinations to other faculties. Foreign students are admitted to
Lebanese universities under the same conditions as Lebanese students if they hold a
qualification which is equivalent to the Lebanese baccalairréat.
Because of the wide range of types of institutions of higher education, courses and
qualificationsare very varied.Some institutionsaward professional qualificationsat the end
of two-to three-yearcourses:the laboratory technician’sdiploma at the American University
and at the St.Joseph University isawarded after two years’study.This is also the caseforthe
qualification of associate awarded by the Beirut University College in arts and applied arts.
The advanced technician’sdiplomas in social work and in infant and primary education are
awarded after three years’study at the St.Joseph University.This is also the case for the
diploma in nursing at the American University.Studiesforthebachelor’sdegree in medicine or
engineering at the American University requireone or two years’preparationat the University
beforehand.
In the course of longer studies,the main stage leads,after three to five years’study,to the
licence, bachelor‘s degree or a maîtrise, or a diploma serving as a professional qualification
(doctoratein dentistry). In medicine,the doctorate isboth the first degreeand the professional
qualification.It is awarded after seven years’study at the St.Joseph University.This stage
correspondsto theperiod ofstudyindepth and the acquisitionofwide practicalexperience,or
a high level professional qualification.
The second stage, corresponding to a period of specializationand individual work,leads
(usuallyin one or twoyears’studyfollowingupon the first degree)to themaster’sdegreeat the
American University,a magistère,a diplôme d’étudesapprofondies (DEA),a diplôme d‘études
168 LEBANON

supérieures (DES) or a doctorat de troisièmecycle. The faculty ofpharmacy at the St.Joseph

University awards a diplôme d'études supérieures in biology after three years'study following
the diplôme de pharmacien or docteur en médecine.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 I

Religion,Catholic L M
theology
Arts A/DEUG L L DEA/ D
M/B Ma/Md
Fine arts,applied arts A DES D E S

-
Architecture B DES B
Economics,law DEUG L L/M DEA/
political sciences DES
Administration,management L/B Md
Commercial sciences B
Information L
Social sciences
Exact and natural L/B Md
sciences
Engineering DESP B/Di
Medical sciences
medicine DTC B Md/D
dentistry
pharmacy
nursing L M
Agriculture B Md

A associate
B bachelor's degree
D doctorat
DEA diplôme d'études approfondies
DES diplôme d'études supérieures
DESP diplôme d'études scientifiquespréparatoires
DEUG diplôme d'études universitaires générales
Di diploma
DTC diplôme de technicien de laboratoire
L licence
M maîtrise
Ma magistère
Md master's degree

(The higher educational system in Lebanon is very diversified and the periods of study
indicated in the profile are therefore approximate.)
LEBANON 169

The third stage corresponds to a period of individualresearch.The resultsof this research

lead to the doctorat, and to the title of doctor of philosophy (PhD), after presenting and
defending a thesis.

GLOSSARY
Associate. University qualification awarded by the Beirut University College after two
years’higher education in arts and applied arts,for example.
Baccalauréat.Secondary-school-leavingcertificateobtainedafter fiveyearsofprimaryand
seven years ofsecondaryeducationdivided into two phases.The baccalauréat is taken in two
parts. the first part after three years of upper secondary education,the second part after
another year.
Bachelor’s degree.First degree,awarded by the American Universityat the end of three to
four years of higher education.It is usually represented by an abbreviation:BA (bachelorof
arts);BBA (bachelorof businessadministration);BE(bachelor in engineering);BEd (bachelorin
education);BS (bachelor of science).
Competitiveentrance examination.Entrance examinationorganizedby certain institutions
of higher education,for example the facultiesofmedicine,pharmacy and dentistry of the St.
Joseph University,as well as the faculty of engineering.Candidates who wish to enter the
faculty of business administration at the Lebanese University must also sit for this
examination.
Diploma.Title of higher education or professional qualification obtained after a varying
number of years of study in certain subjects and institutions of higher education (nursing
diploma,engineer’sdiploma,dental surgeon’sdiploma,etc.).
Diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA). Qualification awarded after the maîtrise by St.
Joseph University on submission of a shortdissertationwhich shows the resultsofindividual
work and constitutes an initiation to scientific research.
Diplôme d’études scientifiques préparatoires. Diploma awarded, for example, at the
engineering faculty of the St.Joseph University,after the first two years of higher studiesin
higher mathematics and special mathematics.
Diplôme d‘études supérieures (DES).Qualification awarded by the Institute of History of
the facultyof arts ofthe University of the Holy Spiritafter the licence and on submissionof a
short dissertation.
Diplôme d’études universitaires générales. Diploma awarded after the first two years of
university study at certain faculties of the St.Joseph University.
Diplômeuniversitairede technologie(DUT).Qualification which used to be awardedby the
St.Joseph University. Candidatesspent two years acquiring a wider knowledgethan that of
technician and higher specialization than that of engineer.
Doctorate.Qualification of higher education obtained in different institutionsof higher
education under varying conditions,according to subjects and types of institution. A
doctorate in philosophy (PhD) is awarded by the American University in Arab history,Arab
literature,medicine and agricultural studies,usually after three years’research following
upon the bachelor’s degree. The University of the Holy Spirit confersdoctorats de 3ème cycle
after two years’ study following upon the diplôme détudes approfondies in philosophy,
humanities and musicology and after two years’ study following upon the diplôme détudes
supérieures in history. It awards doctorats dEtat after two years’further study.St. Joseph
University awards doctorates in theology, medicine, pharmacy, law, political sciences,
economics and arts upon submission and defence of a thesis. Students in the faculty of
medicine obtain the title of docteur en médecine after seven years’study-in this case,the
doctorate is a first degree.
Licence. University degree awarded after three years of higher education in every subject
except law (four years) at St.Joseph University and at the University of the Holy Spirit
170 LEBANON

(institute of liturgy,institute of history) after four years in philosophy and humanities,

musicology,musical education.The University of the Holy Spiritawards licences in teaching
after four years,the licence in commercial studiesafter five years,the licence in theologyafter
six years.
Magistère. University degree awarded following the licence, after five years’study and the
presentation of dissertation (faculty of arts and humanities of the Lebanese University).
Maîtrise. Higher degree obtained after one year’s study following upon the licence.
Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded by the American University after one year’s
specialization following upon the bachelor’s degree. It is usually designated by an
abbreviation:M A (master of arts); MBA (master in business administration);MS (master of
science).
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See baccalauréat.

Lesotho
In Lesotho higher education takes place in the National University of Lesotho,Roma,which
was founded in 1975 after the division of the University of Botswana,Lesotho and Swaziland
(see also sections on Botswana and Swaziland). The University is administered by a council
and,in academic matters,by a senate,and is made up of four faculties:education,arts and
humanities,science,and social sciences.
The language of instruction is English.
Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level. Teachers of secondary
education are trained at the university.The certificate in primary education is conferred after
two years ofpart-timestudy,and the diplomain education is conferred aftertwo yearsofpart-
time study following upon the certificate in primary education. At the higher level, the
postgraduate certificate in education is awarded to holders of a bachelor’s degree of a
recognized university after one year (full-time)or two years (part-time).
Access to higher education is based on the Cambridge overseas school certificate obtained
after seven years’primary and five years’secondaryeducation.Thisexaminationis organized
in the United Kingdom.Holders of thegeneral certificateof education and adults over twenty-
five having successfullypassed the specialentrance examinationmay also gain entrance to the
university under certain conditions.
The main stage in higher education (undergraduatestudies) lasts four years,divided into
two two-yearphases.It leads in humanities,in science,in commercial studiesand in education
to the award of the bachelor’s degree (first degree). In law, the bachelor of law degree is
awarded after obtaining the bachelor of artJ degree and a minimum of two years’full-time
study. Students who wish to follow specialized studies not offered at the University (e.g.
anthropology, fine arts, dentistry, engineering,architecture,medicine,pharmacy, social
LESOTHO 171

work,veterinary medicine) may,after satisfactorycompletionofthe first phase.pursue their

studies further in another African or foreign university.
Professionalqualificationsare awarded ascertifïcatesin statistics(aftertwo years’full-time
study) and in business studies (after two years’part-timestudy).
A second stage,open to the holders of a bachelor’s degree,leadsto the award ofthemaster’s
degree after two years of study in arts (MA)and in science (MSc).The master ofeducation
degree may be obtained by holders ofa bachelor’sdegree in a teachingsubject on submission
ofa thesis,and afteroneyear’sfull-timestudyand one and a halfyears’researchwork,or after
two years’part-timestudy and one or two years’ research work.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 12 years,Cambridge overseas school certificate)

years 4 5 6

B M/BL

B bachelor’s degree BL bachelor’s degree in law M master’s degree

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree (undergraduatestudies)obtained after four years’study in
arts,science,commercialstudiesand education.In law,the bachelor of law degree is awarded
after obtaining the bachelor of arts degree and a minimum of two years‘ full-timestudy,
Cambridge overseas school certificate,Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained after
seven years’primary and five years’secondaryeducation.The examinationis organizedin the
United Kingdom and gives access to higher education.
Certificate. Seeprofessional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Master’s degree.Higher degree of higher education awarded at the end ofgraduatestudies.
It is conferred on holders of a bachelor’s degree after two more years of study in arts and
science.The master of education degree is awarded to holders of a bachelor’s degree in a
teaching subject on submission of a thesis.and after one year’sfull-timestudy and one and a
half years’research work,or after two years’part-timestudy and one or two years’research
work.
Professionalqualification.Highereducationqualificationobtained as a certifcateaftertwo
years’study in business studiesand statistics,or as a diploma in theology after two years.A
certificatein educationusually takes one year (graduatestudies) after a bachelor’s degree in a
teaching speciality.
Çecondaryschool-leavingcertificate. See Cambridge overseas school certficate.
172 LIBERIA

Liberia
In Liberia higher education takes place in three degree-grantinginstitutions.
The University of Liberia is made up of colleges and schools (social sciences,humanities,
science and technology, law,education, agriculture and forestry, and medicine). It also
includesa departmentof extra-muralstudiesand an institute of African studiesand research.
It is directed by a board of trustees, made up of governmental representatives and of
representatives from industry. The advisory council, which comprises all heads of
administration and of the colleges and schools,advises the president on matters relating to
internal administration.The University is under the authority of the visitor and the board of
trustees.
Cuttington University College,which is administered by the Episcopalian Church, has
divisions for science, for the human and social sciences, nursing and education, and
technology.It acquired its present title in 1976.
In 1978 the William V.S.Tubman College of Technology opened. It is controlled by the
State and offers a three-yearassociate degree course in engineering technology.
Financial provision for the University of Liberia comes almost entirely from the State and
student fees make up only a small part of it. Cuttington University College is financed by the
Episcopalian Church and a government subsidy.
Lower-primaryteachers are trained in institutionswhich are of upper-secondarylevel,in
two years for fundamental education teachers,and in three years in the teacher-training
institutes.The courseslead to the award ofthe lower-primaryteacher’scertipcate.A bachelor’s
degree,obtained after four years of higher education,is a necessary qualificationto teach in
secondary schools.
The language of instruction is English.
Access to higher education is based on the upper-secondarycertificate,awarded after six
years of primary and six years of secondary schooling in a senior higher school or in a
technicalschool.The lower-primaryteacher’scertificate also givesaccessto higher education.
All candidates for higher education have to pass an obligatory entrance examination.
Four years of higher education lead to the award of the bachelor’s degree. Entry to legal
studies requiresat least two years ofprevious higher educationand then the degree ofbachelor
of law is awarded afterthree years.The doctorate of medicine is conferred after seven years.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,upper-secondary certificate and entrance examination)

years 4 5 6 7

B D

B bachelor’s degree D doctorate (medicine)

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’sdegree. Degree ofhighereducationawardedafterfouryears ofhigher education.
In order to study law at least two years of previous higher education are required.In order to
begin the study of theology a bachelor’s degree is required.
LIBERIA 173

Doctorate. Professionaltitle awarded in medicine after seven years’study.

Entrance examination. See lower-primary teacher’s cert@ate and upper-secondary
certificate.
Lower-primary teacher’s certificate. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate which gives the
right to teach in lower-primaryclasses.It is obtained after six years ofprimaryeducationand
six years of secondaryeducation,the latter being divided into two phases ofthree years each.
The second phase may be undertaken through a three-year course in a teacher-training
institute.The last two years of the secondphase may be spent in preparation for becoming a
fundamental education teacher. In both cases the courses lead to the award of the lower-
primary teacher’scertificate which,after success in an entranceexamination,gives a right to
higher education.
Upper-secondarycertificate.Secondary-school-leavingcertificateawarded after six yearsof
primary educationand six years ofsecondaryeducation.The latter is divided intotwo phases
of three years given respectively in the junior and senior high school.The first phase of
secondary education is considered a guidancephase.The second phase may also be followed
in a technical school.In both the seniorhigh schooland the technicalschoolstudieslead to the
award of the upper-secondarycertificate.(See also lower-primary teacher’s certificate.)In
order to enter higher education there is a compulsory entrance examination.

Luxemburg
In Luxemburg higher education is provided in the University Centre,in the International
University Institute,as well as in a pedagogical institute.
The University Centre, which acquired its present name and status in 1974,is entirely
financed by the State but enjoys wide autonomy.It comprises three departments (law and
economics, arts and humanities,science) and two training departments.one for training
teachers,the other in law. A mathematics seminar for lifelong training for teachers in this
subject and for research is affiliated to the Centre.In the departments,students may follow
first-yearuniversity courseswhich are adaptedto those of neighbouringcountriesand which,
according to the choice of subject,lead to a certijïcat dérudes juridiques et éconorniques,a
certificatd’études littéraireset de sciences humaines. or a cerrijïcatdéîudesscienti3ques.Since
these qualifications are recognized by the governments or the universities of the German
Federal Republic,Austria,Belgium.Canada,France and the United Kingdom. holdersmay
easily go abroad to pursue their studiesfurther.The courses of the legal training department,
which are compulsory forcandidatesto the bar,magistracyand notary studies,are centred on
the specificity of Luxemburg law in various fields.Since the Centre is an institution of higher
education,it is also concernedwith promoting scientificresearch,both in its departmentsand
in collaborationwith the research institutes of neighbouring universities.
The International University Institute is composed of a faculty for comparative law,
political science and a centre for European studies and research.Every year,the Institute
174 LUXEMBURG

organizes postgraduate courses and colloquia concerned with the scientific and practical
problems arising from the growth of the economy and the evolution of laws,especiallyin the
European Community.
The legal training department of the University Centre organizes a course of short-term
studies (two years) in economics and law which enables students to re-cycleand to orientate
themselves more quickly towards professional practice. This course leads to a diploma.
Primary teachers are trained at post-secondary level in two years at the pedagogical
institute of Luxemburg-Walferdange.Courses lead to the primary teacher's certificate
(brevet d'aptitude pédagogique). After further studies, holders of the brevet d'aptitude
pédagogique may obtain a brevet d'enseignement complémentaire or the brevet d'enseignement
moyen. The first year of practical training of future secondary schoolteachers takes place at
the teacher-trainingdepartment of the University Centre.
The language of instruction is French.
Access to higher education is based on the examen de fin d'études secondaires (secondary-
school-leaving certificate), which admits students to universities in Belgium, France,
Germany and Switzerland.Entranceto the pedagogicalinstituteisbased on the levelofresults
in the examination.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,examen de fin d'études secondaires)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6

Education BAP BEC BEM

Law Cer Di
Arts,humanities Cer
Science Cer

BAP brevet daptitude pédagogique

BEC brevet d'enseignement complémentaire
BEM brevet d'enseignement moyen
Cer certificatd'études juridiques et économiques
certificatd'études littéraires et de sciences humaines
certificat d'études scientqiques
Di diplôme d'études universitaires pratiques en économie et en droit

GLOSSARY
Brevet d'aptitudepédagogique.Qualification obtainedaftera two-yeartrainingcourse at the
pedagogical institute.Holders are allowed to teach in primary education.
Brevet d'enseignement complémentaire.Holders of the brevet d'aptitude pédagogique may,
after a further two years' study, take the examination for the brevet d'enseignement
complémentaire,which entitles them to teach in the schoolsgiving a three-yearpost-primary
course which, following upon six years of primary education,terminates the period of
compulsory schooling.
Brevet d'enseignement moyen. Holders of the brevet d'enseignement complémentaire who
study for a further two yearsmay sit for thebrevetd'enseignement moyen. Thisenablesthem to
teach in a collège d'enseignement moyen.
Certificat d'études juridiques et économiques;certificat d'études littéraires et de sciences
LUXEMBURG 175

humaines;certificatd’étudesscientifiques.Qualifications obtained after one year’sstudyat the

University Centre in law and economics,arts and humanities,and science,giving access to
further studies abroad.
Diplôme d‘études universitaires pratiques en économie et en droit. Qualificationawarded at
the end of short-term studies (two years) at the legal training department of the University
Centre.
Examen de fin d’études secondaires. Examination taken at the end of seven years of
secondaryeducation following upon six years of primary education.Secondary education is
divided into a first phase lasting three years and a second phase lasting four.Holders of this
qualification gain access to higher education;entranceto the pedagogical institute,however,
is based on the level of results in the examination.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.See examen de fin d’étudessecondaires.

Madagascar
In Madagascar,higher education is provided by the University of Madagascar,subject of the
comprehensive reform set out in the directive 76-043 of the 27th of December 1976.This
directive states that ‘theUniversity of Madagascar is constituted by the regional university
centres distributed throughout the nation. each of which comprises both higher education
establishments and university research bodies thereto affiliated’.The application of this
directive took the form of the April 1977 decree of foundation of six regional university
centres-those of Antanarivo, Antsirannana, Fianarantsoa,Mahajanga, Toamasina and
Toliary.
In conformity with the aims of the Charter of the Socialist Revolution,the University of
Madagascar participates in the establishingof priorities for the programmes ofresearch to be
carried out under its auspices.
It is a public institution of a cultural,scientificand technical kind,a legal entity in its own
right enjoying administrative and financial autonomy. Its funding is undertaken by the
Madagascar government.
The regional university centres were founded with the following aims: to accelerate the
development of the provinces, to consolidate national unity and to pave the way for a real
democratization. The centres comprise: (a) higher education establishments offering
instruction in law, economics, administration, sociology, science, health sciences,
engineering,humanities,and agriculture;and (b) research instituteswhose rôle is to govern
the development of regionalresources and the social,economic and technical infrastructures
this requires.
The teaching languages are French and Madagascan.
Teachers are trained within the framework of the University under the guidance of the
Higher National Institute for Research and Education.Primary school-teachersare trained
over two years,secondary teachers over three or four years.Higher education teachers and
176 MADAGASCAR

research workers are selected from studentsin the third cycle ofuniversity;they are required
to have received instruction in education. The University also includes an institute for
research into the teaching of mathematics.
Access to higher education is normally based on the baccalauréat which is awarded on
completion of seven years of secondary studies. A special entrance examination allows
candidates who do not have the baccalauréaf to enter higher education under certain
circumstances.Various foreign diplomas are recognized as equivalent to the baccalauréat.
Access t? courses for the capacité in law or management is open to those who do not have
the baccalauréat, subject to a compulsory entrance test. These courses last two years,and
holders of the capacité may then enrol for the correspondingdegree course.
The first stage ofhigher educationcomprises two years' study devoted to the acquisition of
knowledge on a broad multi-disciplinarybasis.It leads to the diplômes universitairesd'études

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7
~ ~~

Education P P/L P
Arts DUEL L M DEA D3C
Law C/ L M D3C
DFEPC
Economics DFEPC L M D3C
Administrative C/ L M D3C
sciences DFEPC
Sociology DFEPC L M
Science DUES L M DEA D3C
Engineering DUET P D3C
Medical sciences
health sciences DUEPS L M
medicine DM
Agriculture,forestry DUET P

C capacité
D doctorat d'Ela1
D3C doctorat de troisième cycle
DEA diplôme d'études approfondies
DES diplôme d'études supérieures
DFEPC diplôme de jïn d'études du premier cycle
DI diplôme d'ingénieur (titre professionnel)
DM doctorat en médecine
DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires
DUEPS diplôme universitaire d'éducation physique et sportive
DUES diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques
DUET diplôme universitaire d'études technologiques
L licence
M maîtrise
P professional qualification
MADAGASCAR 177

littéraires in humanities,détudes scientifiques in science,d‘éducation physique et sportive in

health sciences,physical education branch;in the higherpolytechnicalschoolto the diplôme
universitairedétudes technologiques;and in law,economics,management and sociology to the
diplôme de fin d‘études du premier cycle in the relevant subject.
The second stage reflects greater knowledge and experienceof the subject-matter.In law,
economics,management,sociology,humanities,science,and physical and sportseducation
the licence is awarded after three years,the maîtrise after four.
The professionalqualificationsof engineerand agriculturalengineerare alsoawarded after
four years.
The third stage involvesa high degreeofspecialization,and initiationin researchwork.The
award of the diplôme d’études supérieures in law and economics allows the candidate to
proceed to the doctorat. while in science,humanities and engineering the diplôme d‘études
approfondies leads after a minimum of one further year to the doctorat du 3è cycle.
Studies in the higher institutionof health sciences (in the faculty of medicine) last seven
years (including the period of clinical experience) and lead to the doctorate in medicine.

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,obtained after six years of primary
Ïollowed by seven years ofgeneral or technical secondaryeducation.Thelatterisdivided into
two phases,a four-year ‘lower’and a three-year‘upper’phase, when candidates choose a
literary or scientific option.The baccalauréat gives access to higher education.
Capacitéen droit/en gestion.Qualifications ofhigher education,awarded at the end of two
years’study in law or management.Candidates are not required to hold a baccalauréat.
Diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA). Qualification of higher education,awarded on
submissionof a mémoire (short thesis) in science,humanitiesand engineering,one year after
the maîtrise, that is,after five years in higher education. It is required for the doctorars de
troisième cycle and d‘Etat (the latter not yet awarded).
Diplômed’études supérieures.Qualification awarded in lawand economics,requiredfor the
doctorats de troisième cycle and d‘Etat. It includeswritten examinationsand the submissionof
a mémoire (shortthesis). The course is oftwo years,and open only to those who already have
the maîtrise.
Diplôme d’ingénieur.See professional qualification.
Diplôme universitaire d’éducation physique et sportive (DUEPS).Qualification obtained
after the first cycle (oftwo years) of higher education in health sciences(physicaland sports
education branch).
Diplôme universitaired’étudeslittéraires (DUEL).Qualification obtained at the end of the
first phase of studies (twoyears) in humanities.Candidates must pass an examinationat the
end of each year.
Diplôme universitaired’étudesscientifiques(DUES).Qualificationobtained at the end ofthe
first phase of studies in science.Candidates have to pass an examinationat the end of each
year.
Diplôme universitaire d’études technologiques (DUET).Qualification awarded after two
years’studies at the higher polytechnical school.
Doctorat de troisièmecycle. Qualification of higher education awarded at least one year
after the diplôme d‘études approfondies and reflecting specialization and research work.
Doctorat en médecine.Qualificationof higher education awarded by the HigherInstitution
of Health Sciences (faculty of medicine) after seven years (including clinical experience).
Licence. First degree of higher education, obtained after three years’study. Studies are
divided into two phases. In humanities,the first phase (consisting of two years’study on a
broad multidisciplinarybasis), leads to the diplôme universitaire d‘études lirtéraires (DUEL).
The second phase,of one year’s study,leads to the licence.
178 MADAGASCAR

Maîtrise. Second degree of higher education,awarded after four years’ study.The first two
years (first phase) are c o m m o n to the licence and the maîtrise, and give basic knowledge on a
broad multidisciplinarybasis. The second phase also spans two years,during which students
acquire deeper knowledge of their subject. The first year leads to the licence and the second
year to the maîtrise.
Professionalqualification.Qualification of higher education awarded after four years’study
by the higher polytechnical and agricultural schools.The qualification is diplôme d‘ingénieur.
Special entrance examination.Examination giving access to higher education to candidates
w h o do not hold a baccalauréat or equivalent qualification.

Malawi
In Malawi higher education takes place in the three constituent colleges of the University:
college of agriculture (Bunda College), college of arts,education,science,social sciences,law
and public administration (Chancellor College), and the Polytechnic. Plans are well under
way for the inclusion of a college of nursing.The aim of the University is to bring togetherall
post-secondary education in the country and to encourage the exchange of students,
professors and courses between the constituent institutions.The University is governed by a
council,most of whose members are appointed by the Government. The senate,composed of
academics,is responsiblefor academic matters. The University awards diplomas and degrees,
as well as various certificatesfor short part-time courses.T h e University is mainly supported
by government grants (95per cent) with benefactions (twoper cent)and external aid (threeper
cent).
The language of instruction is English.
Access to higher education is based on the Malawi certijïcate of education in which normally
at least five credits must be obtained, or the general certificateof education,ordinary level.
Both may be taken after eight years of primary and four years of secondary education.The
results in these examinations must be excellent,and the subjectsmust be those required by the
branch of higher education which the candidate wishes to enter. One secondary school offers
courses at the upper level of secondary education, leading to the general certificate of
education, advanced level.
Teachers of primary education are trained at the lower-secondarylevel in teacher-training
colleges; the courses last two years. Teachers of secondary education are trained at the post-
secondary level at Chancellor College: a three-year course leads to a diploma in education;a
five-year course leads to a degree ofbachelor of education ofthe University.Technicalteachers
are trained jointly at the Polytechnic and Chancellor College.
T h e first stage (undergraduate studies) leads to the award of the bachelor’s degree (first
degree) or a professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree is usually obtained after four
years of study, but after five in agriculture,commerce, and law,and six years in engineering.
At present, honours degrees have been introduced in a few subjects. A professional
MALAWI 179

qualification is awarded as a diploma after three years of study (e.g.agriculture,business

studies,administration,etc.).
The second stage leads,after two to four years of graduate studies,to a master’s degree ora
professional qualification.The muster’s degree is available in humanities and science.A
professional qualificationis awarded as a diploma in public administration (one year) and in
education.
A third stage may lead,subject to the availability of supervisors,to a doctor’sdegree (PhD,
doctor of philosophy)after three to five years. Candidates have to submit a major thesis.

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, Malawi certificate of education or general certificate of
education)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education P P
Arts B H M M M
Law
Social sciences
Administration P P
Commercial sciences ~

Exact and natural B M

sciences
Engineering P B
Agriculture P B

B bachelor’s degree H honours degree M master’s degree P professional

qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree (undergraduatestudies)usually obtained after four years’
study,but five in agriculture,education,and law.At present,it exists largely as an ordinary
degree,but a number of subjects are introducing an honours degree.
Certificateof education.A secondary-schoolleaving certificateis obtained after eight years
of primary and four years of secondary education. The candidate takes ordinary level
examinationsin subjects required by the branch of higher education he wishes to enter.Very
good results must be obtained. Some schools enter their pupils for the school Certificate
instead,but these examinationshave the samevalidity.Thegeneral certificateofeducation and
the school certijïcare are organized in the United Kindgom (see the entry for United
Kingdom).
Diploma. See professional qualification.
First degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Master’s degree. Higher degree (graduate studies)at present available only in humanities
and science.
Ordinary degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Professional qualification.Higher education qualificationawarded as a diploma after three
180 MALAWI

years’ study at the undergraduate level,and after one year’s study at the graduate level,in
public administration and in education.
School certificate.See certificate of education.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See certificate of education.

Malaysia
In Malaysia higher education is provided in five universities and in various colleges. The
University and University Colleges Act of 1971 provides a c o m m o n legislative framework for
all universities in Malaysia. All institutions of higher education are under the supervisionof
the Minister of Education. All universities administer themselves and are government-
financed. The Act also provides that no university or university college may be established
except in accordance with the Act (s. 5) and that a university or a university college is to be
established in accordance with an Incorporation Order signed by the King.
The languages of instruction in institutions of higher education are Bahasa Malaysia
(national language) and English.
The University of Malaya has faculties of arts,economics and administration,education,
engineering,medicine, dentistry and law. The University of Science Malaysia at Penang offers
courses in natural science, social sciences, humanities, education, pharmaceutical science,
applied sciences, building science and technology. The University is divided into schools.
Within each school it is possible to study for a degree in a specialized field whilst at the same
time becoming acquainted with other fields of study.
The National University has faculties of social sciences and humanities, science, Islamic
studies, medicine,economics and business administration, and an Institute of Bahasa and
Kesusasteraan Melayu (Malay language and literature).
The University of Agriculture provides courses both at degree and diploma level in the
fields of agricultural sciences, veterinary medicine and animal science, business studies,
environmental studies, as well as diploma courses in science with education.
The University of Technology has faculties of engineering,architecture and surveying.It
also provides courses at both degree and diploma level.
There are other institutions which provide technical education such as polytechnics, the
M A R A Instituteof Technology and the Tunku Abdul Rahman College and a large number of
teacher-training colleges train lower-secondaryand primary teachers.
The minimum entry requirement for admission into the teacher-training colleges is the
Malaysian certificate of education,with a credit in Bahasa Malaysia (the national language),
and two other subjects.The course is of two years’duration.Teachers for the upper-andpost-
secondary levels are trained at university. The University of Malaya through its faculty of
education offers two types of programmes: a one-year postgraduate course leading to a
diploma in education; and a four-year undergraduate programme leading to a bachelor’s
degree in education. The University of Science and the National University also offer a four-
MALAYSIA 181

year degree course with concurrent professional training.The University of Agriculture and
the Universityof Technology also offera three-yeardiploma coursein sciencewith education.
The first level for access to higher education is the Malaysian certificateexamination (taken
by pupils in grade 11). This examination is used for selecting pupils for post-secondary
education or for entry into the various diploma and certificate level courses in higher
educational institutions.At the post-secondary level two years of education(grades 12and 13)
is provided to pupils selected on the basis of their performance in the Malaysian certifïcateof
education. At the end of the two years pupils sit for the higher schoolcertificate examination.
This examinationis largely used for entrants into the universities.It is also a qualificationfor
appointment to certain jobs in the private and public sectors.
The main stage of higher education leads either to a diploma (at the University of
Technology and the UniversityofAgriculture)or to a bachelor’s degree.The structure offirst
degree courses presents a varied pattern. Both honours and pass degree courses in the
humanities,socialsciences,and natural sciences may be either ofthree orfouryears’duration
while for medicine, dentistry, and veterinary science five or six years are required. A n
exception to the normal three-yearperiod is in the National University where a student on
completion of the three-yearcourse is awarded a puss degree and if selected continues for
another year to obtain honours. In other universities a puss degree may be awarded to those
who fail to reach an honours standard in the examinations.
A second stage leads to a master’s degree after one or two years of study.A third stage is
reached after a further two years’study and individualresearchleadingto the degree ofdoctor
ofphilosophy (PhD).
A higher doctor’s degree may be awarded afterfive years in literature,and sevenyearsin law
and science.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 11 years + 2 years,higher school certijïcate examination)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education P M
Letters B M D
Economic sciences B B M D
Administration P
Commercial sciences B M D
Natural sciences B M D
Engineering sciences B M D
Medicine
Agriculture P B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degree P professional

qualijïcation

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree awarded after undergraduate studies lasting three years
(passdegree)or four years (honoursdegree).Professionalqualificationsare also awarded after
four years (agriculture,engineering) to six years (medicine,dentistry).
Doctor’sdegree.Highest degree,awarded at two levels:(a)the degreeofdoctor ofphilosophy
182 MALAYSIA

(PhD)is awarded after two years’research following upon the master’s degree and submission
of a thesis;(b) the doctor’sdegreein literature (DLit),science (DSc) and law (LLD),awarded
after five to seven years’ study following upon the master’s degree or P h D leading to a thesis.
Exceptionally, the doctor’s degree may be awarded after studies following directly upon a
bachelor’s degree with honours.
Higher school certificate examination. Secondary-school-leaving qualification, obtained
after six years of primary educationfollowed by five years of secondary education leading to
the Malaysian certificafe of education examination, then followed by two years’ post-
secondary education (13 years in all). Subjects are chosen to correspond with the ones that
candidates wish to study at university.
Malaysian certificate of education examination. Secondary-school-leaving qualification,
obtained after six years ofprimaryeducation followed by five years of secondaryeducation.It
entitles holders to enter technical,agricultural and teacher-trainingcolleges,then continueto
higher education. It also entitles candidates to enter post-secondary education.
Professional qualification. Awarded as a certificate after two to five years’ technical or
professional training,the last one to three of which are at higher education level.Postgraduate
certificates and diplomas are awarded one to two years after the bachelor’s degree. The
bachelor’s degree may be a professional qualification (dentistry, veterinary medicine,
medicine, law).

Mali
In the Republic of Mali higher education is given in ten institutions of higher education.T h e
National School of Administration trains for careers in administration, magistracy and
diplomacy, as well as for the legal, social, economic and financial services. The National
School of Engineers is a higher institution of education comprising sections for civil
engineering, mechanical engineering, surveying, geology and electrical engineering. The
Rural PolytechnicalInstituteat Katibugu, Kulikoro,is devoted to the training of technicians
and engineers in agriculture,husbandry,forestry,and rural engineering.The Higher Institute
of Rural Studies and Applied Research,Bamako (Institut supérieurde Pédagogie rurale et de
Recherches appliquées, Bamako) trains doctors in agricultural studies in three years. The
School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Dentistry trains medical doctors and pharmacists.The
higher teacher-training institution,which is financed by a special fund of the United Nations
and by the State, trains secondary school-teachersand inspectors for basic schools in three
years.
Teaching is given in French.
Training of primary school-teachers is given at secondary level in teacher-training
institutions.Secondary teachers are trained in the higher teacher-training institution.
Short courses of two years are offered at the Rural Polytechnical Institute;they lead to a
qualification as a technician.
MALI 183

Access to higher education is given through the baccalauréat,awarded after nine yearsat the
basic schoolfollowedby threeyears ofsecondary schooling.Althoughthis qualificationis as a
general rule necessary,it is not always sufficient,becauseanumber of institutionsalso require
success in a competitive entrance examination.Candidates wishing to enter the Institut de
Productivitéet de Gestion prévisionnelle must hold a licence or an equivalent qualification.
In the various institutionsof higher educationin Mali,themainstageofstudiescomprisesa
three- or four-yearcourse which entails study in depth of subjects and practical experience.
This stage leads at the end to a diploma or a professionalqualificationas engineer,secondary
teacher,doctor in medicine and pharmacist (both after five and a half years’study).
A further stage is reached at the Centre pédagogique supérieur,an institutionwhich was
founded in 1970 and which comprises sections for ecology,entomology, microbiology,
comparative literature,geology, applied linguistics and animal biology, and which gives
training at the postgraduate level.
Studies corresponding to a third stage are offered at: the Institut de Productivité et de
Gestion prévisionnelle, leading to a doctorat; and at the Rural Polytechnical Institute at
Katibugu leading to a diplôme de docteur-ingénieur et sciences.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,baccalauréat)

years 4 5 6 7

P/Di DM/P D

D doctorat (including docteur-ingénieur) Di diplôme DM docteur en médecine

P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat.Qualification awarded as a leaving certificateafter three years of secondary
education followingupon nine yearsin a basic school.In the latter,a first phase offour years is
followed by a second phase of five years.The baccalauréat gives access to higher education,
but entrance sometimesdepends also on success in a competitive entrance examination.
Diplôme. Diploma awarded after a course in various institutions,such as the National
School of Administration,to those students who pass the final examinations.A diploma of
docteur en médecine and a diploma of pharmacien are awarded after five and a half years (see
professional qualification). A diploma of docteur-ingénieur is awarded at the Rural
PolytechnicalInstitute at Katibugu after three years’study after the award ofthe first degree.
Doctorate. Degree of higher education awarded as a doctorai de troisième cycle in
agricultural studies by the Higher Institute of Rural Studies and Applied Research (Institut
supérieur de Pédagogie rurale et de Recherchesappliquées). A doctorate is also awarded by
the Institutde Productivitéet de Gestion prévisionnelle,and a diplomaofdocteur-ingénieuris
conferredby the Rural Polytechnical Institute at Katibugu.
Entrance examination.Competitiveentrance examinationorganized in certain institutions
of higher education to select the best candidates (concours d‘entrée).
Professional qualification.Qualification awarded after courses in certain institutions of
higher education,e.g.as engineer,teacher,pharmacist,medical doctor,etc.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See baccalauréat.
184 MALTA

Malta
In Malta higher education takes place in three institutions,the Old University,the New
University* and the Faculty of Theology.The Old University is assigned four branches of
learning,namely science,the humanities,law and theology.The New University is assigned
ten branches, namely accountancy,administration, business management, architecture,
engineering, medicine, surgery,dentistry, pharmacy, education and related branches of
learning. As regards theology,the Old University does not provide instruction but it is
empowered to confer degrees at the end of the course of studies which is pursued at the
Diocesan Faculty of Theology.
Admission to the universities is governed by the provisions of the Education Act 1974.In
allowing admission to any course,the universitiesare required to give preference to worker-
students.Subject to availability of places,other students may,however,be allowed to pursue
courses held at the universities.
Access to higher education is gained by the possession of the necessary academic
qualifications required by the applicablestatutesand rules,and selectionfor admissionby the
Students' Selection Board.The academic qualificationsrequired are the Malta matriculation
examination, the general certificate of education of UK examining bodies and/or equivalent
educational certificates of other countries. The entry requirements normally consist of a
number of subjects which the candidate choosesaccordingto the requirements of his chosen
field of higher education.Candidatesmust qualify in either eight subjects-two ofwhich must

*The Old and New universities have recentlybeen combined to form the UniversityofMaka.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, Malta matriculation examination or general Certificate of
education)

years 3 4 5 6 7' 8

Education B
Accountancy B
Administration
Architecture B/P M
Arts B M
Business management ~

Engineering B
Law P
Medical sciences
medicine P
dentistry B
pharmacy B
Science B M
Theology

B bachelor's degree D doctor's degree M master's degree P professional qualification

MALTA 185

be passed at advanced level and the rest at ordinary level-or seven subjects,three of which
must be passed at advanced level and four at ordinary level.These subjects must include
English language,a second language and mathematics,as well as Maltese (overseasstudents
may offer another languageinstead of Maltese). These represent minimum requirements.In
addition,individual faculties impose special requirements also.The matriculation is taken
after six years of primary education followed by five years of secondary and two years of
upper-secondary(sixth-form)studies.
The first stage of higher education leads to the award of the bachelor’s degree or of a
professional qualification. The bachelor’s degree is obtained in three, four or five years
accordingto the field of study.In the facultyofarts,it isawarded afterthree yearsasageneral
degree. Professionalqualificationsare obtained after five years’study (doctorof medicine and
of law). Other qualificationsare marked by certificates or diplornas.
The second stage leads,after a period ofpostgraduatestudieslastingoneyear (science), two
years (arts) or two years (architecture),to the master’s degree.
The third stage leads.after at least three years following upon the master’s degree,to the
doctor’sdegree (doctor ofphilosophy, PhD). Candidatesare required to submit a thesisaftera
period of research on an approved topic. In theology,the doctor’sdegree is awarded after a
minimum of one year’s study after the mastership in sacred theology.

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’sdegree.First degree of higher education,awardedafter three,fouror five years’
study according to the subject.The qualification is either a bochelor’sdegree (general)for
which students study various subjects for a minimum of three years,or a bachelor’sdegree
(honours),for which students study one subject for two additional years.
Certificate.See professional qualification.
Diploma.See professional quatifcation.
Doctor’s degree. Higher degree of higher education. In theology,it is awarded after a
minimum of one year’s graduate studies following upon the mastership. In other subjects,
candidates have to spend at least three years on research on an approved topic leadingto the
submission of a thesis.
General certificate of education.Secondary-school-leavingcertificateissued in the United
Kingdom and recognized by the senate of the University of Malta as equivalent to the
matriculation.
General degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Honours degree.See bachelor’s degree.
Master’s degree. Higher degree of higher education following graduatestudies,normally
awarded after at least two years’study following upon the bachelor’s degree (one year in
science) and the submission of a dissertation.
Matriculation examination.Secondary-school-leavingexaminationheld by the University
for pupils having completed six years’primary school and five to seven years of secondary
education.The examinationcomprisespapers in a number ofsubjectsat two levels:ordinary
level and advanced level.After the fifth year of secondary studies,candidates usually sit for
various papers of the United Kingdom (London or Oxford) general certificateof education,
ordinary level.They then continuetheir studiesfor oneor two yearsto obtain the numberand
combination of examination passes at advanced level required for admission to higher
education in their chosen field of study.
Professionalqualification.Higher education qualification obtained after one to five years’
study.In medicine and law,the qualification is obtained after five years’study and is that of
doctor(see doctor’sdegree). Professionalqualificationsare normally marked by the award of
a certificate or a diploma. Other professional qualificationsare:diplomas in administration
(DBA,DPA) after three years’part-timestudy;notary public after four years;diploma in
186 MALTA

architecture and civil engineering after five years (taken concurrently with the qualification of
bachelor of architecture).
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See general certificate of education, matriculation
examination.

Mauritania
In Mauritania higher education is provided in the teacher-training college, Nouakchott,
founded in 1970,which trains secondary teachers.The college has links with Tunis University,
where holders of the secondary teaching diploma may continue their studies.There is also a
school of administration.
The teacher-training college, which includes departments of human and natural sciences,
letters and education,is under the authority of the central government,and financed mainly
from the public budget. Some aid comes from the French government,as well as from Algeria
and Canada. All students receive substantial scholarships.
Teaching takes place in French and Arabic.
Access is obtained through the baccalauréat (secondary-school-leavingqualification) or
through an entrance examination.
There is also a national school of management, founded in 1966,which confers a diplôme
after five years' study.

Mauritius
Higher education in Mauritius is offered inter alia by the University which comprises three
institutions,the school of agriculture,the school of administrationand a school of industrial
technology. Most formal teaching takes place in English, but extensive use is also made of
French.
The school of agriculture is divided into six sections: botany, chemistry, management,
MAURITIUS 187

zoology,animal production and crop production.Its teaching concentratesmainly on sugar

agriculture and technology.
The school of administration is divided into five centres:accountancy studies,applied
social and technical studies, business management studies,economics and social studies,
public administration.
The school of industrial technology is divided into five divisions: civil, electrical,
mechanical,physics and electronics,sugar technology.
Shorter studies are offered leading in one year approximately to a certificate (e.g.co-
operatives, library,electronics). Other courses lead after two years’ part-time study to a
diploma (e.g.personnel management,social work). The school of agriculture confers an in-
service government laboratory technician’sdiploma in medical laboratory technology after
successful completion of four years’part-timestudy.
At the schoolof industrialtechnology,two years’full-timestudy in civil or mechanical and
electrical engineering lead to an ordinary technician’sdiploma (City and Guilds of London
Institute).
Access to higher education is based on the general certificate of education ‘O’and ‘A’
levels
obtained at the end of 1 1 to 12 years of primary and secondary education.
The main stage in higher education leads normally after three years’ study either to a
diploma (agriculture,engineering, accountancy) or to a bachelor’s degree (agriculture and
sugar technology,administration,engineering-the latter requiring four years’study).
A further stage may be reached after research and presentation of a thesis.This leads to a
master ofphi1osoph.y or a docfor ofphilosophy.The period of study for MPhil is twoyearsfull-
time or three years part-timeand for P h D is three years full-time or five years part-time.
Candidatesare expected to hold at leasta firstdegreeofthe University(secondclass honours).

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 11/12 years,general certificate of education)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Personnel management,social work, Di*

co-operatives
Agriculture and sugar technology B/Di MPhil P h D
Administration des entreprises Di
Di*
Administration and accountancy Di B/Di MPhil P h D
Engineering OTD Di B MPhil PhD

B bachelor’s degree Di diploma, diplôme MPhil niaster of philosophy

OTD ordinary technician’sdiploma P h D doctor of philosophy

* Part-time

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’sdegree.A bachelor ofscience honours may be obtained in agricultureor in sugar
technology after a minimum of three years’study.Degrees are divided into four classes:first,
second (i), second (i), third. The BA(Hons) Administration is awarded after three years’
study, the BTech Honours Certificate in civil, electrical, electronic and mechanical
engineering after four years’full-timestudy.It may be obtained in various subjectsafter one
188 MAURITIUS

year’sstudy,after a diploma-often part-time (in sugar-caneproduction,road construction,

electronics,co-operative studies).
Diploma.Professionalqualificationobtainablein various subjects.In agriculture,diplomas
are awarded after three years’study.In industrial technology,the diploma in engineering is
also awarded after three years’full-timestudy.In the schoolofadministration,diplomas may
be obtained after two years’part-timestudy,e.g. social work,co-operativeadministration,
personnel management, diplôme supérieur universitaire en administration des entreprises.
Three years’full-timeor part-timestudiesin accountancy lead to a diploma recognized by the
Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants (London). The diplôme supérieur
universitaire en gestion des entreprises is awarded after three years’full-timestudy.
Doctor of philosophy. Higher degree obtainable after three years’full-timestudy or five
years’part-time study and the presentation of a thesis in agriculture (includingzoology and
agricultural management) and sugar technology,civil and electrical engineering.
General certificate of education.Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained at the end of
1 1 to 12years of primary and secondary education.Ordinary level passes are obtained after
the fifthyear of secondaryeducation.Advanced level passes after one or two years’further
studies.
Master of philosophy. Higher degree obtainable after two years’full-timestudy or three
years’ part-time study and the presentation of a thesis in agriculture, zoology, sugar
technology,agricultural management,civil and electrical engineering,administration and
economics.
Ordinary technician’sdiploma.The University diploma is obtained after three years’full-
time study in civil engineering and in mechanicaland electrical engineering.At the end of the
second year of study,candidates obtain the diploma of the City and Guilds of London
Institute.

Mexico
Higher education in Mexico has set itselfthese objectives:to train its studentsfor professional
activities,for research work, for university teaching and for technical employment;to
organize and inaugurate research work;and to obtain the maximum possible diffusion of
cultural values.It is provided in a variety of establishments.The number of technical and
teacher-trainingcolleges in the country is increasing annually,and within these techno-
logically orientated institutionsare sometimesto be found departments normally considered
to come under the province of the universities.
Among some 250institutionsof higher educationin Mexico,the followingcategoriescan be
distinguished:public universities,autonomous universitiesand those supported by one ofthe
states of Mexico;autonomous private institutions,recognized by the Ministry of Education,
the state governments or the public universities; and teacher-training and technical
institutionsand decentralized public institutionscoming under various secretariatsof state.
MEXICO 189

The total number ofuniversities,private and public,in Mexico,is sixty,of which the oldestis
the National Autonomous University of Mexico,founded in 1551 as the Universidad Real y
Pontificiade México.Some dozen universitieshave been foundedsince 1972(Aguascalientes,
Baja California,Chapingo,Metropolitana,etc.); the most recent of these is the National
PedagogicalUniversity (1979). Similarly,several new regionaltechnologicalinstituteshave
been founded since 1975.
The National Autonomous UniversityofMexico (UNAM),the most importantofMexican
universities, is a public body regulated by federal law and enjoying educational and
administrativeautonomy.It comprises schools,faculties,professional schools,a college of
science and humanitiesand an open university.The traditionalschoolsare thoseofmedicine,
law,engineering,etc.;the facultiesalso offer traditional style instruction;the professional
schools are multi-disciplinary and their instruction innovatory (health sciences,
administration,etc.); while the College of Science and Humanities is an interdisciplinary
system offering instruction in new subjects.The public,autonomous and state-dependent
universitiescomprisethe UNAM,the Autonomous Metropolitan University(whoseseatisin
Mexico), public universities of each Mexican state. The teacher-trainingestablishments
include:the National PedagogicalUniversity,which is a federalinstitution;the advanced and
specialized teacher-trainingcolleges,and other teacher-training collegescoming under state
governments;and private institutions.
Private institutions includethe College ofMexico,the Autonomous TechnicalInstituteof
Mexico,the InstituteofTechnicaland HigherStudiesofMonterrey,plus thoseestablishments
officially recognized by the Ministry of Education,by the state governments or by the public
universities.
Public institutions of higher education are almost entirely financed by the State.Private
institutions are financed for the most part by students’fees.
The universitiesare divided up into facultiesand schoolsconcentratingupon one or more
subjects,and these,with the research institutes,are the basic teaching units.The schoolsoffer
instructionup tolicenciaturu level,while the facultiesoffer postgraduateinstructionup to the
level of the dociorado.
Higher education in the technological field is offered above all by the National Poly-
technical Institute,foundedin 1946,but also by the regionaltechnologicalinstitutesfounded
since 1948 to meet the need for professional training, in particular in engineering and
administration.The National PolytechnicalInstituteincludesa centreforresearchand higher
studies which contributesto the training of research workers and teaching stafffor scientific
and technical subjects.
Primary school-teachersare trained in teacher-training colleges at secondary level.
Secondary teachers are trained in public institutionsof higher education,chiefofwhich is the
Universidad Pedagogica Nacional,or in private institutions.
The legal status of institutions of higher education varies considerably.
The National Association of Universities and Institutions of Higher Education was
foundedin 1950to co-ordinateinternalrelationshipsamong the various institutionsofhigher
educationand their externalrelationshipswith the educationalauthoritiesofthe Government
or the stategovernments.In 1978,the Associationdrew up and put into practice the national
plan for higher education.This plan,which comprises the totality of measures defining the
conditions under which higher education in Mexico is now and in the long term to advance,
has the following purposes.It aims to reinforcethe existing contactsbetween the Ministry of
Education and the higher education institutions themselves and thus to ensure the
harmonious and unified development of higher education.The bodies responsible for co-
ordination within the plan are the following:(a)the NationalCommitteeforCo-ordinationin
Higher Education,whose president is the SecretaryofStateforEducation,and which is made
up of the National Council of the National Association of Universities and Institutesof
190 MEXICO

Higher Education along with representatives from the Ministry of Education; (b) eight
regional councils for the planning of higher education whose function is to apply in detail the
programmes required by the national plan; (c) thirty-one state committees for planning in
higher education, whose function is to fix the overall pattern of higher education in the
conditions particular to each area; and various planning bodies within the higher education
institutions of the country which are intended to reinforce the planning system as a whole.
The award of professional qualifications is subject to legislation governing the exercise of
the liberal professions in general.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Access to higher education is based on the bachilleraio, the secondary-school-leaving
certificate. This is awarded after six years of primary followed by two cycles of secondary
education,each of three years,the ensefianza media bhica and ensefianza media superior.The
second cycle involves a general education orientated towards university entrance.It leads to
the bachilleraio, which allows access to all the establishments of higher education
(universities,the National PolytechnicalInstitute,regional technologicalinstitutes,institutes
of economics, animal husbandry and fish-farming and colleges of education).
Certain establishments require either a minimum grade for the second cycle of secondary
education or that the candidate sit an entrance examination.This may be an aptitude test or a
test of the candidate’s knowledge.
Short courses,of two or three years as a rule,are provided in certain establishments.They
lead to professional diplomas for interpreters,secretaries,archivists,journalists,accountants,

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, bachillerato)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education P L M D
Arts L M D
Fine arts B M
Law L M D
Social and economic sciences
Administration, accountancy
Exact and natural sciences
Technology, engineering P P M D
Architecture P
Medical sciences
medicine
dentistry P M D
pharmacy P
veterinary medicine P D
Agriculture P

B bachiller D doctorado L licenciatura M maestria P professional quali-

fication

(The duration of studies and the names of degrees vary according to the institution,in literary
studies in particular.)
MEXICO 191

nurses, social workers,physiotherapists,laboratory technicians,medical auxiliaries,topo-

graphists,etc.
The main stage of higher education differs in length between different institutionsand
subjects.It normally leads to a university diploma (licenciatura,maestrja) or a professional
qualification (in three to five years).
The maestria. however,is normally reserved for postgraduate (postgrado)studies.Itis then
awarded after a second stage of studies,for example (at the UNAM)in engineering,social
sciences,politics,and law. Postgraduate study is open only to holders of a professionalor
equivalent qualification.In some universities and some subjects preparatory courses and
selection procedures are imposed.
A third stage,lasting between one and three years,is available in most public and certain
private universities (in the humanities.socialsciences,science and education). This leads,on
submission of a thesis,to the degree of doctorado.

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded after six years of primary
educationfollowed by a first phase of secondary education lasting three years and a second
phase (for general education)lasting three years;it gives access to all faculties (cf.enfrance
examination. certificado de estudios preparatorios).
Cerîificado de estudios preparatorios.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded after
six years of primary educationfollowed by a first phase of secondary educationlasting three
yearsand a second phase ofthree years’duration in a specializedinstitution.Itgivesentrance
to higher educationin certain faculties.Thus,for example,pupils leaving a teacher-training
institution may enter the faculty of philosophy and humanitiesand the faculty of education;
those leaving a technical institution may enter the majority of scientific and technological
faculties (see bachillerato. entrance examination).
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctorado.The highestdegree ofhighereducation,awarded on submissionofa thesisin the
followingfaculties;medicine,dentistry,veterinary medicine,administration,philosophy and
letters,law,science.engineering,internationalrelations,biology and education.Studieslast
three years,and are undertakedin the same conditionsas those applying for the licenciaturu.
Entrance examination.Entrance examinationfor certain faculties of higher education.It
may consist of a scholastic aptitude test to evaluate the candidate’sability or examination
papers to test their level of knowledge.The scholasticaptitudetest is the more frequent.The
formal examination is used more for entry to private institutions and to the faculty of
medicine (cfbachillerato,certifcado de estudios preparatorios).
Licenciatura. First university degree awarded in the following faculties: business
administration,philosophy and letters.law,economics,politics,commerce,social sciences,
and fine arts. Courses last from three to five years. The university year is divided into
semesters.The entire examinationtakes place in the presence of three professors who pose
oral questions to the candidatesand determine the nature ofthe written and practicalpapers
they must also take.In order to take this finalexaminationthe candidate must have followed
the whole course and,in the case of professional studies,have undergone the necessary
practical courses.Candidates must also submita thesis on an originalsubject to be sustained
publicly before five examiners.
Maestria. Sometimes the first degree awarded in some subjects by some universities,but
usually a higher degree awarded one to two years after the licenciaturu or a professionaltitle
(longer courses,four to five years).
Professional qualification. First qualification of higher education (sometimes termed
diploma)awarded in those fieldsof study in which thelicenciatura is not awarded.Coursesare
of varying length and are subject to the same conditionsas those for the licenciatura. A
192 MEXICO

professional qualification m a y be the sole qualification awarded or m a y be followed by the

licenciatura and the doctorado. Professional qualifications are also awarded after short
courses of two or three years, as for example those leading to careers in nursing, physio-
therapy, topography,as laboratory technician, medical assistant, archivist, etc.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See bachillerato,certificadode estudios preparatorios.

Mongolia
No information having been received recently,the present text is repeatedfrom the 1976 English
edition of this Guide.

In Mongolia higher education takes place in a state university at Ulan Bator, a medical
institute, an agricultural institute, a polytechnical institute, and various institutes of
education.All these institutions (with the exception of the medical and agricultural institutes)
are controlled by the Minister of Education, who has under his immediate authority the
Council of Science and Higher Education. All institutions are financed by the State.
The State University at Ulan Bator is the most important institution.It has the following
faculties:mathematics and physics,biological sciences, philology, social sciences,economics,
power engineering,civil engineering,geology and mining, engineering economics,mechanics
and technology.
The teacher-traininginstitutions (ofsecondary level), which are distributed over the whole
country,are responsible,in conjunction with the University ofUlan Bator,for the training of
teachers. They are normally divided into departments: languages and literature, history,
physical and biological sciences, mathematics. There is also a state pedagogical institute.
The language of instruction is Mongolian, but dissertations and thesesmay be presented in
Russian.
Access to higher education is based on the gerchilgee (secondary-school-leavingcertificate).
Secondary education may take place in general schools of polytechnicaleducation (five years
following upon five years of primary education), which combine together general subjects
with those relating to production in a specified sector of agriculture or industry. Another
method of entry to higher education is that which followsupon a three-yearvocational course
given at the end of eight years’general schooling. Institutionsof higher education have many
students who have attended evening classes or secondary schools for adults.
The main stage of higher education leads to the acquisition of a specialist diploma,which
may also entitle the holder to exercise a profession, and is awarded after a five-yearcourse
(four to five years at the state pedagogical institute,five to six years at the medical institute).
A further stage may be undertaken, usually by those already teaching in the university.A
course of three years’ duration at least is taken,during which individual research is under-
taken and at the end of which examinations are taken in the relevant fields.Candidates also
have to submit a thesis.
MONGOLIA 193

GLOSSARY
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after eight years’primary general
education followed either by a period of three years in a secondaryinstitution or a vocational
institutionof secondary level,or in a fullgeneraland polytechnicalschoolmaking up 1 1 years
of study in all.The latter schoolscombinegeneral educationwith training for agriculturalor
industrialproduction.
Specialistqualification.Qualification of highereducationawarded aftera period ofstudy in
the particular field.

Morocco
In Morocco higher education is provided in the followingsix universities:the Quaraouyine
University,the Mohammed V University,Rabat,the Hassan II University,Casablanca,the
Mohammed ben Abdellah University, Fez, the Cadi Ayad University, Marrakesh, the
Mohammed I University,Oujda (the last two universitieswere foundedin October 1978). Itis
also provided in specialized institutions.
The Mohammed V University is a state university;it comprises faculties of arts and
humanities,law and economicand socialsciences,science,medicineand pharmacy,aswell as
the Mohammadia School of Engineering,an advanced teacher-trainingcollege,a research
institute of arabization,a nationalteacher-trainingcollege(institutpédagogiquenational), an
institute of science,and a university institute of scientific research.
The Quaraouyine University. which mainly offers courses in Islamic law and Islamic
studies,and Arab language and theology,comprises five faculties located respectively at
Rabat,Fez,Agadir (Islamic law), Tetouan (theology), and Marrakesh (Arab language and
literature).
Morocco also has a largenumber ofspecializedinstitutes and schools,suchas the National
Institute of Statistics and Applied Economics, the Institute of Agricultural Studies and
Veterinary Medicine,the NationalSchoolofPublicWorks,the Higher InstituteofCommerce
and Business Management, the National School of Administration,and several nursing
schools.
The languages of instruction are Arabic and French.Arts,theology,educational science
and Muslim law are taught in Arabic.Exact sciences,medicine and engineeringare taught in
French.Law is taught in Arabic: however,teaching also takes place in French for the time
being. Economics is also taught in French for the time being. However, economic
terminology,economicgeographyand the economy ofMorocco,ofthe Arab world and ofthe
Maghreb must be taught in Arabic.
Primary education teachers are trained in primary teacher-trainingcentres (centres de
formation d’instituteurs). Secondary education teachers (lower-secondary education) are
trained in regionalteacher-trainingcollegesin two years after the baccalauréat. At the end of
their studies,candidatessit for the written papers of the certificatd‘aptitude professionnelle à
194 MOROCCO

renseignementsecondaire (chahàdetal-kafa'a litta 'lïmalthànawi). They are then recruited as

professeurs stagiaires in a secondary school where they sit for the practical part of the CAPES
at the end of their first year. Secondary teachers (upper-secondaryeducation) are trained in
advanced teacher-training colleges. The Advanced Teacher-trainingCollege (Ecole normale
supérieure), (former system), trains candidates recruited after a competitive entrance
examination for licenciés,engineers and holders of an equivalent qualification, during one
university year. Theory and practice alternate. Moreover, because of the growing need for
teachers and because of the need to 'moroccanize' the teachers in view of the arabization
policy,the Government has decided to elaborate a new system of training secondary teachers
at upper-secondary level. In September 1978, advanced teacher-training colleges, which
recruit candidates after the baccalauréat and offer four years of basic and pedagogical
training, were created for this purpose in four different centres.
Access to higher education is for the most part based on the baccalauréat which is awarded at
the end of secondary education,or a qualificationrecognizedasequivalent.In law,thosew h o
do not hold the baccalauréat,but who have finished upper-secondaryeducation and exercise a
profession, m a y obtain a capacité en droit (kafiafil huqiZq)after two years' study.In medicine,
holders of the baccalauréat must pass a competitiveentrance examination.But the advanced
teacher-training college recruits its students after the licence ès lettres or ès sciences. The
International Centre of Health Sciences (Centre internationalde Génie sanitaire),which was
founded in 1970 with the help of the World Health Organizationat the Mohammadia School
of Engineering,recruits its students after the diplôme d'ingénieur or the doctorate in medicine.
Moreover, decisions concerning access to,or pursuit of, studies in the various Moroccan
faculties are taken by each university. At the international level, Morocco has taken part in
several international conferences concerning the problem of the equivalence of degrees of
higher education, and has adopted the convention of Nice, December 1976-at an
international conference of states, organized by Unesco.
Three stages may be distinguished in higher education as a whole.
In the faculties, the main stage leads to the licence. Although the system of studies and of
licence examinations has been reorganized and varies from one institution to another, the
duration of studies has been made uniform: it is of four years in every faculty and is divided
into two phases of two years.The first phase is devoted to broadly based studies and leads to a
certificat universitaire d'études (chahadet ad dirZsZt alulya) littéraires (CUEL),de droit
(CUED),scientifiques (CUES)and économiques (CUEE). The second phase is a phase of
training in depth.In the arts and in law,the two years of the first and second phase lead to an
examination.In the arts, students must write a dissertation of approximately fifty pages and
the mark they obtain counts for the examination for which they sit at the end of the year.
Attendance at the courses is compulsory (theoretical and practical). After the licence, the
diplôme de I'Ecole normale supérieure m a y be gained in one university year and enables the
holder to teach in secondary education (upper-secondaryeducation).
The second stage leads to the diplôme d'études supérieures (takhsis in Islamic teaching). In
accordance with the reforms carried out in science and in arts,it is usuallyawarded at the end
of a minimum of two years of study (in arts), or three years of study (in science)and comprises
both theoreticalcourses and individual research work. In the other faculties,the reforms were
introduced at the beginning of the 1980-81 university year. Candidates preparing for the
diplôme d'études supérieures must write a dissertation and defend it before a jury.
The final stage leads to the doctorat (alimiyah),which is obtained by holders of the diplôme
d'études supérieures (takhsis) after having defended a thesis. In medicine, the doctorate is
awarded after six years of study (following upon a first year leading to the propédeutique
médicale) and it is a professional qualification.In law, science and arts the period of research
for the thesis may be very extended.
MOROCCO 195

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation: 11 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education CAPES DiENS DiENS

Arts CUEL L DES D
Philology and linguistics L DEWT D/A
of Arabic and Semitic
languages (al-logha
al-arabiya)
History of religions and L DES/T D/A
allied subjects (ossol
ad-dine)
Islamic law and allied L DES/T D/A
subjects (ach-sharia)
Law C/CUED L DES D
Economics CUEE L DES D
Exact and natural CUES L DES D
sciences
Technology,engineering P
Medicine D/P

A alimi-vah(doctorat)
C capacité en droit (kafa'afil huqüq)
CAPES certificat d'aptitude professionelle à l'enseignement secondaire (chahadet al-kafa'a
litta 'lim althEnawT)
CUED certificat universitaire d'études de droit
CUEE certificat universitaire d'études économiques
CUEL certificat universitaire d'études littéraires
CUES certificat universitaire d'études scientifiques
D doctorat ('alimiyah)
DES diplôme d'études supérieures (takhsis)
DiENS diplôme de l'Ecole normale supérieure (old system); diplôme des écoles normales
supérieures (new system)
L licence
P professional qualification
T takhsis
-
GLOSSARY
Alimiyah.Degree of higher Islamic education corresponding to the doctorate.
Baccalauréat.Certificate of secondary education,obtained after five years of primary
education followed by six years of secondaryeducation,divided into two phases.
Capacité en droit (Arabic:k a m a fil huqüq). Diploma granted after two years' study of law
and open to those who do not hold the baccalauréat but practise a profession.
Certificatd'aptitude professionnelleà l'enseignement secondaire(Arabic:chahadetal-kafa'a
litta 'Iim althZniiwi). This certificate,obtained after two years' study,gives the right to a
teaching post in the lower phase of secondaryeducation.
196 MOROCCO

Certificat d'études supérieures(Arabic:chahâdet ad-dirasct al-'ulya). Qualification of higher

education awarded after two years' study and denoting a stage in the course leading to the
licence in arts, science, law or economics.
Chahadet ad-dirasât al 'ulya. See certificat d'études supérieures.
Chahadet al-kafa'a litta 'Jim althànawï. See certificat d'aptitude professionnelle à
l'enseignement secondaire.
Diplôme d'études supérieures (Arabic:takhsis). Qualification of higher education normally
conferred after two years of study following upon the licence.
Diplôme de 1'Ecole normale supérieure.Degree of higher education awarded to holders of
the licence after one year's study at the Ecole normale supérieure (advanced teacher-training
college)(former system) or to holders of the baccalauréat after four years of study in the écoles
normales supérieures (new system) and which gives them the right to a teaching post in the
upper phase of secondary education.
Doctorat (Arabic:'alimiyah). Degree of higher education conferred upon candidates who
have submitted and sustained a thesis (which was considered satisfactory by a jury) on
research undertaken following upon the obtaining of the diplôme $études supérieures.The
doctorat en médecine is awarded after six years of study (following upon a year of
propédeutique médicale) and represents also a professional qualification.
KafS'a fil-huqüq. See capacité en droit.
Licence. First degree of higher education conferred after four years' study,divided into two
phases of two years each. The first phase leads to: certificatsuniversitairesd'études littéraires
(CUEL), arts;scientifiques(CUES),science;de droit (CUED), law;andéconomiques (CUEE),
economics. The second phase leads to the licence.
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education conferred after a variable
number of years' study in an institution which does not grant a licence or a diplôme d'études
supérieures (see also doctorat).
Takhsis.Degree of higher Islamic education,equivalent to the diplômedétudessupérieures.

Mozambique
In Mozambique higher education is given in the Eduardo Mondlane University,Maputo. It
was founded in 1962, acquired university status in 1968, and was given its present name in
1976.It is a state institution,financed by the State and governed by a university council,made
up of the rector, administrative and academic directors and party representatives.
The University comprises faculties of agricultural studies, law, economics, civil
engineering,arts, medicine, veterinary medicine and various branches of exact and natural
sciences. It also comprises a preparatory faculty which trains teachers,a centre for African
studies, a centre for ecology, a centre for studies in communication and a centre for the
development of natural resources.
The language of instruction is Portuguese.
MOZAMBIQUE 197

Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate(certificado

de habilitaçoes iiterarias), holders of which may sit for the entrance examination to the
University. A special commission has been set up to examine applications for diploma
equivalences.
The first stage of higher education leadsto thebacharelaio at the end ofthree years’studyin
most subjects.
The second stage leads to the licenciaiura after two years following upon the bachureluto.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previouseducation:ceriifiradode habilitaçoes literarias and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5

B L

B bacharelato L licenciatura

Nepal
In Nepal higher education is given in seventy-onecampuses under the umbrella of one
university called Tribhuvan University.Six campuses,including a central campus located at
Kirtipur,provide postgraduate courses and others are restricted to undergraduate courses.
This whole university system is entirely financed by the Government.
The Tribhuvan University comprises ten institutesand four research centres:these are the
Institute of Humanities and Social Science, the Institute of Science, the Institute of
Commerce, Business and Public Administration, the Institute of Law, the Institute of
Sanskrit,the Institute of Engineering, the Institute of Medicine,the Institute of Animal
Science and Husbandry,the Instituteof Forestry,and the Instituteof Education.The research
centres are: the Research Centre for Economic Development and Administration,the
Research Centre for Applied Sciences and Technology,the Research Cehtre for Nepal and
Asian Studies. and the Research Centre for Educational Research and Innovation
Development.The University organizes its own examinationsand has the sole right to award
qualifications.
Teaching is in English and Nepali,except in four campuses where it is in Sanskrit.
Access to higher education is given through the school-leavingcertificate,awarded after
three years ofprimary followed by fouryearsof lower secondaryand three years ofsecondary
education. The examination is organized by the School Leaving Certificate Examination
Board.
198 NEPAL

Higher education is divided into three phases named as certificate,diploma and degree level.
The first phase is the certificate level, a two-year (or four-semester) programme after
completion of the school-leavingcertificate (exceptmedicine where it takes two and a half to
three years).
Then, the second phase or diploma level is also a two-year (or four-semester)programme
after completion of the certificate level studies.In law and engineering,however, it is of three
years’ duration, in medicine, four years.
The third phase or degree level is a three-yearprogramme after the diploma, two years for
course-work and one academic year for National Development Service (NDS). The NDS
programme is an integralpart of the degree programme during which the studentshave to stay
for one academic year at an assigned place in the country and perform a particular job.

P R O F I L E O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 10 years, school-leaving certificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education C Di
Humanities, social C Di
sciences
Law C Di
Commerce, business C Di De
administration
Sciences C Di De
Engineering C Di De
Medical sciences
medicine C Di De
veterinary medicine C Di De

C certificate D e degree Di diploma

GLOSSARY
Certificate,First qualification of higher education conferred after two years (two and a half
to three years in medicine) of university study after the school-leaving certificate.
Diploma. Qualification conferred at least two years after the certificate,except in law and
engineering (three years) and in medicine (four years).
Degree. Higher qualification conferred after a period of two years’course-workfollowing
the award of the diploma and one academic year for the National Development Service (NDS).
National Development Service. The NDS is an integral part of the degree programme for a
period of one academic year under which degree studentsparticipate in national development
activities in various fields such as education, health, construction and agriculture.
School-leavingcertificate.Secondary-school-leavingcertificateawarded after three years of
primary followed by four years of lower secondary and three years of secondary education.
The examination is organized by the School Leaving Certificate Examination Board,
Education Ministry, His Majesty’s Government.
NETHERLANDS 199

Netherlands
In the Netherlands there are nine state and three private universities and institutions of
university rank (hogescholen)and one municipal university.Universities,which by law must
have at least three faculties,offercourses in humanities,economics,law,medicine,dentistry,
mathematics,science,social sciences,theology and veterinary medicine. The hogescholen
include three state technological universities,a state agricultural university and a private
school of economics.
Although state universitiesdo not enjoy as much autonomyas private universities,they are
independent in university administration and management and in promoting university
education and research. Private institutions of higher education, most of which are
denominational,enjoy financialequality with state universitiesand have to comply with the
general rules laid down in the University Education Act ( W e t op het wetenschappelijke
ondewijs) of 1960 and the Further Education Act ( W e t of op voorgeset onderwijs)of 1963.
The University Council (AkademischeRaad), a consulting and co-ordinatingbody which
encompasses all the university institutions,has the task ofdevelopinguniversityco-operation,
co-ordinatinguniversitiesand societyand promoting the adaptationofuniversitycoursesand
research to the development of science and knowledge,as well as to the needs of society.
The training ofprimary teacherstakesplace in teacher-trainingcolleges;teachersfor lower-
secondaryeducation are also trained in specializedinstitutions.Teachersfor upper-secondary
education are trained in the universities and in higher teacher-traininginstitutions.
Teaching is given in Dutch.
Access to higher education has generally been open to all those who have a secondary-
school-leaving certificate (eindexamen) from a pre-university school and who have the
prerequisite courses for their intended field of study. The six-yearuniversity preparatory

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 11/12 years,eindexamen)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
~ ~

Education K Drs
Arts K Drs D
Law K Mr Mr D
Social sciences,economics K Drs D
Exact and natural sciences
Technology,engineering
Medical sciences
medicine K Drs P I2
dentistry K Drs P D
pharmacy K Drs P D
veterinary medicine K Drs P D
Agriculture

D docioraat (or graad van doctor) Drs docrorandus Ir ingenieur K kandidaar

Mr meester in de rechren P professional qualification
200 NETHERLANDS

schoolsare subdivided into two types,the ‘gymnasium’and the ‘atheneum’.The ‘gymnasium’

offers classical education and Latin and Greek are obligatory subjects. The ‘atheneum’
emphasizes modern languages and economics. In order to meet the problems of
overcrowding,temporary legal provisions have empowered the Government,since 1972,to
restrict admission to certain faculties (numerusfixus).Numerusfivus decisions are taken year
by year.
The first stage,at present (see note at end of Glossary), normally leads to the intermediate
qualificationofkandidaat,awarded after threeyears’study.This qualificationdoes not confer
the right to exercise the corresponding profession,but gives access to further studies.
The second stage is completed after two to three years’study following upon the kandidaat
examination.It culminatesin the doctoraal examination,after which candidatesare awarded
the title of doctorandus;in law,the title is that ofmeester in de rechten,and in agriculture and
engineering the title is that of ingenieur. The title of doctorandus usually gives the right to
practise a profession.In order to practise,studentsin medicine,dentistry,veterinary medicine
and pharmacy must pass an additional professional examination after one or two years of
further training.
The third stage leads to the doctoraat.There are no formaldoctorate programmesprovided
at Dutch universities.Students who receive the doctorandus degree or an equivalent may
submit a research project to a department.O n acceptance of the project,the student is
assigned a supervisor.After a thesis has been accepted and defended,the degree ofdoctor is
awarded.

GLOSSARY
Doctoraalexamen.Examination for the second stage ofhighereducationtakenaftertwo to
three years of further study following upon the kandidaat degree.Studentswho are successful
in this examination are awarded the title of doctorandus.
Doctoraat(or graad van doctor). The highest degree of higher education awarded after the
qualificationofdoctorandus,ingenieur or meester,upon the successfulpresentationofa thesis
based on research.
Doctorandus.Qualification of higher education,usually conferred two or three years after
the kandidaai,i.e. after some six years’study.It is awarded upon the resultsof the doctoraal
examen and carries with it the right to exercise the correspondingprofession. However,in
medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine and pharmacy the doctorandus degree must be
followed by a further professional examination after one or two years of complementary
practical training.
Eindexamen. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained after six years of primary
education followed by five or six years of secondary education in a classical institution of
general education (gymnasium)or in a modern institution(atheneum). This certificategives
access to higher education.
ingenieur. Degree of higher education awarded in the technologicaluniversitiesand at the
agricultural university at the same level and under the same conditions as the doctorandus
degree,after five or six years of study. This qualification gives the right to exercise the
profession.
Kandidaat.First degree of higher education normally awarded after three years’study. It
does not give the right to practise a profession but it gives access to further studies.
Meester in de rechten.Qualificationof higher education awarded to students oflaw at the
same level and under the same conditions as the doctorandus,after four to six years of study
according to the university. This qualification gives the right to exercise a profession.
Professional qualification.See doctorandus,ingenieur,meester.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.See eindexamen.
Note. The present structure of higher education will undergo far-reaching changes if the
NETHERLANDS 201

proposed new structure is accepted by Parliament.This structure will be put into practice as
from September 1980.The first stage is intended,in principle,to be a finaldegree course and
the curricula should be so designed that studentswho have completedthem are qualifiedto do
responsible and demanding jobs in society and the teaching will be more suited to the
preferences and talents of the students.Under the proposed new structure the first stage will
last four years ending with the ‘doctoraaïexamination.At the end of the first year there is a
preliminary examinationwhich is an entrance examinationto the ‘doctoraal’stageand which
has a threefold function of orientating,selecting and advising another course when deemed
necessary.The ‘doctoraal’stage may include many different courses,which train studentsfor
professions suitable for graduates and which are also meant to cater for the more general
interests of students. This stage leads to the ‘doctoraal examen’. After passing this
examinationsome of the graduatesfrom the first stage will be able to continuetheir studiesin
the second (postgraduate) stage,where the emphasis is very much on specific training for a
future profession like that of doctor,teacher,university teacheror researchworker.As a rule,
courses in this stage will last one year for teachers and research workers and two years for
doctors, dentists, veterinary doctors, and pharmacists. The intention is that those who
satisfactorily complete the second stage of any course are awarded a certificate or an
endorsement is made to their ‘doctoraal’diploma.

New Zealand
In New Zealand higher education takes place in two types of institution: autonomous
universitiesand other specialized state-run institutions.
O n the whole,the universities (Auckland;Canterburyand Lincoln College;Massey;Otago;
Victoria University of Wellington;and Waikato)are divided into facultiesand departments,
except for the University of Waikato, which is divided into schools. Each university is
governed by a council which receivesadvice in academic matters from the professorial board
or senate. The council,usually a body of about 20 members,comprises nominees of the
Government, representatives of the body of graduates, the students’ association, local
authorities, teaching staff, the professorial board and the vice-chancellor. The vice-
chancellor,who is the academic and administrative head of the university,acts as the main
link between the council and the professorial board or the senate.Although the universities
are virtually independentof government,their accounts are subject to governmentaudit.In
this respect the University Grants Committee acts as a buffer between the universitiesand the
Government and negotiates with the Government to ensure a balanced development of
university education.The university financesare made up ofgovernmentgrants (85per cent),
tuition fees (12 per cent) and miscellaneous income (three per cent).
Other state-financedinstitutionsof post-secondaryeducation are the technical institutes
and community colleges,which prepare students for New Zealand certificatesin engineering,
draughting, building, science and commerce, and the teachers’ colleges which provide
 NEW ZEALAND

professional training for intending pre-school,primary and secondary school-teachers.The

teaching at the two kinds of institutionsis becoming increasingly co-ordinatedwith that of the
universities.
Short courses have been taught in N e w Zealand universitiesfor many years particularly in
relation to agricultural studies such as meat inspection and wool classing at Lincoln College
and seeds and fertilizers at Massey University.
Distance education is concentrated at Massey University which offers courses which may be
credited to a range of sevendegreesand thirteendiplomas.Massey papers may also be credited
to the qualifications of other N e w Zealand universities in accordance with their regulations.
Study is on a part-time basis.
In addition each university institution has its o w n centre concerned with taking university
level education to the wider community. This is essentially a continuing education function
and recently considerable emphasis has been given to the continuing education needs of
professional groups in the community.
The level of entry to higher education varies. In the case of technical institutes,for some
trade courses as little as two or three years’secondary education is sufficient.For technician
courses leading to the N e w Zealand certificate,which normally take five years of part-time
study to complete, no minimum entry requirements are laid down. However, students w h o
enter these courses with the school certificate or university entrance examination are
exempted from the relevant first and second year subjects of the course respectively.
For training at a teachers’college as a primary school-teacher,the student must have the
sixth-form certificate and undertake three years’ study at the college. For training as a
secondary school-teacher the student must have university entrance or better and undertake
up to three years of concurrent study at a teachers’college and a university;or he must have a
universitydegree and undergo a one-yearcourse of training at a teachers’college.T o gain the
trained teacher’scertificatewhich is the basic qualification for a teacher in N e w Zealand,the
student must, on completion of the appropriate course of training,give satisfactory evidence
of his practical competence as a teacher during a year which he spends as an assistant in a
school.
For entry to a university, the student must, as a minimum, have passed the university
entrance examination taken after eight years of primary and four to fiveyears of secondary
education. T o obtain the university entrance qualificationthe student must pass English and
at least three other subjects.The Universities Entrance Board has approved the right to most
schools to accredit students who in the opinion of the principal of the school are fit to
undertake university studies; these students are not required to sit the university entrance
examination.Although the university entrance examination makes a student eligible to enter a
university without further examination,increasing numbers of students (at present about 50
per cent) remain at school for an additional year (form 7)and obtain a higher schooI certificate
or sit for the universitiesbursaries examination or entrance scholarships to prepare themselves
better for university studies. Students w h o have their universityentrance and who proceed to
university are entitled to a bursary (grant). A pass in the scholarship or bursaries examination
qualifies students for additional financial assistance from the Government. Provisional
admission may be granted to mature students, over the age of 21, w h o do not have the
minimum qualifications.
At present there is no restrictionon entry to the universities for N e w Zealand citizens,and
candidates with the basic university entrance qualification have automatic right of entry.
However, in some faculties, where there are more candidates than places (e.g. medicine and
veterinary medicine), preference is given to students with the best examination results in
specified subjects at the end of their first year of university study (intermediate year).
Overseas students may be divided into two broad categories: private and government-
sponsored.For the purposes of administration,the term ‘private’includesthose studentsw h o
NEW ZEALAND 203

have been awarded scholarships which are financed and administered by their home
governments as well as those who are supported by their family or by private means,and
‘government-sponsored’means financed by the New Zealand Government.Private students
from the South Pacificand Asia are generally accepted.Those from other areas are normally
accepted only for study at postgraduateuniversity level.Government-sponsoredstudentsare
accepted primarily from countriesin the South Pacificand Asian regions.Small numbers are
also accepted from Commonwealth African countries,the Middle East and from some other
areas.
Overseas students who wish to be admitted to a university course for a first degree or
diploma must apply to the Overseas Students Admissions Committee.Those applying for

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation: 12 to 13 years,university entrance examination)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 varied
duration

Education P B B h M D
Arts B Bh M D DLitt
Theology B M D
Architecture I B M D
Fine arts B M
Music B BH M D MusD
Law B M D LLD
Science B Bh M D DSc
Commercial sciences B Bh M D
Engineering I B M D
Technology B M
Medical sciences
medicine B M D
dentistry B M D
pharmacy P B M D
veterinary medicine B M D
Agriculture P B B h M D

B bachelor’s degree
Bh bachelor’sdegree (honours)
D doctor’s degree (PhD)
DLitt doctor of letters
DSc doctor of science
I intermediate year
LLD doctor of law
M master’s degree
MusD doctor of music
P professional qualification

(Since the duration of study may vary from university to university,this profile is only
approximate.)
204 N E W ZEALAND

admission to university with credits or at postgraduate level, should apply direct to the
university of their choice as early as possible.
The main stage of university education leads to the bachelor’s degree. The length of the
course of study may differ from faculty to faculty. The course for a bachelor’s degree is
typically three years for arts,science,horticulture,agriculture and commerce;four years for
engineering, horticultural science and agricultural science; five years for architecture,
dentistry and law;six years for medicine. A bachelor (honours) degree usually requires an
additional year of study.In some faculties,e.g.architecture and engineering,students must
pass the subjects of an ‘intermediateyear’which is followed by severalyears of professional
training.Degree courses are made up of an extremely diverse array of structures and vary
from faculty to faculty and from university to university.
The second stage of university education leads to the master’s degree. This is usually
obtained one or two yearsafter thebachelor’sdegree.Creditmay be given forstudy carried out
at teachers’collegesand technical institutesand vice versa.T h e master’s degree may or may
not be awarded with honours or distinction and may entail course-work,a thesis or a
combination of the two.
The third stage leads to two types of doctor’s degree. The qualification of doctor of
philosophy (PhD) is usually obtained after a minimum of two years’supervised advanced
study and research and the presentation of a thesis.The degree ofdoctor of literature (DLitt),
doctor of science (DSc) or doctor of law (LLD)is obtained eightyearsafterthe first degree(five
in music, MusD). Candidates are required to submit published work.

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First qualification of higher education, awarded after three (arts,
commerce,science,music) to six years’study (medicine). In some faculties,the first year is
devotedto preparatory studies.Usually,the degree isawarded after candidates have followed
courses and passed examinationsin a number of ‘units’-a ‘unit’being a year’s work in a
subject. In general, candidates are required to obtain eight or nine units, which must
invariably be distributed soas to permit advancedstudyin at leasttwo subjectsand study at all
three levels or ‘stages’in at least one subject.This structureofstudy leads to thepassdegree. In
some faculties,candidates may obtain an honours degree after a further year’sstudy.
Bursaries examination. Examination sat by candidates at the end of the fifth year of
secondaryeducation.Successful candidates obtain grants (bursaries)for full-timeuniversity
study.The grants vary according to level of attainment in the examinationand whether the
student is required to live away from home.
Certificate.See professional qualification.
Diploma.See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree.There are two types of doctor’sdegree:the degree ofdoctor ofphilosophy
(PhD) and the doctorate in literature (DLitt),science (DSc), law (LLD)and music (MusD).
The degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) is awarded to holders of an honours degree after at
least two years’supervised advanced study and research and presentation of a thesis.The
doctorate is awarded after eight years following upon the first degree (five years in music)e.g.
DSc,DLitt and MusD. It may be conferred as either an ‘honorary’or an ‘earned’degree.
Higher school certificate. Secondary-schoolqualification,obtained automatically and
without examination on completion of form 7,i.e.after eight years ofprimary and five years
of secondary education. For those who do not sit or are unsuccessful in the scholarship
examination or bursaries examination, the higher school certificate serves to verify that the
students have attended schoolfor one year after gaining the university entrance examination.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Master’sdegree.Qualificationof higher education,awarded after one or two yearsafterthe
bachelor’s degree,based on a prescribed course of study and/or presentation of a thesis.May
NEW ZEALAND 205

be awarded as an honours degree or,ifstudent’sachievementis insufficient,as a pass degree.

Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Professionalqualification.Qualification ofhighereducation,awardedin many facultiesand
specialized institutions of higher education (technicalinstitutes and teachers’colleges)after
studies of varying length.This title is normally awarded as either a certificateor a diploma.
Scholarship examination. Examination taken by candidates to university education.
Successful candidatesobtain supplementaryfinancialassistancefor universitystudy.In cases
where the number of places available is smallerthan the number of candidates,preference is
given to those holding higher qualifications such as the scholarship examination.
Schoolcertificate.Secondary-schoolexamination,usually obtainedfollowingeightyears of
primary and three years of secondaryeducation.Gradedpassesare awardedinsinglesubjects
of the examination.
Sixth-formcertificate.Secondary-schoolqualification,obtained without examination on
completionofform 6,which is normally after eight yearsofprimaryfollowedby fouryears of
secondaryeducation.
University entrance examination.Secondary-schoolqualification,gained by accreditation
or examinationat the end of Form 6,i.e. after eight years ofprimary followed by four to five
years ofsecondaryeducation.It givesaccess,inprinciple,to universityeducation.Candidates
must enter in four (but may do five or six) subjects including English,the only compulsory
subject of the examination.Since 1974,candidateshave been able to enter in from one to six
subjects but grades gained are on a single-subjectbasis. O n this basis,candidates must gain
acceptable grades,in one or more years,in English and at least three other subjects.

Nicaragua
In Nicaragua higher education is given in two types of institutions:the Universidad Nacional
Autonoma de Nicaragua (UNAN),which is an institution of higher education under the
control of the State;and private institutions.
The Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua comprises the following faculties:
medicine,law,pharmacy,dentistry,engineering,economics,humanities,chemistry,science.
and arts. Various institutes and schools are also affiliated to it.
The University is a public body which enjoys full administrative,financial,and academic
autonomy.It is an autonomousentity which is independentof the State;it is mainlyfinanced
by government funds but it is also financed by registrationfees,which have considerably
decreased since August 1979,when it was decided that state higher educationshould be free.
The main governing body of UNAN is the universitycouncilwhich comprises the Rector,
who is its chairman, the Vice-rector,the Secretary-General,the deans of the faculties,a
representative of the students and a representative of the Ministry of Education.
A decree of the Assembly of the National Restoration Governmentof Nicaragua (August
1979) stipulates that every institution of higher education which was under the control of
206 NICARAGUA

various ministries should n o w be integrated within the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de

Nicaragua. Another government decree stipulates that professional qualifications of public
and private higher education should n o w be exclusivelyawarded by UNAN,which would also
recognize professional qualifications of Nicaraguan and foreign students awarded abroad.
The following institutions are private: the Universidad Centroamericana, which was
founded by the Society of Jesus and is financed by students’fees and donations, offering
courses in engineering,veterinary medicine, economics and administration, law and social
sciences, the humanities and science; an institute of technology, which offers short-term
studies;and the National Seminary, which offers courses in theology.
T h e Nicaraguan Association of Institutionsof Higher Education,founded in 1968,has the
task of co-ordinatingactivities between its member institutions and also of liaising between
them and the various national and international bodies. It is concerned with all problems
relating to higher education.
Teachers are trained in teacher-training institutions,following upon primary education.
Courses last five years, the first three of which are devoted to general education and the last
two to training proper and to specialized study. T h e courses lead to the diplomademaestrode
educacidnprimaria,possession of which gives entrance to higher education for further work in
education. T h e titulo deprofesor de ensefianza media (qualificationfor secondaryeducation)is
awarded, together with the licenciatura, after four years of higher education. This course

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 1 1 years, bachillerato en ciencias y letras)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7
~~

Education P L/P L
Arts L L
Architecture P
Accountancy L
Law L D
Social sciences,
economics
Business administration, L
management
Commercial studies P L
Social work L
Exact and natural L
sciences
Technology, engineering P G/P
Medical sciences
medical technology,
medicine
nursing
dentistry D

pharmacy
veterinary medicine
Agriculture

D doctorado G grad0 L licenciatura P professional qualification

NICARAGUA 207

requires as an entrance condition the possession of a bachilleruto en ciencias y letrus or the

diploma de maestro de educacidnprimaria.At the Universidad Centroamericanaa furtherone-
year course leads to a licencia degree in educational administration.
Teaching is given in Spanish.
Access to higher education is by the bachillerato en cienciasy letras,normally awarded after
six years of primary followed by five years of secondary schooling.A n examen de ingreso
(entrance examination) is also required for entry to courses in medicine, engineering,
veterinary medicine and humanities.The diploma de maestro de educacibn primaria gives
access to high-level courses in education,social work and nursing.The diploma de bachilier
agricolu, awarded after five years’ study at secondary level in the Escuelu Nucional de
Agricultura, gives access to higher education in agriculture and veterinary medicine. A n
entrance examination is required for access to the Universidad Centroamericana.
The length of courses varies according to the choice of subject. Courses lead to the
licenciutura degree (sometimesalso termed the licencia)or to a professionalqualification.The
licenciaturu degree is usually awarded after four or five years’ study. Professional
qualifications,however,may be awarded in accountancy and technology after a one-year
course,although the length of course varies from one field to anotherand may be as long as
seven years in medicine,where the professionalqualificationawarded is that of doctor. The
qualification in engineering and agriculture is termed grudo.

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after six years of primary
education followed by five years of secondary schooling.Usually secondary education is of
the general type and leads to a bachilleruto en ciencias y letras giving entrance to all forms of
higher education,although in medicine,engineering,veterinary medicine and the humanities
an examen de ingreso (entrance examination) must be taken in addition.Secondary studies
undertaken at the Escuela Nacional de Agricultura lead to the diploma de buchiller agricola,
which gives access to higher education courses in agriculture and veterinary medicine.
Diploma. See bachillerato, diploma de maestro de educucibn primaria, professional
qualification.
Diploma de maestro de educacih primaria. Secondary-school-leaving certificateawarded
after six years ofprimaryeducation.Courseslastfiveyears in teacher-traininginstitutions,the
first three of which are devoted to general educationand the last two to trainingproperand to
specialized study. It enables holders to teach in primary schools and gives entrance to higher
education for further work in education,social work and nursing.
Doctorado. See professional qualification.
Entrance examination. See bachillerato.
Examen de ingreso.See buchillerato.
Grado. See professional qualification.
Licenciatura.Degree of higher educationawarded usually after a course lasting fourto five
years.
Professionalqualification.Qualificationof higher education awarded aftertwo to five years
of study,according to the field ofstudy (sevenyearsin medicine). In medicine the professional
qualification awarded is that of doctor. In engineering and agriculture the qualifications
awarded are those of grado de ingeniero and grado de ingeniero agrbnomo.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato, diploma de maestro de educacibn
primaria.
Titulo de profesor de enseiianza media. Secondary-schoolteaching qualification awarded,
with the licenciatura,after four years of higher education.
208 NIGER

Niger
In Niger higher education is provided by the University of Niamey, which was foundedin 1971
as a 'centre d'enseignement supérieur' and which became a university in 1973. It is a state
institution under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education. It comprises five schools:a
school of science;a school of letters;a higher school of agriculturaltechnology,which awards
a maîtrise in agricultural sciences (maîtriseès sciences agronomiques)after four years of study;
a school of health sciences,which awards a doctorate in medicine (docteuren médecine)after
six years of study;and a school of education, which trains CEG teachers in two years and
awards the diplôme d'aptitude pédagogique au professorat des collèges d'enseignement général
(DAPCEG),and trains pedagogical counsellors in two years. These studies lead to the diplôme
de conseiller pédagogique de l'enseignement primaire (DCPEP).
The language of instruction is French.
Access to higher education is gained through the baccalauréat de l'enseignement secondaire
(series C, D,E, for the school of science; C, D,for the school of health sciences) or an
equivalent qualification. Entrance to university may also be gained through a special
examination 'A'for the school of letters,or a special examination 'B'for the school of science
and the school of health sciences.
The first stage of higher education lasts two years and leads to the diplôme universitaire
d'études scientifiques in science and agricultural studies, and to the diplôme universitaire
d'études littéraires in the arts.
T h e second stage lasts two years. The first year leads to the licence (in science and the arts)
and the second to the maîtrise (in physics and agricultural sciences for the time being).

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years, baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education DAPCEG/
DCPEP
Arts DUEL L
Exact and natural DUES L M
sciences
Medicine D
Agriculture DUES M

D doctorat
DAPCEG diplôme d'aptitude pédagogique au professorat des collèges d'enseignement général
DCPEP diplôme de conseiller pédagogique de t'enseignement primaire
DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires
DUES diplôme universitaire d'études scientifiques
L licence
M maîtrise
NIGER 209

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,obtained after six years of primary
followed by seven years of secondary education (divided into two phases of four and three
years). The baccalauréaigives access to higher education.
Diplôme d’aptitude pédagogique au professorat des collèges d’enseignement général
(DAPCEG).Qualification awarded by the school of education after two years of study
(science and letters).
Diplôme de conseiller pédagogique de l’enseignement primaire (DCPEP). Qualification
awarded by the school of education after two years of study following upon a competitive
entrance examination,the quota of which is fixed by the Ministry of Education.
Diplôme universitaire d’étudeslittéraires(DUEL).Qualificationawarded at the end of the
first phase (two years) of university studies in letters.
Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques(DUES). Qualification awarded at the end of
two years of university studies in science and agricultural studies.
Doctorate. Only awarded as a professional qualification in medicine,after six years of
study.
Licence.Firstdegree ofhighereducation,awarded after three years of study in scienceand
in letters.The first phase of studies lasts two years and leads either to the DUES or to the
DUEL,according to the subjectschosen.The second phase leadstothelicenceafteroneyear.
Maîtrise. Degree of higher education awarded after the licence in science (in physics at
present) and in agricultural studies after a fourth year of study and research (maîtrise de
recherche).

Nigeria
Higher education in Nigeria is provided by four different kinds of institution: thirteen
universities,twenty-twotechnical and polytechnicalcolleges,twenty-fouradvanced teacher-
training colleges and five professional institutes.
Seven of the thirteen universities have been created since 1975:Abdullahi Bayero (Kana),
Calabar, Ilorin,Jos,Maiduguri, Port-Harcourt,Sokoto.Each of these includesa medical
school. Until 1979,all the universities were dependent on the federal government, being
administeredby the FederalMinistry of Education and financed by the National Universities
Commission, a body founded by the federal government to allocate federal funds to the
universities. The further objectives of the Commission includeoverall planning of Nigerian
universities,and ensuring their harmonious developmentand co-ordination, with particular
referenceto the planning ofcurricula such that these correspond to nationaland professional
requirements.Since the application of the new constitution in 1979,the Nigerian statesare
henceforth enabled to found their own universities. The National Universities Commission
nevertheless supervises their funding. Each university is administrated by a council whose
members are either co-optedor chosen eitherby the Government or by the senate.Thesenate
210 NIGERIA

is the supreme arbiter in academic affairs,and is composed offacultyor department heads and
representatives of the teaching body. Within the universities,schools,institutesand colleges
are more or less autonomous.
Noteworthy among the remaining institutionsof higher education are: the five federal and
nineteen state-directed advanced teachers’ colleges; the institutes or colleges of education
forming part either of the universitiesor the polytechnicalcolleges or affiliated to one or other
of these;Yuba College of Technology; the Technical Teachers’College,Lagos;the Technical
Teachers’College,Combe; the Polytechnic,Ibadan;Kaduna Polytechnic;and a law schoolin
Lagos where those qualified in law must spend one year before being allowed to take up their
profession in Nigeria.
The Universities of Ibadan and Lagos have adult and continuing education departments.
The University of Lagos also offers part-time courses leading over five years to the LLB
(bachelor of law). Four universities, Lagos, Ahmadu, Bello, Ife and Abdullahi Bayero,
organize correspondence and ‘open’instruction courses.
The teaching language is English.
Primary school-teachersare trained for the grade II teacher’s certificate over four years’
study at secondary level. The advanced teachers’ colleges offer three-year training courses
open to candidates w h o have completed five years’ secondary education. They lead to the
Nigerian certificateof education (NCE),which qualifies students to teach the top three classes
of secondary education. The universities organize courses in education leading after one year
to a diploma and after three to the bachelor of education (BEd).
Access to higher education is based on the schoolcerrificate,awarded after six years’primary
and five years’secondary education (six years as from 1982) or the higher school certificateat
present awarded after two further years of secondary education (sixth form) which was to be
abolished in 1980,as the higher school certificateitselfwill be in 1982. Holders of the school
certificate are eligible to sit the concessional entrance examinarion; they then enrol for a
preliminary course lasting one year. Successful students then continue their studies for the
bachelor’s degree. Admission for holders of the higher school certijicate is direct. Other
qualifications enabling the holder to enter Nigerian higher education are the West African
school certificatewhich entitles the candidate to sit the concessionalentrance examination;the
general certijïcate of education ordinary level and the Nigerian certificateof education awarded
after a three-year course in education following the award of the school certificate.Foreign
students of equivalent qualifications may also enter Nigerian Universities.
Owing to the shortage of places, university entrance is highly competitive.
The main stage of higher education leads,after a period of undergraduate studies lasting at
present three years (to be increased to four years as from 1982) to the bachelor’sdegree (first
degree) or to a professional qualification.The bachelor’sdegree with honours denotes a higher
level of achievement than the pass degree despite the similarity of the courses. In several
professionally orientated subjects,the courses are longer:four years in fine arts,five years in
medicine, architecture,and veterinary studies.
Professionalqualifications-cerrijicates or diplomas-are awarded after one-two-or three-
year courses. In veterinary medicine, the professional qualification at first degree level is
doctor.
The second stage of higher education leads, after a period of postgraduate studies lasting
one to two years, to the master’s degree. Candidates must hold a bachelor’s degree with
honours. Candidates usually have to submit a dissertation, as well as follow courses.
A third stage may lead to the degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) after two to three years’
study following upon themaster’sdegree.This qualification is not offered by all universities.It
requires the submission of a thesis. Ibadan University awards a higher degree of docror of
literature (DLit)or doctor of science (DSc) on published work not less than 10 years after the
bachelor’s degree or seven years from a postgraduate degree (master’s degree, PhD). In
NIGERIA 21 1

medicine,the degree of doctor of medicine is awarded after four to five years’study following
upon the bachelor’s degree. Higher professional qualifications are marked by the award of
certijicates or diplomas obtained after postgraduatestudy varying between several months to
one year.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 1 1 years,school certificate;13 years,higher school certificate)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10... 14

Education Di B M PhD
Arts B M PhD DLit
Fine arts B M PhD
Architecture B M PhD
Law B M PhD
Science B M PhD DSc
Economic and social B M PhD
sciences
Engineering B M PhD
Medical sciences
medicine B D
veterinary medicine D/P M PhD
Agriculture B M PhD

B bachelor’s degree D doctor Di diploma DLit doctor of literature

DSc doctor of science M master’sdegree P professional qualification P h D doc-
tor of philosophy

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education,awarded after three to four years of
undergraduate studies.The award of an honours degree indicates greater achievement than
that of a pass degree, but courses are usually similar.Holders of the school certificate are
required to pass the concessional entrance examination and do one year’spreliminary course
before proceeding to the bachelor’sdegree.Professionalstudiesmay take longer:four yearsin
fine arts,five in medicine,architecture and veterinary science.In veterinary studies,the first
qualification is that of doctor.
Certificate.See professional qualification.
Concessional entrance examination. Special entrance examination of the Nigerian
universitiesorganized by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB). Holders of
the school certificatehaving passes in at least five subjects including English language,and of
the West African school ceriifirate (WASC)are eligible to sit the concessional entrance
examination. It gives access to a preliminary course of one year. Successful students may
continue their studies for the bachelor’s degree.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree. Higher degree of higher education awarded in certain universities after
between two and three years’studiessubsequentto the award ofthe master‘s degree and upon
submission of a thesis. The University of Ibadan offers a higher doctor’s degree in letters
212 NIGERIA

(DLit)or science (DSc) for work published at least ten years after the bachelor’sdegree or
seven years after the MA,MSc, or PhD.
General certificate of education.See higher school certificate.
Higher schoolcertificate.Secondary-school-leaving certificate,at present awarded aftersix
years’primary followedby five years’secondaryeducation,plus two years ofstudypreparing
for higher education (sixth form). The sixth form studieswere due to be abolished in 1980,the
higher school certifïcateitself as from 1982. Students must pass in at least two of the three
subjects taken. It is organizedby the West African Examinations Council (WAEC).Holders
are admitted directly to the universities.
Honouis degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Master’s degree. Higher degree of higher education,obtained after one or two years’
postgraduate study following upon the bachelor’s degree (honours) (five years in medicine).
Candidates have to submit a dissertation.
Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Professional qualification.Higher education qualification marked by a certificate or a
diploma either at bachelor’s degree level or at postgraduate level,after studies of variable
duration but usually of one,two or three years. In veterinary medicine, the qualification
awarded is that of doctor.
School certificate.Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after six years’primary
followed by five years’ secondary education (six as from 1982). Holders of the school
certificatehaving passes in at least five subjects are eligible to sit the concessionalentrance
examination organized by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB). Until 1980
they could also take the two-yearcourse ofpreparationfor higher education that leads to the
higher school certificate,which will be phased out in 1982.Students who pass the entrance
examination enrol for a probationary course of one year. As from 1982 this year will
constitute the first of the four required for the first degree.Success in this course allows the
student to continue with undergraduate studies for the bachelor’s degree.

Norway
In Norway all education is state-controlled.The Ministry of Church and Education is
responsible for all institutions of higher education, except those for agricultural and
veterinary studies, which fall under the Ministry of Agriculture. With few exceptions all
expenses are borne by the State. However, the institutions of higher education are quite
autonomous,but the State must approve professorial appointments. The Conference of
Rectors,composed of rectors of universitiesand collegestogetherwith invited representatives
from the Ministry of Education and from the Ministry of Agriculture,examines subjects of
common interest.
Higher education takes place in universitiesand other institutionsofuniversityrank.There
are four universities in Norway, at Oslo, Bergen,Trondheim and Tromse.
NORWAY 213

The University of Oslo has faculties of theology,law,medicine,humanities,mathematics

and science,dentistryand social sciences.The Universityof Bergen has facultiesof medicine,
humanities,mathematics and science,dentistry.
The University of Trondheim comprises the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the
College of Arts and Science(AdvancedTeachers’College)and the Royal Norwegian Society
of Science and Letters (the Museum) with departments of humanities,mathematics and
science,social sciences,engineering and architecture.The University of T r o m s has
~ a faculty
of medicine,and institutes of humanities,mathematics and sciences,bioiogy and geology,
social sciences and a school of fisheries.
The universitiesof Bergen and T r o m s ~ offer distance education courses (correspondence
courses and summer schools)in economics and humanities,leading to the same examination
as the corresponding ordinary courses.
Also offering education of university rank are: Oslo School of Architecture,the Free
Faculty of Theology,the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration,the
Norwegian College of Physical Education and Sport,the Agricultural University of Norway,
and the Veterinary College of Norway.
Regional colleges (distriktshsgskoler)were created in the 1960s to relieve pressure on the
universitiesand enable young people to study near home. These institutionsoffer two-year
post-secondary courses in economics, administration, social sciences, humanities,tech-
nology,natural sciences,environment,tourism,etc.,providing terminal higher education
(diplomas) or enabling the student to transfer to universities or other university-level
institutions,often without loss of recognition of studies completed. Teachers at regional
colleges must have the samequalificationsas universitylecturers.The collegesmaintaina high
standard of education,but are not research institutionsto the same extent as universities.
Since 1973,nine new regional colleges have been created in Norway.
Many institutionsoffer medium-termcourses:technical schools (tekniskeskoler),schools
of nursing. schools for social workers,physiotherapists,laboratory technicians,journalists,
librarians,accountantsor business managers. Many of these professionalschoolsrequirethe
secondary terminal examination as a basis for admission,or a combination of secondary
educationand practical skill.The education offered does not lead to an academic degree,but
these schools or colleges offer severalyears of study and prepare the studentsfor responsible
positions. Examinations from several of these schools may be integrated in a university
degree.
The language of instruction is Norwegian.
Teacher training for primary education takes place in teachers’collegeswhich offer courses
of three years’duration.Primary school-teacherswith one additional year of studies obtain
adjunkt status and are thus qualified to teach in lower-secondaryschools.Teachers of upper-
secondary education (videregiendeskole) in humanities and mathematics and science are
trained in universities.This education requires six to seven years of study.
Access to higher education is primarily based on the secondary terminal examination
(videregiendeskole allnienfaglig studieretning,studenteksamenj which is obtained at the end
of three years of upper-secondaryeducation following upon nine years ofprimaryandlower-
secondary school. Access to higher education may be limited by a numerus clausus in many
fields of study.Here the candidatesare selectedon their performancein the secondary-school-
leaving examination, sometimes combined with other qualifications (e.g. practical
experience).
All foreign students who fulfil the minimum entrance requirements are eligible for
admission.The faculty of arts and the faculty of socialsciences,however,have one additional
requirement.Before a foreign student may begin studying at either of these faculties,he/she
must be able to document a knowledgeof Norwegian comparableto the University of Oslo’s
Norwegian language course,level III, passed with a grade of 3.0or better.
214 NORWAY
After matriculation and registration the students begin their studies towards the
embetseksamen, an old term for any Norwegian university degree. The final examination
(embetseksamen)is taken after a period of years varying between four to seven according to
the nature of studies.
T h e first period of studies at the universities is, with few exceptions, devoted to the
acquisition of basic knowledge in philosophy and related subjects (examen philosophicum).
This examination is not required in the other institutions of higher learning. It consists of a
one-semester course.
In many fieldsof study the first degree is the candidatus magisterii (cand.mag.) degree.The
cand. mag. degree is usually obtained after three to five years of study. After this degree is
conferred upon the successful candidate he may proceed for the next degree, which may be

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, studenteksamen (gymnaseksamen))
years1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education LS Cmg C
Arts Cmg M C/M D
Religion,theology C D
Fine arts Di
Architecture Di
Law C L D
Political science C/M M D
Economics, commercial P C L D
sciences
Exact and natural Cmg Cmg CSc DSc D
sciences
Technology, engineering P L D
Medical sciences
medicine P C D
dentistry C D
pharmacy P C D
veterinary medicine *
Agriculture D

C candidatus
Cmg candidatus magisterii
CSc candidatus scientiarum
D doktor
Di diplom
DSc doctor scientiarurn
L licenciatus
LS laererskoleeksamen
M magister
P professional qualification

* Plus one-year course.

(The duration of studies varies according to the institution. The degrees of licenciatus and
doktor are awarded after a varying period of years.)
NORWAY 215

considered the final one; e.g. candidatus philologiae (cand.philol.), candidaius scientiarum
(cand.scient.).This degree is acquired after more advanced but shorterstudies lasting two to
three years.
In some fields of study a licentiate’sdegree is offered (e.g.Iiceniiarus odoniologiae). The
right to present oneselffor the licentiaius is possessed by those who hold one of the regular
higher degrees and otherwise fill the requirements set in each case.Only a few institutionsof
higher learning offer courses especially designed for study towards a licentiate’sdegree.
A Dr. Scient. degree (doctor scieniiarum) is offered by the faculties of mathematics and
science. Work towards the degree of Dr. Scient. consists of two years of study above and
beyond the cand. scient. degree and corresponds to the Dr.Zng. degree at the Norwegian
Institute of Technology,the University of Trondheim.
The docror’s degree may be obtained by submitting a dissertation to a committee of
specialistsappointed for each individualcase.The docior’s degree, which is awarded after a
varying period of years of specialization and personal research,is the highest academic
qualification awarded by Norwegian universities.

GLOSSARY
Adjunkt. A teacher qualified for teaching in the lower part of the secondary school system
(seventh,eighth and ninth grades).
Autorisasjon. A professional qualification.
Candidatus.Term indicating an academic degree,seldom used alone.Candidatusmagisterii
is the degree conferred upon the successfulcandidate afterthree to five years ofstudy in liberal
arts,sciences and social sciences.It is the first degree in the Norwegian university system,
offered by the faculties of liberal arts,sciences and social sciences.The following are higher
degrees in special fields of study:candidatus iheologiae (cand.theol.),candidarusjuris (cand.
jur.), candidatus niedicinae (cand.med.), candidaius philologiae (cand. philol.), candidaius
actuarus (cand.act.), candidatus pharmaciae (cand.pharm.), candidaius scieniiarum (cand.
scient.), candidaius odontologiae (cand. ondont.), candidatus oeconomiae (cand. oecon.),
candidatus paedagogiae (cand.paed.), candidatuspoliiicarum rerum (cand.polit.), candidatus
psychologiae (cand.psychol.), candidarus sociologiae (cand.sociol.).
Doctor scientiarum. Qualificationawarded in mathematics and science two years after the
cand. scient.
Doktorgrad. The highest qualification in higher education,granted in all facultiesafter a
period of research and submissionof a thesis.Candidatesmust also give two public lectures.
Embetseksameu. A n old term for any Norwegian university degree.
Examen artium, eksamen fra skonomisk gymnas, or gymnaseksamen. Secondary terminal
examination giving formaladmission to higher education.Okonomisk gymnas is a three-year
course in a gymnas with emphasis on business and economics on the same level as theexamen
ariium.
Ingenier.Title indicating graduation from a technical college or similar institution.
Lærerskole. Teachers’college,educating teachers for primary schools in courses of three
years’duration.
Licentia practicandi. Term denoting a professional qualification, e.g.authorization to
practise medicine conferred on medical graduate (cand.med.) on completion of internship.
Licentiatus. Second higher degree for which the prerequisite is a higher candidarus (see
above).
Magistergrad.Magister artiurn/Magister scientiarum = master’sdegree,on equal level with
higher degrees indicated by the word candidatus.
Sivilingenier.Academic degree representinggraduation from the University of Trondheim
(Norwegian Institute of Technology).
Studenteksamen (gymnaseksamen). Secondary terminal examination.
216 PAKISTAN

Pakistan
In Pakistan higher education is given in universities and technical universities and their
constituent colleges,and in colleges affiliated to universities.
There are fifteen universities in Pakistan,several of which comprise colleges which are
integrated with them,and others which comprisecollegeswhich are affiliatedto them.Several
universities were founded during the last decade:the University ofBaluchistan (1970),Gomal
University (1974),Allama Iqbal Open University (1974),Islamia University,Bahawalpur
(1975),the University of Multan (1975),and the Sind Agricultural University (1977).The
universities are usually divided intofacultiesand departmentsteachingone or severalsubjects
or providing professional education. The three following universities are devoted to
engineering and technology:the Ned UniversityofEngineering and Technology,Karachi;the
University of Engineering and Technology,Lahore;the Mehran University of Engineering
and Technology,Nawabshah. There are two agricultural universities,one at Sind and the
other at Faislabad.The Allama IqbalUniversityat Islamabad is an open universitywhich uses
the radio and television,as well as other extra-muralmethods of teaching.Universities are
autonomous organizations,founded by the central or provincial parliament.The syndicate
and the academic council are the universitybodies responsiblefor matters concerning studies.
Inter-universityactivitiesare co-ordinatedby the University GrantsCommissioncreatedin
1974 to replace the Inter-university Board for Pakistan. Its functions are the same. The
Commissionexamines the financialneeds of the universitiesand fixes five-yearprogrammes
for their development;it grants credits to universities for those projects which have been
approved and makes sure they are properly used;it gathers information and facts on all
questions concerning higher education in Pakistan;it creates grants,especially for visiting
professorsto the universitiesin the country;it generally controlsthe courses ofeducationand
the development of the various institutions of higher education in the country;it makes
recommendationsto the universitiesconcerning necessary measures for the improvementof
higher studies and is also responsible for the equivalence of degrees and diplomas conferred
within the country and abroad.Affiliatedcolleges depend entirely on the university to which
they are attached for their programmes,their application,examinationsand qualifications.
Since 1979,the federalgovernmenthas decided to cover all the expenditure of universities,
in order to solve their financial problems.
Teaching takes place in English and Urdu.
Teachers ofprimary educationare trained at post-secondarylevelin normal schools(in two
years) and primary training schools (in three years). Teachers of secondary education are
trained in universitydepartments ofeducation or in affiliated colleges.The UniversityofSind
awards a doctorate in education three to five years after the master’s degree. A National
Academy of Higher Education has also been created to train high-levelteachersbefore they
take up their functions or during their careers.
Access to higher education is based on the intermediate examination or higher secondary
examination,awarded after eight years of elementary education and four years of secondary
education,divided into two phases.Candidates take the matriculation examination at the end
ofthe first phase ofsecondaryeducation(highschool).Holders may obtain a bachelor’sdegree
in an agriculturaluniversityafter five years’study.The second phase of secondaryeducation
leads,after two years’study in an intermediatecollegeto the intermediate examination which
prepares for higher education. Success in this examination,however,only constitutes one
prerequisite for entrance to university-access to certain universities(Gomal Universityand
Quaid-i-AzamUniversity) requiring a first university degree in the subject chosen.
PAKISTAN 217

The first stage of higher education (undergraduate studies)leads to the bachelor’sdegree

(first degree)or a professionalqualification.The bachelor’sdegree is awarded after two years
as a pass degree or after three years as an honours degree in arts and science.Professional
studiesfora bachelor’sdegree are ofvariable length,fouryearsinengineering and fiveyearsin
architecture and medicine,for example.Other professional studies lead to a certificateor a
diploma after one or two years.
The second stage of higher education leads to a master’s degree or to a professional
qualification.The master’s degree is usually obtained after two years’study followingupon
the bachelor‘s degree @ass) or oneyear’sstudyfollowing upon thebachelor’sdegree (honours).
The master’s degree in education requires one year’s study beyond the bachelor’s degree in
education.
Severaluniversities(Quaid-i-Azam, Karachi and Sind) award the qualificationofmaster of
philosophy, which is at a level between the master‘s degree and the degree of doctor of
philosophy, after a period of one to four years’study and submission of a thesis.
A third stage may lead to the doctor’sdegree (PhD,doctor ofphilosophy). Candidatesmust
study for another three years after a good master’sdegree. The Agricultural University of
Lyallpur awards a doctorate two years after the master’s degree.
There are doctoratesat a higher level than the P h D in severaluniversities:at the University
of Karachi,at the PendjabUniversity,Lahore,and at Sind University,where the titleofdoctor
in literature (DLit),doctor of science (DSc) and doctor of laws (LLD)are awardedrespectively
by the faculties of arts and science after five to seven years of study (according to the
university) following upon the PhD.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation: 12 years,intermediate examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 varied
duration

Education B/M M D
Arts B B M PhD D
Architecture
Law B M PhD D
Commercial studies B B M PhD D
Science B B M PhD D
Engineering B M
Medical sciences
medicine B M M
dentistry B/M
pharmacy
veterinary medicine
Agriculture

B bachelor’s degree D doctorate M master’sdegree P professional qualification

P h D doctor of philosophy
GLOSSARY
Bachelor’sdegree.First degree of higher education,awarded in arts and science after two
years’undergraduatestudyas a pass degreeand three yearsasan honours degree.Professional
218 PAKISTAN

studies for a bachelor’s degree vary in length (four years in engineering and five years in
architecture and medicine). Sometimesa bachelor’sdegree is obtained followingupon another
degree: this is the case in education where it is awarded after one year’s study following upon
the bachelor’s degree in arts and science and in law where the degree is conferred two years
after a first degree.
Certificate. See professional qualipcation.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree. Higher degree of higher education, obtained after three years’ research
following upon the master’s degree. Candidates have to submit a thesis. Three universities
(Karachi,Lahore and Sind) award higher doctor’sdegrees in literature and scienceafter five to
seven years following upon the degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD).
Higher secondary examination.See intermediate examination.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Intermediate examination. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded after eight years’
primary and four years’secondary education divided into two phases. The first phase (high
school) leads,after two years to the matriculation examination.The second phase leads,after
two years in an intermediate college,to the intermediateexamination or the higher secondary
examination.
Master of philosophy. Qualification awarded by several universitiesat an intermediate stage
between the master’s degree and the doctor of philosophy.
Master’s degree. Qualification of higher education obtained on submissionof a thesis two
years after a bachelor’s degree (pass)and one year after a bachelor’s degree (honours).This
qualification is a graduate qualification of higher education.
Matriculation examination. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded after eight years
of primary education followed by two years of secondary education in a high school. This
qualification gives access to agricultural universities where candidates obtain a bachelor’s
degree after five years’ study (see intermediate examination).
Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Professional qualification.Qualification of higher education, awarded after one or two
years’ study at first degree level, as a certificate or diploma.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See higher secondary examination, intermediate
examination,matriculation examination.

Panama
University higher education is provided in Panama by the country’s two universities,the
University of Panama and the Universidad Santa Maria L a Antigua. The former is a state,the
latter a private institution. Both have regional centres: the University of Panama in the
provinces of Coclé,Colon, Chiriqui,Veraguas and Herrera,and the Universidad Santa Maria
la Antigua in the province of Colon.
PANAMA 219

The University ofPanama comprisesfaculties,institutes,researchcentresand the regional

centres mentioned above. Faculties are: agriculture,civil administration and commerce,
architecture, natural sciences and pharmacy, law and politics, philosophy,letters and
education, medicine and dentistry. The institutes are: the Instituto Politécnico and the
InstitutoCentroamericanode Administracion y Supervision de la Educacion (ICASE).
The Universidad Santa Maria La Antigua comprises the following departments:
administration,law and politics,technology and natural sciences,social sciences,human
sciences,and fine arts.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate,which is
normally awarded after nine years’hasic and threeyears’secondaryeducation.(Theprevious
system of six years’primary followed by two cycles of secondary education,each of three
years,stillexists.)The second cycle is sub-dividedand open only to thosewho have passed the
first or basic stages.The optionsare:education (teacher-trainingin three years), bachillerato
(three years); peritos industriales (industrial technicians,two or three years) and domestic
teacher-training(two or three years).
Preparatory courses of training and orientation are an obligatory preliminary to
Panamanian higher education.
Foreign students must apply to enrol six months in advance and send their secondaryor
university qualificationsauthenticated by the Panamanian consul of the country of origin.
The Universidad Santa Maria La Antigua offers specialshort courses (from one to three
years) leading to a diploma or certijkado profesional in executive secretaryship,bank
administration,commercial teacher’scertificate,etc.The University of Panama awards the
professional qualification of técnico (technician) in various specialities such as agriculture,
commerce,architecture,etc.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation:12 years,secondary-school-leavingcertificate)

years 2 3 4 5 6

Education L L/Pr Pr
Arts L L/Pr Pr
Fine arts P
Architecture P L
Law L
Public administration, P L L
commercial sciences
Mathematics,natural P L PG
sciences
Medical sciences
medicine D
dentistry D
pharmacy L
Agronomy P L L

D doctorado L licenciatura PG post-grado Pr titulo de profesor P pro-

fessional qualification
220 PANAMA
Higher studies lead to the licenciatura or a professional qualification.The licenciatura
normally requires between four and six years.
There are also postgrado (postgraduate) courses,for example,in mathematics,which last
two years and are open to holders of the licenciatura.

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after nine years’basic and three
years’secondary (or six years’primary and six years’secondary) education.It is awarded in
letters,science and technology,commerce,industry and animal husbandry.
Certificado. See professional qualification.
Certificado de maestro. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded at the end of the
second phase (lasting three years) of secondary education in a teacher-traininginstitution
(escuelanormal).The certificate givesaccess to the same facultiesas the bachillerato de letras.
Diploma. See professional quahpcation.
Doctorado. See professional qualification.
Entrance examination. See examen de ingreso.
Examen de ingreso. See bachillerato.
Licenciatura. Degree of higher education,awarded for studieslasting between four and six
years.Access is normally by secondary-school-leavingcertificate.
Perito industrial. Professional qualification of industrial technician awarded after the
second cycle of secondaryeducation (see bachillerato)in plumbing,mechanics,electricity,etc.
Profesor. See professional qualipcation.
Professional qualification.Qualification of higher education awarded after between two or
three years’study after the award ofthe secondary-leavingcertificate.It may take the formsof
certificado,or diploma, or técnico. The University of Panama awards the titles of doctor of
medicine and doctor of dentistry after six and five years respectively.The qualification of
profesor may be obtained simultaneously with the licenciatura if the student follows the
courses for both subjects. It may also be obtained after the licenciatura after two further
semesters’study in the faculty of philosophy,letters and education.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato.
Técnico. See professional qualification.

Papua New Guinea

In Papua New Guinea higher education takes place in two universitiesand other specialized
institutionsof higher education.
The University of Papua New Guinea,founded in 1965,is financed by the Governmentand
governed by a council.The academic board controls the academic affairs of the University.
The University has faculties of agriculture,arts,education,law,medicine and science.
The Papua New Guinea University of Technology was given university status in October
PAPUA N E W GUINEA 221

1973.It offers courses in architectureand building,accountancy and business studies,civil

engineering,electrical and communication engineering,surveying,chemical technologyand
forestry.
Other institutions of higher education are nine primary teacher-trainingcolleges,one in-
service teacher-trainingcollege,one secondary teacher-trainingcollege (Goroka,which is
part of the University of Papua New Guinea)and other vocational institutionsadministered
by Department of Education,Health,Primary Industry,F’ublic ServiceCommissionand Post
and Telegraph (colleges and institute of nursing,paramedical studies,technical colleges,
administration training colleges,etc.). There are 66ofthesefacilitiesofwhich 41 receivedirect
funding through the national budget.
Teachers of primary education are trained at the nine primary teacher-trainingcolleges,
where they take a two-year course after successfully completing grade 10.Teachers of
secondary education are trained at Goroka Teachers’College or at the University of Papua
New Guinea after successful completion of grade 10 or 12.Courses at Goroka Teachers’
Collegeare of three years’duration for grade 10entrantsand two years for grade 12entrants.
At the University of Papua New Guinea teachers may obtain a bachelor of education through
the university’sfour-yearBEd programmeor a diploma of education (oneyear ofpostgraduate
study).
The language of instruction is English.
In-servicetraining is provided at the in-serviceteacher-trainingcollege for those teachers
seeking advancement or lacking adequate qualifications and teacher-training.
The basic level for access to higher educationis that ofsecondary-school-leavingcertificate,
obtained after four years of secondaryeducation in a high school.Coursesat four senior high
schools lead, after a further two years’ study,to the higher school cerfijicaie. Access to
university studies is open to holders of the school-leaving-certificatewho follow a one-year
preliminary course at the University,or to holders of the higher school certifïcatewithout any
further requirement.
The entry level for foreign students at the University of Technology depends on the entry
level to higher education for the country of origin. The University of Technology also
recognizes the school-leaving-certificateof foreign students.Most of the foreign students
admitted are from the Pacific countries.
At the University of Papua New Guinea,the main stage of higher education leads,after a
four-year course,to the bachelor’s degree. The bachelor’s degrees of arts,economics and
science may be awarded with honours after a fifth year’s study.The Papua New Guinea
University of Technology awards bachelor’s degrees after three to five years,as well as
certificatesand diplomas after two to three years.
The Papua New Guinea University of Technology awards bachelor’s degrees after four or
five years after form IV secondary schooling.Bachelor of technology degrees are awarded in
surveying,engineering and commerce after four years’study while more senior bachelor’s
degrees in engineering, architecture, commerce, chemical technology and forestry are
awarded after five years’study.Diplomas in valuation,cartographyand communicationare
awarded after three years’academicstudy while certificatesin surveying and draughtingmay
be awarded after two years’academic study.
The second stage leads after one year’sstudy following upon preliminary studies after an
appropriate first degree to the master’sdegree.Candidateshave to submita thesis.Candidates
for a master’s degree in education must have obtained an appropriate bachelor’s degree,
completed one year’sgraduate work in educationand have two years’experience in teaching
or other educational work: initial preliminary studies and qualifying examination may be
waived for candidates with honours degrees. Diplomas in teaching English as a second
language or education in developing countries may be obtained after one year’sgrzduate
study.
222 PAPUA N E W GUINEA

A third stage leads,after a minimum of three years’ study to the degree of doctor of
philosophy (PhD) which is open to holders of a master’s degree,or a bachelor’s degree afteran
additional minimum preliminary training period.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies
(Previous education:secondary-school-leavingcertificate)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9

B BH M D
B bachelor‘s degree B H bachelor’s degree (honours) D doctor of philosophy
M master’s degree

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First qualificationof higher education,obtained after four years’study.
A bachelor’s degree with honours may be awarded in arts,economics and scienceaftera fifth
year.At the UniversityofTechnology,the bachelor’s degree is awarded after five years’study.
Certiîïcate.See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree (doctor of philosophy,PhD). Qualificationawarded after a minimum of
three years’ study following upon a master’s degree or bachelor’s degree with additional
minimum preliminary training period.
Higher school certificate. Secondary-school-leavingqualification,obtained after six years
of secondary education,the last two of which are in a senior high school.This qualification
gives direct access to university.
Honour’s degree. See bachelor’sdegree.
Master’s degree. Higher degree, awarded after one year’s full-time study following
preliminary studies undertaken after a bachelor’s degree. Candidateshave to submit a thesis.
Professionalqualification. Diplomaor certificate,awarded after one to threeyears’studyat
university or in other institutions of higher education. Diplomas or certificates may be
awarded at subgraduateor graduate level.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Qualification awarded after four years’ secondary
education in a high school.Holdersofthis qualificationmay gain access to universityafter a
preliminary year of study at the university.
PARAGUAY 223

Paraguay
No information having been received recently,thepresent text is mainly repeatedfrom the 1976
English edition of this Guide.

In Paraguay higher education is given in two universities and three institutionsof higher
education,one ofwhich is a teacher-trainingcollege.The Universidad Nacionalde Asuncion
is a stateuniversity,financedby the Stateand completelyautonomousin its academic aspects.
Its governingbody is the higheruniversity council(consejosuperioruniversitario)comprising
the rector,the dean of each faculty,and representativesof the teaching staff,graduatesand
students. It comprises faculties of law and social sciences, philosophy, chemistry and
pharmacy, physics and mathematics, architecture, medicine, dentistry, economics,
agricultural studies and veterinary medicine,as well as a school for librarians.institutesof
social work, and training in nursing and midwifery. The Universidad Catolica ‘Nuestra
Senora de la Asuncion‘ is a private university, under the authority of the Episcopal
Conferenceof Paraguay.It is directed by the Archbishop of Asuncion (who IS Chancellor of
the University), the rector,the vice-rectorand the higher university council. It is mainly
financed by fees paid by students and is autonomous in academic matters. It comprises
facultiesof accountancy and administration,lawand diplomacy,philosophyand humanities,
a teacher-training college and a higher institute of theology and religion. A centre for
anthropology and a nursing schoolare also affiliatedto it. Some of the facultiesare in two or
three other towns. The degrees it confers are recognized by the state.
Besides these universities there is a national institute for scientific research (Instituto
Nacional de InvestigacionesCientificas)which was foundedunder the auspicesof Unescoand
which comprisesdepartmentsof physics,chemistry,mathematics,psychology and education,
and a higher school of philosophy,sciences and education (Escuela Superior de Filosofia,
Ciencias y Educacion).
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Teacher-trainingtakes place at the Instituto Superior de Educacion (ISE)which has
replaced the Escuela Normal Superior.Since 1974 it has offered two post-secondarylevel
courses,one for training primary teachers (in two years) and one for training secondary
teachers (in four years).
Access to higher education takes place after six years of primary schooling followed by six
years ofsecondaryschooling.Secondaryeducationis divided into two phases:a first phase of
general education(ciclobusico) and a specializedphase lasting three years,which leads to the
award of the certificatesofbarhiller en cienciasy lerras. bachiller en comercio,barhiller iécnico-
indusrrialor bachiller agropecuario,according to subjectchosen.Thesecertificatesgive access
to higher education after passing the examen de admisibn (entranceexamination).
Length of higher education varies accordingto the university and subject chosen,and to
whether it constitutes a terminal phase leading to a professional qualification (short-term
studies) or the first stage of long-termstudies.In the first case,the Universidad Nacionalde
Asuncion confers a professional qualification in topography,midwifery and nursing after
three years’study,and in chemistry and agricultureafter fouryears’study.In thesecond case,
the fist main stage of long-termstudiesleads to the Iicenciado degree or to a professionaltitle
after three,four or even fiveyears’study (inpsychology at the UniversidadNacional). In law,
accountancyand administration,socialsciences,theology and religion,courseslast six years.
The professional title awarded is that of doctor in dentistry and médico vererinario in
veterinary medicine (after five years); doctor in medicine, biochemistry and industrial
224 PARAGUAY

chemistry,(after six years) arquiteclo in architecture,and abogado in law (after six years). A
thesis must be submitted for the professional title of engineer.
A further stage leads to the doctorado degree,awarded after submission of a thesis;for
history it entails one year’sfurther study beyond the licenciatura, two years’further study
beyond the licenciatura in philosophy,humanities, mathematics and education.After the
licenciatura the Universidad Catolica ‘NuestraSenora de la Asuncion’also confersdoctorates
in law,history,education,accountancy and administration.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,bachillerato)

years 3 4 5 6 7

Education L L D D
Humanities L L D D
Religion,theology L L
Architecture P
Law L/P D
Social sciences,economics
Administration
Mathematics L D
Chemistry P
Engineering P
Medical sciences
medicine D
dentistry
veterinary medicine P
Agriculture P P
D doctorado L licenciatura P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Certificate of secondary education awarded after six years of primary
schooling followed by six years of secondary schooling divided into two phases. The first
phase (ciclo bbsico) comprisesthree years of general education.The second phase leadsto the
title of bachiller en ciencias y letras,ofbachiller en comercio,ofbachilIer técnico-industrialorof
bachiller agropecuario, according to the option chosen. The award of any one of these
certificates gives the right to sit for an entrance examination (examen de admisibn) to an
institutionof higher education.
Doctorado.The highest degree of higher education,awarded after submissionof a thesis
one year (in history) or two years (in philosophy,humanities,mathematics and education)
following upon the licenciarura (cf. also professional qualification).
Examen de admisibn. See bachillerato.
Licenciatura.First degree of higher education awarded after studies,the length of which
varies (threeor four years in certain subjects,accordingto the university,or six yearsin others
such as accountancy and administration,law,social sciences and theology).
Professional qualification. Title awarded after a course which lasts three years (for
topography,midwifery),four years (for nursing) or six years (for ingeniero civil,for example).
PARAGUAY 225

In industrialengineeringa thesis is required.The title awardedis thatofdoctor (cf.doctorado)

in dentistry,medicine,veterinary medicine,biochemistry,and industrialchemistry,or that of
arguifecto in architecture,or that of abogado in law.The submission of a thesis is necessary.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.See bachillerato.

Peru
Higher education in Peru is given in universities and university level institutions which are
legally recognized.
There are 34 universities(22national universitiesand 12private universities). The Catholic
PontificalUniversityof Peru isa nationaluniversityin terms of law.The NationalCouncilof
the Peruvian University is the governingbody which co-ordinatestheir activitieson a national
scale.The regional councils are bodies for integrationat the regional level.Universitiesare
autonomous in academic and financialmatters (although the State coversall or part of their
expenditure,in the relevant cases)and in matters concerning the recruitmentof the teaching
staff. The universities offer varied courses in traditional subjects and in certain technical
branches. Some universities, such as the agricultural and technical universities, are more
specialized.
Universities used to be divided into facultiesbut their structure has been modified.They
now comprisedepartamenios académicos (academicdepartments)andprogramas académicos.
The units called academic departmentsconstituteoperationalmodules of research,teaching
and preparation fora profession.Aprograma académico consistsofa setoffunctionalcourses
offered by various departments,which are co-ordinatedin order to achieve specificgoals in
the academic,professional or training fields.
The General Law of Education (legal decree no. 19326, 1972) set up ‘vocationalhigher
education’;this type of education is offered in escuelas superiores de educacibn profesional
(ESEP); these institutionsoffer broadly-basedcourseslasting between six and eight semesters
and leading to professional qualifications.The title awarded is barhiller profesional.
T h e language of instruction is Spanish.
Teachersfor the three levels of education(initial,basic and first phase of higher education)
are trained at universities and in the professional schools at the first and second phase of
higher education.University teachers are trained at university by successive integration and
promotion from heads of practical work to assistants,to associate professorsand to titular
professors.
Access to university education is based either:(a)on the cerfifiradode educacibn secundaria
completa (old system) awarded after six years of primary education followed by five years of
secondary education in an institution of general education, and complemented by a
competitiveentranceexamination;or (b) on the degree of bachiller profesional(new system)
conferred after six to eight semesters in escuelas superiores de educaribn profèsional (ESEP)
which admit holders ofthe diploma de educacibn basica regular or de educacibn basica laboral,
226 PERU

both taken after nine years of basic education.These schools provide a non-universityhigher
vocational education leading to the bachiller profesional in a number of specializations (agri-
cultural studies, husbandry, commercial studies, nursing, education, etc.). For certain
candidates this title (which,since the 1972General L a w of Education, is calledfirst stage of
higher education) marks the end of training and constitutes a professional qualification with
which they can enter the labour market. For the other candidates,it gives access to the
universities and to specialized professional schools but they are first required to sit a
competitive entrance examination.
The first phase of university education, which is n o w called the second stage of higher
education,is given in escuelas profesionales especializadas (specializedprofessional schools),
politécnicos (polytechnical institutes) and universidudes (universities). The studies lead to
professional qualifications awarded by specialized professional schools and polytechnical
institutes in four or five years according to the specialization (technical engineer, teacher,
nurse,etc.), or by universitiesafter five to seven years (licenciaturasin sociology,engineering,
medicine, law and architecture). The title of iicenciudo covers those of socidogo, ingeniero,
abogado, médico etc. Further professional or interdisciplinary studies lead to specialized
cerrificates and diplomas. Another degree (academic in character)-a university
prerogative-awarded at this stage of higher education is the bachiller académico.
The last stage (third stage in the new system,or graduate studies), which is only open to
holders of the licenciatura or of the bachiller académico,comprises studies for the maestria and
the doctorado. It corresponds to a period of study in depth and requires a major contribution
to knowledge, or technology, or to interdisciplinary studies. These studies are carried out in
two or three years in certain universitiesor in centres of graduatestudies (national institute for
graduate studies).

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 9 years (for ESEP), or 11/12years, certifcado de educacidn secundaria
completa or bachiller profesional, and entrance examination (for EPE and universities))

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

BP BP escuelas superiores de
educacibn profesional
P P escuelas profesionales
especializadas
BA/ 1
L/P M D universidades

BA bachiller académico BP bachiller profesional D doctorado L licenciatura

M maestria P professional qualification
(This profile is approximate since the duration of studies varies according to the universities
and the fields of study.)

GLOSSARY
Bachiller académico. First university degree awarded after a phase of specialization which
has been judged satisfactory.The bachillerafo académico is a prerequisite for courses leading
to the corresponding licenciatura.
PERU 227

Bachiller profesional. Degree of higher education (non-universitytype) awarded after six to

eight semesters in escuelas superioresde educacibn profesional which admit studentsafter nine
years of basic education and are devoted to acquiring basic knowledge and professional
qualifications. Holders of the bachillerato profesional may sit the competitive entrance
examination which gives access to specialized professional schools,polytechnical institutes
and universities.There is a numerus clausus and admissiondependson results obtained in the
examination.
Certificado de educacih secundaria comfin completa. Secondary-school-leaving certificate
(former system) awarded after six years of primary education followed by five years of
secondary education in an institution of general education.The period of secondary
education is divided into two phases of three and two years respectively.Holders of the
certificado de educacibn secundaria comiin cornpleta may,in principle.gain access to higher
education in every speciality. However, in practice, they must also pass an entrance
examination.
Diploma de aptitud a la ensefianza. Secondary-school-leavingcertificateawarded after six
years of primary education followed by three years of secondary education (firstphase) and
three years of education in a teacher-traininginstitution.The qualificationgives the right to
teach in primary education and qualifies for access,after an entrance examination,to further
educational studies.
Diploma de aptitud profesional. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded after six
years of primary education followed by five years of secondaryeducationin an agricultural,
commercial or industrial technical institution. Secondary education is divided into two
phases. The first phase,which lasts three years.is common to all pupils. The second phase,
lasting two years,allows them to specialize.The qualification gives the right to enter higher
education in the field of studieschosen as option in the second phase ofsecondaryeducation.
However,candidates must usually pass an entrance examination as well.
Diploma de educacih bisica laboral and diploma de educacih basica regular. School-
leaving certificates awarded in the new system after nine years of basic education.
Doctorado. Highest degree of higher educationawarded to candidateswho have submitted
a thesis,after two or three years’study following upon the licenciaturu or a professional
qualification. This degree is awarded to candidates whose work constitutes a major
contribution to knowledge or who have carried out interdisciplinary work.
Entrance examination. Examination set by most university academic programmes for
candidates for higher education who are already in possession of the cerrificado de educacibn
secundaria comun conipleta (former system) or of the bachiller profesional.
Licenciatura.Degreeof higher educationawarded after the bachilleratoacadémico.The title
of licenciado is a generic one. Specific titles include sociblogo (sociologist), ingeniero
(engineer), abogado (lawyer), médico (doctor), arquitecto (architect).
Maestria. Degree of higher education awarded after two years’study following uptm the
licenciatura (see doctorado). Holders of the maestria may exercise the functions of associate
professor in education.However,the interactionbetween the university and societyincreases
the number of cases where the maestria does not lead to teaching but leads to professional
advanced training,e.g. magister in business administration,magister in chemistry,etc.
Professional qualification. Qualification awarded by specialized professional schools and
polytechnical institutes in four or five years according to the specialization (technical
engineer,teacher,nurse,etc.) or by universitiesafter five to seven years.
228 PHILIPPINES

Philippines
In the Philippineshigher educationis given in 291 public institutions(including 48universities
and colleges on which charters have been conferred, 108 technical institutes, 96
technical/professional schools)and 707private institutions(46universities,490collegesand
171 technical/professional schools). The Constitution stipulates that all these public and
private institutionscome under the control of the State and may only operate if they have
already receivedgovernmental approvalthroughthe Ministry ofEducationand Culture.This
is conferred upon them if they respect the basic national norms in matters of their
programmes,equipment,teaching staff and institutionalstructures.
The 48 universitiesand collegeson which charters have been conferred(among which figure
the University of the Philippinesand the Mindanao State University)are autonomous.The
108 technical institutions on which charters have not been conferred offer two-yearpost-
secondary courses and four-yearprogrammes leading to a diploma in commercial studies,
agricultural studiesand fishery studies;the 96 technical/professionalschools offer two-year
post-secondary courses.
The private institutionsof higher education meet the educational needs of almost 85 per
cent of all the students enrolled in tertiaryeducation.Almost halfof these studentsbelong to
religious groups (they are mainly Roman Catholic,but some are also Protestants). Three
accreditationassociationswhich are recognized by the Ministry of Education and organized
into a federal system encouragethe private institutionsto raisethe level oftheir coursesabove
minimum requirements.They accredit the programmes,not the institutions,for three years,
based on reportsand recommendationsmade by their specialistteams.The institutionswhose
programmes have been recognized have high prestige and a wide measure of autonomy.
Teaching is in Pilipino and English.
Primary school-teachersare trained in higher education institutions.The course lasts for
four years and leads to the award of a bachelor’sdegree. A certificateor an associate’sdegree
may be obtained by students following only part of the course.Other teachers obtain a
bachelor’s degree and then go on to obtain a master’sdegree after one or two years’further
study.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained
after six years’ primary and four years’secondary education and success in the national
college entrance examination (NCEE). Since the public and private institutions of higher
education have very selective admissionprocedures,candidates must obtain a mark which is
above the minimum mark required by the NCEE. Many institutions set entrance
examinations. Some require an interview and a letter of recommendation.Foreign students
who wish to enter higher education in the Philippines must obtain the minimal marks set by
the Ministry of Education and Culture in the NCEE and in the test of English as a foreign
language (TOEFL).
The main stage of higher education (undergraduatestudies) is marked by the award of a
bachelor’s degree or a professional qualification.The total number of units required for the
title varies according to the institution and the subject chosen. The bachelor’s degrees in
science requirefour years’study,except in engineeringwhere studieslastfor five years.In law
and medicine students must already hold a bachelor’s degree before going on to the studies
proper.
In order to exercise the following professions-teaching, accountancy, architecture,
engineering, dentistry, dietetics, nursing, medicine, medical technology, obstetrics,
pharmacy, veterinary medicine,law and forestry-students must succeed in examinations
held by the order or council of the profession.These examinationsare set and organized by
PHILIPPINES 229

councils composed of specialists appointed by the Government.These councils may make

recommendations concerning modifications in the programmes.
The advanced level of higher education (postgraduatestudies)may lead to: a certificate
after one or two years’study following upon thebachelor’sdegree;a master’sdegree,after two
years’study and submission of a thesis (or without submissionofa thesis in the case ofthe
master of arts degree in education); or a doctor’sdegree (in education and philosophy,for
example) after three years’study and the defence of a thesis in public.
Non-formal education for school-leavers,workers and professionals is being developed.

P R O F I L E OF HIGHER S T U D I E S

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation:10 years,secondaryschool-leaving certificateand entranceexamination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Education B M D
Letters B M
Fine arts A B M
Architecture B
Law B B D
Business management B M D
Commercialstudies A B
Exact and natural sciences B M
Engineering
Medical sciences
medicine B P
dentistry P
pharmacy B M
veterinary medicine P
Agricultural studies A B M

A associate’s degree B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degrce

P professional qualification
GLOSSARY
Associate’s degree. Degree obtained at the end of two years’ studies, in agricultural
technology,secretariat studies,business studies and fine arts.
Bachelor’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded after a minimum of four years’
undergraduate studies in a university or other institution of higher education.
Certificate or diploma. At the level of undergraduate studies. delivered at the end of
programmes requiring a minimum of six months’ study. At the level of graduate studies.
conferred at the end of a minimum of one year’s study following the bachelor’sdeyee.
Doctor’s degree (doctorate). The highest university degree.It is conferred at the end of at
least two years’ study following the masfer’s degree and requires research work and the
defence of a thesis.In medicine,veterinary medicineand dentistry,the titleofdoctor is the first
professional qualification.
Master’s degree. Degree conferred,according to the fieldofstudy,after a minimum year(or
years) of graduate study. Presentation of a dissertation may or may not be compulsory,
according to the programme of study.
Professional qualification. Qualification awarded as a cert$cate, a diploma or other
230 PHILIPPINES

professional qualification after studies of variable length,from one year to eight in medicine.
It may be a first professional qualification or an advanced one. In medicine, veterinary
medicine and dentistry, the title of doctor is a first degree (see doctor’s degree).
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. Certificate obtained at the end of six years’primary
and four years’ secondary education and giving access to higher education.
Special order. Power enjoyed by a private establishment to confer a diploma on a student
w h o has successfully followed a determined course of study,at a given date,the award being
subject to the fulfilment of all required conditions (the programme followed must be of a
minimum level, at least, set by the Ministry of Education and Culture).

Poland
In Poland higher education is given in 10 universities and 17 technical universities
(politechniki), as well as in specialized technical and professional institutions (12 higher
teacher-training institutions, six higher schools of fine arts, seven academies and higher
musical schools, three higher schools of drama and film,six academies and higher schools of
physical training, two higher maritime schools). The universities and technical universities
offer courses in law, humanities,political sciences, exact sciences,natural sciences,pure and
applied sciences, technology and architecture. The Catholic University at Lublin (Katolicki
Uniwersytet Lubelski) offers courses in humanities and theology.Courses in theology are also
offered in two theological academies.
Most institutions of higher education are under the authority of the Ministry of Science,
Higher Education and Technology. There are some exceptions:medical schools (Ministryof
Health and Welfare); fine arts,drama, music (Ministry of Culture and Art); physical training
(Central Committee of Physical Culture and Sport); higher maritime schools (Ministry of
Foreign Trade and Maritime Economy).
The state institutions of higher education are entirely government-financed.The Catholic
University at Lublin is a private institution approved and financed by the Polish Episcopate
and by gifts.
The Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology prepares long-term
development plans, oversees the organization and administration of institutions of higher
education at government level, and co-ordinates relations with foreign organizations.The
Ministry also co-ordinatesdecisions relating to institutions of higher education dependent on
other ministries.The Ministry is assisted in its task by the General Council for Science,Higher
Education and Technology, a collective advisory body to the Minister of Science, Higher
Education and Technology, which comprises representatives of all types of higher
institutions.A n especially important role is played by the Council sections and commissions
which co-ordinate the teaching curricula of various schools,groups of scientific disciplines
and courses of study.
The basic element of higher education is the institute, where teaching and research are
POLAND 23 1

carried out within one or more scientificdisciplines and/or courses of study.The majority of
higher institutions are divided into faculties which incorporate the institutes engaged in
particular subjects or groups of subjects.The main task of the facultiesis to organize the
teaching process of the institutions.
Higher institutionsare directed by rectors,assisted by at least two pro-rectors,respectively
responsiblefor teaching and research.The senate,the rector’sadvisory and consultativebody,
comprises the pro-rectors,deadheads of faculties,directors of major institutes and other
units,and representativesof the teaching staff,students,politicaland social organizations of
the institution.
Studies in higher institutions may be either full-time or part-time (correspondence or
evening), except for medicine and the maritime schools.The full-timestudentsreceivevarious
forms of assistance from the State (scholarships,accommodation in students’houses,cheap
meals in special canteens). The extent of assistance depends on the student’s financial
situation and the results of his studies.
Apart from full-time higher education, there is a highly developed network of
correspondence and evening courses intended for those who are already engaged in
production. Candidatesfor courses of this kind must not only take an entrance examination
but must offer proof of a probationaryperiod of about two years spent in their place of work
and furnish a special certificate issued by the employing establishment. The latter must
provide them with some fac es, such as periods of leave from work,time off to follow
courses etc.;it must also assume responsibility for certain expenses.Evening courses follow
the same curricula as daytime courses and are exactly equivalent.Courses are also organized
for graduates who wish to keep up with new developments in modern technology:
automation,management,atomic energy,farms,forest plantations.
The language of instruction is Polish.
Teachers of primary education,previously trained in secondary level trainingschools,now
attend training colleges at higher educationlevel.Teachersofsecondaryeducationare trained
in institutesof education and at universities where they obtain a magister after fourand a half
years. Technical and vocational teachers study education concurrently with their courses at
polytechnic colleges or technical universities,or attend postgraduate courses in education
after taking their final examination.
Besides the system of higher education described above,several hundred post-secondary
schools offer a shortcycle(oneor two years)ofvocational training.The qualificationawarded
is a technician‘s diploma (or equivalent).
Access to higher education is based on the matura or Swiadectwo dojrzaioki,(secondary-
school-leavingcertificate) obtained after 12or 13 years of primary and secondary education.
Holders of this qualification must sit the competitiveentrance examinationsset by individual
faculties.The prize-winnersof national competitions(olimpiada)in various secondary-school
subjects are exempt from the entrance examinations.Besides,every secondary school has the
right to place its best pupils in some chosen and some recommended courses of study.
Excellent or good marks in the secondary-schoolcertificate give priority in access to
respective disciplines of study.The selection of future students is based on the results of the
entrance examinations,the average of secondary-schoolcertificate marks and the marks
received in the secondary school for the subjects which are obligatory at the entrance
examinations. Preference is given to candidates who have done their military service,have
worked for at least one year as well as to those whose familiesare industrialand agricultural
workers,as well as to youth from small towns and villages.
Access to higher education for foreigners is regulated by the respective international
agreements.
The main stage usually consists of four to fiveyears’study (six in medicine). The firsttwo or
three years are devoted to general studies, after which a period of specialization follows.
232 POLAND

Candidatesthen obtain the qualificationofmagister in their subject (arts,sciences,law,etc.).

Studentsof technology and architecture obtain the qualificationofinjnier (I) after fouryears
and magister injnier (MI) (master of technical sciences)after five years.In medical sciences,
the corresponding qualificationsare lekarz (L),lekarz stomatolog (dentist), lekarz weterynarii
(veterinarian). Graduation in higher education entitles the graduateto exercisethe acquired
profession.In some cases,however,training is supplemented by hospital practice (medical
graduates) and apprenticeship (lawyers). There are also professions,such as engineers,in
which full rights are awarded after passing supplementary examinations.
A further stage (studium doktoranckie,doctoral studies) may be reached after a number of
years varying from three to five according to university, by the holders of a magister or
magister injnier. The qualification is obtained after submitting a thesis and passing two
doktorat examinations. It is possible to prepare for the doktorat while working in an
institution of higher education,a scientific institute or even in industry.In this case,studies
last at least four years.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12/13 years,matura (Swiadectwo dojrzdoSci)and competitive entrance
examination)

varied
years 4 5 6 7 duration

Education M D Dhab
Arts M D Dhab
Theology M D Dhab
Fine arts,drama,music M M M D
Economics M M D Dhab
Law M D Dhab
Political sciences M D Dhab
Organization, M D Dhab
management
Commercial sciences M D Dhab
Exact and natural M D Dhab
sciences
Technology, I MI D Dhab
architecture
Medical sciences
medicine L S D Dhab
dentistry LS D Dhab
pharmacy M D Dhab
veterinary medicine LW D Dhab
Agriculture,forestry MI D Dhab
Physical training M M D Dhab
D doktor Dhab doktor habilitowany (senior doctor) I inzynier L lekarz
LS lekarz stomatolog L W lekarz weterynarii M magister MI magister injnier
(master of technical sciences) S staz szpitalny (hospital practice)

(Everv qualification except D and Dhab is a professional qualification (tytuY zawodowy))

POLAND 233

Another period of at least three to four years’study leads to the highest qualification in
higher education-that of doktor habilitowany (seniordoctor). This degree may be obtained in
higher schools as well as in the establishments of the Polish Academy of Sciences and other
institutionsof science and research authorized to confer scientific degrees.Candidatesmust
already hold the qualificationof doktor and prepare and submit a thesis.This qualification,
like that ofdoktor,is awarded by the scientificcouncilofthe faculty.It entitles holders to teach
in institutionsof higher education.

GLOSSARY
Doctor’s degree (medicine). See lekarz medvcyn.v or dyplom lekarza.
Doktor. Degree conferred after the title of magister, magister-injnier or lekarz. The
candidate must submit a thesiscontaining an originalsolutionofa scientificproblem and pass
two examinationsfor the doktorat. This qualificationmay be obtained afterthree years’study
(studiumdoktoranckie) duringwhich studentsare requiredto attend anumberofcourses,take
part in seminars and carry out research.During thisperiod studentsare supportedfinancially.
The degree is awarded by authorized scientific councils of faculties or institutes.
Doktor habilitowany. Degree conferred three to four years after that of doktor. The
candidate must present a thesis constituting a considerable contribution to the progress of
knowledge in a given discipline.The degree is awarded by authorized scientific councils of
facultiesand institutes and entitles holders to teach in institutionsof higher education.
Egzamin wstepny. Examination organized by a faculty or an institute to select candidates
for studies in a higher institution(see matura). Usually the examination covers the subjects
from the secondary-schoolprogramme: two related to the future studies and one a foreign
language.The examinationsare oral and written.
Entrance examination. See egzamin ustgpny.
Iniynier. Professional title awarded after completing usually eight semesters of technical,
economic or commercial studies.
Lekarz medycyny or dyplom lekarza. First qualificationand professionaltitle awarded after
higher medical studies. In veterinary medicine,this qualification carries the title of lekarz
ueterynarii. and in dentistry that of lekarz-stomatolog.
Magister. First qualification of higher education.usually obtained after four to five years’
study.T h e first two or three years are devoted to general studies.In the last year,candidates
must submit a thesis. During vacations, students are required to do periods of practical
training in fields of employment corresponding to their field of study. Examinations take
place at the end of each semester.At the end ofthe last year,a finalexaminationleads to the
qualification of magister. In technology and agriculture,the qualification is called magister
injnier. In medicine, the equivalent of the magister, obtained after six years’study,is the
lekarz (doctor).
Magister-iniynier.Professional title awarded to a student in technical and agricultural
studies who has obtained his degree of injnier.
Master of technical sciences.See magister-injnier.
Matura or Swiadectwodojrzdoici.Secondary-school-leaving certificateobtained at the end
of four years of general secondary education in a liceum ogolnoksztdcpce,following upon
eight years of primary education,or after eightyears of primary education followed by fiveor
six years of professional secondary education, depending on the specialization. This
qualification is required for access to higher education,but candidates also have to pass a
competitive entrance examination set by individual faculties. The number of candidates
admitted is subordinate to a national plan which determines the needs for specialistsin each
subject. Preference is given to candidateswith at least one year’s practical experience in the
field they wish to study,as well as to candidateswhose parents are industrial andagricultural
workers.
234 POLAND

Post-secondary school. See szkda pomaturalna.

Professional qualification. See tytuf zawodowy.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See matura or Swiadectwo dojrzafbSci.
Senior doctor. See doktor habilitowany.
Swiadectwo dojrzdoki. See matura.
SzkOra pomaturalna (post-secondary school). School which awards professional
qualifications at a secondary level to secondary-schoolleaving youth (including those who did
not pass the final examination).
Tyt& zawodowy (professional qualification). See magister, magister-injnier, lekarz,
iniynier.
(All higher education qualifications give the right to exercise the correspondingprofession.)

Portugal
In Portugal higher education takes place in both public and private institutions.Portugal has
four traditional universities (two in Lisbon, one of which is classical,the other technical,and
two others in Oporto and in Coimbra). There are also a number of institutions of higher
education which were founded recently: three new universities at Lisbon, Aveiro, Minho
(1973), the University Institute of Evora (1973) and the University Institute of the Azores
(1976). Higher education is also available in the University Institute of Beira Interior, the
University Institute of Tras O Montes e Alto Douro, schools or higher institutes of dentistry,
work and business management, fine arts, engineering, accountancy and administration.
Lastly, there is a national conservatory. The private institutions comprise the Catholic
University of Lisbon (1971), three higher institutes of social services and a higher institute of
applied psychology,a higher institute of languages and administration and an instituteof new
professions. The Catholic University of Lisbon confers degrees whose validity is the same as
those conferred in public universitiesand the Ministry of Education recognizes the high level
of courses offered in other private institutions of higher education (without this implying
correspondence or equivalence with academic degrees).
Portuguese universities are administratively,scientifically and academically autonomous.
They are directly financed by credits from the State.The Minister of Education is responsible
for all public institutions of higher education.
Universities offer courses in arts and humanities,education,social sciences,law,exact and
natural sciences, technology, agriculture and husbandry, medicine, pharmacy, fine arts,
environmental sciences and physical education.
Traditional universities are divided into faculties, with the exception of the Technical
University of Lisbon which comprises several institutes and schools, each of which enjoys
great autonomy. O n the other hand, the universities and institutions of higher education
which were founded after 1973,with the exception of the new University of Lisbon which
groups several faculties,have adopted an organization whereby the department is the main
pedagogical unit.
PORTUGAL 235

Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level in teacher-trainingcolleges.

Teachers of secondary education are trained at a university, and art teachers in fine arts
academies and the arts faculties.
Teaching takes place in Portuguese.
Access to higher education is based on the certifcado defini de esrudos secundarios obtained
after four years of primary education followed by seven years of secondaryeducation divided
into three phases of respectively two, three and two years (the latter is the curso
complemeniar). Candidates for higher education must also follow the uno propedêutico
(twelfth year of schooling at present given on television with auxiliary texts which was to
become the twelfth year of schooling proper in 1980181)and pass with success the concurso
nacional de candidatura no ensino superior (national competitive examination), since access to
higher education is not open to all candidatesand a numerus clausus has been adopted in every
subject.Each year the Ministry ofEducation fixes the number ofstudentswho are admitted to
the first year of higher education,according to available places in the various institutionsand
the needs of the country.Once the contingent of students has been admitted,candidatesare
placed according to a complex system which considers the average of the marks obtained
during the last two years of secondaryeducation,the averageofthe marks obtained in the two
basic subjects of these last two years,and the marks obtained in the two basic subjectsof the
uno propedêutico.
Foreign students are admitted to Portugueseinstitutionsof higher education if they have a
qualification equivalent to the uno propedêutico. There are special cases of direct access for
certain categories of foreign candidates who are covered by specific agreementsmade by the
Portuguese government.
Adults over twenty-fivewho have not followed the required training but who exercise a
profession may also gain access to higher education if they succeed in the exame de
maturidade. This examination,the aim of which is to take into consideration the candidate’s
professional experienceand maturity,comprisesa Portugueselanguagepaper which is taken
by every candidate and specific papers set by the various faculties and schools.
The first stage of higher education may in certain cases be terminal. The Ministry of
Education intends to create a new type of non-universityhigher education in the near future
called ‘integrated’higher education.It will combinescientific,technical and practical training
and its purpose will be to offer two-to three-yeartrainingcoursesfor high-leveltechniciansin
various fields,as well as teachers. It will be possible to pass from one type of studies to
another. These studies,which will take place in regional polytechnic institutions of higher
education will lead to a diploma de estudos superiores. In the case of long-termstudies,the
main stage is devoted to acquiring a sound training which will enable students to carry out
further study in depth,in order to specializeand hold asatisfactoryjobin future.The length of
these studiesvaries according to subject:arts and humanities,four years;law,socialsciences,
exact and natural sciences,technology,pharmacy,agricultureand husbandry,environmental
sciences and physical education,five years;medicine and dentistry,six years.This stage at
present leads to the bacharelato, a degree awarded by universities and higher institutes of
accountancy and administration.With the decree 304/78 which creates two new degrees,the
mesirado (posgraduaçüo)and the agregaçüo,the first stage will lead to the licenciaturu.The
academies of fine arts confer a diplomaof higher studiesafter five years’study instead of the
licenciatura.
Portuguese academic diplomas and qualifications do not necessarily give access to the
professions. In medicine, veterinary medicine, agricultural studies, law and education,
graduates are required to do a practical year in order to exercise the relevant profession.
The second stage ofhigher educationlastsone or two yearsand is only open to holders ofthe
licenciatura. It includes the submission of an original dissertation,written specially for the
degree. If the jury is satisfied,the candidate receives a posgraduaçüo (mesirado)degree.
236 PORTUGAL

The third stage of higher education is only open to holdersoftheposgraduaçüoand requires

a very high level ofculture and a capacityfor scientific research in a given fieldofknowledge.
It lasts one or two years and leads to the doutoramento,after an examinationand submission
of a thesis.The other academic degree conferred at this stage,the agregaçüo,is only open to
holders of the doutoramento;it requires a high capacity for research and specialpedagogical
competencein a specificfield of knowledge.It is awarded after passing specificexaminations.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12years,certificadode fim de estudos secundirios,uno propedêutico and
entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education (pedagogy) B t L Pg(M) D/Ag

Arts,humanities L Pg(M) D/Ag
Fine arts Di
Law L t Pg(M) D/Ag
Social sciences B* L Pg(M) D/Ag
Exact and natural sciences B L Pg(M) D/Ag
Technology DES B* L Pg(M) D/Ag
Medical sciences
medicine B* L t
dentistry B L t
pharmacy L Pg(M) D/Ag
Agriculture,husbandry B L t
Environmental sciences L Pg(M) D/Ag
Physical education B L Pg(M)

Ag agregaçüo B bacharelato D doutoramento DES diploma de estudos superiores

(polytechnical higher studies) Di diploma L licenciatura Pg(M) posgraduaçüo
(mestrado)

* The bacharelatos marked by an asterisk do not lead to the licenciatura.

t Practical work,see text.

GLOSSARY
Agregaçâo. Highest degree of higher education,created by the legal decree 304/78. It is
reserved to holders of the doutoramento and requires high capacity for research and special
pedagogicalcompetencein a specificfield ofknowledge.It is obtained after successin specific
examinations.
Ano propedêutico.Twelfth year of schooling,at present given on television with auxiliary
texts (in 1980-81 it was to become the last year of secondaryeducation). It is compulsory for
studentswho have completed the curso complementardo ensino secundirio (tenth and eleventh
year of schooling following upon the three years of curso geral (generalcourse) and the six
years of basic education) and who wish to gain access to an institutionof higher education.
Bacharelato. First university degree,which hitherto was awarded by the universitiesand
higher institutes of accountancy and administration after three years of study.
Certificado de fim de estudossecundarios.Qualification obtained afterfouryearsofprimary
PORTUGAL 237

followed by eight years of secondary education.It is required for access to higher education.
Concurso nacional de candidatura ao ensino superior. National competitive examination
which must be taken by all candidates who wish to gain access to higher education and who
have completed the curso complementar and the anopropedêutico. The contingentof students
who are admitted to the first year of university is fixed every year for every faculty and every
course,by the Ministry of Education. Candidates are classified according to the numerus
clausus and by a system which considers the average obtained in the curso complementar,the
average obtained in the two basic subjects during those two years and the marks obtained in
the two basic subjects of the uno propedêutico.
Doutoramento. Higher degree of higher education open to holders of a posgraduaçiïo
(mestrado)after one or two years’study,requiring a high-levelculture and a capacity for
scientificresearch in a given field of knowledge.The doutoramento includes an examination
and the submission of a thesis.
Entrance examination. See exame de maturidade.
Exame de maturidade. Examination taken by adults over twenty-five,who have not
followed the required training but who exercise aprofession.in order to gain access to higher
education.The examedematuridade comprisesa Portuguese languagepaper which is taken by
every candidate and specific papers set by the various faculties and schools.
Licenciatura. Usually the first qualification of higher education,awarded after studies
whose length varies between four and six years,according to subject.This qualificationdoes
not automatically or necessarilygive access to the relevant profession.In agriculturalstudies,
medicine,law and education,studentsmust also do practicalwork in order to have theright to
exercise the profession.
Mestrado. See posgraduaç6o.
Polytechnical higher studies. Short-term‘integrated’higher studies (combining scientific,
technical and practical training) which will soon be put into application by the Ministry of
Education,the aim of which is to offer two-to three-yearcourses for teachers and high-level
techniciansin severalfields.These courses will be offered in regionalinstitutionsand willlead
to the diploma de estudos superiores.
Posgraduaçio (mestrado). University degree created by the new legaldecree of 1978open to
holders of a licenciaturu after training which lasts between one and two years and on
submission of a specially written thesis.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See certijïcado de jïm de estudos secundirios.

Qatar
Higher education in Qatar is provided in the University of Qatar at Doha.This university,
which was founded as the Facultiesof Educationin 1973and which acquired its present status
and name in 1977,is a state institution.autonomous both in financialand academic matters.
Its resources come from credits granted by the State.Its governing bodies are the University
238 QATAR

Council (whichis made up of the president of the University,the vice-president,the deans,two

professors and three important external academic figures), the Higher Council of Education
(whose chairman is the Minister of Education) and the Board of Regents,which is made up of
fifteen members (from Qatar and famous foreign universities). The University comprises
faculties of education,science,arts and humanities, social sciences, and Islamic studies. A
centre for scientific and applied research and a centre for educational research and
development are also affiliated to the University.
T h e language of instruction is Arabic.
Teachers are trained at the University, which awards a bachelor’s degree in primary
education after four years’ study as well as a certificate in this branch of study.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school certificate,or an equivalent
qualification.
The first stage of higher education, after four years’ study, leads to the bachelor of arts
degree (BA),the bachelor of arts and education degree (BAEd), the bachelor of science degree
(BSc), the bachelor of science and education degree (BScEd), the bachelor of domesticeconomy
degree and the bachelor of Islamic studies degree.
The second stage,after one year’s further study following upon the bachelor’s degree,leads
to a muster’s degree in arts, arts and education, science, science and education and Islamic
studies. In education, the University awards a general diploma of education and a special
diploma of education at this level of postgraduate studies.
The third stage leads to the award of a title of doctor ofphilosophy (PhD) which may only be
prepared in Islamic studies at present.

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N

Duration of Studies
(Previous education:secondary-schoolcertificate)

years 4 5 6 7

Education B GDE/
SD
Arts B M
Arts and education B M
Science B M
Science and education B M
Domestic economy B
Islamic studies B M PhD

B bachelor’s degree GDE general diploma of education M master’s degree

P h D doctor of phifosophy SD special diploma

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education,awarded at the end of four years’study
in arts, arts and education, science, science and education, domestic economy, primary
education and Islamic studies.
Doctor of philosophy (PhD). Highest degree of higher education.For the time being it is only
awarded in Islamic studies.
Master’s degree. Second degree of higher education,awarded after one year’s furtherstudy
QATAR 239

following upon the bachelor’s degree in arts, arts and education,science, science and
education,and Islamic studies.
Secondaryschool certificate. Secondary-school-leaving
certificategiving access to higher
education.

Republic of Korea
In the Republic ofKorea higher education is provided in five types of institution:

(1) D u e haggyo (university): there are 29universities:nine are national universitiesand 20are
private. Each university must include at least three colleges,one of which must be for the
natural sciences and engineering.Each university provides courses at postgraduate level.
(2) D u e hag (college): there exist 56 colleges,whose courses last four years and which grant
bachelor’s degrees. Some are professional training institutions,such as those for teacher-
training,engineering,medicine and pharmacy,and fishery and marine science.
(3) Jeonmun due hug (juniorcollege): these offer the first two yearsofhigher education,which
leads to a great variety of qualifications of the diploma type.
(4) C y 0 yug due hag (junior teachers’ college): these institutions give elementary school
teacher-trainingcourses of two years’duration.
(5) Bangsong rongshin daehag (air and correspondence college): this is an institutionwhich
provides educational opportunitiesto the out-of-schoolyouth and adults unable to continue
schooling for various reasons.Those graduated from this institutionare admitted through
qualifying examination into the third class of a college or university.

Private institutions cater for some 72 per cent of the students in higher education. They
acquire their fundsthroughendowments,giftsand fees.National universitiesdraw their funds
from the budget of the State.
Teacher training is a part of higher education.Intendingprimary school-teachersfollow a
two-yearcourse at a gyoyug daehag (juniorteachers’college). Intending secondary teachers
follow a four-yearcourse which terminates with a bachelor’s degree;this course is given in a
daehag and,more usually,in a college of education forming a part of a university.
Although Korean is the usual language of instruction, some courses may be given in
English, Chinese, French and German. Those languages may often be also used in
examinationsand for dissertations.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcerrificare which is
obtained after six years of primary education followed by six years of secondary education
divided into two phases (middleschooland high school)ofthreeyearseach.To be admittedto
higher education success in an entrance examination is also necessary.
The first stage of higher education leads to a bachelor’s degree or to a diploma. The
240 REPUBLIC OF KOREA

bachelor’s degree is awarded after four years.Junior colleges offer a variety of courses leading
to certificates of state-authorized second class technician.
A second stage represents a period of postgraduate study leadingto a master’sdegree.For a
master’s degree two years of further study beyond the bachelor’s degree are required in the
same subject. There exist specialized graduate schools whose courses last five semesters (two
and a half years).
A third stage leads to the doctor’sdegree,which is awarded in the following subjects three
years after the master’s degree: humanities,philosophy,theology,economics,law,medicine,
science, pharmacy, engineering, agriculture, and veterinary medicine. Success in the
examination for a foreign language is required for the doctor’s degree before submitting a
dissertation.

PROFILE OF H I G H E R STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,secondary-school-leavingcertificateand entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education P B M
Arts B M D
Theology B M D
Fine arts B M D
Law B M D
Economics B M D
Commercial sciences B M
Science B M D
Engineering B M D
Medical sciences
medicine B M D
dentistry B M D
pharmacy B M D
veterinary medicine B M D
Agriculture B M D
Marine science B M

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degree P professional quali-

fication

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education awarded after four years’ study.
Doctor’s degree. Highest degree of higher education, awarded after three years’ study
beyond the master’s degree in the following subjects: humanities, philosophy, theology,
economics, law, medicine, physical and biological sciences, pharmacy, engineering,
agriculture, and veterinary medicine.
Entrance examination. Obligatory examinations:preliminary examination and entrance
examination for holders of the secondary-schoolcertificate w h o wish to gain access to higher
education.
Master’s degree. Second degree of higher education awarded two and a half years after the
bachelor’sdegree in the same subject.
REPUBLIC OF KOREA 241

Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after six years of primary

education followed by six years of secondary schooling.The latter is divided into two phases
of three years each:middle school and high school.

Romania
In Romania the main purpose of higher education is to offer high level theoretical,practical,
professional and civic courses in every specialization,in order to train highly qualified
personnel.To ensure direct links between higher education and the economic,scientific and
cultural activities of the country and to prepare students for their profession, teaching is
integrated to production and to scientific research,mainly by means of practical work.
Higher education is entirely financed by the State and is provided free.
The Higher Council for Education and Teaching is responsiblefor guiding,controllingand
co-ordinatingeducation at every level.Educational plans are elaborated with the help of the
teaching staff,and specialists in industry,research and programming. These plans are then
approved by the Congress of Education and Teaching,which takesplace every fiveyears.The
Ministry of Education is responsiblefor guiding,co-ordinatingand controllinginstitutionsof
higher education,as well as for their organization,administration,teaching and research
activities. It also fixes entrance conditions, subjects and examinations and competitive
examinationpapers,as well as their organization and the conditions in which they take place.
Higher education is provided in seven universities, five polytechnical institutes,four
technical institutes (building,mining, petrol and gas, under-engineers), five institutes of
medicine and pharmacy,four agriculturalinstitutes,an instituteofarchitecture,two institutes
of fine arts, two institutes of dramatic art and cinema,three music conservatories,eight
institutes of higher education (both technical and pedagogical)and an institute of physical
education.
Traditional universities offer courses in arts,exact and natural sciences,law,economics,
education, etc.; some universities also comprise technical faculties of medicine and
agriculturalstudies.The institutesof higher education are divided into faculties and sections.
The faculties comprise departments (chairs) composed of teachers who have the same
specializationor similar specializations.
Polytechnical institutes are in fact technological universities which train engineers and
under-engineers in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electrotechnical
engineering,chemical engineering,etc.
Outside regularcourses (which lastbetween three and six years), there are a number ofother
possible courses (evening courses and correspondencecourses). These courses last one year
longer than regular courses. Post-university courses are also organized for economists,
scientists,techniciansand specialistsin culture who already hold adegreeofhigher education
awarded by institutionswhere regular studies last for more than four years.
 242 ROMANIA

Teaching is given in Romanian (and in other mother tongues in certain regions where
people of different nationalities live).
Teachers for pre-primary and lower-primaryeducation are trained in two years in teacher-
training colleges at post-secondary level or in teacher-training schools at secondary level.
Teachers for upper-primary educationare trained in three years in teacher-traininginstitutes.
Teachers for secondary education are trained in four years in teacher-training institutes or
universities.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate or
bacalaureat obtained after eight years of primary followed by four years of secondary
education and a concurs de admitere (competitive entrance examination) to select the best
candidates. Candidates are admitted according to their results in the competitive entrance
examination.T h e number of first-yearplaces in higher education is fixed by the Ministry of
Education,together with the other ministries concerned,accordingto the needs of the various
branches of the economy and national life.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, bacalaureat and competitive entrance examination)

varied
years 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 10 duration

Physical L/DS
education
Education LIDS D D'
(pedagogy)
Languages, history, L/DS D D'
geography
Theatre, cinema, VDS D D'
music, fine arts
Architecture DS D D'
Law LIDS Di D'
Social sciences, L/DS D D'
economics
Exact and L/DS D' D'
natural sciences
Biochemistry L/DS D D'
Engineering SVDS I/DS D D'
Medical sciences
D'
LIDS D D'

veterinary DS D D'
medicine
Agriculture W DS D D'

,D doctor D' doctor docent in sriinte DS diplorn8 de

Stat I inginer L licenfa
SI sub-inginer
ROMANIA 243

The main stage of higher educationis devotedto broadly-basedstudy during the firsttwo or
three years;the length of study varies according to subject chosen:four years in education,
languages,geography,theatre,cinema,music,fine arts,law,social sciences and economics,
exact and natural sciences,agricultural studies; five years in biochemistry, engineering,
pharmacy,veterinary medicine;six years in medicine and architecture.This stage leadsto the
examen de Stat,after which candidates who are successfulin the examination are awarded the
diploma de Stat (diploma)or the licenia and are entitled to exercise the relevant profession.
A furtherstage (post-universitycourses)which is only open to holders ofthe diploma de Stat
or of the licenja,correspondsto a period ofstudy in depth and to a specialization.This stage
requires at least four years’study and leads to a doctorat (awarded by institutions of higher
education,academies of science and centralcentres of research), after passing examinations,
presenting a dissertation and defending a thesis.
The qualification of doctor docent in stiinte is awarded,after a variable length of study,to
holders of the doctorat who have carried out work ofscientificimportanceand whose research
and publications constitute a major contribution to knowledge,technique or culture.

GLOSSARY
Bacalaureat. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,obtained after eight years of primary
followed by four years of secondary education in a general secondary school,in a school of
physical education or art or in a technical secondary school.This qualification is required of
candidates for the concurs de admitere (competitiveentrance examination)which gives access
to higher education.
Concurs de admitere.Compulsory entrance examinationto higher education.Each faculty
organizes its own entrance examination.Candidates are examined in three or four of the
subjects they took for their secondary-school-leavingexamination and which are relevantto
the subject they intend to study.They are admitted according to their results in the entrance
examination and to the number of students to be admitted according to needs in the various
branches of the economy and national life.
Diplorn8 de Stat,Professionalqualificationentitling its holder to practise a profession.It is
awarded after three to six years according to subject as a licence diploma,an under-engineer
diploma,an engineering diploma,an architect’sdiploma.
Doctorat. Degree of higher education awarded to holders of a diploma or a licenia who,
after having passed the entrance examination with success and,in certain cases,exercised a
profession for at least two years,continuetheir studiesfor four or five years.The last yearsare
devoted to preparing a thesis which is then defended in public and which contributes to the
advancement of knowledge.
Doctor docent in stiinte. Highest degree of higher education awarded to those who are
already holders of the doctorat and who achieve distinction through academic work and
publicationswhich constitutean importantcontributionin the scientific,technical or cultural
sphere.It is awarded by a doctoralcommission,which comprisesspecialistsappointed by the
Ministry of Education,together with members of the university’s governing body.
Entrance examination. See concurs de admitere.
Examen de Stat. Final examination in higher education comprising in every faculty oral,
written or practical examinations and submission of a small thesis or dissertation in the
chosen speciality.Success in the examen de Stat is rewarded by the diplomz.Candidates who
fail three times in the examen de Stat or who fail to sit the examinationwithin the time limit
allowed (three years), are granted a certificat de studii (certificate of attendance).
Licenja.First qualificationof higher educationawarded by institutionsofhigher education
after a period of four to six years’study,according to subject chosen.The licenfa is both an
academic and a professional qualification.
244 ROMANIA

Professional qualification. See diploma de Stat.

Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See bacalaureat.

In Rwanda higher education takes place mainly at the National University of Rwanda,and at
the National Institute of Education, Butare. The University comprises six faculties: science;
agriculture; medicine; arts; law; social, economic and administrative sciences. The National
Institute of Education is divided into sections: modern .literature,humanities, exact and
natural sciences, pedagogy and modern techniques.
Teaching takes place in French.
Access to higher education is based on the certificatdes humanités of the Rwandasecondary
schools obtained after twelve years of primary and secondary education.
The first stage of higher education (often the only one for the moment) leads in most
subjects to the baccalauréat obtained after three years' study. The National Institute of
Education awards, after three years, the agrégation de l'enseignementsecondaire inférieur and
after five years the agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire moyen.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, certificat des humanités)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education AS1 ASM

Arts B L
Law L
Social, political, economic, B
commercial and
administrative sciences
Exact and natural sciences B L
Engineering L
Medicine * B D
Agriculture L/I
AS1 agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire inférieur ASM agrégation de l'enseignement
secondaire moyen B baccalauréat D doctorat I ingéniorat L licence

* First year spent in faculty of science-see text.

RWANDA 245

A second stage exists-or is planned-in certain fields and leads to the licence after two
years’(history,geography,chemistry,civil engineering) or three years’study (ingénioratin
agriculture). In medicine,the first three years are devoted to broadly-basedstudies (the first
year in the science faculty for basic sciences,the other two in the faculty of medicine,for
medical sciences) after which candidates spend four years on further clinical and practical
training.They are then awarded the qualification of docteur en médecine.

GLOSSARY
Agrégation de renseignement secondaire inférieur. Qualification of higher education
obtained after three years’study at the National Institute of Education,qualifyingholders to
teach in the lower phase of secondary education.
Agrégation de renseignementsecondaire moyen. Qualificationof higher education obtained
after five years’study at the National Institute of Education,qualifying holders to teach in
secondary education institutions.
Baccalauréat. First degree of higher education,awarded at the National University after
three years’study (exceptin medicine and law). The qualification obtained is that ofbachelier
ès sciences,ès lettres or ès sciences économiques et sociales,depending on the faculty.Each
faculty offers a range of specialization:in science-mathematics, physics,chemistry or bio-
chemistry; in humanities-modern French literature,modern English literature,history,
geography;in social and economic sciences-social and political sciences,economics and
commerce,law and administration.
Certificat des humanités. Secondary-school-leaving certificate,obtained after six years of
primary followed by six years of secondary education (divided into a three-yearlower phase
and a three-yearupper phase). This qualificationgives accessto the National University and
the National Institute of Education.
Docteur. Degree awarded by the faculty of medicine at the end of seven years’ study
comprising one pre-medical year in the science faculty,two pre-clinicalyears,three clinical
years and one year’spractical training.This degree is a professional qualification.
Ingéniorat. Qualification appearing in the new programme of the faculty ofagriculture and
awarded after six years’study in agriculture.
Licence. Higher education qualification(second cycle) awarded two or three yearsafter the
baccalauréat (first cycle) in certain fields.In law,the licence is conferred after three years’
study directly after a preparatory year.

Saudi Arabia
Higher education in Saudi Arabia takes place in six universities,an institute of public
administration and two teacher-trainingcolleges. All of these are state institutions whose
capitaland running costsare a chargeon the nationalbudget.The universityrectorsform part
of the Supreme Councilof Universitieswhich makes proposalsrelativeto the overallpolicy of
246 SAUDI ARABIA

higher education (the development of which it co-ordinatesand stimulates)and supervises the

application of the State’s policy in scientific research.
The King Abdul-Aziz University was originally a private institution, and attained its
present status in 1971. It has two campuses,one at Mecca,the other at Jeddah,and comprises
faculties of law and Islamic studies, education, economics and business administration,
science, letters and human sciences, engineering and medicine. The University of Riyadh
comprisesfacultiesof letters and human sciences, science,pharmacy,commerce, agriculture,
education, engineering, medicine, and Arabic literature and language. The Islamic
universities of Medina and Riyadh comprise faculties or colleges of Islamic law, Koran
studies, Arabic language and social sciences.The University of Petroleum and Minerals, at
Dhahran, was originally founded as a college, and acquired its present status in 1975.
Although in the dependence of the Ministry of Higher Education,it has internal autonomy,
and is almost entirely funded by the State. It comprises colleges of science,engineering (and
applied sciences), industrial management, and advanced studies,and an institutefor research
in the fields of petroleum and gas. The King Faisal University, D a m m a m , founded in 1975,is
principally concerned with agriculture,animal husbandry and veterinary medicine,medicine,
and pharmacy.
The teaching languages are Arabic and English, the latter being largely confined to
technological disciplines. At the University of Petroleum and Minerals, the only language
used is English.
Primary school-teachersare trained at secondary level in the elementary Islamic institutes.
Secondary school-teachers are trained in the education faculties of King Abdul-Aziz and
Riyadh universities,where the bachelor of arts degree in education is taken after four years.
Physical education teachers are trained over three years in a special institute.
Access to higher education is based on the tawjahiya (secondary-school-leavingcertificate).
This is awarded after six years’primary followed by three years’ intermediate-secondaryand
three years’ upper-secondaryeducation. For the University of Petroleum and Minerals there

PROHLE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, tawjahiya)

years 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education B Di
Arts B M
Social sciences B M PhD
Islamic and Arabic studies B M PhD
Economic and B M
commercial sciences
Exact and natural B M
sciences
Engineering,technology B
Medical sciences
medicine D/B
pharmacy B
Agriculture B

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree Di diploma M master’s degree

P h D doctor of philosophy
SAUDI ARABIA 247

is also an entrance examination. The Islamic University of Medina normally requires

candidates to hold the leaving certificate of a religious secondary school.
The main stage of higher education involves a general training in a particular discipline,
sometimesamountingto a high levelprofessional qualification.It leads afterfouror fiveyears
to the bachelor’sdegree. In medicine,studieslast eight years and the qualificationawarded is
that of doctor ofmedicine (MD).
The second stage reflects a deeper knowledge of the subject.It leads in one year to the
general diploma in education at the University of Riyadh, and in most universities,to the
muster’sdegree.Thisis awarded after two furtheryears’study,in letters and science at Riyadh,
and in scienceand business administrationat the UniversityofPetroleum and Minerals.In the
other universities it is awarded after three years’ study subsequent to the award of the
bachelor’s degree (Islamiclaw,Arabic and social sciences). A thesis is required.
The third stage takes three or four years from the award of the master’sdegree and leads to
the degree ofdocror ofphilosophy (PhD). Candidatesmust submit a thesisbased on individual
research work. Saudi Arabian universities currently award the P h D in the following subjects
only: Islamic law,Arab and Islamic studies,and social sciences.

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education awarded after four years’ study in
letters,science,education,economics,commerce,agriculture,Arabic and Islamicstudies;in
engineering,industrial engineering and pharmacy the course is five years,in medicine eight
years. It constitutes a first terminal degree,and in some subjects a high level professional
qualification.The bachelor’sdegree is awarded in the King Abdul-Aziz,Riyadh,Medina and
Riyadh Islamic Universities and the University of Petroleum and Minerals.
Doctor’s degree. The highest degree of higher education,awarded after between two and
four years’study following upon the award of the master’s degree. It is given for advanced
individual research work culminating in the submission of a thesis.
General diploma of education. Qualification in education awarded in the University of
Riyadh following one year’s study after the award of the bachelor’sdegree.
Master’s degree. Degree awarded on submissionof a thesis after two years’study in letters,
science and business administration and after three years’studies in Islamic law,Arabic and
social sciences, subsequent to the award of the bachelor’s degree. It reflects advanced
knowledge in a particular subject.
Religioussecondary-institute-leaving certificate.Qualificationobtained at the end ofa three-
year course at a religious secondary institute at upper-secondarylevel. It correspondsto the
secondary-school-leaving certificate. The institutes provide intensive studies in Arabic
language and Islamic religion side by side with other general cultural studies.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See tawjahiya.
Tawjahiya. Certificateawarded after six years’primary and six years’secondaryeducation,
the latter divided into two phases of three years,intermediate and upper respectively,and
giving access to higher education.
248 SENEGAL

Senegal
In Senegal higher education is provided in the University of Dakar and in other
establishments founded for the training of scientific,technical,teaching and administrative
personnel. The University of Dakar is under the supervision of the Ministry of Higher
Education.It comprises seven financially independent institutions:the facultiesof law and
economics,of medicine and pharmacy, of science,of letters and human sciences;the basic
Institute of Black Africa,the University Institute of Technology,and the Advanced Teacher-
Training College;plus various other centres and instituteswhich are affiliated to it. Some of
these are devoted exclusively to research,others are involved with teaching.T h e latter is the
case with the School of Librarians,Archivists and Documentalists,which awards a diploma
after a two-year course; with the Centre of Studies for the Information Sciences and
Techniques,where courses for the professionaldiploma of journalism last three years;with
the Institute of Applied Tropical Medicine which awards a diploma of practical tropical
medicine after a post-universitycourse of eight months;and with the Instituteof French as a
Foreign Language,which offers a one-yearcourse in French languageand culture leading to
various certificates and diplomas.There is also an inter-stateschool of veterinary medicine
which offersa six-yearcourse (one preparatory year,and one year devoted to the production
of a thesis) for a doctorate in veterinary medicine.
In addition there are research institutes of social paediatrics; the teaching of physics,
mathematics and technology;dentistry and stomatology;applied mathematics;and research
centres of: applied linguistics (Dakar); research into psychopathology;research into and
documentation of African institutions and law;applied economics;biological research in
relation to leprosy;higher Afro-Ibero-Americanstudies.
The teaching language is French.
University degrees awarded by three of the facultiesof the University are recognized as
equivalent to the relevant French qualifications.Diplomas of the medical and pharmacy
faculty are fully valid in France and vice versa.
Other establishments independent of the University offer instruction to holders of the
baccalauréat or higher diplomas.These are professional schools whose regulations in some
cases require the passing of entrance examinations of various kinds. Among these
establishments are: a polytechnical school (Thiès), which offers five-year courses in
engineeringunder the supervisionofthe Ministry of Higher Educationand that oftheArmed
Forces; the National School of Administration and Magistracy;the National School of
Applied Economics; the National School of Postal Services and Telecommunications;the
NatiOnal School of Fine Arts,etc.
T h e training of technical school-teachers takes place in two technical teacher-training
colleges (female and male). Secondary school-teachers are taught in the humanities and
science faculties of the Advanced Teacher-TrainingCollege. The latter provides one-year
courses for intermediate secondary teachers (who must already have the licence) and for
upper-secondaryteachers (who must have the maitrise); the former receive the intermediate
teacher's certificate (certificard'aptitude à l'enseignement moyen-CAEM) and the latter the
secondaryteacher's certificate (certificatd'aptitude à l'enseignement secondaire-CAES). T h e
College also trains teachers for the middle level teacher-trainingcolleges over two years;
entrants must have the baccalauréaf or have completed the first year ofuniversity education.
Short courses in mechanics and in rural engineeringare availableat the UniversityInstitute
of Technology. The Institute of Social Paediatrics trains midwives, nurses and social
assistantsin child health protection.The Centre of Studiesfor the Science andTechnologyof
Informationprovides refresher courses and training formiddle grade personnel.T h e faculty
SENEGAL 249

of law and economics trains students who do not have the baccalauréat over two years to the
capacité en droit.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat which is the secondary-school-
leaving certificate.Those who do not have the baccalauréat may enrol in the University in one
of two cases: if they have passed the special entrance examination,or if they have received
dispensation from both of the former by a special committee.
Although the Universityof Dakar catersessentiallyfor Senegal,foreignstudentsmay enrol
where places are available ifthey can meet the normal requirements of age and qualification.
As a general rule,applicationsfor entrance by African candidates must be supportedby their
national government. Students of the Sudano-Sahelian area are given priority in this.
Applications from outside Africa are considered individually although the requirements
made by the University may not be waived in any case.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
~~

Arts,human sciences DUEL L M DS

Pedagogy C A E M * CAEST
Law,economic DEEG/ L DES
sciences DEJG
Exact and natural sciences DUES L M DEA
Technology DUT
Medical sciences
medicine D
dentistry D DS
pharmacy DEP D
veterinary medicine DIP

CAEM certificatd'aptitude à l'enseignement moyen

CAES certificatd'aptitude à l'enseignementsecondaire
D doctorat
DEA diplôme d'études approfondies
DEEG diplôme d'études économiques générales
DEJG diplôme d'études juridiques générales
DEP diplôme d'Etat de pharmacien
DES diplôme détudes supérieures
DS doctorat de spécialité de troisième cycle
DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires
DUES diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques
DUT diplôme universitaire de technologie
L licence
M maîtrise
P professional qualijication

* One-yearcourse for holders of licence.

t One-yearcourse for holders of maîtrise.
250 SENEGAL

Generally speaking,three stages are distinguishable in higher education. The first stage (or
cycle) offers largely multi-disciplinary and basic studies. In the humanities it leads to the
diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL),in science to the diplôme universitaire
d‘études scientifiques(DUES), in law to the diplôme détudesjuridiquesgénérales (DEJG) and
in economics to the diplôme d‘études économiques générales (DEEG).In medicine and
pharmacy no qualification is awarded.Holders of the DUES may sit the competitive entrance
examination for the ‘grandes ecoles’ of engineering. Studies at the University Institute of
Technology lead after two years to a diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT).
The second stage reflects an advanced knowledge acquired in the courses of the second
cycle.After one year the licence is awarded in humanities and science, and after two years the
maîtrise in humanities,science,law and economics.Secondary school-teachersmust normally
have the maitrise. Holders of the licence in humanities or law or an equivalent qualification
may sit the competitive entrance examination of the National School of Administration where
they follow high level courses in administration.
The third stage involves specialization with emphasis on scientific research. The
qualifications awarded are: the diplôme d’étudessupérieures in law and economics;the d&iôme
d‘études approfondies in science;and the doctorat de spécialitédu troisième cycle in arts,human
sciences and dentistry.
In the medical sciences studies lead to full professional qualification:the diplôme d‘Etat in
pharmacy and the doctorat in medicine,dental surgery and veterinary medicine. In the faculty
of medicine and pharmacy a doctorat &Erat may be taken in pharmacy (after three years’
study from the award of the diplôme cfEtat)and a doctorat de troisième cycle in dentistry (a
minimum of two years after the diplôme de docteur). In medicine,the faculty offers after the
doctorate a certificat d‘études spéciales (CES)in psychiatry and in ophthalmology; othqr
certificates may be prepared in Senegal, though the examination itself takes place in France.

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after six years of primary
followed by seven years of secondary education (divided into four years’ lower and three
years’ upper education) in secondary institutions of general or technical education. The
baccalauréat gives access to higher education.
Capacité en droit. Qualification awarded after two years’ study in law. Access is open to
those who do not hold the baccalauréat;candidates must be 17years old and pass an entrance
examination.
Certificat d’aptitude à l’enseignement moyen (CAEM). Examination taken after one year’s
study in the Advanced Teacher-Training College. Candidates must have the licence; the
qualification entitles them to teach in the first phase of secondary education.
Certificat d’aptitude à l’enseignement secondaire (CAES).Examination taken after one
year’s study in the Advanced Teacher-TrainingCollege. Candidates must have the maîtrise;
the qualification entitles them to teach in the upper phase of secondary education.
Certificat d’études spéciales (CES). Qualification awarded in medicine in certain
specialities.It requires three to four years’ specialized study after the award of the doctorat.
certificat d‘études supérieures. Certificate of higher education,awarded after between six
months’and one year’s study. In order to obtain a licence or a maîtrise,a number of certificats
d‘études supérieures are required.
Diplôme d’études approfondies. Diploma of the third cycle awarded in certain scientific
specialities after one year following upon the award of the maîtrise.
Diplôme d‘études économiques générales (DEEG). Qualification obtained at the end of the
first two-year phase in economics.
Diplôme d’études juridiques générales (DEJG). Qualificationobtained at the end of the first
two-year phase in law.
SENEGAL 25 1

Diplôme d’études supérieures. Qualification of higher education awarded in law and

ewnomics after one year’sstudy following upon the award of the maîtrise.
Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL).Qualification awarded at the end of the
first two-yearphase in humanities.
Diplôme universitaired’étudesscientifiques(DUES). Qualificationawarded at the end ofthe
first two-yearphase in science.
Diplôme universitairede technologie (DUT). Qualificationawarded at the end of two years’
study in a university institute of technology.Outstanding students may continue in higher
education.
Doctorat. The highest degree of higher education,awarded to candidatesalready holding
one or more degrees ofhigher education(seedoctorat d‘Etat, doctorat de spécialité de troisième
cycle).The qualificationdocteur is also awarded on completion of studies in medicine,dental
surgery and veterinary medicine.
Doctorat d’Etat. Degree of higher education awarded in pharmacy,currentlyafter at least
three years’study following the award of the diplôme d‘Etar and following defence ofa thesis.
Doctorat de spécialité de troisième cycle. Degree of higher education awarded at present in
humanitiesand dentistry,after two years’introductionto research and followingdefence ofa
thesis.
Equivalence. The Universitydecreeswhat foreign or national diplomasare to be admitted as
equivalent to the baccalauréat. The degreesand diplomasawarded by the University ofDakar
in conformity with the French regulationsare recognized in both France and Senegalasbeing
valid as official state qualifications.
Examen d’entrée. See special entrance examination.
Licence. Degree awarded after three or four years’study.In humanities and science,the
course is divided into two phases. The first phase consists of two years of broadly-based
studies leading to a diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques (DUES)in science,diplôme
universitaire d‘études littéraires (DUEL)in arts. Candidates have to pass a number of
examinationsat the end of each year.The second phase lasts one year.
Maîtrise. Diploma of higher education,awarded after four years’studies.The first two
years are the first cycle which is shared with the licence,and consist of basic studies.The
second cycle is also of two years and leads to a more advanced knowledge.In the humanities,
the first year of the second cycle leadsto the licence.The second year involvesthe presentation
of a mémoire,or short thesis,and the acquisitionofa certificat détudessupérieures.In science,
the second year is devoted to the acquisition of several CES.The maîtrise is required for the
third cycle and for careers in research.
Special entrance examination. Entrance examination for candidates who do not hold a
baccalauréat or equivalent qualification.
252 SIERRA LEONE

Sierra Leone
In Sierra Leone higher education takes place at the two constituent colleges of the University
of Sierra Leone, at several teacher-trainingcollegesand an advanced teacher-trainingcollege,
and technical institute.
The University of Sierra Leone with its two constituent colleges of Fourah Bay andNjalais
autonomous but entirely financed by the Government. The University is governed by two
bodies: the court is composed of non-university and university members; academic matters
are the concern of the senate, composed mostly of academic members. The colleges are
divided into faculties and departments. Fourah Bay College has faculties of arts, economic
and social sciences, pure and applied sciences and engineering;Njala University College has
faculties of agriculture, including home economics,and education,including basic sciences.
Other institutions of higher education are the advanced teacher-training college (Milton
Margai Teachers’ Training College) and the Technical Institutewhich trains technicians and
clerks and prepares candidates for examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute,
the Royal Society of Arts and the UK ordinary national diploma in technical studies.
Teaching takes place in English.
Teachers of primary education are trained at post-secondary level in teacher-training
colleges in three years following upon twelve years of formal education.They are awarded the
teacher’scertificate.Candidates for the secondary teachers’ training college must obtain at
least four passes at ordinary level in the general certificateof education or in the West African
school certiJicate.Teachers of secondary education obtain the higher teacher’scertificateafter
three years. In the university, student teachers may obtain a bachelor’s degree in education
after three or four years’study,depending on the type ofpreparatory studies,and adiploma at
postgraduate level.
Access to higher education is based on the generalcertificateof education at the ordinaryand
advanced levels. Both examinations are organized by the West African Examinations
Council. The higher qualification is obtained after seven years of primary education followed
by a five-yearphase of secondaryeducationand then two years in the sixth form.At the end of
the fifth year of secondary education,candidatesfor degree studies must obtain five passes at
ordinary level (generalcertificate of education); after the sixth form,they must obtain at least
two subjects at advanced or principal level. The choice of subjects is based on the type of
course they wish to follow in higher education. Faculties have their o w n special entrance
conditions,and students are selected from among suitably qualified candidates.Provision is
made for entry by mature students with special aptitude and experience.
The fmt stage of higher education leads,after a period of three years (or four-if entrants
are not sufficiently qualified they have to do a preliminary year) of undergraduate study,to
the bachelor’s degree (general).The first qualification in divinity is termed the licence. A
bachelor’s degree with honours is awarded after four years’ study. Professional qualifications
are awarded as follows: a certificatein agriculture and home economics after two years’study
at subdegree level;a higher teacher’scertificatein agricultural education or home economics
after three years’ study at subdegree level;a diploma in engineering after three years’study at
sub-degree level.
A further stage leads to higher degrees, after a period of graduate studies. The master’s
degree is awarded after a one-year course following upon an honours degree (two following
upon a general degree). The qualification of doctor of philosophy (PhD) is awarded after a
minimum of three years’ study following upon the bachelor’s degree. Candidates have to
submit a thesis. A diplomp in education is awarded after one year’s postgraduate study.
SIERRA LEONE 253

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,general certificateof education)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education B/P/ Bh P M D
HTC
Arts B Bh M D
Theology B/L M D
Commercial sciences B Bh M D
Mathematics B Bh M D
Sciences B Bh M D
Technology,engineering Di/P Bh M D
Agriculture. home economics Cer HTC Bh M D

B bachelor’s degree Bh bachelor’s degree (honours) Cer certificate D doctor’s

degree D i diploma HTC higher teacher’scertificate L licence M master’s degree
P professional qualipcation

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. Firstdegree of higher education,obtained after a period ofthree to four
years’undergraduate studies,according to the candidates’qualificationsat entry.There are
two levels of bachelor’sdegree: the general degree.and the bachelor’sdegree with honours.
The latterrequires one furtheryear of study.Candidateswho do not hold passes at advanced
level in the general certificare of education are requiredto take a preliminary one-yearcourse
and,therefore,take four years towards the bachelor’s degree (general).
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree (PhD). Higher degree of higher education,obtained after a minimum of
three years’postgraduatestudiesfollowingupon the firstdegree.Candidateshave to submita
thesis.
General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leavingqualification,obtained after 12
or 14 years of primary and secondary education.Examinations are at two levels: ordinary
level after the fifth year ofsecondaryeducation,advanced levelafter two years of sixth form.
The West African higher school certificate is organized along the same lines. Both
qualificationsare awarded by the West African Examinations Council.Candidateschoose
their subjects according to the type of studies they wish to follow in higher education.
Higher school certificate. See general certificate of education.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Licence. First degree awarded in divinity (theology) after three years of undergraduate
studies.
Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded after one year of postgraduate studies following
upon the first degree.
Professionalqualification.Qualification of higher educationawarded at sub-degreelevel as
a diploma in engineering and in marine biology and fisheriesafter three years’study,as a
certificate in agricultureand home economicsafter two years’study and as a higher teacher’s
certificatein agriculturaleducation.At postgraduate level,a diploma in educationis awarded
after one year’s study.
254 SIERRA LEONE

Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.See general certificate of education.

West African higher school certificate. See general certificateof education

Singapore
Higher education in Singapore takes place in two kinds of institution: universities and
specialized institutions of higher education.
The universities are almost wholly financed by government, whose representatives are
members of the governing councils.There are two universities:the University of Singapore,
where teaching is conducted entirely in English and Nanyang University where teaching is also
conducted in English except for lectures at the Chinese language and literature department.
With effect from July 1978,a joint campus scheme has been set up and the studentsof the arts,
science, accountancy and business administration faculties of the two universities have been
studying in the same campus, taught by the same lecturers and examined by the same internal
and external examiners. Nanyang University has faculties of arts, science,commerce and a
college of graduate studies;Singapore University has facultiesof architecture,arts and social
sciences, dentistry, engineering, law, medicine and science and the schools of accountancy,
business administration and pharmacy, postgraduate medical and dental studies. The
facultiesthemselves are composed of many departments.In each university the council is the
executive body and the senate its academic body.
The specialized institutionsof higher education are the Singapore Technical Institute,Ngee
A n n Technical College, the Singapore Polytechnic and the Institute of Education. The
Singapore Technical Institute and the Singapore Polytechnic provide two-year courses of
study in the technical areas leading to the industrial technician’scertificate (ITC).ITC-level
training is also available at certain vocational institutes of the Vocational and Industrial
Training Board, which have been established to run artisan, trade and manual and applied
arts courses. Three-year diploma courses are offered at the Singapore Polytechnic and the
Ngee A n n Technical College.
The Institute of Education is the only institution for teacher-training in Singapore and it
provides training for both graduates and nongraduates.Holders of suitable advanced level
passes in the general certificateof education may obtain a certificatein education after two
years’ full-time study or three at the Institute and qualify as teachers of primary or lower-
secondary levels.Holders of a university degree may obtain a diploma in education after one
year’s full-time study at the Institute of Education. The Institutealso prepares postgraduate
studentsfor the degrees of master in education (MEd)and doctor ofphilosophy (PhD)awarded
by the University of Singapore.Pre-service and in-serviceteacher-trainingcourses at all levels
are also offered at the Institute.
Access to higher education is based on the general certificate of education,advanced level
(GCE‘A’level)obtained after six years of primary and six years of secondaryeducation.The
latter is divided into two stages,the first four years leading to the GCE ordinary level and the
next two years to the GCE advanced level.Candidates to the local universitieshave to pass the
SINGAPORE 255

examination for the GCE advanced level in subjects related to those they wish to study at
university.Each facultyhas its own entrance requirements;studentsalso have to satisfy them
before being accepted into a particular faculty or course of study.Since 1975, the advanced
level examinationhas been jointly held by the Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicateand
the Singapore Ministry of Education and is known as the Singapore-CambridgeGCE
advanced level examination.
The first stage of higher education leads,after a period of undergraduate studies,to the
award of the bachelor’s degree. This first general degree may be obtained after three years in
the faculties of humanities and science,four years in other faculties and five years in the
faculty of medicine. For courses leading to a general degree after three years,the honours
degree may be awarded after a further year of study.
A second stage may be reached after a period of one to three years’graduate studies.The
qualification obtained is that of the master’s degree,and candidates for the master’s degree
must normally hold a good honours degree and submit a thesis embodying the results of a
research project. At the University of Singapore,holders of a bachelor’sdegree may, after
obtaining professional teaching qualifications and an appropriate period of practical
experience,read for a master’sdegree in education.
Holders of a master’s degree may obtain a degree of doctor of philosophy in either of the
universities after a minimum of two years’study but no more than five. Candidates are
required to submit a thesis.A docror’sdegree in literature(DLit),law (LLD)or science (DSc)
may be awarded for published work submitted by persons who have been holders of the
degree of P h D for not less than five years.

P R O F I L E O F HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 12 years,general certificate of education)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

B Bh M PhD D

B bachelor’s degree (general) Bh bachelor’s degree (honours) D doctor’s degree

M master’s degree P h D doctor of philosophy

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree,awarded after three to five years of undergraduate studies.
It is usually awarded,in the facultiesofhumanitiesand science,after three years (fouryearsin
other faculties,except medicine which requires five years) as a general degree.For courses
leading to a general degree after three years,the bachelor (honours)degree may be awarded
after a further year of study.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree. There are two types of doctor’s degree:the doctor ofphilosophy awarded
after a minimum of two years of study following a muster’s degree and for which candidates
are required to submit a thesis;and the doctor’s degree which may be awarded in literature
(DLit),law (LLD)or science (DSc) for published work submitted by persons who have been
holders of the degree of P h D for not less than five years.
General certificate of education. See secondary-school-leavingcertificate.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
256 SINGAPORE

Master’s degree. Higher degree, obtained after one to three years’ postgraduate study.
Candidates have to hold a good honours degree and submit a thesis.
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education, awarded as a certificate or
diploma, after one to three years’ study.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. The general certificate of education, advanced level
(GCE ‘A’level) is obtained after six years of primary followed by six years of secondary
education. Candidates must pass GCE ‘A’level in subjects related to their future university
studies. Faculties also have their o w n special entrance requirements.

Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

No information having been received recently, the present text is mainly repeatedfrom the 1976
English edition of this Guide.

In the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya higher education is given principally in: the University of
Garyounis,Benghazi;the University of Al-Fateh,Tripoli;the Higher Instituteof Technology;
and other institutes.All institutionsof higher education are state-financed,and belong to the
state.
The University of Garyounis comprises several faculties: arts, education, commerce and
economics, engineering, agriculture, science,law and medicine,Arabic and Islamic studies.
Teaching is given in Arabic, although English is used in certain fields.
The Higher Institute of Technology gives courses in various technical fields: food and
medical technology, general sciences and environmental sciences.
The University of Al-Fateh comprises faculties of education, science, engineering,
agriculture, petroleum and mineralogy, medicine, pharmacy, veterinary science.
Short post-secondarycourses are offered for training paramedical personnel, inspectors of
hygiene, etc.
Teacher-training takes place in several kinds of institution. State teacher-training
institutions train primary school-teachersat the level of intermediate schooling (see below).
Secondary school-teachersare trained in the universities,which run teacher-trainingcourses.
Access to higher education is given by the secondary-schoolgeneral leaving certificate,which
is awarded after six years of primary schooling,followed by a three-yearphase of intermediate
schooling and, finally, a three-year phase of secondary schooling. Students enter fields of
higher education which are predominantly either literary or scientific,depending upon the
section in which they have completed their secondary education.
The first stage of higher education represents a general education in a subject,and leads to
the bachelor’sdegree.The Higher Instituteof Technology awards a professional qualification
after a five-year degree course.
The second stage,which represents more intensive study and a training in individual work,
leads to the master’s degree.
SOCIALIST PEOPLE’S LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA 257

Finally,the third stage leads,after at least two further years of study beyond the master’s
degree,to the doctor’sdegree (ordoctorate),which is the highestuniversitydegree.T h e award
of this degree is conditionalupon the submissionof a thesis.
(The second and third stages mentioned above are still in the process of being developed.)

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previouseducation: 12 years,secondary-school-leavingcertificate)

years 4 5 6 7 8

B M D
B bachelor’s degree D doctorate M master’sdegree

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’sdegree. First degree awarded at the university after a four-yearcourse.
Doctor’sdegree(doctorate). T h e highest university degree,awarded afterat leasttwo years’
further study following upon the award of the master’s degree, which is itselfawarded two
yearsafter the bachelor’s degree. T h e doctor’sdegree representsindividualwork leadingto the
submission of a thesis.
Master’s degree. Higher degree usually awarded two years after the bachelor’s degree.
Professional qualification. Professional qualification awarded after five years’ study of
technology or nutritional sciences.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate.Certificateawarded at the end ofa three-yearphase of
secondaryeducation which has been preceded by three years of intermediateand six years of
primary education.In the first year of upper-secondaryeducationall pupils follow the same
course,but the last two years of schoolingare undertaken in either a literary or a scientific
section.

Socialist Republic of Viet N a m

After 1975 all the existing higher education establishmentsin the Socialist Republic of Viet
N a m were merged into a coherent and unified system includingup to 48 institutions,among
which are: three universities (Hanoi,Hue,Ho Chi Minh City); three polytechnics (Hanoi,
Danang,H o Chi Minh City); six pedagogicalschools;six schoolsof agriculture,forestryand
fish-breeding;five schools of medical sciences and pharmacology; five schools of civil
engineering and twenty other specialized schools.
258 SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIET N A M

Higher education institutions engage in three modes of activities: the training of cadres;
scientific research;direct participation in production and service work for the cultural and
social development of the community.
The planning of higher education,the organization of studies,the recruitment of students,
the assignment of jobs after graduation are done on the basis of national development long-
term planning. The specialized higher education establishments have double dependence:
upon the Ministry of Higher Education and the Ministry in charge of the production work or
management of the branches related to the establishment.
Research activities are considered very important.Every year programmes of research are
allotted by the State to different universities and colleges and the correspondingnecessary
credits are allocated to them.Many contracts for research and development have been signed
between enterprises and management offices, and the universities and colleges.
The higher education institutions in Vietnam also carry out important activities in the
service of the community: extra-mural education, spreading of scientific and technical
knowledge, rural areas development, popular sanitary education, protection and
improvement of the environment, drafting bureaus, brigades for geological prospecting,
workshops for productive labour and scientific equipment repairs, agriculture and animal
breeding programmes.
The teaching language is Vietnamese for all courses.
Access to higher education is through the third degree certificate of general education
(corresponding to the baccalaureate) generally obtained after nine years of study in a basic
general school and three years in a general secondary school.
Recruitment is made through the generalentrance examinations for all the higher education
institutionsin the country.The candidateshave their names listed bya National CommissiQn
for Student Recruitment.The examinationis divided into three sections:section A for physics,
mathematics,industrial technology and similar specialities;section B for biology,agricultural
technology and other specialities; section C for social sciences and arts. The students are
selected according to the number of marks obtained in the examination and in compliance
with their wishes. Another way of access is offered by the channel of secondary vocational
schools, where middle level technicians and cadres are trained with a programme of study
equivalent to some extent to that performed in the third degree of the general school. The
graduates of the secondary vocational schools have the right to present themselves at the
entrance examination for universities and colleges in branches corresponding to their
vocational speciality.
The first stage of higher education requires the following number of years, according to
different branches: six for medical sciences,graduating as a medical doctor;five for technical
studies in industry and construction, graduating as an engineer; four for studies in
fundamentalsciences,social sciences,economics,pedagogy,agriculture,cattle-breeding,arts
and cultural activities, physical education and sports, culminating as a higher education
graduate or engineer;three for some special higher education institutions,the aim of which is
to train practical engineers,practitioners in medicineand management, teachers at the second
degree level of the general education schools.
The programmes of learning are drawn up according to different specialities.For a whole
course of learning, in general, fundamental scientific knowledge takes 25 per cent, basic
specialized knowledge 25 per cent,specialization 30 per cent,and practical work 20 per cent.
The last semester of the course is usually reserved for research work or a constructionproject
elaboration.
The teachersdevote a great part of their time to making direct contacts with individuals or
groups of students.
The next stage consists of advanced studies carried out in different forms:(1) postgraduate
studies by research and presentation of a thesis; candidates w h o succeed in defending their
SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIET N A M 259

theses are nominated Doctor,first grade (pho tien si); these studies last from three to four
?ears; (2) postgraduate courses for retraining and improving scientific qualifications are
performed as part-timestudies of one to two years or full-timestudies of one to two weeks or
of a fewmonths.There are formsof continuing education-special courses,stages,scientific
conferences,seminars,etc.
Advanced studies are carried out only in sixteen higher education institutionsand twenty
research institutes which have sufficient equipment for further research.
Doctors, first grade, with valuable theses or research work may obtain the doctorate,
second grade,or doctorate of science (tiensiklioa hoc). This gradeis needed for appointmentas
a senior professor and is equivalent to ‘doctoratewith residence’or ‘statedoctorate’in certain
countries.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, third degree certificate of general education and entrance
examination)

years 3 4 5 6

Education Di Di
Arts,natural sciences Di
Social sciences,economics Di
Fundamental sciences Di
Agriculture,cattle-breeding ~
Di
Physical education Di
Medical sciences Di D
i
Engineering Di Di

Di diploma

(The doctorate,first grade (pho tien si) is awarded three or four years after the diploma.)

GLOSSARY
Diploma. Degree awarded at the end of undergraduate studies.The number of years of
study varies according to the field chosen (six years in medicine,five in engineering,,fourin
other fields).
Pho tien si. Doctorate (1st grade) awarded after three to fouryears’postgraduatestudyand
research and presentation of a thesis.
Tien si khoa hoc. Doctorate(Lndgrade),also called doctorate of science,awarded to scholars
having completed valuable research work and thesis.It is required for appointmentto senior
professorships.
260 SOMALIA

Somalia
Higher education in Somalia is provided by the Jaamaccada Ummadda Soomaaliyeed
(National University of Somalia) which is a state institution enjoying full autonomy. It
comprises faculties of law,economics,science,agriculture,medicine, veterinary medicine,
engineering, teacher-training (rnagistero), industrial chemistry, geology, a polytechnical
faculty and a school of statistics.
The teaching languages are Arabic,Italian and English.
Primary school-teachersare trained at secondary level in various establishments,some of
which are religious.Secondary school-teachersare taught in the University (in the literary or
education section).
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded in
one of the different types of secondary establishment after twelve years’ study. Some
candidates may be admitted to the University after passing an entrance examination.
A two-yearcourse in education qualifies the student to teach the first phase of secondary
studies.In law and economics,studies last four years and the qualificationlaurea (doctor)is
awarded.

GLOSSARY
Laurea. Degree of higher education awarded after four years’study in law and economics.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. Certificate awarded after four years’primary,four
years’ intermediate secondary and four years’ higher secondary education. Secondary
education may take place in establishments whose principal language is English,Arabic,or
Italian.Secondary studies may also take place in teacher-trainingschoolsfor primary school-
teachers(scuole magistrale) or in technical or agriculturalschools.This certificate is required
for access to higher education.

Spain
Higher education in Spain is given in either state or private institutions.Included in the latter
are religious institutions.The Ministry of Education and Science,which has a Secretariatof
State for Universitiesand Research,controlsthe administration and maintenance ofthe state
institutions.However,it also has the right of inspectingand of co-ordinatingall institutions,
whether state or private.The Ministry awards or authorizes the award of qualificationsand
proposes to the Government the main lines of educational policy. A law defining the
autonomy of the universities is currently being drawn up; it will constitute a thorough
overhaul ofthe system in respectofthe universities’autonomywhich is recognized officially in
the Spanish Constitution of 1978.
SPAIN 26 1

There are 24 state universitiesin Spain;four more are in the preparatory stage after their
recent foundation. The Education Bill of 1970 integrated the former higher technical
institutions into three polytechnical universities.
Private institutions of higher education include four universities: Deusto, Navarra,
Salamanca Pontifical,Comillas. as well as four higher technical institutions.
Independently of the proposed law. the universities already enjoy autonomy,determining
for themselves the nature of assessment procedures and of teaching and research. Each
university prepares its own annual budget,in co-ordinationwith the national budget.The
resources of the university may come from fees, subsidies,donations and other income.
Since the law of 1970,universities have been reorganized into departments,institutes,
schools,university colleges,faculties and higher technical schools.
Departments are the principal units for teaching and research in subjects scientifically
related to one another.Institutescall upon stafffrom one or more departmentsin additionto
having their own staff:they are centres for research and specialization.Schoolsand colleges
connected with universities provide and co-ordinatefirst cycle instruction (for the formerit is
a long course,for the latter a shortercourse). Faculties and higher technical schools provide
instruction at every level of a given subject.Faculties offer law,pharmacy,science (biology,
physics,geology,mathematics,chemistry). philology.history and geography,philosophy and
education,data processing,politics and sociology,economics and management,veterinary
medicine,medicine,psychology. and fine arts.In some universitiesfurther specializationis
available within a particular subject.
The higher technical schools offer agriculture.various kinds of technology (agronomics,
highways,marine and industrialengineering,telecommunications,aeronautics,mining)and
the possible suh-divisionsof these subjects.The private schools offer engineering,chemistry,
industrial engineering (textiles), administration and management.
Artistic studies take place in five types of institution: music conservatories,fine arts
faculties,the Higher School of Dramatic Art, schools of applied arts and art trades,and
schools of ceramics.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Shorter courses are also available. Students taking them are awarded,after three years’
study,the qualification diplomado (in management or primary teacher-training)or that of
arquitecto técnico and ingeniero técnico (aeronautics,agriculture,forestry,industrial and
marine engineering,mining, public works, topography,optics,telecommunications,data
processing and statistics). Also at this level are the university schools of nursing,
interpretation and translation.
Followingthese shortercourses,the studentmay enter the second cycleofhigher education
in the faculties or higher technical schools, depending on subject,after taking a curso de
transformarion.
The training of primary and nursery school-teacherstakes place in the appropriate
university schools under the direction of the institutes of educational science (ICE).These
teachers.for whom the minimum qualification is diplomado universitario or arquitecto técnico
or ingeniero récnico receive their educational training diectly from the ICE’S.
There are also innovatory forms of higher education,among them the Spanish open
university, the Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia (UNED),which functions
throughout Spain by means ofcorrespondencecoursesand personalinstructionfrom the staff
of the numerous university centres.UNED offers courses in law,history and geography,
philology,philosophy and education,economics and management,physics,chemistry,and
mathematics.
Access to higher education is based on the curso de orientacion universitaria which is open to
students who have passed the bachiller or theformacion profesional de segundo grad0 (inter-
mediate professional training). The COU is organized and supervised by the university,but
262 SPAIN

takes place in bachillerato centres (eitherstate-runor state-approved). The aim of the COUis
to give a grounding in basic knowledge, to guide pupils in the choice of a career or an
occupationfor which they show an aptitude and ability,and to train them in the techniquesof
intellectual work required in higher education.The course involvesa wide range of obligatory
and optional subjects along with brief introductions to the sciences and to the professions.
Success in the COU no longer guarantees entrance to higher education;the student must
also pass the pruebas de aptitudes (general knowledge test). Certain objective criteria, such as
the details of courses and the capacity of each institution, in c o m m o n with the student’s
previous training, are legally imposed as a further limitation on places offered. Entry to the
university is also open to those aged over 25 w h o have not completed the bachillerato course
but w h o pass a special entrance examination.
T o obtain admissionto the COU two routes are possible. On the one hand,the normal route
is via the bachillerato unijïcadoypolivalenie,a course which lasts three years and which follows
upon eight years of general basic education.The other route is via theformacidnprofesional
course,with its distinct levels,the lowest one of which represents a two-yearcourse whichis a
continuation of general basic education,and the segundo grad0 (second level) which follows
upon this after a ‘conversion’course.
Foreign students whose studies m a y be considered equivalent to the bachi/lerato and the
COU and who wish to enter Spanish higher education must also pass thepruebasde aptitudes.
These may be taken in Spanish consulates abroad, and consist of one essay on an aspect of the
Spanish language and two on questions chosen by the student from a range of options.The
MU1 may, however,regulate the number of places offered to foreign studentsin proportion to
the capacity of the university centres.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDY

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, curso de orieniacih universitaria)

years 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9

Education
Arts
Theology B L D
D
Fine arts r
Architecture P n
Law
Politics, economics L D
Business administration L D
Exact and natural L D
sciences
Technology, engineering Di P D
Medical sciences
medicine
pharmacy L D
veterinary medicine L D
Agriculture Di P D

B bachillerato (intheology,baccalauria) D doctorado Di diploma L licenciatura

P professional qualification(engineer,architect)
SPAIN 263

The principle of equivalences is applied to countries with which Spain has signed the
appropriate treaties.In other cases,the normal considerationsof reciprocityare invoked.In
the absence of such consideration,the academicrecord of each studentis examined in order to
establish whether a full equivalence may be granted.
Partial studies in higher education come under the jurisidiction of the rector of the
university where the student wishes to study.Where the student has completed one or more
phases ofhigher study,thedecisionofthe Ministry ofUniversitiesand Research,subjectto the
report of the National Assembly of Universities,is final.At other levels(professional,etc.)the
National Council for Education must deliver its report before a decision is taken by the
Ministry of Education.
Higher education traditionally involvesthree stages.The first stage lasts three years and is
intended to offer a grounding in basic disciplines.Studies undertaken in a faculty or higher
technical school lead to the professional qualifications of diplomado, arquitecto técnico or
ingeniero técnico in the relevant speciality.
Students who have completed the first stage of higher education,diplomados of schools
attached to a university,arquitecfos técnicos and ingenieros técnicos may enter the secondstage
in which approximately two-yearspecializationcourses lead to the award of the licenciafura,
or of the qualificationarquitecto or ingeniero;theseare professionalqualificationsand govern
access to the third phase of studies.
The third stage,a preparation for research and for teaching,entails the submission of a
thesis and leads to the degree of doctor.

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato unificado y polivalente(BUP).Qualification obtained after a three-yearcourse
which is normally completed by the age of 17.The programme includes compulsory basic
subjects,optional subjects which the pupil may select according to his future occupationand
his abilities,and technical and vocational activities of which thepupil must choose one.To be
awarded the qualificationthe pupil must obtain satisfactorymarks during his course.Ifthese
are unsatisfactory he may have to sit an examination.The qualification awarded is that of
bachiller. It gives a right of access to a course of intermediate-levelprofessional training
(formacibn profesional de segundo grado) and also admits to the curso de orientacion
universitaria.
Convalidacion. Official recognition of a higher education qualification attained by a
Spanish or foreign student studying outside Spain.
Curso de orientacion universitaria (COU).The COU is the normal mode of access to
university education.Its aim is to deepen the pupil’sknowledge in the basic subjects,to guide
him in the choice of a career or occupationand to train him in the techniques of intellectual
work required in higher education.To be eligible for this course the pupil must have been
awarded the bachilleruto or undergone a course of intermediate level professional training
(formacibn profesional de segundo grado).
Curso de transformacion.One-yearcourse,successin which qualifiesa student to pass from
a lower to a higher phase (cfformacibn profesional) or to continue higher education after
having completed a phase of education in one of the schools of the university.
Diploma. The title of diplomado, arquifecto técnico or ingeniero técnico is awarded to
studentswho have completed the first stageofhighereducation in a facultyor higher technical
institution (ETS)and followed the appropriate courses of the higher level of professional
training Cformacibn profesional de tercer grado). This stage lasts three years.
Diploma de aptitud profesional. See formacibn profesionnl.
Doctorado.The highest degree of higher education.It is awarded at the end of the third
stage of higher education.The period of study extends normally for two years beyond the
264 SPAIN

licenciatura. Students must follow a series of cursos monogrdficos (in depth studies) and
submit and defend a thesis;if the thesis is accepted,the title of doctor is conferred.
Equivalence. See convalidacion.
Formacih profesional. There are three levels of fôrmacion profesional (professional
training). The lower level (primer grado) may be awarded to studentswho,having completed
the course of generalbasic education,do not pursue theirstudiesto the bachillerato. The inter-
mediate level (segundo grado) corresponds to having passed the bachillerato or having the
lower level qualification and followed a course in additional subjects (cf curso de
transformacion). (See also diploma.)
To be awarded the higher-levelqualifications (tercergrado) one must have completed the
first stage of higher education in a university or a higher technical institution,to have
graduated or have completed the intermediatelevel offormacidn profesional with a course in
additional subjects.
The object offormacion profesional is to impart to students the competence and practical
knowledge necessary to exercise the profession for which they have trained and to teach the
right use of its specific techniques.
The maximum time to obtain each level must not exceed two years.
The intermediate level offormacion profesional gives access to the curso de orientacion
universitaria (COU).
Licenciatura. The title of licenciado is awarded after having successfully passed the second
stage of higher education,i.e.after five years of university study.It entitlesthe holder to enter
professionalpractice and is the prerequisitefor admission to the third phase of higher studies
or doctorado.
Pruehas de aptitud. Tests to be takenby studentswho,havingpassed the COU,wish to enter
faculties,higher technical schools and university colleges.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See bachillerato unificado y polivalente.
Titulo profesional. Professional title awarded to various categories of engineers and to
architects.The title is ofthe same kind as the licenciatura,but for it candidatesin theirlast year
have to prepare a special project (proyecto defin de carrera).

Sri Lanka
Higher education in Sri Lanka is provided in three kinds of institution: universities,
specialized state and private institutions,and other private institutions.
The Law on Universities 16/1978,which took effectin 1979,providesfor the replacementof
the University of Sri Lanka by six separate universities (those of Colombo at Colombo;of
Jaffna at Thurenelvely,Jaffna;Kelaniya at Dalugana,Kelaniya;Moratuwa at Katubedda,
Moratuwa; Peradeniya at Peradeniya and of Sri Jayewardenepura at Gangodawila); an
addition to these is the UniversityCollegeof Ruhuna at Matara.The University of Colombo
(previouslythe Colombo campusofthe UniversityofSriLanka) comprisesfacultiesofletters,
SRI LANKA 265

education,law,medicine,and natural sciences,as well as institutesofworkers’educationand

medicine (postgraduate level). The University of Jaffna has faculties of letters,of medicine,
and of science.The University of of Kelaniya (previously the Vidyalankara campus of the
University of Sri Lanka) has facultiesof letters and of science.The University of Moratuwa
(previously the Katubedda campus) has engineering and architecture faculties; that of
Peradeniya,faculties of agriculture,humanities,engineering,medicine,dentistry,veterinary
medicine,and science,and the University of Sri Jayewardenepura (formerly the Vidodaya
campus) faculties of applied sciences,letters, business administration and commerce.
The 1978 law also decreed the establishment of a University Grants Commission. The
universities are under a vice-chancellor;the University College is run by a director.
Specialized institutionsofhigher educationprovide technicaland professionaleducation as
well as teacher-training.They are the Sri Lanka Technical College, five polytechnical
institutes,a school of agriculture,the Sri Lanka Law College,the College of Arts and Crafts,
the College of Music and the College of Dance and Ballet.They offertwo-,three-,or four-year
courses leading to diplomas and certificates.Some are autonomous,othersdepend directly on
the State.
Some private institutionsoffer courses leading to certain degrees of the universities of Sri
Lanka or to professional qualifications.There is also a Christian institute for the study of
religion and society.
The teaching languages are Singhalese,Tamil and English,depending upon the institution
and subject in question.
Teachersare trained in twenty-threeteacher-trainingcolleges.These are open to holders of
the general certificate ofeducation. The course lasts two years with a furtheryear’sdirected
teaching. The certificates are awarded at ‘ordinary’and ’higher’level. The University of
Colombo offers a five-yearcourse for the bachelor’s degree in education.
Access to higher education is based on the general certificateof education,advanced level,
taken a minimum ofone year after the senior school certificatewhich itself is the culmination
of six years’primary and five years’secondaryeducation.The number of passes required at
either level (ordinary or advanced) varies between one university and subject and another.
The first major (or undergraduate)stage of higher education leads to the bachelor’s degree
or a professional qualification.In the arts,science,and law facultiesand that of Buddhist
studies the bachelor’s degree (general)is awarded after three, and the bachelor’s degree
(special)after four years.In most other faculties the bachelor’sdegree requiresfouryears (five
years in medicine). In most facultiesalso the bachelor’sdegree may be taken atpassor honours
degree level. The professional qualificationsof certificateor diploma are normally awarded
after three or four years,sometimesafter one year.Study is normally full-time,but part-time
study does exist.
T h e second (or postgraduate) stage leads after one or two years’study (depending on the
subject) to the master’s degree. The bachelor’s degree (honours) with a high grade is a
prerequisite for this degree. Studies culminate in the submission of a dissertation and in
written or oral examinations.A higher certificatemay be awarded for a period of specialized
or continuing studies intermediate between the bachelor’s degree (or professional
qualification)and the master’s degree.
A third stage leads after two years’research work and the submission of a thesis to the
degree ofdoctor of philosophy (PhD)or doctor of medicine (MD). The doctorate may be started
immediately after the bachelor’s degree (honours)in exceptional cases.
Another stage leads after two years of consecutivestudies following upon the award of the
master’s or doctor’sdegree or a minimum of seven years after the bachelor’s degree to a higher
doctor’sdegree in arts (DLitt)or science(DSc). It is awarded for published work constituting a
contribution to the advancement of knowledge.
266 SRI LANKA

PROFILE OF H I G H E R S T U D I E S

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years, general certificateof education,advanced level)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education P B D
Arts B B M/DM/D D DLitt
Buddhist studies B B M D
Law B B M/D D
Commercial sciences B D
Economics B M D
Administration B M
Exact and B B M/D D DSc
natural sciences
Engineering, B M/D D
architectural sciences
Technology P P P P
Medical sciences
medicine B D MID D
dentistry B D
veterinary medicine B M/D D
Agriculture B M D

B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree DLitt doctor of letters DSc doctor of

science M master’s degree P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Associateship.See professional qualification.
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education,obtained after three to five years’study.
Some faculties offer a bachelor’s degree general after three years’study and a bachelor’sdegree
special after four. In most subjects, the bachelor’s degree general may be awarded as a pass
degree or as an honours degree indicating higher achievement.In certain cases,coursesmay be
followed in a private institution and candidates may sit the examination externally. Such
candidates are awarded the bachelor’s degree as an external degree.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree. Higher degree of higher education obtained after the master’sdegree,after
at least two years’ study and submission of a thesis. There are two types of doctor’s degree:
that of doctor of philosophy (PhD) and of doctor of medicine (MD).There exist also higher
doctor’s degrees, awarded on published work after at least two years beyond the master’s
degree,or seven years after a bachelor’sdegree honours;they are awarded in literature (DLitt)
and in science (DSc).
External degree. See bachelor’s degree.
General certificate of education. Qualification obtained after the matriculation examination
organized by the Department of Examination,taken after six years ofprimary and six or seven
years of secondary education. Candidates for higher education have to obtain a number of
passes at two levels (ordinary and advanced) in subjects according to their choice; these
subjects have to fit in with individual faculty requirements.Candidates usually do one or two
SRI LANKA 267

years’ study beyond the senior school certificate (when they take their ordinary level
examinations) before obtaining advanced level passes leading to the general certifcate of
education.
Higher certificate. See professional qualification.
Higher school certificate. Secondary-school-leavingqualification,obtained after one or
usually two years’study in a general secondary school beyond the senior school certificate.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Master’s degree. Higher degree,obtained after two years’postgraduate studiesfollowing
upon the bachelor’s degree honours. Candidates have to submit a thesis and undergo written
and oral examinations.
Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Professionalqualification. Qualification of higher education,awarded after three or four
years (or one year occasionally). Studies are full-or part-time;the qualification obtained is a
certificate or a diploma; it may be awarded as an associateship of a professional body.
Professional qualifications may be awarded at postgraduate level (higher certificate or
diploma ).
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See general certificate of education, higher school
certificate,senior school certificate.
Senior schoolcertificate.Secondary schoolqualification,obtained after six years ofprimary
and five years of secondaryeducation in a general (collegiate)secondary schoolor in a school
not leading to university (senior secondaryschool). It givesaccessto teacher-training colleges
after a competitive examinationand six passes in the general certificateof education,ordinary
level.

Sudan
In Sudan higher education is provided in five universities, one institution of technical
education, eleven institutions of professional education and one institution of teacher-
training.
The University of Khartoum, government-financed,is an autonomous institution. It
comprises faculties offering courses in agriculture, arts (including geography and
philosophy), economics and social sciences,engineering and architecture,law,medicine,
pharmacy,science,veterinary medicine,education,as well as institutesof furthereducation,
of African and Asian studies,a research institute for civil engineering,a college of advanced
studies,a school of mathematical sciences,and a study centre on development.
The University of Cairo (Khartoum branch) is an unusualtype ofinstitutionwhich became
independent in 1959 and is financed by funds from the University of Cairo. It comprises
faculties of arts (including sociology), law,science,and commercial sciences.
Omdurman Islamic University is a state institution under the jurisdiction of the National
Council for Higher Education and totally government-financed.It comprises faculties of
268 SUDAN

Islamic studies,economics,political and social sciences (includingIslamic law), arts,and a

girls’ college.
The University of Gezira,founded in 1975, is an autonomous state institution,almost
entirely financed by the central government. It comprises faculties of economics and rural
development,science and technology,agriculture and medical sciences.
Juba University,which received its first studentsin 1977,is an autonomousstateinstitution
whose main purpose is to help foster the development of southernSudan.Its activities are
focused on natural resources and environmental studies, economic and social studies,
medicine,educational sciences,and adult education.
The Khartoum Polytechnic,a state-financedautonomous institution,provides training in
the fields of engineering,commercialsciences,secretariat,agriculture,fine arts and applied
arts.
The Khartoum Polytechnic and Juba University offer higher short-term studies leading,
after two or three years,to a Certificate or diP(oma. These studies may be prolonged (see
below).
Secondary school-teachers are trained in the faculty of education of the University of
Khartoum (set up in 1974 to replace the higher teacher-traininginstitute), which awards a
bachelor’sdegree in educationafterfouryears’study.Omdurman IslamicUniversityawards a
generaldiploma of education after a year’sstudy.A higher instituteofphysicaleducation,open
both to men and women students,offers a four-yeartraining programme.
In general, the languages of instruction are Arabic (particularly in the faculties or
departments of Arabic language, Islamic law and history, etc.) and English (mainly in
technical or professional subjects).
Access to higher education is given through the Sudan higher secondary school certificate,
obtained after three years’ senior-secondary education following three years’ junior-
secondary and six years’primary education.Entry may also be gained by the holders of the
Cambridge overseas school certificate or its equivalent. The subjects chosen in these
examinationsmust broadly correspond to the subjects to be studied at the higher education
level.The secondary-schoolcertificate of the Arab Republic of Egypt (see Glossary for that
country), or an equivalent qualification is the entrance requirement for the University of
Cairo,Khartoum branch.
In all the higher technical or other specializedinstitutesstudentsobtain advanced diplomas
after three or four years’study.
In many fields,the first year of university studies is devoted to basic studies.Thus,one
year’s study in the faculty of science must precede studies in medicine,veterinary medicine,
pharmacy,and agriculture.
The first major stage is generally reached with the award of the bachelor’s degree, which
indicates the attainment of basic knowledge and is in some cases a higher professional
qualification.In the latter case,for example in medicine,the period of studiesleading to the
award of this qualification is six years compared with four in other fields and five in
architecture,pharmacy and veterinary medicine.The more specializedbachelor’sdegree with
honours normally requires an additional year’s study.
The conditionsrequired to obtain a bachelor’s degree at the UniversityofCairo,Khartoum
branch are the same as those required by universitiesin the Arab Republicof Egypt (see the
entry for Arab Republic of Egypt,under bachelor’s degree).
A second stage,which representsa deepeningof knowledge,a certainlevelofspecialization
and preparation for individual research,is reached after two or three years’study,with the
award of the master’s degree.
Finally a third stagemay be reached throughindividualresearchwork and presentation ofa
thesis;it leads,after three years’study,following upon the master’sdegree, to the degree of
doctor of philosophy.
SUDAN 269

The University of Khartoum also awardshigher doctorates in arts (DLitt),law (LLD)and

science (DSc) in respect of published work contributingsignificantly to the advancement of
knowledge.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,Sudan higher-secondaryschool certificate)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education GDE TC TD B
Physical Di
education
Arts B BH M PhD
Fine arts, Di
applied arts
Architecture B M PhD
Law B* Bt M PhD
Social sciences, Di B M PhD
economics
Commercial Cer B M PhD
sciences
Exact and B BH M PhD
natural sciences
Engineering, Cer Di B M PhD
technology
Medical sciences
medicine B M/D
pharmacy B M PhD
veterinary B M PhD
medicine
Agriculture Cer Di B M PhD

B bachelor’s degree
BH bachelor’s degree (honours)
Cer certficate
D doctor’s degree
Di diploma
GDE general diploma of education
M master’s degree
P h D doctor of philosophy
TC teacher’scertificate (primary school)
TD teacher’sdiploma (secondary school)
* civil law
t Sharia (Islamic law)

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree awarded after fourto six years’study according to the field
270 SUDAN

of study.Severalfacultiesalso award a more specialized honours degree,preparationfor which

requires an additional year’s study. In medicine, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, and
agriculture, the first year is devoted to the study of basic sciences in the faculty of science.
Examinations are supervised by examiners internal and external to the institution.
Certificate. Qualification awarded after two years’ study at the Khartoum Polytechnic.
Diploma. Diploma obtained at Juba University and in the higher technical or other
specialized institutes after three or four years’ study on entry from senior-secondary
education.
Doctor’s degree. Highest degree awarded in all facultiesat the University of Khartoum and
in certain faculties of other universities after three years’ study following upon the master’s
degree.
General diploma of education. Diploma awarded by O m d u r m a n Islamic University after a
year’s study.
Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded after two or three years’ postgraduate study
following upon the bachelor’s degree.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate (the Sudan higher-secondary-school certificate).
Qualification obtained following three years of secondary education after three years of
middle school and six years of primary school. This qualification permits access to higher
education.
Secondary school teacher’s diploma. Qualification awarded by the faculty of education of
the University of Khartoum (set up to replace the teacher-training institute)which confers a
bachelor’s degree in education after four years’ study.

Surinam
No information having been received recently,the present text is mainly repeatedfrom the 1976
English edition of this Guide.

In Surinam higher education is given in the University of Surinam,which includes the former
schools of medicine (de geneeskundige school) and law (de Surinaamse rechtsschool) and a
teacher-training institution (Surinaamse kweekschool). It is financed by the State. T h e
teaching is in Dutch. It also includes an institute of medical research.
Primary teachers are trained at secondary level. However, directors of schools and
specialist teachers may be appointed after a further two-or three-yearpart-timecourse,which
is regarded as being at the level of higher education.
Access to higher education is given through the secondary-school-leavingcertificate. This is
awarded after six years of primary and six years of secondary education, the latter being
divided into two phases of two and four years each.
Higher education leads to a professional qualification. Courses last six years in medicine,
five years in dentistry, pharmacy, law and notary studies.
SURINAM 271

For the training of civil servantsthere existsa course of five years’duration,the last two of
which are at the level of higher education.

Swaziland
Higher education in Swaziland is provided by the University of Botswana and Swaziland,
founded in 1976and comprisingtwo university colleges situated at Manzini,Swaziland and
Gaborone,Botswana.
The University College of Swazilandoffersinstructionin agriculture,education,letters and
human sciences,law,politics and administration.It includes two affiliated teacher-training
institutions,the Nazarene Training College and the William PitcherCollege,both at Manzini.
Shorter courses of higher education lead over two years to professional qualifications
(diplomas)in:agriculture,agriculturaleducation,animal health and management,and home
economics.
The University College of Swaziland awardstwocertificatesin the fieldofteacher-training:
the primary teacher’s certificateand the teacher’scertificate.These courses take place in the
affiliated institutionsnamed above and last two years.A diploma in education (DipEd)may be
delivered to qualified candidates having at least two years of professional experience.
The main stage of higher education (longerstudies) leads after four years to the bachelor’s
degree in agriculture (BScAgric), commerce (BCom), and in education.The bachelor of law
(LLB)requires five years’study,two of these to be taken in Edinburgh.
At the second stage the College awardsa master of education afterone year’sstudy following
the award of the BEd. A thesis is required. The candidate must have at least two years’
professional experience. He may also be required to pass an examination.
For access to higher education,normal duration of studies and glossary,see Botswana.

Sweden
Higher education in Sweden impliesa widened concept ofpost-secondaryprogrammes.The
272 SWEDEN

current comprehensive term for higher education in this country (in Swedishh6gskol)applies
not only to university studies of a traditional kind but also to programmes which used not to
be looked upon as part of the higher education system. Examples of this widened under-
standing of higher education are programmes for training pre-school teachers, nurses,
journalists and dental hygienists. Undergraduate study programmes are organized in the
following five sectors of vocational training: education for technical professions; education
for social work, economic and administrative professions; education for medical and
paramedical professions; education for the teaching profession;education for information,
communication and cultural professions.
Postgraduate and research programmes are organized in the following faculties:theology,
arts,law, social sciences, medicine, dental medicine,science and technology.The University
of Agricultural Sciences is divided into faculties of agriculture, of forestry and of veterinary
medicine.
There are six universities,located in Goteborg, Linkoping, Lund, Stockholm, U m e i and
Uppsala. In addition,there are some 20 university-typecolleges with programmes which vary
greatly in length, content and degree of vocational bias.
The bulk of higher education in Sweden is run and funded by the State. A number of
programmes,particularly in nursing,are operated by local and regional authorities.With the
Stockholm School of Economics and Business Administration as the only noteworthy
exception, there are no private institutions of higher education in Sweden.
Apart from the University of Agricultural Sciences which is under the jurisdiction of the
Ministry of Agriculture,all state institutionsof higher education are under the control of the
Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs. At an intermediate administrative level,
independent of the Education Ministry, the National Board of Universities and Colleges is
charged with preparing annual budget proposals, initiating and supporting research and
development for higher education and operating central admissions.
The language of instruction is Swedish.
Access to higher education is considered in two steps. The basic prerequisite is that
applicants meet general eligibility requirements which may be either of the following.They
must have concluded a complete school course of at least 1 1 years’ duration which must
comprise English and Swedish and must possess a secondary-schoolcertificate. In the second
case, they must be 25 years of age and have four years of professional activity and a good
reading knowledge of English (applies only to Swedish citizensand to immigrants in Sweden).
In addition to the general eligibility requirements quoted above, higher education
applicants must also meet special entrance requirements for the particular study programme
they wish to follow. Special entrance requirements apply to admission to most courses of
study. They amount to background knowledge at upper-secondary-schoollevel in subjects
which are of particular importance for the course of study.Consequently,they differ from one
programme to another. If,for instance,a student intends to take a degree in civil engineering
he must have the same background knowledge in mathematics, physics and chemistry as
upper-secondary-schoolleavers in technology or in mathematics and the natural sciences.For
admission to a programme in primary school teaching,background knowledge at upper-
secondary-schoollevel in Swedish,English,history,religion,civics,mathematics andnatural
science is prescribed.
Higher education is organized on a scientific basis and should further the process whereby
students prepare themselves for various professions. The degrees awarded indicate the
professional field the programme is related to. The duration of programmes varies
considerably. Shorter studies carried out in university-type colleges lead, in a period of
approximately one to three years,to a vocational qualification normally translated as national
certificate (national certificate in nursing, horticulture, secretarial studies, accounting,
laboratory technology,etc.). Having passed a general study programme or a separate course
SWEDEN 273

the students receive an utbildningsbevis (a certificate describing the duration and main
contents of the course or programme).
The main stage of studies is generally of three to four years’duration for students who
complete a general study programme. They are awarded adegree whose name is constituted
either of an occupational term and the word examen (e.g. juristexamen, Iakarexamen,
civilingenjorexamen), or of the expressionhogskoleexamenpi x-linjen,x being the name of a
study programme. Under certain conditions, even those who complete an education
consisting of separate courses will receive a certificate with a degree.
A furtherstageleadson to thedoktor degree,afterfouryears’study (followingupon the first
degree) devoted to research and to a published thesis. Doctor’sdegrees are designated after
the faculties in which they have been acquired.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 1 1 years,secondary-schoolceriificaie)

years1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education E E E E
Arts E D
Religion E D
Fine arts,music E E
Architecture
Law E D
Social sciences, E E E D
administration,economics
Secretarial and E
accounting studies
Science
Engineering
Medical sciences
medicine E E D
dentistry E E D
pharmacy
veterinary medicine
nursing E
Agriculture,horticulture E E D

E examen D doktor

GLOSSARY
Doktor. Highest degree given in higher education,awarded to graduates who have devoted
themselves to research (generally for four years), and who (after the first degree) have
defended a thesis that has been published.
Examen.The examen ends the first stage of studies.It might be ofone year to two anda half
years’duration and,in that case,is a professionalqualificationwhich the Swedishtranslateas
nationalcertificate(in nursing,horticulture,secretarial studies,etc.). Or it might be of three to
four years’duration correspondingto a BA,BSc,BE,etc.The word examen is not used alone
generally,but is linked with an occupationalterm (for instance,agronomexamen,architekt-
214 SWEDEN

examen, civilingenjorexarnen,juristexamen, ekonomexamen, apotekarexamen, Iakarexamen,

veterinarexamen,etc.). W h e n there is no particular term for it, the diploma is calledhogskole-
examen, followed by the speciality (e.g.hogskoleexamen pd biologlinjen).
Hogskoleexamen. See examen and linjen.
Linjen. Word used in the expression hogskoleexamen pi x-linjen, x being the name of a
speciality or study programme (e.g. hogskoleexamen pd fysikerlinjen, pd kemistlinjen,pd
matematikerlinjen,p i musikdramatiska linjen, etc.).

Switzerland
In Switzerlandhigher education is provided mainly in the eight cantonal universitiesand two
federal institutesof technology.Teaching takes place in French in the universities of Geneva,
Lausanne and Neuchâtel and the Federal Institute of Technology,Lausanne; in German in
the universitiesof Basel, Berne,and Zurich,at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich,
and at the Graduate School of Economics, Business and Public Administrationin St.Gallen.
The University of Fribourg is bilingual (French/German).
Higher education in Switzerlandbeing primarily the responsibility of each canton,there are
numerous differences between the various institutions regarding the length of studies
(counted in semesters), the nature and nomenclature of qualifications and diplomas,and the
conditions under which they are awarded. On the other hand, medical and paramedical
studies are governed by federal regulations, as are the federal institutes of technology.
The universities and the Graduate School of Economics, Business and Public
Administration in St.Gallen are financedmainly by the cantons,with help from either federal
or local authorities. The federal institutes of technology are financed from federal funds.
Swiss universities are divided into a varying number of faculties: theology, law and
economics (occasionally as separate departments), medicine, humanities, science, etc.
Fribourg and Neuchâtel Universities offer medicine only at the preclinical level in the science
faculty.
Technical education at the higher education level takes place mainly in the federal institutes
of technology. The Federal Institute of Technology of Zürich comprises some fifteen
specialized departments (including architecture, engineering, mechanics, electrical
engineering, chemistry, pharmacy, forestry, agriculture, rural engineering, topography,
mathematics,physics, natural sciences), as well as various centres and institutes.The Federal
Institute of Technology of Lausanne offers a more restricted range of subjects. There is a
Graduate School of Economics,Business and Public Administration in St. Gallen.
The training of teachers for primary education is given, at secondary level, in training
colleges.Teachers for lower-and upper-secondaryeducation are trained in universitiesand in
the Federal Institute of Technology,Zurich in two to three years and four years respectively.
Teachers of commerce are trained in the economics faculties or the Graduate School of
SWITZERLAND 275

Economics,Business and Public Administration,St.Gallen,in the same conditions as future

teachers of the second cycle of secondary education (the gymnasium cycle).
Access to higher education normally takes place after 13 years of primary and secondary
education, terminating in the award of the maturité/maturitat (school-leaving/university-
entrance qualification). There are five types of school-leavingcertificate(A,Latin-Greek;B,
Latin-modern languages;C,mathematics-sciences;D,modern languages;E. economics)
which have federal recognition.These types give access to all faculties.For matriculation in
faculties where a knowledge of Latin is required,candidates without Latin have to pass an
additional examination in Latin during their university studies.The recognition of cantonal
maturité certificates rests with the individualuniversity authorities.However,not all types of
leavingcertificate give accessto university faculties.Trainingcollegesat secondary level give a
certificate of competencefor primary school teaching which gives access to some faculties in
some universities,subject to the candidate passing a further examination.
Foreign studentsmust be at least 18 years old and must have a good working knowledgeof
French or German. Recognition of foreign educational qualificationsis at the discretion of
individual universities.Foreign students wishing to enrol should write to the university of
their choice.Some faculties(notably pharmacy,chemistry and psychology) can only accept a
limited number of foreign students.In medicine foreign students are not admitted.
Given the variations and diversity ofhigher education in Switzerland,it is very difficult to
generalize.A few examples will show,however,that certain stages are reached after two to
four semesters, then six to eight semesters and beyond.
A first period ofstudy is devoted to broadly-basedstudies.It leads,after three semesters in
arts, to the demi-licence of the University of Geneva; to the baccalauréat en théologie
(Universityof Fribourg); after four semesters in a sciencefaculty to the Vorprüfùng at Zurich
University;it consists of two years of basic study at the Federal Instituteof Technology of
Zurich;oneyear in law;oneyear ofscientificstudy and one year ofpreparatorystudies(propé-
deutique/Propüdeutikunz) in medicine. After two years of study,trainee teachers obtain a
diplôme de professeur de l'enseignement secondaire/Sekundarlehrer-Diplom (for lower-
secondary education).
The second phase is devoted to study in depth often with some specialization.After six to
eight semesters in arts,law or science,this study culminates in the award ofalicence/Lizentiar,
which includes the preparation of a mémoire. In law,the university,together with cantonal
authorities,grants a diplôme dErat/Staatsdiplum for lawyers or barristers,obtained after a
period of practical training.A diplôme d'Efat/Staatsdiplomin theology is also granted at this
stage.
For teacher trainees, a combination of the licence/Lizentiat and a certificat d'aptitude
pédagogique (certificate of education) leads to the award of a diplôme de professeur de
l'enseignementsecondaire/Mittelschullehrer Diplom (for upper-secondaryeducation).
In the federal institutes of technology,studies in subjects leading to professional and
technical qualificationsterminate in a diplôme d'Etat/Staatsdiplom in engineering after seven
to eight semesters.
In medicine and allied subjects, the degree is a federal diplôme d'Erar/Eidgenossisches-
Diplum. In medicine,however,this is obtained only after 13 semesters of study.
The third phase corresponds,in arts,theology,sciences,law and economics to a period
devoted to specialization.After a minimum period of eight semesters of research,candidates
must present a thesis to obtain a doctorate. In arts subjects in particular,this may represent
many years' study.
In federal institutes of technology,the doctorate is usually obtained after four semesters
on of the diplôme d'ingénieur/Ingenieur Diplom.
Upper-secondary and commercial school-teachers may also prepare a doctorate in their
276 SWITZERLAND

particular speciality.Doctors in medicine who wish to specializemay prepare a diplôme de

spécialité,after practical work lasting between three and fiveyears.
The doctorate may be awarded as a first degree,as for examplein science at the Universityof
Zurich.
~ ~~~

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R S T U D I E S

Duration of Studies
(Previous education:13 years,maturitatzeugnis/maiurit~

years 2 3 4 5 6 I 8

Education DiP Dip

Arts L L L/D D
Catholic theology B L D
Protestant theology L D
Law L L/D
Economic sciences, L L/D D
political sciences
Administration L D
Exact and DiE L D
natural sciences
Engineering DiE D
Medical sciences
medicine D/DiE Dis
dentistry DiE D
pharmacy DiE D
veterinary medicine L/DiE D

B baccalauréat en théologie (Fribourg) D doctorat DiE diplôme dEtat

DiP diplôme de professeur de l‘enseignement secondaire Dis diplôme de spécialisat-
ion L licence

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat (French-speakingSwitzerland). See maturité.
Baccalauréat en théologie. First degree in Catholic theology at Fribourg University.
Certificatd’aptitude à l’enseignement primaire (French-speakingSwitzerland). Seeprimary
teacher’s certijïcate.
Diplôme d’Etat/Diplôme cantonal (French-speakingSwitzerland). See state diploma.
Doctorat (French-speakingSwitzerland). Qualificationin higher educationusually granted
to candidates who have studied for a minimum of two semesters after obtaining their
licence/Lizentiat or the diplôme cfEtat/StaatlichesDiplom,and have successfully submitted a
thesis.
Doktorat (German-speaking Switzerland). Higher-education qualification usually
obtained after five or six years’study.TheDoktorut is obtained either after thelizentiat,after
the Staatliches Diplom (state diploma), or else is the first degree.
Eidgenossisches Diplom (German-speakingSwitzerland). See state diploma.
Erganzungsprüfung (German-speakingSwitzerland). See supplementary examination.
Federal diploma. See state diploma.
Gymnasiallehrer (German-speakingSwitzerland). See secondary reacher’s certificate.
SWITZERLAND 277

Habilitation (German-speakingSwitzerland). Procedure leading to the acquisition of the

title of privai-docent/Privat-doient, which qualifies the holder to teach in higher education
(venia legendi).
Handelsmaturitat (German-speaking Switzerland). See maturité.
Licence (French-speakingSwitzerland). See Lizentiat.
Lizentiat(German-speakingSwitzerland). First degree in higher educationin arts,law and
sciencefaculties,granted after a minimum ofsix semestersof study.At the end ofhis studies,
each candidate must present a mémoire (short thesis) and take a certain number of
examinations.
Maturitatzeugnis (German-speaking Switzerland). See maturité.
Maturité (French-speakingSwitzerland). School-leavingcertificate,usually obtained after
six years of primary educationfollowed by seven years of secondaryeducation in a general
secondary school.There are five main options:A,Latin-Greek;B,Latin-modernlanguages;
C,mathematics-sciences;D,modern languages; E, economics. There are two types of
secondary-school-leavingcertificate; the cantonal maturité/Maturitüt, for which examin-
ations are set by the cantonal authority, and the federal maturité/Maturitüt, for which
examinations are set by the federal authorities.The certificate is also called certificat de
maturité,baccalauréat (Vaud), Maturitützeugnis.The commercialleavingcertificate(maturité
commerciale/Handelsmaturitüt) is a secondary-school-leavingcertificate usually obtained
after six years of primary education followed by six years of secondary education in a
vocationalor commercialschool.To gain access to certainfaculties,holders ofthis certificate
have to pass a supplementaryexamination.
Maturité commerciale(French-speakingSwitzerland). See rnaturité.
Maturité fédérale (French-speakingSwitzerland).See maturité.
Primarlehrer-Diplom(German-speakingSwitzerland). See primary teacher's certificate.
Primary teacher's certificate.School-leavingcertificate,generallyobtainedaftersixyears of
primary educationfollowed by six years of secondary educationin a teacher-trainingcollege
(école normale/Lehrerseminar). It entitles the student to teach in a primary school and gives
access to higher education to candidateswho have passed a supplementary examination.
Professional qualification.See state diploma.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See maturité (also Ergünzungsprüfung, Maturi-
tützeugnis, certificat d'aptitude à l'enseignement primaire, supplementary examinarion).
Secondaryteacher's certificate.Qualification obtained at two levels of higher education:at
the lower level. after four university semesters and one semester of teaching practice and
educationalstudies;at the upper level,after the licence/Lizentiat or equivalent degree and a
certificate of education. Qualifications at the lower and upper levels enable successful
candidatesto teach in lower-and upper-secondaryschools.
Sekundarlehrer (German-speakingSwitzerland). See secondary teacher's Certificate.
Staatliches Diplom (German-speakingSwitzerland). See state diploma.
State diploma. German Staatliches Diplom, French diplôme dEtat. Higher education
qualification awarded by the State and entitling its holders to practise a profession.This
qualification is sometimes awarded at the same time as the licence/Lizentiat, sometimes
independently of it. There are two kindsofStatediploma:the diplôme cantonal/Staatsdiplom,
a cantonal qualification in theology, law and secondary teaching, and the federal
qualification,the diplômefédéral/Eidgenossisches Diplom, in medicine,dentistry,veterinary
medicine and engineering.
Supplementary examination. Examination set by federal or university authorities for
candidatesto higher educationwho do not have the secondary-school-leaving certificate,or
whose school-leavingcertificate is not of the type required by the faculty they wish to enter.
278 SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

Syrian Arab Republic

Higher education in the Syrian Arab Republic is given in three state universities,a higher
institute of political science (Damascus), a higher institute of petroleum and chemical
engineering (Homs) and 12 higher and intermediate institutionsof professional and technical
training under the Ministry of Higher Education (39 under other ministries).
Higher education is entirely the responsibility of the State,exercised through the Ministry
of Higher Education, and all higher education establishments are fully state-financed.The
Council for Higher Education,previously known as the Higher Council for Universities,is a
body composed of representatives of the universities, teachers and students, and of the
education,planning and higher education ministries. It is responsible for the establishing of
an overall policy in teaching and scientific research, for the co-ordination of teaching
programmes and the relation of the latter to the social and economic plans, and for decisions
on questions of equivalence of university degrees.
The University of Damascus has the followingfaculties:humanities,economics,commerce,
education, law, Islamic law, agriculture, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry,fine arts, science,
electrical and mechanical engineering. It also has a school of nursing. The University of
Aleppo comprises faculties of medicine, veterinary medicine, science, economics and
commerce, humanities, agriculture and engineering as well as an institute for the history of
Arab science. The University of October at Lattakia, founded in 1971, has faculties of
humanities, science, agriculture, medicine and engineering.
The teaching language is Arabic.
Primary school-teachers are trained at secondary level in teacher-traininginstitutions,in
four years after completing intermediate education,in one year after completing secondary
education. The education faculty of the University of Damascus awards a special diploma in
education for future secondary teachers who already possess a licence in science,humanities
or law.
Access to higher education is given through the secondary-school-leavingcertificate (al-
chahada al-thanaouiya) which is awarded after six years’ primary followed by six years’
secondary education,the latter divided into two cycles of three years each-intermediate and
terminal.Access to higher and intermediate institutions depends on the orientation (literary
or scientific) of the terminal cycle of secondary studies, and on marks obtained in the final
examination,with particular emphasis on basic subjects.
The chahadatul ta’hilal mihani (vocationalaptitude certificate)which is awarded at the end
of secondary technical school gives a limited right to enter certain branches of higher
education.
Short courses of higher education,lasting two years,may be undertaken in the intermediate
institutions of medicine, dentistry, engineering, industry, agriculture, commerce, and
secretaryship.The degree awarded is a certificate of assistant.
The main stage of higher education,which correspondsto ageneral training or professional
qualification at a high level,leads after four to six years’study to the licence.Future secondary
teachers w h o already have the licence in science,humanities or law must also pass the chahuda
’ a m m afi al tarbiya (general teacher’s certificate), awarded after one year’s study at the
education faculty of Damascus University,before they are qualified to teach.
The second stage reflects a degree of specialization and initiation in research work. A
diploma is awarded after one further year’s study in veterinary medicine and two years’study
in other subjects. In education, after the licence and the chahada ’ammafi al tarbiya,
outstanding students wishing to specialize may take the chuhada khassa fi al tarbiya (special
diploma of education). The second stage culminates, in three years after the award of the
SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC 279

licence, in the magister degree. The medical faculties of Damascus and Aleppo award
certificatsd'études supérieures(CES)after three or fouryearsdependingon the specialization.
The third stage leads to the doctorate,which is awarded at least five years after the licence
and requires the submission of a thesis.
All faculties of the University of Aleppo,including the Institute for the History of Arab
Science,award doctorates;Damascus University currently offers only the doctorate in law.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,al-chahada al thanaoui.va)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education (teacher- L CAT CKT M D

training)
Arts,social sciences L M D
Fine arts L M D
Law L D
Islamic law
Commercial sciences L M D
Economics,political L M - D
sciences
Science L M D
Engineering L M D
Architecture
Medical sciences
medicine LD CES CES
dentistry L/P M D
pharmacy L M D
veterinary medicine L M D
Agriculture L M D
Intermediate institutions* CA

CA certificate of assistant
CAT chahada ' a m m afi al tarbiya
CES certificat d'études supérieures (certificate of higher studies)
CKT chahada khassa fi al-tarbiya
D dortorate
L licence
LD licence de docteur en médecine
M magister
P professional qualification

* Engineering,industry, agriculture,medicine, dentistry,veterinary medicine,commerce,

secretariat.

GLOSSARY
AI chahada ai thanaouiya. Certificate awarded at the end of general secondary education
lasting three years (also called baccalauréat).The first of these three years is common to all
280 SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

pupils,but the last two may be in either a literary or a scientificoption.Thisphase ofterminal

secondary education follows upon a period of middle schooling likewise lasting three years
and six years of primary education.The certificate is that normally required for entrance to
higher education,but certain institutions require it to have been awarded in a particular
option.
Assistant. Certificateawarded in intermediateinstitutionsat the end ofshortcourseslasting
two years.
Baccalauréat. See al chahada al thanaouiya.
Certificat d’études supérieures(certificate ofhigher studies). Degreeawarded by the medical
faculties of Damascus and Aleppo after three or four years’study followingupon the licence
de docteur in medicine (depending on the specialization).
Chahada ‘ammafi al tarbiya. Students who hold the licence in humanities,science and law
with an average grade of ‘good‘may be admitted to the faculty of education and,after a
further one-year course, obtain this qualification,which gives them the right to teach in
secondary education. It is awarded after one year’s study in the education faculty of
Damascus University.
Chahada khassa fi al tarbiya.Holdersofthe chahada ’ammafial tarbiyawishing to specialize
in one of the sections of the faculty ofeducationmay take this specialdiplomaafter oneyear’s
study.
Chahadatul ta’hil al mihani. Diploma awarded at the end ofthe terminalstageof technical
secondary education,giving access to certain branches of higher education.
Doctorate. The highest universitydegree,awarded a minimum offiveyears after the licence.
It involvespersonal research work and the defence of a thesis.In medicine the qualification
awarded after six years’study serves as a professional qualification.
Licence. First university degree awarded after between four and six years’study.Thelength
of studies varies between disciplines: humanities and social sciences,law, Islamic law,
economics,science,political science,agriculture and fine arts take four years;architecture,
engineering, pharmacy, dentistry and veterinary studies five years. In the faculties of
engineering,including architecture,the licence is awarded on the results of the final-year
examination and on the result of a practical ‘project’.In medicine the licence de docteur is
awarded after six years,marking the end of the first stage of medical studies.
The universityyear is divided into two semesters.Examinationsin the subjectsstudiedtake
place at the end ofeach semester.They includewritten and oral testsand,where appropriate,a
practical examination.The student is classified on the following scale:excellent,very good,
good,passable, weak and very weak (the last two grades being failures).
Magister. University degree awarded after three years’ study reflecting a degree of
specialization in combination with training in personal research work. Candidates for the
magister in education must first pass the chahada khassa fi al tarbiya (special diploma in
education), following this with one further year’s study.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See al chahada al thanaouiya.
THAILAND 28 1

Thailand
In Thailand higher education is given in universities and in specializedinstitutionsof higher
education. These institutionsare classified under four categories:
(a) Universities, institutes and private colleges under the supervision of the Office of
University Affairs.
(b) Technical or vocational,agriculturaland teacher-trainingcolleges under thejurisdiction
of the Ministry ofEducation.Theseinstitutionsformerly trained only middle leveltechnicians
and school-teachers.The duration of the courses is usually two or three years.Recently the
Government has revised these courses to a five-yearprogramme for the bachelor’s degree.
(c) Other specializedor professionaltraining institutionsunder the sponsorshipofministries
and government organizations (e.g.nursing colleges,Buddhist colleges,military and police
academies,etc.).
(d) The Asian Institute of Technology,an international institute under its own charter,
granted by the Thai Government.

There are at present fourteen state universities and institutes.Formerly each institute was
devoted to a single discipline only. Now each has varying numbers and combinations of
faculties. The Office of University Affairs serves as a co-ordinatingagency between the
universities and the Government. Their financial resources come from the Government
(85-95 per cent), student fees and other sources (5-15 per cent).
The specialized institutionsof higher education are mostly technical institutes,vocational
colleges and teacher-traininginstitutions.They are under the authority of the Ministry of
Education. Their resources also come from the Government and fees. These recently
upgraded degree-granting institutions’curricula,however,are approved by the Office of
University Affairs.
There are also a number of private colleges offering undergraduate programmes. The
courses available are mostly in humanities and socialsciences.They are under thejurisdiction
of the Office of University Affairs. Other non-degreeprivate colleges offering three-year
courses after secondary education (grade 10) are under the Ministry of Education.
A non-traditional,post-secondaryeducationsystem was first introducedin Thailand by the
setting up of Thammasat University in 1933.Later, in 1972,Ramkhamhaeng University,
regarded as the first institution to utilize mass media for course dissemination. was
established. In the true sense of the word, however,Sukhothaithammathirat University is
Thailand‘sfirst open university and non-traditionalhigher education institution.Set up in
September 1978,it conducts its programmes entirely by means of distance-learningsystems.
The period of study is similar to that of traditional universities.In general,short courses
offered by institutionsof higher learningare conducted mainly to disseminate knowledgeand
promote personal development and professionalcompetence.Upon completionofthe course
attendance or merit ceriificaiesare usually awarded.
The language of instruction is Thai,with the exception of the economic major courses at
Thammasat Universityand someprogrammes of Mahidol University which are conducted in
English.Specialcourses given in English are occasionallyarranged for foreignstudentsat the
discretion of the university.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained
after six years of primary school and six years of secondary education (mathayom 6=grade
12). Admission to higher education is subject to the national universityentranceexamination
which is organized by a committeeconsistingofrepresentativesfrom stateuniversitiesand the
Office of University Affairs.
282 THAILAND

Three provincial universities make use of their o w n entrance examination to select

candidates for 40 per cent of the total number of places available in each academic year from
all secondary school leavers in each region (i.e.Chiang Mai University for 16 provinces in the
north; K h o n Kaen Univekity for 16 provinces in the north east and Prince of Songkla for 14
provinces in the south).
In addition, Sri Nakharinwirot University admits holders of the certificate of education
(two-yearteacher-trainingcourse after mathayom 3 (grade 10))to their freshman classes of the
faculty of education,and holders of the higher certificate of education (two-yearcourse after
obtaining certificate of education)or their equivalents, to their junior classes. Admission of
these students is carried out by means of its own entrance examination.
The faculties of medicine of Chulalongkorn and Mahidol universities, with the co-
operation of the Ministry of Public Health,admit about 15 per cent oftheir freshmen students
from the provinces under the project of ‘promotion of medical science education for rural
areas’.
The basic criteria for qualifying candidates for access to higher education are solely based
on academic achievementswith the exception of Ramkhamhaeng University and Sukhothai-
thammathirat University, which include work experience (employment in government
service, with disregard of academic qualification).
Generally, the state institutes of higher learning under the Office of University Affairs

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, mathayom 6 and entrance examination)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education C B M D
Arts B M D
Fine arts* P M
Architecture P M
Law B M D
Social sciences, economics B M D
Social and public B M D
administration
Science B M D
Engineering A B P M
Medical sciences
medicine P H S
dentistry P H M
pharmacy P M
veterinary medicine P
Agriculture A B M D

A associate’s degree H higher professional certificate

B bachelor’s degree M master’s degree
C certificate P professional qualification
D doctor’s degree S specialization

* Except decorative arts-four years.

THAILAND 283

refrain from admitting foreign students as BA candidates for the following reasons: all
candidates are required to pass the national university entrance examination conducted in
Thai; limitation of seating capacity due to budget allocation; Thai is the language of
instruction. However, there are some cases of exception; for example,student exchange
programmesor non-degreeprogrammes.At graduate level,all stateuniversitiesadmit foreign
students.However, the final decision is invariably made by the University Council of each
institution.
In the fields of education, engineering and agriculture,non-degree,post-secondary
terminal courses may be completed in two or three years.
The main stage of higher education is that of the bachelor’s degree or a professional
qualification.The bachelor’s degree is usually obtained in four years:five in architecture,
painting,sculpture,graphic arts,and pharmacy;and six in medicine,dentistry andveterinary
medicine. The bachelor’s degree (pass)is obtained after the same courses of study as the
bachelor’sdegree (honours),but at a lower standard.In some courses,an associate’sdegree is
available after the first three years of working for a bachelor’s degree. Professional
qualifications are awarded as certificatesor diplomas following study of from one to four
years. The professional qualification and first degree in medicine,veterinary medicine and
dentistry is that of doctor.
Advanced studies lead to the award of the master’s degree after at least one year but usually
after two years’study and on the presentation of a thesis.The doctor’sdegree is obtainable in
some fields and usually requires at least two years after the master’s degree. A n advanced
professional qualification,awarded as a certificafe or a diploma,may sometimesbe obtained
after one or two years’course-workand is intended for studentswho already have a degreeor
professional qualification.

GLOSSARY
Associate’sdegree. Intermediate degree obtained in some fields of study after the third year
of studies leading to a bachelor’s degree.
Bachelor’s degree. First degree usually obtained after four years’higher education but five
in architecture,painting,sculpture,graphic arts and pharmacy and six in medicine,dentistry
and veterinary medicine.The bachelor’s degree (pass) is obtained after the same courses of
study as the bachelor’s degree (honours),but at a lower standard.
Certificate. See professional quali$cation.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree (doctorate). Highest degree,obtainable in some fields at least two years
after the master’s degree. In medicine,veterinary medicine and dentistry,the first professional
qualification and first degree is that of doctor.
Entrance examination. See mathayom suksa 5,mathayom 6.
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Master’s degree. Higher degree obtained after one, or usually after two years’ study
following a bachelor’sdegree, and on the presentation of a thesis.
Mathayom Suksa 5,Mathayom 6.Secondary-educationfinal examination organized by the
Ministry of Education for those who complete the secondaryschool (12thgrade) andobtaina
secondary-school-leavingcertificate after seven years’ primary school and five years’
secondary education (mathayom suksa 5) or six years of primary and six years of secondary
school (matha-vom6) according to the National Elementary Education Act, and National
Education Plan of 1977. To be admitted to university (except Ramkhamhaeng
and Sukhothaithammathiratuniversities), the applicant must sit for the national university
entrance examination.
Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.
284 THAILAND

Professional qualification.Higher-educationqualification usually awarded as a certificate

or a diploma after one to four years’study either at the level of a first degree or at the level of
postgraduate studies. The first degree and professional qualification in medicine,veterinary
medicine and dentistry is that of doctor.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See mathayom suksa 5, mathayom 6.

Togo
In Togo higher education is given by the University of Benin, founded in 1970 and partly
based on the Benin centre for higher education,which covered both Togo and Dahomey. The
University of Benin is governed by a co-operationagreement between Togo and France. It is a
public and civil institution, administratively and financially autonomous. Teaching takes
place in French. In the subjects for which the Togolese authorities decide on the organization
and programmes together with French authorities,the degrees awarded are fully recognized
in France (the same is true in Togo for degrees awarded in France).
W h e n the University of Benin was founded,it comprisedschoolsof humanities,science and
a university institute of technology (IUT). The school of humanities mainly offers courses in
African, French, English, German and Spanish languages and literatures,philosophy and
applied social sciences, journalism, history (including African medieval history) and
geography (and more particularly regional geography). The school of science offers courses in
physics, chemistry, biology and geology.
The schools of agriculture and industrial mechanics train agricultural engineers and
mechanical,electrical and civil engineers respectively.Other institutionsoffer courses in law,
economics and management.
Medical training takes place at the University in the final years.Emphasis is put on public
health, health education,nutrition and tropical medicine.Courses are given by the school of
medicine, the school of medical auxiliaries (which awards a diplôme d‘assistant médical) and
the Institute of Health and Biological Technology (which awards a diplôme universitaire de
technologie).
Teachers are trained at the National Institute for Education (INSE)and at the teacher-
training college. The INSE is a university institution which trains teachers for classical
secondary schools of general education (lycées)and inspectors of primary and secondary
education. The teacher-training college is an institution which does not depend on the
University administratively. Teachers of primary education are trained in three years at
upper-secondary level and teachers of lower-secondary education (teachers in general
education colleges) obtain a professional qualification after two years’ study at post-
secondary level.
Access to higher education is given through the baccalauréat.A special entrance examination
enables those w h o do not hold the baccalauréat to gain access.The choice of subject is limited
by the option chosen for the baccalauréat.
TOGO 285

The first stage of higher education usually leads to the diplôme defindétudes du premier
cycle after two years: diplôme universitaire détudes littéraires (DUEL)in arts; diplôme
universitairedétudes scientifiques(DUES) in science;diplôme universitaired'étudesjuridiques
(DUEJ)in law;diplôme universitaire détudes de gestion (DUEG)in management;or diplôme
universitaire d'études économiques (DUEE)in economics.
Those who do not hold the baccalauréat and who wish to study law are admitted to a two-
year preliminary course leading to the certificat de capacité en droit (CCD).
The second stage corresponds to second phase studies which may be followed at the École
Supérieure d'Administration et des Carrières Juridiques (law and administration), at the
École Supérieure de Techniques Economiques et de Gestion (ESTEG) (economics and
management), at the school of humanities and at the school of science. It leads,after one
year's studies,to the licence at the school of science and to thediplôme d'ingénieurat the École

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education P L M
Humanities DUEL L M
Law CCD/ L M
DUEJ
Economics DUEE L M
Management DUEG L M
Exact and DUES L
natural sciences
Agricultural, DUES* DI
mechanical,electronic,
civil engineering
Medicine D
Health technology, DUT/
paramedical studies DAM

CCD certificat de capacité en droit

D doctorat
DAM diplôme dussistunt médical
DI diplôme d'ingénieur
DUEE diplôme universitaire détudes économiques
DUEG diplôme universitaire détudes de gestion
DUEJ diplôme universituire détudes juridiques
DUEL diplôme universitaire détudes littéraires
DUES diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques
DUT diplôme universitaire de technologie
L licence
M maîtrise
P professional qualification

* Agricultural,mechanical engineering,electronic engineering and civil engineering option.

286 TOGO

Supérieure d‘Agronomie (agriculture) and the École Supérieure de Mécanique Industrielle

(industrialmechanics). In the humanities it requires a certificatd‘études supérieuresde licence
and the first certificatdemaîtrise.Thesecond year ofthis phaseleads to themaîtriseinthefirst
three schools.

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leaving certificate obtained at the end of secondary
education in an institutionof general education or technical education.Secondary education
is divided into two phases of four and three years respectively. Candidates may choose a
literary or scientific option. Programmes and teaching methods are based on the French
syllabus. The baccalauréat gives access to higher education.
Certificat d’études supérieures (CES). Qualification of higher education,awarded after a
period of six months’ to one year’s study. A number of certificatsd‘études supérieures are
required to obtain a licence or maîtrise in humanities or science.
Diplôme d’assistantmédical. Qualification awarded after three years’study by the school of
medical auxiliaries.
Diplôme universitaire d’études économiques (DUEE). Qualification awarded at the end of
the first phase of studies in economics (two years). Candidates have to pass an examinationat
the end of each year.
Diplôme universitaired‘études de gestion (DUEG).Qualification awarded at the end of the
first phase of studies in management (two years). Candidates have to pass an examination at
the end of each year.
Diplôme universitaired’études juridiques (DUEJ).Qualification awarded at the end of the
first phase of studies in law (two years). Candidates have to pass an examination at the end of
each year.
Diplôme Universitaire d‘études littéraires (DUEL).Qualification awarded at the end of the
first phase of studies in humanities (two years). Candidates have to pass an examination at the
end of each year.
Diplôme universitaired’études scientifiques(DUES). Qualification awarded at the end of the
first phase of studies in science (two years). Candidates have to pass an examination at the end
of each year.
Diplôme universitairede technologie (DUT). Qualification obtained after three years’study
by students of the Institute of Health and Biological Technology.
Doctorat. In medicine,qualification awarded to candidatesw h o have done six years’study,
a year’s practical training and submitted a thesis. The professional qualification is that of
docteur en médecine.
Licence. Degree of higher education awarded after a period of three years. In the
humanities,studies are divided into two phases: a first phase,lasting two years, during which
students acquire basic knowledge of a multi-disciplinary nature, leads to the diplôme
universitaire dérudes littéraires (DUEL).The licence is awarded after a year’s second phase
during which candidates obtain a certijïcat de licence (L)and the first certificatde maîtrise.
Maîtrise. Qualification of higher education obtained in some fields after four years’study.
The first two years constitute the first phase, which is c o m m o n to the licence and to the
maîtrise and which enables students to acquire basic training. Thesecond phase also lasts two
years and corresponds to a period of study in depth. The first year of studies leads to the
licence.The second year leads to a second certijïcat de maîtrise and comprisesthe submission
of a dissertation.
Professional qualification. Qualification conferred on teachers for colleges of general
education.It is awarded by the teacher-trainingcollege after two years’study following upon
the baccalauréat.
TOGO 287

Special entrance examination. Entrance examination for candidates who do not hold a
baccalauréat or equivalent qualification.
Validité de plein droit. Validity of a degree obtainedinthe sameconditionsas in France.in a
country which was formerly under French administration,recognized both for continuing
studies and for exercisinga profession.Recognition of such a degree is subject to agreements
concludedbetween thiscountryand France.The French Ministry ofEducation fixesthe list of
these foreign degrees every year. Corresponding French degrees are accorded the same
privileges in countries which have concluded similar agreements.

Trinidad and Tobago

In Trinidad and Tobago higher education takes place in the University of the West Indies,St
Augustine campus (see entry on Jamaica) and in a number of specialized institutions.
The institutionsthat constitutethe Universityofthe West Indiesare:facultiesofagriculture
and of engineering,a school ofeducation,an institute ofinternationalrelations,a department
oftropicalmedicine and facultiesofarts and generalstudiesand ofnatural and socialsciences.
The first two institutions are situated in Trinidad and Tobago.The faculty of agriculture has
five departments and three research units, and the faculty of engineering has four
departments. Also situated in Trinidad is the Caribbean Agricultural Research and
Development Institute.
The other institutions comprise five teacher-traininginstitutions,an agriculturalinstitute,
two technical institutes, two schools of nursing, and a number of other specialized
institutions.
Of the five teacher-trainingcolleges,of which two are run by the Government,three are
denominational (Presbyterian,Seventh-DayAdventist,Catholic). All draw their funds from
the Government.The courses last two years and lead to a teacher’s certificate;they include
both academic subjects and studies relating to education.
The technical institutes prepare students for the examinationsof the University of London
in the followingsubjects:science,economics and accountancy;they also prepare for the award
of diplomas of the National Examination Council for Vocational and Technical Education.
Courses last two to three years.
Teaching is given in English.
288 TUNISIA

Tunisia
In Tunisia higher education is given in 21 institutionsof higher education (faculties,schools,
institutes) which are directly responsible to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research,as well as in 12 institutions under the control of other ministerial departments.
Faculties offer courses in arts, theology, law, political sciences and economics, science,
medicine,dentistry;several institutionsare also attached to the Ministry of Higher Education,
such as the Advanced Teacher-training College, the Institute of Commercial Studies, the
Institute of Administration, the Institute of Journalism and Information,the Technological
Art Institute, the Institute of Architecture and Town-planning, the Institute for Hotel-
catering and Tourism, the Bourguiba Institute for Modern Languages, the Technical
Institute, two national schools of engineering, the Advanced Technical Teacher-training
College, the Institute for Scientific and Technical Research,and the Centre for Studies and
Research in Economic and Social Science.
A m o n g the institutions controlled by other ministerial departments are the National
Institute of Agriculture and the National School of Veterinary Medicine.
Teachers of primary education are trained in teacher-training colleges at secondary level.
Teachers of secondary education are trained in four years at the advanced technical teacher-
training college (in technical subjects) and at the advanced teacher-trainingcollege and at the
faculties of arts and science (in literary and scientific subjects).
The languages of instruction are Arabic and French.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat,obtained after six years of primary
education followed by seven years of secondary education. The other prerequisite is the
orientation universiraire (university orientation), which is a national competitive entrance
examination organized by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. It is
open to holders of the baccalauréat. The option and capacities of future students,the number
of places available in the various institutions and the country’s needs for highly qualified
personnel are taken into account.
The first stage may either be terminal short-term studies leading to the award of a
qualification,or constitute the first phase of long-termuniversity studies.In the first case the
course usually lasts for two years and leads to the following qualifications:high-levelelectrical
and mechanical technician, high-level technician in topography; high-level technician in
economics and management; the qualification of high-level technician in paramedical fields
requires three years’ study. In the case of long-term studies, the first stage corresponds in
many fields to the acquisition of first phase broadly-based studies.This leads,after two years’
study, to the diplôme universitaire dérudes littéraires (DUEL)in arts, and to the diplôme
universitaire d‘études scientifiques(DUES)in science. In technicalsciences,this stage usually
leads to the diplôme de technicien supérieur et d’ingénieur adjoint.In other subjects,such as law
and economics, the first two years of higher education do not lead to the award of a
qualification.
The second stage corresponds to a period of study in depth and lasts for two years. In arts,
candidates must obtain certificatsdétudes supérieures in order to qualify for the maîtrise,or
for the certificat d’aptitude à la recherche (candidates must also defend a short thesis). In
science the maîtrise is also awarded after two years’ further study. In law, economics and
theology students obtain a licence after four years’ higher education, or a professional
qualification in commercial studies and agriculture (diplômede l’Institut des hautes Etudes
commerciales,diplôme technique). The advanced teacher-training college awards a maîtrise
and the diplôme de l’école after four years.The qualification of chartered accountant requires
five years’ study.
TUNISIA 289

In science,the third stage,devoted to specialization and scientific research,leads to a

diplôme détudes approfondies (DEA)followed by a doctorat de spécialité, then a doctorat
dEtat. In medicine, this stage leads to the professional qualification obtained with the
doctorat dEtat. In arts,it correspondsto thediplôme derecherchesapprofondies (DRA)and in
economics to the DEA (after two years). At the Instituteof Administration,the third phase
qualification requires six years' study.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat and orientation universitaire)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education M/Di
Arts DUEL CAR/M DRA D
Religion,theology L
Law, economics
Commercial studies
- L
P/Di
DEA D

Exact and natural DUES M DEA DS D

sciences
Engineering DT DT DT/P
Medicine DTS D
Agriculture DT
Architecture P

CAR certificat d'aptitude à la recherche

D doctorat d'Etat
DEA diplôme détudes approfondies
Di diplôme
DRA diplôme de recherches approfondies
DS doctorat de spécialité
DT diplôme technique
DTS diplôme de technicien supérieur
DUEL diplôme universitaire détudes littéraires
DUES diplôme universitaire détudes scientifiques
L licence
M maîtrise
P professional qualijkation

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,obtained after six years of primary
followed by seven years of secondary education.The latter is divided into a three-yearlower
and four-yearupper phase. The lower phase takes place in an institutionofcomplete (lycée),
general or technical education or in a college of secondary education. In the upper phase,
candidates specialize in their second year after one year which is common to the various
institutions. In general schools, candidates may choose between three options: arts,
mathematics/scienceand mathematics/technology.The mathematicsand technologysection
prepares for higher technical studies.
Certificatd'aptitude à la recherche(CAR).Qualificationobtained in arts in conditionsthat
 TUNISIA

are similar to those of the maîtrise. It also requires the submission of a short thesis.
Certificat d’études supérieures.Qualification of higher education awarded after six months’
to one year’s study. Four certificats d‘études supérieures are required for the maîtrise in arts.
Diplôme d‘études approfondies (DEA). In science, qualification obtained after one year’s
third-cycle studies following upon the mattrise (initiation to research). It includes specialized
theoretical training and practical work in a laboratory.The attestation détudes approfondies
(AEA)is given to candidates w h o have not done the practical training but have passed the
theoretical examination. After obtaining the DEA, candidates prepare a thesis for the
doctorar de troisième cycle. In economics the DEA lasts two years. In arts it is called the
diplôme de recherches approfondies (DRA)and studies also last two years.
Diplôme universitaire d’études littéraires (DUEL).Qualification obtained at the end of the
first phase in humanities (two years). Candidates must pass an examinationat the end of each
year. The following sections prepare for the DUEL: Arab literature, English literature,
French literature, history, geography, philosophy,sociology, education.
Diplôme universitaire d’études scientifiques(DUES). Qualification obtained at the end of the
first phase in science (two years). Candidates must pass an examination at the end of each
year. The following sections prepare for the DUES: mathematics and physics, physics and
chemistry, natural sciences. Students at the faculty of agriculture prepare for the DUES
during the first two years.
Doctorat d’Etat. In medicine, qualification awarded at the end of seven years’ theoretical
and professional training. It is also a professional qualification. A doctorat d‘Etat is also
awarded in arts (Arabic and Arab literature), law and economics, and exact and natural
sciences after at least seven years’ study.
Doctorat de spécialité (DS).Degree awarded to candidates holding a diplôme d‘études
approfondies who submit a thesis after two years’ research.
Licence. Degree of higher education awarded after four years’ study in theology, law,
journalism and economics. Candidates have to pass an examination each year,
Maîtrise. Degree of higher education in humanities and science awarded at the end of the
second phase, that is to say after four years’ study. The first phase (two years) leads to the
diplôme universitaire détudes littéraires or to the diplôme universitaire d‘études scientifiques in
a specific field. The second phase is devoted to studies in similar fields. In humanities,
candidates must obtain four certificats d‘études supérieures.In science, candidates have to
pass an examination at the end of each year.
Professional qualification. Qualification awarded in a number of fields at the end of higher
studies. The technical degree awarded after two years’ study is that of ingénieur adjoint;the
technical degree awarded after four years’ study is that ofingénieur des travaux de IEtat;the
technical degree awarded after six years’ study is that of ingénieur principal.
TURKEY 29 1

Turkey
In Turkey higher education takes place in 19 universities (of which five were founded after
1971: Bursa Üniversitesi; Firat Üniversitesi, Elâzig; Bogaziçi Üniversitesi (Bosphorus
University), Bebek-Istanbul;Diyarbakir Üniversitesi; Çukurova Üniversitesi, Adana); 33
academies and higher schools (ofapplied arts,fine arts,engineering,architecture,economics
and commercial studies, journalism and public relations, political science, business
management, chemistry,police force,navy, social work, sanitation,nursing); 40 teacher-
training colleges,three state conservatories and three higher institutes of Islamic studies.
All Turkish universities are autonomous public institutions,founded by a parliamentary
law and state-financed.They are governed by a common law,with the exception of the Orta
Dogu Teknik Üniversitesi (Technical University of the Middle East) at Ankara. A n inter-
university council, made up of university rectors and two professors elected by each
university, takes decisions and draws up recommendations concerning all Turkish
universities.This council elects the president of the Council of Turkish University Rectors,
which is the body responsible for defending the interests of Turkish universities and
developing inter-universityco-operation.There is also a Conference of Turkish University
Rectors whose purpose is to ensure the co-operation of university and other academic
activities between connected subjects which are taught in the different Turkish universities.
Universities are governed by bodies which elect their members from among the teaching
staff. The Technical University of the Middle East is an exception. It is governed by an
administrative board made up of nine members, six of whom must be from private
institutions,and which has full powers to appoint its president and decide upon policies.
Traditional universities are divided into faculties and offer the following subjects:
education,humanities,theology,law,political,sciences,economics,business administration,
science,medicine,dentistry,veterinary medicine, pharmacy, and agriculture. Institutes of
journalism exist at Ankara and Istanbul universities.
The three technical universities (Istanbul TechnicalUniversity,the Technical University of
the Middle East and KaradenizTechnicalUniversity,Trabzon)also offer a variety ofsubjects.
Istanbul Technical University has faculties of architecture,civil engineering, mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, mining, naval construction, and a school of foreign
languages.The TechnicalUniversity of the Middle East is open to studentsfrom the whole of
the Middle East. In addition to technical courses,it also offers courses in humanities and
science,and education and administration (including statistics and economics).
Higher academies and schools are either run by the Ministry of Education or by,other
ministries (e.g.nursing,Ministry of Health;merchant navy,Ministry of Communications).
They are entirely financed by the State.They also differ from universitiesin that they do not
normally award the doktoru,the highest qualification of higher education. Higher state
schools of economics and commerce,however,are an exception to this rule.
Teaching takes place in Turkish,except at the TechnicalUniversity of the Middle East and
at the Bogaziçi University (Bosphorus University) where courses are given in English.
Students at the Technical University of the Middle East,at the Bosphorus University and at
the Hacettepe University are obliged to study English for one year before going on to studies
proper.
There is also the Yaykur Institution,which offers high-levelcorrespondence or summer
courses on a national scalefor candidates who were not admittedto a university,an academy
or any other type of institutionof higher education.It also offers courses ofhigher education
which are shorter than the traditional courses.
292 TURKEY

Teachers of primary education are trained in training schools.They are run by the Ministry
of Education.Teachers of lower-and upper-secondary education are trained in two to three
years in secondary teacher-training colleges, in institutes of education, in technical or
commercial teacher-training colleges, in institutes of economics and commerce and in
faculties of education.
The basic qualification giving access to higher education is the lise diplomasi,obtained after
five years of primary followed by three years of lower-secondaryand three years of upper-
secondary (lise)schooling.In principle, this qualification is sufficient to gain access to higher
education.However, because of the large numbers of candidates,university authorities have
established a national admission policy. The inter-university centre for selecting and
admitting students ( U S Y M ) is under the authority of the inter-universitycouncil. It fixes the
admission procedures to undergraduate studies offered by Turkish universities and
institutions of higher education and selects candidates who wish to follow the courses they
offer by means ofan annual examination,the üniversiteler arasi seçme sinavinda bajari (inter-
university entrance examination) (USS). This examination is open to holders of the
secondary-school-leaving certificate or to candidates who complete their secotldary
education. Teacher-training colleges and the Academy of Fine Arts have slightly different
admission procedures,since holders of the U S S are selected by further examinationsadapted
to specific programmes.

P R O F I L E OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education, 1 1 years, lise diplornasi and entrance examination)

years 3 4 5 6

Education Di L/B
Arts L/B R
Religion, theology L
Architecture L/B
Fine arts Di
Economics, social sciences L/B Di Y Id
Science L/B M D
Administration L/B YWM
Law L/B Yld/M D
Engineering, L/Md Yid Ymd/M/
technology Yld
Medical sciences
medicine D/P
dentistry L/P
pharmacy L/B Yld
veterinary medicine L/P
Agriculture L/B

B bachelor’s degree Md mühendis diplomasi

D doktora P professional qualification
Di diplomasi Yld yüksek lisans diplomasi
L lisans Ymd yüksek mühendis diplomasi
M master’s degree
TURKEY 293

The main stage of higher education is usually reached after four years (dentistry and
veterinary medicine, five years; medicine, six years). It culminates, according to the
institution,in the lisans diplornasi or the bachelor’sdegree. Technical universitiesand higher
technical institutions give a rnühendis diplornasi (engineeringqualification)after four to five
years’study.
The second stage correspondsto a deepening of knowledgeand leadsafter one totwo years
to the yüksek lisans diplornasi or the master’s degree, or to the yüksek rnühendis diplornasi
(higher engineer’sdiploma)in technicaluniversitiesand other highertechnicalinstitutions.In
medicine,the qualification of doktor is obtained after a minimum of six years.
A third stage may lead,after individualresearch and two to fouryears’study and defence of
a thesis,to the doctorate (doktora).

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. Sec lisans diplornasi.
Doktora. Highest qualification,usually only awarded by universities,two to fouryearsafter
the lisans. Institutions of economics and commerce may award their own doktora. This
qualification is obtained after submitting a thesis. In medicine, the title of dokior is a
professional qualification obtained concurrently with the diploma after a minimum of six
years.
Engineer’s diploma. See mühendis diplomasi.
Entrance examination. See üniversiteler arasi seçrne sinavinda basari.
Higher engineer’s diploma. Sec yüksek niühendis diplornasi.
Licence. See lisans diplornasi.
Lisans diplomasi or bachelor’s degree.Highereducationqualificationusually obtained after
four years’ study (five in dentistry and veterinary medicine,six in medicine).
Lise diplomasi. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate, obtained after five years of primary
followed by six years ofsecondary education.Secondary educationis divided into two three-
year phases,the lower-secondary(orta okul) and the upper-secondary(lise).Specialization
takes place as from the second year in the lise,with a bids towards humanities or science.
Master’s degree. See yüksek lisans diplornasi.
Mühendis diplomasi.Engineering qualificationawardedby certain technicaluniversities or
institutions of higher technical training after four to five years’study.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. See lise diplornasi.
Üniversiteler arasi seçme sinavinda basari (USS). Entrance examination organized on a
national scale by the inter-universitycentre for selectingand admitting students (USYM)to
select candidatesfor higher educationamong holders of the lise diplomasi.Teacher-training
collegesand the Academy ofFine Arts alsoselectcandidates on the basis ofresultsobtainedin
the USS and then organize their own entrance examinations.
Yüksek lisans diplomasi or master’s degree. Higher education qualification awarded after
one or two years’study followingupon the lisans diplornasi or the bachelor‘s degree.
Yüksek mühendis diplomasi. Higher engineering qualification,granted by institutions of
technical higher education(e.g.IstanbulTechnical University) after five to six years’study.
294 UGANDA

Uganda
In Uganda higher education takes place in Makerere University,Kampala.
Makerere University is governed by a council comprisingacademic and lay members,and
by a senate responsible for academic matters. Resources come from government grants,
students’fees,and to a minimal extent,from endowments.The University has facultiesof
letters and social sciences,agriculture and forestry,commerce, education,law,medicine,
veterinary medicine and technology.It also has an instituteofstatisticsand appliedeconomics
and schools of fine arts and librarianship.A centre for continuing education attached to
Makerere University provides university-typeinstruction in various parts of the country by
correspondenceand via the press,radio and television.This centre also organizes a one-year
full-timecourse for adults leading to a certzjïcate,and a specialcoursepreparatory to higher
studies.
The teaching language is English.
Access to higher educationisbased on thegeneralcertificateof education obtained after eight
years’primary and six years’secondary education,divided into two phases of four and two
years.The examinationsare at two levels:ordinary level and advanced level.At the end ofthe
first phase,candidatestake some examinationsat ordinary level and then usually continueto
study for two more years to acquire the number and combination of passes required by the
branch of higher education they wish to enter. The higher school certificate is similarly
organized and its results confer the same rights.
The first stage of higher education leads,after a period of undergraduate studies,to the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 14 years,general certzjïcate of education)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education P P B P M PhD
Arts B M PhD D
Librarianship P P
Religion,theology
Fine arts
Law
Commercial sciences,
social service
Administration B
Sciences B M PhD D
Engineering B
Medical sciences
medicine B P D M
veterinary medicine B
Agriculture B M PbD
B bachelor’s degree D doctor’s degree M master’s degree P professional quali-
fication P h D doctor of philosophy
UGANDA 295

bachelor’s degree or a professional qualification.The bachelor’s degree is awarded after three

years in arts,finearts,socialwork,administration,science,agriculture,commerce,education
and law,after fouryears in veterinary scienceand in engineering,and five years in medicine.
Professionalqualificationsare awarded as certificates or diplomas in some fields.A diploma
may be obtained in one year in drama;in two years in librarianshipand education;in three
years in theology;in four years in fine arts. A certificatemay be obtained in six months in
librarianshipand in one year in theology and adult education.
The second stage (graduate studies) leads to the higher degrees. The master’s degree is
conditionalupon the student’sbeing resident in the Universityand is awarded in letters,fine
arts,science,agriculture,education and surgery after eighteen months’study subsequentto
the award of the bachelor’s degree. Dependingupon subject,either a thesis and coursesare
required,or a thesis only.In medicine three years’research and courses are required.
A n advancedprofessional qualification,thediploma,is given in educationand in medicine
(paediatrics.public health and obstetricsdiplomas) one year after the bachelor’s degree.
The third stage leads to the doctor’s degree (doctorofphilosoph.v, PhD) which is awarded in
all faculties except law,technology,and veterinary medicine. It requires two years’study
subsequent to the rnuster’sdegree,and the submission of a thesis.In medicine,the doctor’s
degree is a professional title (doctor of medicine, MD)awarded one year at least after the
bachelor’sdegree upon submission of a thesis.
Higher doctorates are awarded in letters (DLitt)and science (DSc) for published work.

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education,awarded for undergraduatestudies
after three years in letters, fine arts, social service,administration,science,agriculture,
commerce,and law;after four years in veterinary medicine and engineering:and after five
years in medicine.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctor’s degree. Advanced degree of higher education awarded for postgraduatestudies.
There are severalkindsofdoctor’sdegree.The degreeofdoctor ofphilosophy (PhD) requiresa
minimum of two years’full-timestudy in the University and the submissionof a thesis.The
degree ofdoctor of medicine (MD) is obtained on submissionofa thesisa minimum ofoneyear
after the award of the bachelor’sdegree. Higher doctoratesare awarded in letters (DLitt)and
science (DSc)for published work.
General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,obtained after eight
years’primary and six years’secondary education,divided into two phases of four and two
years.The examinationsare at two levels:ordinary level and advancedlevel.At the end ofthe
first phase,candidatestake examinationsat ordinary leveland then continue fora furthertwo
years’study leading to advanced level examinations.They obtain a combination of passes
required by the branch of higher education they wish to enter.The higher school certificateis
similarly organized and its results confer the same rights.
Higher degree. See bachelor’s degree,doctor’s degree, master’s degree.
Higher school certificate. See general certificate of education.
Master’s degree. Higher degree,awarded in arts,fine arts,science,agriculture,education
and surgery after eighteen months’postgraduate study;candidates submita thesis,and may
be required to do course-workas well.A master’s degree in medicine is awarded after three
years of course-workand research work.
Professional qualification. Higher-educationqualification awarded, at first-degreelevel
either as a diploma (after one year’sstudy in drama,two in librarianshipand education,three
in theology, or four in fine arts commencing at the end of the first phase of secondary
education), or as a certifïcate(six months in librarianship,one year in theology and in adult
296 UGANDA

education). At higher degree level, a professional qualification may be awarded as a diploma

after one year’s postgraduate study in education and in medicine (child health,public health,
obstetrics). Three grand seminaries give professional training to future priests: three years’
philosophy and four years’ theology.
Secondary-school-leavingqualification. See general certificate of education, higher school
certipcate.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

The purpose of education in the U S S R is to provide all citizens with a broadly-basedculture,
national in form and socialist in content,as well as with a trainingwhich combines theoretical
instruction with socially productive activities. Education is free at all levels and state
scholarships are available to students enrolled in any institution of higher education.
The institutionsof higher education(vysfeeuc‘ebnoezavedenije-‘Vur’)include:universities,
polytechnical institutesand specialized institutes (the latter are often devoted to a single field
of professional training). Study may be undertaken on a full-time basis or, whilst in
employment, through evening or correspondence courses. (Correspondence, or external,
students receive instruction by a variety of methods and techniques. They are attached to
particular centres and the programmes of study include participation in special courses and
seminars,often held at universitiesand other institutions ofhigher education during vacation
periods.) Universities and other institutions of higher education have special faculties or
departments for evening studies and for correspondence students,and there are also some
institutions devoted entirely to correspondence courses.
All institutionsof higher education are state institutionsand legislation valid throughout
the Soviet Union covers matters such as admission requirements,courses and programmes of
study, teaching and learning methods, academic organization, and degrees and diplomas.
Responsibility for higher education is vested in the Ministry of Higher and Specialized
Secondary Education of the USSR in co-operation with the corresponding ministries of the
republics.
Councils of rectors of universities and other institutions of higher education set up in 68
important centres group between them 694 establishments.Their task is to facilitate co-
ordination and co-operationbetween the institutionsconcerned,to study particular problems
of higher education and to make proposals and draft recommendations for further
development.
The universities offer courses in the human and theoretical sciences;as a general rule they
do not provide training in engineering,medical and other applied sciences,but there are some
exceptions. Their principal task is to provide high-level manpower in the scientific and
cultural fields for the various sectors of the economy and to train research workers and
secondary school-teachers.The polytechnical institutes each offer courses in a number of
different fields of engineering, sciences and technology. The specialized institutes are
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 297

normally concernedwith a single field of professional training and between them covera very
wide range including the agricultural sciences,economics and finance,law,fine and applied
arts, medicine, teacher-training,and many branches of engineering. The qualifications
awarded by thepolytechnicalinstitutesand the specializedinstitutesare similarin designation
and status to those awarded by universities.
The universities and other institutionsof higher education are divided into facultiesand
within these the basic unit for teaching and research is the ‘chair’(department concerned with
a particular subject).
Special emphasis is placed on part-time study,without interruption of employment,and
through evening classes and correspondencecourses specialistsare trained while at the same
time working in various branches of the national economy,as a rule injobs related to the field
of study they have chosen.Thesestudentsmay also benefit from specialstudy leave or reduced
working hours.
Teachers for general and for specializedsecondaryschools are trained both in universities
and in specialized teacher-training institutes (pedagogical institutes). In the universities
emphasis is placed in particular on theoreticaland practicalstudy in depth ofthesubject to be
taught.In the teacher-trainingcolleges greater emphasis is placed on educational theory and
teaching methodology.
Access to universitiesand other institutionsof higher education is normally by competitive
examination but the performance of the candidate during his secondary education is also
taken into account. The basic level required to enter for the competitive examination is
completed secondary education (10years in all) but for admission to many fields of study
completed specializedsecondaryeducation (12years in all)or technical-vocationaleducation
and work experience may be a prerequisite, particularly for admission to full-timestudy.
Special provisions and requirements also take account of post-secondary work experience.
Candidates who have completed general secondaryeducation may also be admitted to the
preparatory departments of universities and other institutions of higher education.These
departmentsare designed to give opportunities to thosewho lack the scholasticqualifications
needed for admission to higher education and provide training in the relevant basic human
and natural sciences.Students completing their studies successfully are admitted to normal
courses of study.
The main stage of higher education in universities,polytechnical institutesand specialized
institutes involves a programme corresponding to five years’ full-time study (in certain
subjects the period may be four or six years). This leadsto the award ofthe diplom ob okonfanii
vysSego debnogo zavedenija (diploma of higher education) with mention of the relevantfield
of study or professional title.Thisfirst terminalqualificationentitlesthe holder to exercisethe
relevant profession and is also the prerequisite for admission to advanced studies and
research. The programme of studies is broadly based, designed to establish a close link
between theory and practice and to set the main subject of study in its social and economic
context.The course moves progressively towards a chosen subject of specialization and in
addition to taking a final examination the student must also present a dissertation or work
project on this specialsubject.Efforts are made to provide studentswith opportunitiesto take
part in research work during their five-year course and this is seen as constituting an
increasingly important part of their training.O n graduation the young specialistsare required
to gain practical experience in their respective fields and special placement commissions,
chaired by the rectors of the universities and other institutionsof higher education,allocate
each graduate individually to an appropriate salaried post in a public sector.
A further stage,known as the aspirantura, leads to the award of the higher degree of
kandidat nauk (candidate of the sciences). It involvesat least three years’post-diplomastudy
and research and the presentation and defence of a thesis.
A final stage leads to the highest academic qualificationawarded in the Soviet Union,that
298 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

ofdoktor nauk (doctor of the sciences). Its preparation requires at least two years' work after
kandidat nauk, which is a prerequisite, and usually much longer. The degree is conferred on
presentation and defence of a thesis constituting an original and valuable contribution to
knowledge or to its application.
Students may prepare for the degrees of kandidat and doktor in universities and poly-
technics and in some,but not all, specialized institutes.The degrees are awarded by decision of
a special state attestation commission on the advice of the academic council of the institution
concerned.

P R O F I L E OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 10 to 12 years, secondary-school-leaving certificate)

years 5 6 7 8 9 10

Education Di K
Arts Di K
Fine arts, music Di K
Law Di K
Economic sciences Di K
Exact and natural Di K
sciences
Engineering Di K D
Medical sciences
medicine Di I K D
dentistry Di K D
veterinary medicine Di K D
Agriculture Di K D

D doktor Di diploidprofessional qualification I internatura K kandidat

GLOSSARY
Aspirantura. Postgraduate studentship leading to the degree of kandidat nauk.
Attestat ob okonEanii polnoj srednej skoly. Certificate awarded on completion of education
in a general secondary school (polnajasrednjaja skola) and correspondingto ten years' study:
three primary and seven secondary.This certificateis a minimum prerequisite for application
for admission to higher education. See also diplom ob okonCanii srednego special'nogo
uc'ebnogorzavedenija.
Competitive entrance examination. See vstupitel'nyjekzamen.
Diplom ob okonfanii srednego special'nogo uEebnogo zavedenija. Certificate awarded on
completion of specialized educationand correspondingto 12 years' study:three primary,five
general secondary and four specialized secondary. (The duration of study in a technical
secondary school is two years but this is preceded by seven years' general secondary
education.)This certificate is the normal prerequisite for admission to sit for the competitive
entrance examinations to higher education.
Diplom ob okonEanii vysSego ufebnogo zavedenija.First terminal qualification awarded on
completion of a five-year course of study (in a few subjects four or six years)at a university or
other institutionof higher education.The curriculum is broadly based, working progressively
towards a subject of specialization on which the student is required to submit a dissertation.
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 299

The diploma with mention of the field of specializationor correspondingprofession entities

the-holder to enter professional practice;it is also the prerequisite for admission to post-
graduate study and research.
Diploma of higher education. See diplom ob okonëanii vysiego uCebnogo zavedenija.
Doktor.The degree ofdoktor nauk (doctor of the sciences), the highest in the SovietUnion,
is awarded in the same broad fields as the degree of kandidat nauk. (In architecture and fine
arts the degree awarded is that of doktor.) A candidate for this degree must already hold the
degree of kandidat nauk and must publish and defend a thesis representing a significantand
original contribution to scholarship in an important field of knowledge and constituting a
contribution of value to the application of scientific knowledge. The degree requires a
minimum of two years' preparation, normally considerably longer,and candidates usually
already hold posts of responsibility in teaching or research.They may be granted leave of
absence of up to two years with a study scholarship.The degree,which is the prerequisite for
appointment to a full professorship,is conferred by a state attestation commission acting on
recommendation of the academic council of the institutionof higher education in which the
thesis was presented.
Gosudarstvennyjekzamen.The state examinationtaken at the end ofthe first stageof higher
education for the award of the diplom ob okonranii vysiego uPebnogo zavedenija.
Internatura. A one-year course allowing medical graduates to obtain a certificate of
specialization in a particular field.
Kandidat. The degree of kandidat nauk (candidate of the sciences) is awarded after three
years' postgraduate study and research (aspirantura)following the award of the diplom ob
okonranii vysSego uc'ebnogo zavedenija). It is conferred in the following broad fields:physics
and mathematics, chemistry, biology, geology and mineralogy, technology, agriculture,
history,economics,philosophy,philology,geography,law,education,psychology,medicine,
pharmacy,and veterinary medicine.(In architectureand fine arts the degree awarded is that of
kandidat.) Candidates for the degree are required to pass examinations in the subject of
specialization,in philosophy and in a modern language,and to present and defend a thesis.
This should contain original conclusions and demonstrate a thorough knowledge of the
chosen discipline as well as competence to continue advanced research.Candidatesfor the
degree holding teaching appointments in universities or other institutionsofhigher education
or junior research posts may be granted up to two years' leave of absence and a study
scholarship. The degree is the prerequisite for nomination to the academic teaching
appointment of docent.
Professionalqualification. See diplom ob okonranii vysiego debnogo zavedenija.
Vstupitei'nyj ekzamen.Competitiveentrance examinationsfor admissionto a university or
other institution of higher education.The examinationsinclude papers in national language
and literature,a foreign language and from one to three subjectsfrom the secondary-school
curriculum of relevance to the studies on which the candidateproposes to embark.Students
admitted to the preparatory department of a university or other institution of higher
education are not required to sit for the entrance examination.
300 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates University (Al-Ain) is at present the only institute of higher
education in the country.It was opened in 1977with the following three faculties:the faculty
of arts which teaches Islamic Studies, Arabic language and literature, history and
archaeology,geography and foreign languages;the faculty of science providing courses in
mathematics and statistics,chemistry,physics,biology and geology;the faculty of education
providing courses in teacher-training,education and psychology.
In 1978,the faculty of law and Sharia (Islamic law) andjurisprudencewas added.A faculty
of agriculture was due to open for the academic year 1980-81. It is envisaged that other
faculties,especiallyone for engineeringandtechnology,willbe opened in thevery near future.
The Emirates University has an independentstatus,a separategovernmentalbudget and a
governing supreme council headed by the Minister of Education who is in this capacity
presidentofthe University.Tuition is free and livingaccommodationfor most ofthe students
is provided.
The curriculum is organized according to the credit hour system,the academic year
consisting at present of two semesters.A summer semester is being planned for the near
future.The P h D degree is the minimum requirement for teaching in the University.
Almost all subjects are taught in Arabic. English is used for some high-leveltechnical
subjects.
Primary school-teachersare trained in an institutewhere they obtain an educationdiploma
after two years’study while higher secondary school-teachersdo not have any specialized
training institute at present.
As for non-traditionaleducation,it only exists in the preparatory and secondarylevelsand
in the fieldoftechnicalstudies.It is provided as follows:semi-skilledworkers (threeyearsafter
primary education) equivalent to preparatory education,and skilledworkers (six years after
primary education) equivalent to secondary-schooleducation.
Graduates from the secondary technical studies are allowed entry in their respectivefields
at the United Arab Emirates University.
The level of entry to the UAE University is the higher secondary-schoolcertificateobtained
after three years of higher secondaryeducation following three years’preparatory education
and six years in primary schools.
Foreign students may enrol in the Emirates University according to the following
conditions:eight per cent of total places are reserved for students fromthe Arab Gulfregion
and seven per cent of total places are available for other foreigners.
Gulf students should obtain 65 per cent of total marks in their high school certificate and
non-Gulfstudents should obtain 75 per cent of total marks in their high school certificate.
For the Islamic studies and Sharia a further condition is obligatory:candidates must be
muslims and must obtain 50 per cent of the total marks in the high school certificate.
After the successful completionoffour academicyears thebuchelor’sdegree is awarded.BA
or BSc are at present the highest degrees awarded by the University.
UNITED KINGDOM 301

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, higher education is given in five main types of institution:the
universities,polytechnics,the Open University (which operates by means of radio and TV,
correspondence and vacation courses, and by part-time tutors and study counsellors),
teacher-trainingcolleges. art and music colleges. There is also the University College at
Buckingham which was opened in 1976 by a group of academics and businessmen,and is
endowed by private benefactors.
Higher education has evolved in a very diversifiedfashionwithin the United Kingdom,and
as a result there is no codified system of regulationsto coverall varietiesofinstitutions.Nor is
there any one authority which directs higher education as a whole. The administrative
structure of higher education for Scotland,for example,differs considerably from that of
England,for which the responsible body is the Department of Education and Science.
Ultimately,universitiesin Britain derive their legal rights and powers from royal chartersor
private Acts of Parliament which set out their constitutionsin broad outline.Each university
has the right to award its own degrees. All universities are autonomous institutions,
particularly in matters relating to courses and programmes. The main task of the University
Grants Committee,members of which are appointed by the Secretary ofState for Education
and Science, is to distribute between university institutions the financial allocations
determined by the Government.The Secretary of State for Education and Science is assisted
by one Minister of State and two Under-Secretariesof State,who share the responsibility for
various aspects of higher education and science.
Most universities are organized into faculties,which may be sub-dividedintodepartments.
There exist also departments and institutes which are multi-disciplinary.Some newer
universities are divided into schools.
The Committee of Vice-Chancellorsand Principals,which consists of the vice-chancellors
of the universitiesof England and Wales,and the principals oftheScottishuniversitiesand of
the two universities of Northern Ireland, examines matters of common concern to all
universities.By the range of its activitiesand its compositionit exerts a considerableinfluence
on university affairs.A Committee ofDirectorsofPolytechnicsperforms similarfunctionsfor
the polytechnics.
In the polytechnics,as in some of the more technologicallyoriented universities,the fields
of study relate principally to scientificapplicationsto industryand commerce.Many of these
technologically oriented institutions offer part-time courses. As well as technical and
professional training,the polytechnics may also offer courses in the social sciencesand the
humanities. There are also a large number of institutions known as 'colleges of further
education',which offer a wide variety ofprogrammes,a few ofwhich are at the levelofhigher
education.These may therefore to some extent be considered para-university institutions.
Programmes and courses in the polytechnics must be approved by the Council for National
Academic Awards (CNAA),a body which, like the universities,is authorized to award
degrees in the humanities,the sciences,the socialsciencesand technology,as well as numerous
diplomas.The CNAA also awards higher degrees.
The teacher-trainingcolleges are specialized institutionswhich give courses of training for
intending teachers. Some colleges are being converted from monotechnic into polytechnic
institutions,which will prepare not only for teaching. but allied professions,such as social
work.Other collegesare being assimilated intopolytechnics,and willbecome teacher-training
departments.Many universities also have a department of educational studies which gives
courses of professional training only for those who are holders ofa bachelor'sdegree.These
302 UNITED KINGDOM

departments also offer higher professional courses and prepare candidates for higher degrees
in education.
Art and music colleges prepare students for various diplomas, one of which is of the same
level as the bachelor’s degree. The Royal College of Art possesses the same status as a
university.
The polytechnics and other post-secondary institutions mentioned above are under the
aegis of the local education authorities, as are the majority of teacher-training colleges,
although some of the latter are run by religious denominations.
The role in England of the Secretary of State for Education and Science is to supervise those
institutions which derive their resources in whole or part from public funds, to plan the
distribution at national level of provision for higher education and to formulate a general
policy in relation to educational standards.Within the general framework laid down the
institutions elaborate their courses and organize their examinations. In this way a certain
standardization is whieved whilst at the same time the maximum possible flexibility is
allowed.
‘Non-traditional’ post-secondary education in the university sector is available through the
University of London’s external system under which external students may study for certain
degrees. These are often suitable for mature students w h o have commitments which make it
impossible for them to attend a regular course of instruction.These degrees are only available
to part-time students in the United Kingdom. Birkbeck College, London University,
specializes in providing degree courses for mature students w h o are in employment and only
able to attend evening courses.
The Open University offers tuition for part-time study for degrees and other courses by
means of correspondence supplemented by closely linked radio and television broadcasts,
residential summer schools,and an extensive counselling and tutorial service which operates
through local study centres. The University is mainly aimed at providing higher educational
opportunities for those who did not or could not take advantage of the usual institutionsof
education in the United Kingdom.
Other ‘non-traditional’forms are the sandwich courses in which the undergraduate course
is incorporated with periods of industrial training. The duration of study for an honours
degree is four years. These courses are mainly offered in those universities which were
formerly colleges of advanced technology, but there are a few in other universities (see
Glossary).
As regards professional education,it must be noted that professions have laid down their
own professional qualifications. Some thirty major professional bodies exist. These have
established legally rigorous conditions of entry and high professional standards.
Access to higher education normally takes place after a m i n u m u m of 13 years of primary and
secondary education.A pre-conditionis success (‘passes’) in a certain number of subjects in
the general certificateof education (GCE)examinationsor in other examinationspassed at the
equivalent level.The conditions vary according to the disciplines in higher education that the
candidate wishes to study and according to the level of the examinations themselves:ordinary
level (‘O’level) or advanced level (‘A’level). Most institutions of higher education require
passes in the following subjects: English, mathematics or one scientific subject and a foreign
language. These represent the indispensable minimum for a general education to equip the
student for any branch of higher education. Generally, institutions of higher education
demand as an entrance requirement a minimum of passes in fivesubjectsof which two at least
must be at advanced level,or four passes,of which at least three must be at advanced level. If a
pupil wishes to enter a university he usually attempts three, sometimes four, subjects at
advanced level, and may have already passed in ten subjects or more at ordinary level.
Scotland has its o w n leaving certificates and Scottish universities may apply different
conditions of access.
UNITED KINGDOM 303

These minimum conditions are a necessary but not a sufficient qualificationfor admission
to universitieswhich may also impose their own conditions,e.g.a particular combination of
passes or a particularstandardachieved in subjectstaken in the GCE.Oxford,Cambridgeand
Durham universities organize their own competitive entrance examinations.Because of the
competition for places further criteria of selectionother than examination results are usually
taken into consideration.
Except for the Open Universityand the UniversityCollegeofBuckingham,applicationsfor
entry to an undergraduatecourse must be made through the Universities Central Council on
Admissions (UCCA). Applicants for sandwich courses follow. in general, the normal
university entrance procedure. There are no formal requirementsfor admission to under-
graduate courses at the Open University.
Overseas students are eligible to apply for admission to almost all courses provided they
have the necessary qualifications,but each university will want to have evidence that the
applicant’seducation has qualified him to follow the course and that he speaks and under-
stands English well.In addition to this ‘general’requirement there are at most universities
specific‘course’requirements,which may vary from one facultyor department to anotherand
which are intended to ensure that the student’s previous studies have included adequate
preparation.
Although there are some courses specially designed for students from overseas,most
overseas students attend exactly the samecoursesas United Kingdom students.Those courses
that are intended for students from abroad usually have a special emphasis on practical
subjects in which there is a demand for advanced training facilities,for example in the
economic,social and administrative fields.
Colleges of technology prepare for the higher national certificate,which may be obtained
after a minimum of two years’part-timestudy,and the higher national diploma which may be
obtained after two to three years’full-timestudy,depending upon the specializationchosen.
In a teacher-trainingcollege a ceriifcate of education may be obtained after three years’
study.This gives the right to teach in either a primary or a secondaryschool;selected students
may,after a fourth year,sit for the degree ofbachelor of education,which is awarded either by
a university or by the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA).
The main stage of higher education is devoted to a study in depth of one or more subjectsor
fields.It leads after three or four years to the award ofa first degree in arts,science,or other
fields (theology, law, engineering, etc.). This degree is normally the bachelor’s degree,
although in Scottish universities the first terminal degree in arts normally carries the
designation master (and not bachelor).
In some universitiesand in some polytechnics which take CNAA first degrees a new two-
year course is being introduced leading to a diploma of higher education (DipHE). This
qualification may be terminai or may lead,after one year’s further study,to a bachelor’s
degree.
The first degree may be oftwo kinds:the honours or special degree,in which the studiesare
more specialized,and the ordinary or pass degree. In some of the newer universities the
honours degree may also be obtained in a wider and less specialized field of study.In other
universities,such as those in Scotland,studies may lead to what is termed a double honours
degree,in which two subjectsare carried to the samelevel,althoughthe length ofstudy may be
only three or,at most,four years of study.
In certain technologicalfields studiesgenerally include a spell of practical work in industry
or commerce,a system which is known as the sandwich course. Consequently the bachelor’s
degree will then require a four-yearinstead of a three-yearcourse.
A second stage of studiesfollowingupon the first degree(postgraduatestudies)consistsofa
deepening of knowledge and greater specialization.At university this leads to the master’s
degree, or,in some institutions,to a bachelor of philosophy degree.According to the subject
304 UNITED KINGDOM

chosen,the course for this postgraduate degree lasts one,two or even more years and ends in a
formal examination or the presentation of a thesis, or both.
M a n y secondary teachers,particularly those teaching academic subjects hold a first degree
of a university as well as a postgraduate certificate of education awarded by a university.
The third stage is that of specialization proper and of personal research. At a university it
leads, after two years’ additional study and the successful presentation of a thesis, to the
master of philosophy degree; or after two years-normally longer-of such additional study
the candidate may present a thesis for the doctorate of philosophy (DPhil or PhD).
A higher doctorate may be awarded by the university after a candidate, usually a senior
university teacher, has submitted for consideration a number of learned works, which have
usually already been published.
T h e two universities of Northern Ireland (the Queen’s University of Belfast and the N e w
University of Ulster) have conditions of entry and diplomas which are similar to those of
universities elsewhere in the United Kingdom. At Belfast, four years are required for a
bachelor’s degree. The University of Ulster has introduced a unit-credit system: the student
may follow courses chosen from a wide variety of options and thereby acquire up to six credit
units per year.

PROFILE OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years, general certificateof education)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education C/P P B
Arts B M D
Religion, theology B M D
Fine arts, music B/CD/P MA’ DIM D(Mus)
Law B M D
Social sciences, B M D
economics
Administration B M D
Business, commerce B M D
Exact and natural B M D
sciences
Technology, engineering HNC/ B M D
HND
Medical sciences
medicine B P M
dentistry B/P M
pharmacy B P/M D
veterinary medicine B/P
Agriculture B/Hr

B bachelor’s degree HNC higher national certijïcate

C certijïcate of education HND higher national diploma
CD college diploma M master’s degree
D doctor of philosophy P professional qualijïcation
UNITED KINGDOM 305

GLOSSARY
Associateship. See professional qualification.
Bachelor’sdegree. The first degree of higher education,awarded usually after three years’
study,but which may vary from three to six years,accordingto the faculty.Usually the title of
the degree gives some indication of the branch of study,e.g. BA,bachelor of arts, LLB,
bachelor of laws.
There are two kinds of bachelor’s degree:

1 The first type is thehonours or specialdegree,which is ofa higher levelthanthe second type
and usually comprises the study of one main and one subsidiary subject only.Successful
candidates are classified into three categories:first class honours-the highest group;
second class honours (usually with two sub-divisions,division I,or upper,and division II,
or lower);and third class honours.
2 The ordinary orpass degree,study for which includesseveralsubjects-usually three-and
in which the depth of study is not carried to the degree of specializationrequired for the
honours degree.

Certain institutionsaward apass degree to those candidates who have studied for an honours
degree but whose results do not justify the award of honours.
One feature ofthe teaching for a first degree is the use ofthe tutorial system,when teaching
resources permit this. The university teacher, acting as tutor, in an informal teaching
situation,has a weekly discussion with one student,or a very small number of students.The
tutorial is a teaching method employed in addition to the normal methods.
Usually students have to satisfy the examiners in a series of yearly examinations,or by a
system of continuous assessment, as well as sit for a final degree examination. Some
universitieshave now adopted the credit-unitor modular system ofassessment.For the finals
examination universities not only appoint examiners from their own teaching staff but also
call in the services of a number of external examiners from other universities.In this way,
whilst preserving their autonomy and their own character, the universities maintain a
relatively standard level of achievement throughout the country.
In certain universitiesall studentsmust follow a preparatorycourse known as a foundation
year before embarking upon the course of study laid down for the bachelor’s degree.
Certificate.In higher education, this qualification is usually awarded after following a
specializedcourse and after obtaining a university degree,e.g.the postgraduate certificateof
education.(But see also general certificate of education, higher national certificate.)
College diploma. Qualification of higher education awarded at the end of a period of study
in an institutionof higher education in technology,fine arts or music. The length of study
varies from one to three years.(See also higher national diploma.)
Doctorate. Degree of higher education,usually awarded after the candidate has already
obtained a bachelor’s and a master’s degree.
Two kinds of doctor’s degree exist:

1 Doctorate of philosophy (DPhil or PhD). This is awarded in a large number of fields,after

two, three or four years of study and research and after the presentation of a thesis,in
addition to which there may sometimes be a written examination. In the faculties of
medicine the corresponding degrees are the doctorate in medicine (MDor DM)and the
doctorate in surgery (ChM or MCh).
2 Senior doctorate or higher doctorate (e.g.doctor of letters,DLitt;doctor of science, DSc;
doctor of laws, LLD). This doctorate is conferred in recognition of an outstanding
contributionto scholarshipin a particularfield and is usually awarded to persons of high
academic distinction and on the basis of previously published work.
306 UNITED KINGDOM

Both kinds of doctorate come in the category of higher degrees.

Entrance examination. An examination designed for entranceto higher education.Instead
ofsetting up theirown entrance examination,most universities,with the notable exceptionsof
Oxford and Cambridge,select their students on the results obtained by them in the general
certificateof education.They requirecandidatesto have passed in a certain number ofsubjects
at a certain level (either ordinary or advanced level)). The number of places available is
limited. Institutions of higher education give preference to students with the best school
record.They also take into account reportsfrom the head teachersofthe secondaryschoolsat
which the candidates have studied. University authorities very often interview likely
candidates and only admit those they judge ultimately capable of obtaining a degree.
External degree. Degree awarded by the University of London, as a result of study
undertaken outside the university proper,but often with its advice and assistance.
Fellowship. See professional qualijïcation.
First degree. The initial degree of higher education (cf also bachelor’s degree).
General certificate of education. Examination which,after being taken at ordinary level at
about the age of 16,is taken at advancedlevel two yearslater.The fullqualificationis onethat
representb therefore 13 years of primary and secondary schooling.
Graduateship. See professional qualification.
Higher degree. Degree of higher education,awarded after a first degree(cffirstdegree).The
doctor’s degree, master’s degree and,sometimes,a type of bachelor’s degree (e.g. at Oxford:
BPhil,bachelor of philosophy;and BLit,bachelor of literature). Studies undertaken after the
award of a first degree are known as postgraduate studies.
Higher doctorate. See doctor’s degree.
Higher national certificate.Qualificationofhigher education,awardedat the end ofthreelor
more years of part-timestudy in a technological subject.The higher national certificateis
considered as almost being the equivalent of an ordinary degree (bachelor’sdegree),but in a
narrower specialized field.In order to study for this qualification candidates must normally
hold the generalcertijïcateof education,ordinary level in a number of specifiedsubjects.(See
also professional qualification.)
Higher national diploma. Qualification of higher education,awarded at the end of three or
more years of full-time study in a technological subject.The higher national diploma is
considered as approximatelythe equivalent of an ordinary degree (bachelor’sdegree), but in a
narrower specializedfield.In order to study for this qualificationcandidates must hold at least
the general certificateof education,ordinary level in a number of specifiedsubjects.(See also
professional qualification.)
Honours degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Licentiateship. See professional qualification.
Master of philosophy. Degree of higher education,awarded in a large number offieldsafter
two years’research and after the presentation of a thesis.The level of this degree is between
that of the master’s degree proper and the doctorate.
Master’s degree. Degree of higher education,usually awarded after one or two years’study
following upon the bachelor’s degree. The study is in a specialized field.In certain cases the
degree is conferred solely after a written examination (although the candidatemay be orally
examined as well), but for the most part candidates must also present a memoir.
The master’s degree is a higher degree.However,at Oxford and Cambridge the degree of
master ofarts is conferred automatically,after a certain period of time,on all those who have
the bachelor’s degree. But other master’s degrees of these two universitiesare subject to the
same conditions as elsewhere and rank as higher degrees.
Ordinary degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Pass degree. See bachelor’s degree.
Postgraduate studies. Studies following upon the award of a first degree, usually the
UNITED KINGDOM 307

bachelor’sdegree, and usually undertaken with a view to obtaining a master’s degree.

Professional qualification. Qualification which gives the right to practise a profession. A
number of professional bodies play a special role in thisrespect:they often organizetheir own
examinations and grant, at various levels, awards that connote various degrees of
qualification,either in relation to professional competence,or which are required for the
exercise of a particular profession. But these bodies do not organize courses nor do they
usually undertake teaching for their examinationsor profession. Such activities take place
either in universities or in other specialized institutions,such as polytechnics.
Holders of certain university degrees may be exempted wholly or partially, by the
professional body concerned,from certain of the conditions imposed upon its members in
relation to one or other ofthe qualificationsit awards.It often happensthat a particular body
has a whole range of qualificationsand,correspondingly,of members at the various levels.
The terminology employed (associateship,graduateship, licentiateship. fellowship) and its
application in practice vary from one professional body to another.However,the highest
qualification,which is granted only to a particularly well-qualified and limited number of
members,is usually that offellow cfellowship).
Sandwich course. Undergraduate course which incorporates periods of industrial training
or professional experience outside the university,these being planned to integrate with the
academic syllabus to form an official part of the university course.The whole course is
normally of four years’ duration leading to an honours degree. The periods spent in the
university and with an employingorganizationare planned as a logicalsequenceand alternate
in a pattern appropriate to the particular discipline.University staff keep in touch with the
student and work in close co-operationwith supervisors from the employing organizations.
The first sandwich courses in universities were mainly in engineering and applied science.
They are now available in many disciplines,but all more or less vocational.
Senior doctorate. See doctorate.

United Republic of Cameroon

In the United Republic of Cameroon higher education is principally provided at the
University of Yaoundé,which comprises:three faculties-law and economics,humanities,
science;and five schools-the University Centre for Health Sciences,an advanced teacher-
training college,the National Higher Polytechnical College, the International School of
Journalism,and the Instituteof International Relations.The university centres of Dschang
(agriculturalstudies), of Douala (commerceand business),of Ngaoundéré (technology) and
of Buéa (translation and interpreting) were created in 1977 but are no longer part of the
University.The faculties are divided into departments,the schoolsinto sections.Outside the
university there are other institutions such as the National School of Administration and
Magistracy.
The University of Yaoundé comesunder the authorityofthe Councilfor Higher Education
308 UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

whose president is the President of the Federal Republic of Cameroon. It is headed by a

chancellor who is chairman of the Board of Administration.
The University of Yaoundé is bilingual (English and French).
Primary teachersare trained at the secondary level.Secondary teachersare trained at the
teacher-trainingcollege and in the faculties.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate,that is to say
either the baccalauréat or the general certificate of education, advanced level,which are
awarded after thirteen and fourteen years of primary and secondary education respectively.
Other school-leavingqualifications may be recognized as equivalents.The holder of one of
these qualificationsmay enter university,whereasaccessto,theschoolsis basedon successin a
competitive entrance examination.A special entrance examination enables candidatesnot
holding the usual qualifications to enter higher education. People who do not hold these
qualifications may study for the capacité,endroit and in certain cases go on to obtain the
licence at the faculty of law and economics.
Access to the School of Administration is open, after success in a competitive entrance
examination,to holders of the West African school certificate,or of a brevet élémentaire or
brevet d'études who have spent at least four years in the civil service and to holders of a
secondary-school-leavingcertificate.
The first stage of higher education lasts two years and inlaw and economics,in humanities,
and in sciences,serves to acquire basic pluridisciplinary knowledge.In law,it leads to the

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13/14 years,baccalauréat or general certificateof education)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education DSA CNH

Arts DELG L M D
Law, economics CEJG/ L M D
CEEG
Exact and natural DESG L M D
sciences
Engineering IT IC
Health sciences DSI DTSS D

CEEG certificat d'études économiques générales

CEJG certificat d'études juridiques générales
CNH concours national d'habilitation
D doctorat
DELG diplôme d'études littéraires générales
DESG diplôme d'études scientifiquesgénérales
DSA diplôme supérieur d'aptitude
DSI diplôme en soins infirmiers
DTSS diplôme de technicien supérieur de la santé
IC ingénieur de conception
IT ingénieur de travaux
L licence
M maîtrise
UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON 309

certificat d'études juridiques générales (CEJG),in economics, to the certificat d'études

économiques générales (CEEG),in science, to the diplôme détudes scientijïques générales
(DESG),in arts,to the diplôme détudes littéraires générales (DELG).
The second stage lasts one year and leads in arts and sciences.and,more recently,in law and
economics to a licence.In artsand science,and in lawand economics,the secondstageleadsto
the maîtrise after one or two years of study. Students must submit a dissertation.
The third stage leads to the doctorate. Studies last a minimum of three years and students
must defend a thesis.
The College of Advanced Teacher-Trainingawards two diplomas: the diplôme supérieur
d'aptitude (DSA)and the concours national d'habilitation (CNH). The National Higher Poly-
technical College awardsthe diplôme dingénieur de conception and the diplôme dingénieur de
iravaux. The lnstitute of International Relations awards the diplôme en relations inter-
nationales which is obtained two years after the licence. The University Centre for Health
Sciences (CUSS) awards three kinds of diploma: the diplôme de docteur en médecine, the
dplôme de technicien de la santé, and the diplôme supérieur en soins infirmiers.

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat.Secondary-school-leavingcertificate obtained in Eastern Cameroon after six
years of primary followed by seven years of secondary education in a school of general
education, divided into two phases of four and three years. The courses and teaching
conditions are of the French type, adapted to Cameroon.The baccalauréat gives access to
institutes of higher education.
Certificat d'étudeséconomiques générales (CEEG).Certificate awarded at the end of the
first two years of study in economics.
Certificat d'étudesjuridiques générales (CEJG). Certificate awarded at the end of the first
two years of study in law.
Concours national d'habilitation.Diploma awarded by the College of Advanced Teacher-
training two years after the diplôme supérieur d'aptitude (DSA) and five years after the
baccalauréat.
Diplôme d'études littérairesgénérales(DELG).Diploma awarded at the end of the second
year in arts. There are various sections:classics,modern English literature,modern French
literature. bilingual literary studies, history and geography, philosophy and psychology.
Students also receive practical bilingual training.
Diplôme d'études scientifiques générales (DESG). Diploma awarded at the end of the
second-yearcourse in science.There are four sections:mathematics and physics,physics and
chemistry,chemistry and biology, biology and geology.
Diplôme en soins infirmiers. Diplomaopen to nurses with a brevet,and to state nurses who
already have at least three years' experience.This diploma is awarded after three years.
Diplôme supérieur d'aptitude. Diploma awarded by the College of Advanced Teacher-
training three years after the baccalauréat.
Doctorat. The highest degree of higher education,awarded to students who already hold
one or severaluniversity degrees.The doctorat is awarded in arts,science,law and economics
three or four years after the maîtrise and the submissionand defence ofa thesis.It is the end of
third stage studies.The professional title of doctor is also awarded at the end of medical
studies.
General certificate of education (advanced level). In Western Cameroon,secondary-school-
leaving certificate obtained after seven years of primary and seven years of secondary
education. Programmes and examinations are based on the British system (see United
Kingdom,general certificate of education,advanced level). This qualification gives access to
higher education under conditions similar to those applying in the United Kingdom.
Licence. First degree of higher education,awarded after three years' study in arts and
3 10 UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

science, and since fairly recently, in law and economics. Studies are divided into two stages.
The first stage lasts two years, leading to the D E S G , to the DELG, to the C E J G and the
CEEG respectively,according to subjects chosen.The second stage leads to the licence after
one year. In arts, it includes a certificat de licence and a certijïcat de spécialisation.
Maîtrise or master’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded in arts and science,and
since fairly recently, in law and economics, after the licence and a fourth year of study.This
year includes studies leading to a second certificat de spécialisation and the compiling of a
dissertation. A selection takes place between the licence and the maîtrise.

United Republic of Tanzania

In Tanzania higher education is given in the University of Dar es Salaam and in other
institutions.
The University of Dar es Salaam was established in 1970. It was originally established in
1961 as the University College of Dar es Salaam,a constitutent college of the University of
East Africa (cf Kenya, Uganda). The University is governed by a council which includes
members appointed by the Government, representativesof the graduate and academic staff,
as well as lay members. Resources come mainly from government grants (70 per cent) and
students’fees (30per cent). The University is divided into faculties.Five institutesare attached
to it.
Higher education is also given in five agricultural colleges,in the Dar es Salaam Technical
College, the Dar es Salaam Medical School, and in a teacher-training college.
A number of institutions give professional training in one- or three-yearcourses at post-
secondary level.
Teachers of primary educationare trained in some 35 teacher-trainingcolleges.Teachers of
lower-secondaryeducation are trained at Dar es Salaam and Klerruu Colleges of National
Education and those of upper-secondary education at the University in three years,when they
obtain the bachelor’s degree of arts and science (with education) in most of the subjects.
The language of instruction is English.
Access to higher education is based on the Tanzanian national form 6 certijïcate or East
African general certificate of education,advanced level,obtained after 14 years of education.
Individual faculties may have their o w n additional requirements.
The first stage of higher education leads, after a period of undergraduate studies, to the
bachelor’sdegree,obtained in three years in arts, science, law and agriculture,in four years in
engineering and in five years in medicine (where the degree is that of doctor of medicine). The
degree of bachelor of arts or bachelor of science (education option) entitles holders to teach in
upper-secondary education.
In courses of shorter studies,qualificationsare awarded at post-secondary level after one or
two years (certificates,diplomas). Courses leading to a certificate in law and diploma in adult
education are open to holders of the secondary-school-leavingcertificateor to adults already
UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA 311

in employment.A diploma in public administration is awarded after three years’study by the

Government Institute of Development Management.
The second stage leads,after one to three years’ studies,to the master’s degree in arts,
science,law and agriculture.Studies compriseeitherthe preparation ofa dissertationaloneor
course-workas well,depending on the field of study.
A third stage leads,after two years’study (oneofwhich has to be spent in residence),to the
degree of doctor ofphilosophy (PhD), which requires the submission of a thesis.

P R O F I L E OF HIGHER S T U D I E S

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation:Tanzanian nationalform 6 certgicate)

years 3 4 5 6 7

Arts B M D
Theology P
Law B M D
Science B M D
Medicine B
Agriculture B

B bachelor’sdegree D doctor’sdegree M master’s degree P professional quali-

fication

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree obtained after three years’undergraduate studies in arts,
science,law and agriculture,four in engineering and five in medicine.
Certificate. Professional qualification obtained at post-secondarylevel after one to two
years’study (wild-life management,veterinary medicine,law).
Diploma. Professional qualification obtained at post-secondarylevel after two to three
years’ study, often following upon the certifcate (wild-life management, agriculture,
forestry). A diploma in adult education is awarded after one year to adults already in
employment.
Doctor’s degree. The higher degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD) is awarded after a
minimum of two years’studies (one year has to be spent in residence)following a master’s
degree or MD.It is obtained by thesis after research in an approved topic.
East African general certificate of education. See Tanzanian national form 6 cert~fïcate.
Master’s degree. Degree of higher education awarded after at least one but no more than
three years’studies in arts,science,engineering,law and agriculture.Studies comprise either
the preparation of a dissertation alone or course-work as well.
Professional qualification. See cerfifcate,diploma.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See East African general certificate of education,
Tanzanian nationalform 6 certificate.
Tanzanian national form 6 certificate. Secondary-school-leaving certificate,awarded after
seven years of primary followed by six years’secondary education.The latterare divided into
two phases of four and two years.Examinationsare oftwo levels:ordinary and advanced.At
the end of the first phase,the candidate takes some examinationsat ordinary level and then
usually continues to study for another two years to acquire the number and combination of
‘passes’at advanced level required by the branch of higher education he wishes to enter.The
312 UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

East African general certificateof education is similarly organized by Kenya and Uganda and
its results have the same validity.

United States of America

In the United States, the constitutionmakes no reference to education,but article 10 confers
upon the states powers in those areas which are not specificallydenied to the states or reserved
to the federal government. Power over education and legal responsibility for the maintenance
of educational systems,therefore,reside in each of the 50 states.Because of these legal and
constitutionalcircumstances,there are many different types of higher education in the United
States.
There are two main types of institution of higher education:state (or public) and private.
Certain private institutionsare religious institutions.About 30 per cent of the total number of
students attend private institutions.The main difference between the two is a financial one:
private institutions have only limited financial help from the state authorities. State
institutions may be the responsibility of the State they are situated in,or of local authorities.
The federal government plays an important part in their financing.In public higher education,
tuition in 1977-78 averaged about $582 and in private higher education institutions about
82564. R o o m and board fees, books, and travel add an extra $2500 in costs.
Given the very large number and variety of institutionsof higher education and high level of
student attendance,there are considerable differences in the quality of the teaching provided
in them. This is to a large degree corrected by several non-governmental regulating
organizations whose task it is to foster co-operationbetween the various institutionsand to
harmonize the methods, structures and norms of the teaching programmes.
The accreditation system is characteristic of American higher education.There are on the
one hand six regional accreditation organizations,founded by the universities themselves,
which ensure the high level of higher education by recognizing through accreditation those
institutionsin their region who fit their requiredstandards.There are,on the other hand, some
50 national accreditation organizations which are established within the framework of
various professions and which establish standards and guidelines within their professional
subjects for the specialized and professional institutions of higher education as well as
university departments. Apart from these specific organizations, there are a number of co-
ordinating organizations for higher education,such as the American Council on Education,
as well as a number of associations such as the Association of American Universities, the
National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, the Association of
Urban Universities, etc.
In 1978,there were 4,000accredited institutions of post-secondary education in the United
States. These include an extremely varied selection of institutions.It is therefore difficult to
establish a classification of institutionswhich represents the complete gamut of programmes
offered. Moreover, the system of summer schools, correspondence and evening courses
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 313

enables large numbers of students and people already in employment to further their
education.Also the official name of an institution does not necessarily indicatethe level of
teaching it provides. Thus certain institutions designated as ‘universities’do not provide
courses beyond those leading to the bachelor’s degree, while others designated as ‘colleges’,
offer programmes leading to the doctorate and enjoy great prestige.
In a rather general and schematic way, it is possible to classify institutions of higher
education in the United States of America into four main categories:

Technical institutionsand ‘semi-professional’schools offering two-year or three-year

courses,leadingto an ‘associate’qualificationand preparingstudentsfor employmentin
semi-professional occupations such as medical, dental and engineering technician or
skilled employeesfor commerce,accountancy,nursing,etc.Programmesresemblethose
in junior colleges.
Junior colleges or community colleges which provide two-yearcourses which may lead
to studies in the two categories below (this may also apply,under certain conditions,to
studies undertaken in institutionsin the above category).
Liberal arts colleges,statescollegesand independentprofessionalinstitutionsawarding
the first degree (bachelor’sdegree)and sometimes the master‘s degree and the doctorate.
Independent professional institutions include teacher-training colleges, institutes of
technology (of a higher level than institutes providing short courses in category 1),
schools of theology,art,etc.
Universities,which may award the highest degree(doctor’sdegree).There is in every state
at least one college(oruniversity)called a land-grantcollege,created originally to train
agriculturaltechniciansand engineers.Most ofthese institutionshave become very large
universities where students can study all subjects,from humanities to applied sciences.
Within a university, colleges provide undergraduate courses leading to the first
university degree and graduate schools provide courses leadingto higher (postgraduate)
degrees.It should be noted,however,that the various programmes offered by different
types of institution often overlap considerably. A university for instance, usually
comprises institutionsof professional education as well as offering courses similar to
those of a technical institution.

The highest body of a college or university is traditionally the board of trustees (or board of
regents,or board of directors), whose members come from outside the institutionand belong
to industry,the world of finance,the professions,etc. In the case of religiousinstitutions,the
members belong to the relevant religion.The president,elected by the board of trustees,is
responsible for the administrative running of the institution.His powers are considerable,
especially regarding financial matters and the appointment of academic staff.
Most teacher-trainingcollegeshave become colleges ofthe liberal-artsor state-collegetype,
or even universitiesteaching a variety ofsubjects.Moreover,certain collegesdevoted mainly
to the teaching of arts and science subjects have organizedadditionalsubjectsconcernedwith
teacher training.There is a tendency to widen the range ofsubjects for future teachers.In a
great many American states teachersof both primary and secondary educationfollow a five-
year course.A large majority of the former and almost all the latter hold the first degree of
bachelor of arts or science and an increasingnumber also hold a second university degree (see
below).
Access to higher education is based on the high-schooldiploma (primary-and secondary-
school-leavingcertificate) awarded around 18 years of age, after 12 years of primary and
secondary studies.In fact,in most states,this qualification is awarded on results obtained
during the last years of studies,and not on results of an examination.Secondary studies are
broadly based,and involve little specialization.Adults who have not completed work for a
314 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

traditionalhigh-schooldiplomamay earn a high-schoolequivalency certificate or diplomaby

means ofthe ‘testsofgeneraleducational development’(GED).Theseequivalency awardsare
accepted in lieu of a high school transcript by most institutionsof higher education.Many
institutionsof higher education select candidates either on results in the high-schooldiploma
or through an entrance examination.
Candidatesmay apply to severaluniversitiesor collegesat the sametime.A straightforward
high-schoolgraduation is not now consideredto be specificenough,nor even aseries ofstated
grades,because distinct levelsvary and schoolsvary within them.As a consequence,a number
of colleges now rely on the College Board examinations,the EducationalTesting Service,
psychological tests,aptitude tests or on their own admission procedure.
In recent years, admission to the first stages of higher education and sometimes to the
second has been facilitated by a growing use of non-traditional criteria which recognize
learningthat has occurred in settingsother thanconventionalhigh schoolsand colleges.There
are severalnon-traditionalsystemsbeing used.The instructionaldelivery system may be non-
traditional, providing learners with options of taking courses through means such as
newspapers,television,radio and home study.The site at which instruction occurs may be
non-traditional,enablingpersons working in business,industry,governmentand the military
to take courses at their work sites. If these courses are not offered by an accredited post-
secondaryeducation institutionand if an individualwants educational credit for the learning
attained, the learning may be evaluated through examination by the credit-granting
institution,or through recognition of the non-collegiate instructional programme as of
college or university calibre by an organization such as the American Council on Education.
In every case,however,the institutionawarding the degree or certificate determines whether
to accept the external validations.There is no national policy on acceptance applicableto all
American colleges or universities.
Foreign student applicants to US institutionsofhigher education should,as a minimum,be
able to establish that they have completed the equivalent of a 12-year elementary and
secondary education cycle. Those applying for advanced degrees should be able to show
completion of at leasta four-yearpost-secondaryuniversity level programme.The admission
of a foreign student will also be dependent upon financial verification,that is, proof that
sufficient financial resources are available for the full course of study.Also required is an
evaluation of English proficiency to prove that this is adequate to pursue a course of study
given in the English language-failing this,that arrangementsbe made for a specialEnglish
programme. Within these general provisions, the admission of any foreign student is
determined by each institution in accordance with its own special interests,standards and
policies. Some institutionsmay offer conditional admissions to applicants with inadequate
English ability with the proviso that the applicant will take a special English programme as
needed prior to starting academic work. In order to admit foreign students educational
institutionsmust have the approvalofthe US Immigrationand NaturalizationServicefor the
attendance of non-immigrantforeign students.With this approval institutionsmay issue a
certificate of eligibilitywhich will enable the foreignstudentto obtain a student visa to enter
the United States solely for the purpose of study.Authority to issue this certificateinvolves
certain legal responsibilitieson the part of the institution,specifically to report the arrival,
continuation of full-timestudent status and eventual departure from campus of the foreign
student.Applications are normally accepted 6 to 12months prior to the intended entry date.
Institutions of technical and semi-professionaleducation award after two or three years a
certificateor associate degree (vocationaldiploma). Studies leading to the same qualification
may be undertaken in junior collegesand community colleges.In certain cases,such studies
may be validated to form the first part of higher education in a four-yearprogramme.
In universitiesand colleges,the first two-yearphase (freshman year and sophomoreyear)
almost always consists of broadly-basedstudies in humanities, socialsciences,applied and
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 315

natural sciences,fine arts. Following as it does upon broadly-basedsecondary studies,this

phase is aimed at providing generaleducationand preparing for more specializedstudies.This
phase representsthe first half of the first stage of studies.It is given in arts and sciencejunior
colleges,state colleges and universities.It is a prerequisite to more specialized studies.
The first main stage of studies,however, may only be provided by universities, state
colleges,liberal arts colleges,teachers’colleges and institutesof technology.It is devoted to
more specialized studies,and culminatesin the bachelor’sdegree,which is the first university
degree. Higher education often ceases after the award of the first degree, but entry to
~

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,high-schooldiploma)

years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Education A B M E S D
Arts A BA M D
Religion,theology * A BA B/M D
Fine arts,applied arts C B M D
Architecture * A B M D
Law * A BA B M D
Economic and social A BA M D
sciences
Administration and A B M D
business affairs
Commercial sciences A B M D
Exact and natural A B M D
sciences
Engineering,technology * A B M D
Medical sciences
medicine * A BIBS D(P) M D
dentistry * A BS D(P) M D
pharmacy * A B M D
veterinary medicine * A BS D(P) M D
Agriculture,forestry, A B M D
fisheries

A associate degree or certificate

B bachelor’s degree (mentioning the field)
BA bachelor of arts
BS bachelor of science
D doctor’sdegree (doctor of philosophy)
D(P) doctor’sdegree (professionaltitle in medicine,etc.)
ES education speciulisi
M master’s degree

* Preliminary studies-the duration of preliminary studies before entering a professional

faculty is varied (oneto fiveyears) and in fact candidates often obtain a fullbachelor of arts or
bachelor of science degree.
316 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

professionalcourses is frequentlyconditionalon the candidate first undertaking allor part of

a bachelor’s degree in a non-professionalfield (e.g.bachelor of arts or science) before being
allowed to specialize.
In colleges,four-yearcourses in technology train higher technicians.
The second stage of higher education leads,after one or,more often,two years’study in a
university or in some colleges,to the master’s degree. Candidates usually have to submit a
thesis.
The third stage of higher education is reached after two to three years’study in a university
or college,either in faculties providing traditional teaching (arts,law,science,etc.) or in
specialized schools of engineering,agriculture,architecture,economy,veterinary medicine,
etc. This culminates in the doctor’s degree, which is the highest university degree.There are
two types of doctor’sdegree:theprofessional doctor’sdegree,awarded in medicine,dentistry,
veterinary medicine etc.,which is a professional qualification,and the ‘research’doctor’s
degree,or degree ofdoctor ofphilosophy (PhD)awarded after specializedresearchleadingto a
thesis,the level of which varies greatly according to the institution.Candidatesfor the degree
of doctor of philosophy usually have to take an examination as well.
In several subjects,but mostly in the scientific ones,post-doctoral studies of one to three
years’duration enable holdersofa degreeofdoctor ofphilosophy to acquirefurtherspecialized
knowledge in their field.These studiesare often financed by such central organizationsasthe
National Science Foundation or the Public Health Service.

GLOSSARY
Advanced degree. See doctor’s degree.
Advanced professional degree. See doctor’s degree, master’s degree.
Associate degree or Associate title. Qualification of higher education awarded after two
years’study either in an institutionwhich only provides the firsttwo yearsofhigher education
(junioror community college or technical institution), or in an institutionoffering four-year
programmes.Usually,the institutionsoffer vocational courses as well as courses which may
lead to a bachelor’s degree. In some cases,the associate degree is a terminal qualification;in
others, it marks a stage towards the bachelor’s degree. Some institutions awarding the
bachelor’sdegree award an associate degree asan intermediatequalification.The qualification
of associate degree is fairly recent,and the term first degree usually refers to the bachelor’s
degree.
Bachelor’s degree. First degree awarded by a university or college usually after four years’
study following upon the high-school diploma. (Someinstitutionsaward an associate degree,
which is an intermediatequalification,at the end of the second year.) The first two years of
study are usually devoted to broadly-basedstudies and include a number of compulsory
subjects which constitute around 75 per cent of the course (literature,social studies,i.e.
history,geography and science,fine arts); studentshave a choice for their other subjects.The
last two years of the course are devoted almost entirely to specialization:candidates study
major and minor subjects,the latter being related to the former.The degree mentions the
major field:BA,bachelor of arts,BS,bachelor of science,etc.Thebachelor’s degree is usually
referred to asfirst degree orjirst professional degree even though candidates may hold an
associate degree, which is an intermediate qualification. The bachelor’s degree may be a
terminal qualification;it is also a step towards higher (or advanced or graduate)degrees:the
master’s and doctor’s degrees. Candidates for professional studies (such as medicine, law,
dentistry,pharmacy,architecture,teaching,engineering,etc.) are usually required to follow
one to five years’studiesbefore startingtheir trainingin a professionalfaculty(althoughsome
bachelor’s degrees may also be professional degrees). Candidates often obtain a bachelor’s
degree before starting their specialized studies.For institutionswhich divide the year into
semesters studiesare measured in terms of credits:one contact hour or two hours ofpractical
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 317

work for fifteen weeks count as one credit,and each credit presupposes two hours’personal
work per week. Candidates are usually expected to obtain thirty credits per year. Other
institutions which divide the year differently define credits differently. Outstanding
candidates may be allowed to follow during the last year courses leading to higher
qualifications.The bachelor’sdegree is awardedto candidates who have obtained the required
number of credits (around 120for a four-yearprogramme). Studies leading to the bachelor’s
degree are called undergraduatestudies;those leadingto higher degreesare calledgraduateor
postgraduate studies.
Certificate,Qualification of higher educationawarded in some institutionsafter two years’
study in similar conditionsto those leading to the associate degree.The certificateis usually a
terminal qualification for technicians.
Doctor’sdegree or doctorate.The highest degree awarded by a university or college.There
are two types of doctor’sdegree: the research doctorate and theprofessional doctorate.The
research doctorate is usually awarded after the master’sdegree;but in some institutions,it is
the only degree awarded after the bachelor’sdegree.Candidates for a doctor’sdegree have to
study for two to three years-studies are on similar lines to those leading to the master’s
degree-and present a thesis.Candidates may start employment at the end of their graduate
studies,and there may be a gap before the tnesis is submitted.Success in a comprehensive
examinationis often required.Theprofessionaldoctorate is obtained after advanced studiesin
medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, architecture, engineering,etc. It may be a second degree
(followingupon the bachelor‘sdegree) or a third degree (followingupon the bachelor’sdegree
and the master’sdegree). Holders of a researchdoctorateare calleddortorofphi1osoph.v (PhD)
in all subjects,whereas holders of aprofessional doctorate indicate the subject (e.g.doctor of
medicine). It is possible to obtain a researchdoctorateafterobtaining aprofessionaldoctorate.
Entrance examination. Examination organized by institutions of higher education for
holders of a secondary-school-leavingcertificate.These examinationsare usually organized
by educational or commercial organizationsand include tests of general knowledgeas well as
of scholastic aptitude. The wide use of these tests enables the institution to compare
candidates from various schools.However,other factorsare taken intoconsideration,mainly
the type of courses followed and resultsobtainedduring secondaryeducation.Candidatesare
usually required to take at least sixteen‘units’during the lastfour yearsand these should form
part of a broad programme rather than indicate specialization.Each institutionpublishes a
list of recommendedcourses for candidatesto individualfaculties.Teachers’assessment often
carries as much weight as school results.Admission policy varies according to the number of
places available and above all to the level of standards the institutionwishes to maintain.
Certain institutions use criteria for selection which may take into consideration the
candidates’geographical origin,sex,sporting ability,artistic talent,etc. In cases where strict
admissionrequirementsapply,candidateshave to apply in the January preceding the start of
the university year.
First degree. See bachelor’sdegree.
First professional degree.See bachelor’sdegree,professional degree.
Graduate degree.See doctor’sdegree,master’sdegree.
Graduate professional degree.See professional degree.
Higher degree. See doctor’sdegree,master’sdegree.
Higher professional degree.See professional degree.
High-schoolcertificate.See high-schooldiploma.
High-school diploma or high-school certificate. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,
awarded after 12 years of primary and secondary education.This varies according to the
region,but the most common patterns are: eight years of primary followed by four years of
secondary education;six years of primary followed by six years of secondary education;six
years of primary followed by two three-yearphases of secondary education;six years of
318 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

primary followed by two phases (two and four years) of secondary education. Secondary
education is usually provided in comprehensive institutions providing general and technical
education where students are not selected. After the ninth year, students usually select their
o w n programme which must include a number of required subjectsfor all students.They then
choose a number of elective subjects from a range which varies according to the institution.
The subjects elected are often chosen with a view to the courses in higher education students
wish to study.Candidates have to accumulate a number of units or credits,each one ofwhich
consists of five 45-minute classes per week throughout the academic year, as well as a
corresponding number of hours devoted to individual work. Usually, candidates select for
their last three years a major option consisting of three units and a minor option consisting of
two units. Performance during the academic year and teachers’ assessment are taken into
consideration.Candidates obtain the secondary-school-leavingcertificate (graduation)when
they have accumulated the required number of units (usually fifteen to twenty). In certain
states,state institutionsof higher education are obliged to accept all holders of the secondary-
school-leaving certificate.
Master’s degree. Higher (or advanced or graduate) degree of higher education usually
awarded after one or two years’ study following upon the bachelor’s degree. Candidates
organize,with the help of a teacher, their o w n programme which usually concentrates on one
subject. Candidates usually have to submit a thesis and pass a comprehensive examination.
Knowledge of a foreign language is sometimes required. Studies are usually followed under
conditions similar to those leading to the bachelor’s degree. Certain institutionsdo not award
a degree between the bachelor’sdegree and the doctor’sdegree:studies for the doctor’sdegree
in this case are usually longer.
Post-doctoralstudies.Studies followed by holders of the degree of doctor ofphilosophy with
a vizw to furthering scientific knowledge.
Professional degree. Qualification of higher education entitling holders to practise a
profession. Programmes are organized by the relevant professional accrediting bodies. For
some professions,the qualification is obtained after four years’ study leading to a bachelor’s
degree. For others, preliminary studies correspondingto the first two or three years leading to
the degree of bachelor of arts or bachelor ofscience-or even the degree itself-are required.In
medicine, for instance, four years’ study are required before the start of specialized studies
leading to the doctor’s degree (professional qualification). Most professions n o w expect
candidates to hold a bachelor’s degree. In many cases, thefirstprofessional degree does not
entitle holders to practise a profession: they are often required to hold a secondprofessional
degree (master’s).
Professional doctorate. See doctor’s degree.
Professional qualification.See certificate,professional degree.
Research doctorate. See doctor’s degree.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See high-school diploma.
Special student. Student admitted on a provisional basis to an institution of higher
education. In order to be allowed to continue further with their studies,candidates have to
follow a given number of courses or pass a number of examinations.This is a means of
recognizing the candidate’s qualifications in another institution or country.
PUERTO RICO 3 19

Puerto Rico
In Puerto Rico higher education is given in six institutions:the University of Puerto Rico,a
state university system with three main campuses,a separate fcur-yearprogramme and five
regional technical colleges throughout the island;and in five private accredited institutions:
the Catholic University of Puerto Rico,Bayamon Central University (Catholic), the College
of the Sacred Heart (Co-educational),the Inter-AmericanUniversity of Puerto Rico,and the
Puerto Rico Junior College.There is also a Caribbean Centre of Advanced Studies.
The University of Puerto Rico draws most of its fundsfrom the State and the rest from fees,
donations and its own private revenue.
Teacher-trainingtakes place in higher education.A two-yearcourse leads to the degree of
associate, and a four-yearone to a bachelor’s degree. Instruction is mainly in Spanish,but
English textbooks are used in most courses. Instruction at the schools of medicine and
dentistry of the University of Puerto Rico is in English.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded
after six years of primary and six years of secondary schooling.The latter is divided into two
phases of three years’each.The second phase may be general or technicaland allowsa choice
of subjects.In order to qualify for higher education the candidate must have a secondary-
school diploma and also takes an entrance examination.In medicine and dentistry,at least
three years ofpreparatory study are required,but generally a bachelor’sdegree is preferred.In
law a bachelor’sdegree is required for admissionto the course.For admissionto any one ofthe
above professional schools,the appropriate entrance examination must be taken.
The studies are organized on a credit-unitsystem and thus do not take a fixed number of
years (see USA). However,two stages may be distinguished.
The first stage (undergraduate studies) leads to the bachelor’sdegree or to a professional
qualifjcation.The bachelor’sdegree may take between three and six years,but fouryears is the
average period required.Certain courses are of a higher standard(honoursprogrammes) and
are designed for the stronger students.In certain fields an intermediate degree of associate
may be awarded after two years. Professional qualifications are awarded in the form of a
certificate or a diploma in various subjects.The length of the course may be up to five years.
A second stage (postgraduate studies)leads to the master’sdegree,which consists of more
advanced course-work,and to a higher professional qualification.The master’s degree is
awarded after one or two years’further study;it depends on the field of study selected.
The degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD)of the University of Puerto Rico is awarded in
Spanish and in a limited number of other fields.

GLOSSARY
Associate degree.Intermediate degreeusually awarded after two years’study.It may be part
of a course towards a bachelor’s degree or a terminal qualification.
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher educationawarded after three,four or fiveyears of
undergraduate studies.Certain courses ofa higher standard (honours programmes) may be
taken by better students.
Certificate,See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualification.
Doctorate of philosophy (PhD). Higher degree awarded after postgraduate studies.Higher
degree awarded at the University of PuertoRico in Spanishstudiesand in a certainnumber of
other fields.
Master’s degree. The first degree awarded for postgraduate studies.
320 PUERTO RICO

Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded at the level of

completionof undergraduatestudies (see associate degree,bachelor’sdegree)or at the levelof
graduate or professional studies after a course of varying length.The degree consists of a
Certificate or a diploma. The bachelor’s, master’s and doctor’s degrees are professional
qualifications if awarded in professional fields.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. Certificate awarded after six years of primary
schooling followedby six yearsofsecondaryschooling.The latteris divided intotwo phases of
three years each.The secondphase may be generalor vocationaland allowsthepossibility ofa
choice of subjects.The certificate gives entrance to higher educationin those subjects or fields
corresponding to the endorsementson the certificate.Thereis also an entrance examinationto
higher education.In medicine and dentistry there is also at least a three-yearpreparatory
course and an entrance examination.In law a bachelor’sdegree and an entrance examination
are prerequisites for admission to the law schools.

Upper Volta
In Upper Volta most higher education is provided by Ouagadougou University,which is an
autonomous institutionunder the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education.There axe four
other institutionsof higher education:the National School ofAdministration,the Inter-state
School of Rural Engineering, the National Institute of Education, and the Centre for
Scientific Research.The University comprises seven institutions:the university institute of
technology,the higher polytechnical institute,the instituteof mathematics and physics,the
higher schoolof arts and humanities,the higher schoolofeconomics,the higher schooloflaw,
and the institute of cinematography.
Teachersofprimary education are trained in secondary-leveltraining colleges.Teachersof
secondary education are trained at the Instituteof Education.
The language of instruction is French.
Access to higher education is based on the baccalauréat (secondary-school-leaving
certificate)obtained after six years ofprimary and seven years ofsecondaryeducation.There
is a special entrance examination.
The first stage of university studies,of two years’duration,leads in all institutionsto the
diplôme détudes universitairesgénérales (DEUG)except in the higher polytechnical institute
where it leads to the DUEB (diplômeuniversitairedétudes biologiques)and in the institute of
technology where it leads to the diplôme universitaire de technologie (which is a terminai
qualification). Future teachers may obtain the certificat d‘aptitude pédagogique pour les
collèges d’enseignementgénéral at the Institute of Education.
The second stage lasts one year and leads to the licence in all institutions.At the higher
polytechnical institute,it leads,after three years’further study,to the diploma of ingénieur.
One year after the licence, the maîtrise may be obtained in some fields.
UPPER VOLTA 321

P R O F I L E OF HIGHER STUDIES

Usual Duration of Studies

(Previous education: 13 years,baccalauréat)

years 2 3 4 5

DUT/ L M DI
DEUG/
DUEB

DEUG diplôme d‘études universitaires générales

DI diplôme d‘ingénieur (higher polytechnical institute)
DUEB diplôme universitaire d’études biologiques
DUT diplôme universitaire de technologie (instituteof technology)
L licence
M maîtrise

GLOSSARY
Baccalauréat.Secondary-school-leaving qualification,obtained after six years of primary
and seven years of secondary education. Access to secondary education is based on an
entrance examination.Secondary studies are divided into two phases: the first phase leads,
after four years in a collège d‘enseignement général or in a lycée to the brevet d’études du
premier cycle (BEPC); the second phase leads,after three years’ study in a lycée, to the
bacclauréat. This qualification is a prerequisite for higher education.
Diplôme d’études universitairesgénérales (DEUG).Diplomaobtained after two years’study
in the university college of literature.This is not a terminal qualification.
Diplôme d‘ingénieur. Higher qualification obtained at the higher polytechnical institute
after five years’university study.
Diplôme universitaire d’études biologiques (DUEB). Diploma obtained after two years’
study in the higher polytechnicalinstitute.Studies in the first year are common to allsubjects
in physical and biological sciences.This is not a terminal qualification.
Diplôme universitaire de technologie. Diploma obtained after two years’ study at the
university institute of technology.It is a terminal qualification.
Licence. First terminal degree,obtained after three years’study.
Maîtrise. Diploma of higher education awarded one year after the licence (after four years’
university study).
322 URUGUAY

Uruguay
In Uruguay higher education is given in three types of institution:a state university, a
technical university (which is also a state institution)and several teacher-traininginstitutions
which are both public and private.
The Universidad de la Republica,Montevideo,is autonomousand isfinancedby the central
government.Its governingbodies comprisemembers who are elected by the teachingstaffand
the students,who are directly or indirectly representedon the board of directors.It is only
open to Uruguayan students. It has ten faculties(architecture,agriculture,economics,law
and social sciences, arts and humanities and science, dentistry, chemistry, medicine,
veterinary medicine,engineering). Nine schools offering a variety ofcourses(nursing,social
work,obstetrics,music,fine arts,etc.)are attached directly to the Universityandareunderits
authority or one of its faculties.
The Universidad del Trabajo, Montevideo, includes schools of agriculture,industrial
engineering,applied arts,commerce and administration,professional training,educational
planning and research.Eight institutes located in the provinces are also affiliated to the
University (mechanical engineering, civil engineering, marine engineering, electrical
engineering,applied arts,graphic arts,stock-breeding,forestry,dairy farming,vine-growing,
teacher-training,technical training and agricultural training).
The Institutode EstudiosSuperiores,Montevideo,isa private institutewhich receivesstate
and local subsidies.It prepares futureteachers in the arts and the humanities,andscienceand
education for four years.The Montevideo Instituteof Philosophy and Letters is a Christian
institutionunder the direct control of the Episcopal Conference of Uruguay.It trainsfuture
primary and secondary teachers in various subjects in two and four years respectively,and
also teaches psychology.
Teacher-training,which has been completely reorganized,is now offered exclusively at
post-secondary level.The Instituto Nacional de Docencia ‘GeneralArtigas’(to which every
teacher-trainingcollege of Montevideo is affiliated) trains teachers in three years and has
teacher-trainingcentres throughout the countryat the primary level (Centre I, which awards
the title ofmaestro); at the secondarylevel (Centre II,which confersthe title ofprqfesor); and
at the specialized level (Centre III). Primary teacherswho have alreadyqualified have access
to Centre III where they may specializein a number of fieldsor train as schoolprincipals or
inspectors.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Access to higher education is given through the barhillerato,obtained after six years of
primary followed by three years of ‘basic’(busico)and two yearsofdiversified (diversifiCado)
education in one of the options (arts,science,biology), depending on the studies chosen.
The main stage of higher education leads to short-term or long-termstudies.In the first
case,studies lead to a professionalqualificationafter two years’study (librarymanagement),
three years’study (surveying,public administration,business administration,midwifery), or
four years’ study (nursing,dietetics). In the second case,studies lead to the award of the
licenciadodegree or ofa higher professionalqualification.Thelicenciadodegreerequiresfour
or five years’study according to the subjectchosen.The professionalqualificationsawarded
are those of ingeniero(afterfour to six years,according to the subject), of doctor in dentistry,
law,medicine (after five,six and seven years), of quimico,farmacéuticoin pharmacy and of
arquitecto in architecture (after six years). The Universidad del Trabajo offers technical
qualifications in a number of subjects after four years’study.
In long-termstudiesa furtherstage,which correspondsto a period ofstudy in depth and to
URUGUAY 323

greater specialization.leads to the award of the doctorado degree in law and social sciences.
administration and economics,etc.

P R O F I L E O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 1 1 years. bacliilleraio)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education P P P
Librarianship P
Arts L L D
Administration,economics. P L D
accountancy
Dietetics P
Technology,engineering P I I I
Architecture P
Law L D
Social sciences n
Medical sciences
medicine
dentistry D
pharmacy P
nursing.midwifery P P
Agriculture

D cloctorado I in,~eniero L licenciatura P professional qiralification

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate,awarded after six years of primary
education and five years of secondary education.The latter is divided into two phases.The
first phase consists of three years of general education.The second phase,diversified and
preparatory to higher education,lasts two years.The bachillerato givesthe rightto enrol in the
faculty which corresponds to the option chosen in the second year of diversified education
(arts.science,biology).
Doctorado. Highest degree of higher education representing greater specialization.It is
awarded after the licenciaruru, on submission of a thesis.After a minimum of a one-year
course following the professional qualification of contador publico (accountant), the
doctorado degree may be awarded in administrationand economics.It is also awarded in some
other fields (in pharmacy,chemistry.law and social sciences).
Licenciatura.Firstdegree of higher education.awarded after studiesthat last between four
and five years,according to subject chosen.
Maestro de educacion primaria;maestro de primer grado.Qualification which givesthe right
to teach in a primary school.It is awarded by the Centre I of the Instituto Nacional de
Docencia ‘General Artigas’ after three years’study in which theory and practical work
alternate,as well as by the Institutode Estudios Superioresand the Institutode Filosofia y
Letras de Montevideo.This qualification gives access to the Centre III of the Instituto
mentioned above, where maestros may specialize in various fields and become maestro
director (Principal)or maestro inspector (inspector).
324 URUGUAY

Profesor.Qualification which gives the right to teach in a secondary school.It is awarded

after three years’ study by the Centre II of the Instituto Nacional de Docencia ‘General
Artigas’,as well as by the Instituto de Estudios Superioresand the Institutode Filosofia y
Letras de Montevideo (after four years).
Professional qualification.Qualification of highereducation awarded after courses whose
length varies between three years (surveying), four to six years (engineering,according to
specialization), six years (architecture)and seven years (medicine), followingthe awardofthe
buchilleruto. In medicine,the professionalqualificationisthat ofdoctor.Variousprofessional
qualifications are awarded after shorter courses for training librarians,midwives,public
administratorsand business administrators.The Universidad del Trabajo gives technical
qualificationsin various fields after four years of study.
Secondary-school-leavingcertificate. See buchilleruto.

Venezuela
In Venezuela highereducation is given in 17 universities (13 nationaland fourprivate)and57
institutes of higher education.
The 13 national universities are of two types: five are autonomous and have elected
authorities;eight are experimental and have appointed authorities.The 17 universitiesare
subject to the law on universitiesand are affiliated to the National Council of Universities.
which is under the control of the Ministry of Education and co-ordinatesrelations between
them.It also harmonizestheireducational,scientificand culturalprogrammes,aswell astheir
policy concerning democratization,regionalization and diversification. The autonomous
universities have the highest number of students and offer every type of training;they
principally offer courses in medicine, law, architecture, civil engineering, etc.; the
experimental universities,which are more specialized,were founded more recently (law on
universities,1970); they do not offer courses in every subject,except the Simon Bolivar
University,which is more or less ‘complete’.
The 57 institutes (19 of which are private) comprise six teacher-training institutions
(institutos pedugOgicos), four university polytechnical institutes (IUP), 35 university
technological institutes (IUT),and 12 university colleges. These institutes are at present
governed by the Regulations of University Institutesand Colleges(1974).The polytechnical
institutesand the technologicalinstitutesmeet the need forhigherprofessionaltrainingwhich
began to arise in 1973. They offer theoretical and practical courses in technology to train
engineers who will then work in production. They offer two phases of studies;long-term
studies and short-termstudies.
University colleges offer short-termcourses for the training of higher technicians.
A decree of April 1979 instituted a sub-systemof integrated higher education in order to
create links between institutes, university colleges and universities by respecting the
requirements of each of these institutions.
VENEZUELA 325

Institutesof education train the administrativeand teaching stafffor secondaryand higher

education.Courses last for nine semestersat the Caracas Institute of Education and at the
Universidad Experimental del Este J M Sis0 de Martinez and for eight semesters at the
experimental institutes of education at Barquisimeto.Maturin and Maracay.
The language of instruction is Spanish.
Primary teachers are trained in teacher-traininginstitutionsat secondarylevel.Secondary
teachers and university teachers are trained in facultiesof education,institutes of education
and university colleges.
Access to higher education is given through the bachillerato (secondary-school-leaving
certificate). There are two options in secondary education: humanities and science,and
technical studiesand education.There is a differentbaccalaureateforeach optionwhich gives
access to higher education in the corresponding field. Holders of the bachillerato in
humanities and science go to university and holders of the technical buchil/eruto enter
institutes and universitycolleges.Since 1968,holders of the bachillerato may only enrol in an
institution of higher education if they have gone through the compulsory pre-inscripcibn.
The IUPs and IUTs offer short-termstudies lasting between four and six semestersand
award a certificado de estudios conferring the title of técnico superior.
University colleges also offer short-term courses for higher technicians,consisting of
practical knowledge fully adapted to the immediate needs of the present economy for
industry,commerce. administration,education,architecture, health services,agriculture,
stockbreeding,marine professions,aviation,social work. etc. Technicians may constantly
improve their knowledge,follow courses and obtain high level university titles.
Long-termstudies in higher educationlast eight to ten semestersand are provided in IUPs
and IUTs which award the title of ingeniero level II ‘ofproduction’or ‘ofindustry’.

PROFILE O F HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 11/12 years. hachillerato)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Education C P r L M D
Arts L D
Architecture P
Law P D
Humanities.social C P D
sciences
Economics C P D
Exact and natural P
sciences
Technology.engineering C P D
Medical sciences
medicine P D
dentistry P D
pharmacy P D
veterinary medicine P
Agriculture C P D

C certificado de estudios D doctorado L licenciatura M maestria P profes-

sional qualification Pr profesor
326 VENEZUELA

In the universities,the main stage usually leads,after five years’ study (six in medicine) to the
licenciaturu or to a professional qualification.
In most subjects a further stage may lead to a maestria degree followed by a doctorado
degree. This stage includes course-work,examinations,and the submission of a dissertation
or a thesis.

GLOSSARY
Bachillerato. Secondary-school-leaving certificate awarded after nine years of basic
education (six years of primary and three years of general secondary education), followed by
two or three years of secondary education given in an academic secondary institution, a
teacher-traininginstitution or a technicalschool.Pupilsm a y choose between various options:
humanities, science, education or technical studies. For each option there is a different
buchilleraio. Holders of the bachiilerato are admitted to higher education after successfully
passing an entrance examination or meeting other conditions or completing the formalities
required by certain institutions of higher education; they are then admitted to the various
institutions by the pre-inscripcidn nacional, according to lists published by the National
Council of Universities.
Certificado de estudios. Qualification awarded to students w h o have followed short-term
courses (four to six semesters) in technological institutes and university colleges. The title
conferred is that of técnico superior.
Doctorado.The highest degree of higher education awarded in certain universitiesafter the
maesrrh or a specialization (high professional level). It is conferred at the end of studies
characterized by theoretical and methodologicalbases of research and continuing education.
It comprises courses followed by examinations and the submission of a thesis.
Entrance examination. See examen de admisidn.
Examen de admisibn. Examination set for candidates for entrance to national or private
universities and to polytechnical institutes.
Lieenciatura. Degree of higher education awarded after a period of study which usually
lasts five years (ten semesters). The university year is divided into semesters in the faculties of
architecture, engineering, agriculture and basic sciences.
Maestria.Degree awarded after the licenciaturu or an equivalent qualification,at the end of
a year of specialization which is mainly devoted to the theoretical and methodologicalbases of
research.Studies comprise courses followed by examinations and/or submission of a thesis.
Pre-inscripcibn nacional. Compulsory formality for pupils w h o have completed secondary
education (enserïanzamedia) and who wish to enrol in an institution of higher education.
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded by the university
polytechnical institutes (IUP)and the university technological institutes (IUT)as well as by
universities.A certificadode estudios conferring the title of técnico superior is awarded by the
former after completion of short-term studies (four to six semesters). The title of ingeniero
level Il ‘ofproduction’ or ‘of industry’ is also awarded by them after completion of long-term
studies (eight to ten semesters). The universities award their professional qualification after
completion of five years’ study (six in medicine).
YEMEN, A R A B REPUBLIC OF 327

Yemen,Arab Republic of
At present higher education in the Arab Republic of Yemen is offered exclusively at the
University of Sana’a.The University comprises five faculties,namely, of arts, science,
commerce,education,and Sharia (Islamic law) and law. The setting up of faculties of
medicine.engineering,and agriculture is under consideration.
Each faculty is academically autonomousand offers coursesin differentsubjectsthrough
its departments. For example,the faculty of arts consists of departments of Arabic studies,
English language and literature. geography,history and archaeology,and philosophy and
sociology.T h e facultyofsciencehas departmentsofmathematics,physics,chemistry.botany,
zoology,and geology. The faculty of commerce comprises departments of accountancy,
business administration,economics,and political sciences.T w o divisions,one ofShariu and
the other of law.constitutethe faculty of Sharia and law.The faculty ofeducation has three
sections.representing humanities,science.and commerce.
The language of instruction in ail faculties,except in that of scienceand the department of
English (faculty of arts), is Arabic.
The minimum requirementforadmissionto the Universityforboth Yemenisand foreigners
is the higher secondaryschool certificate (or its equivalent), which is earned in Yemen after
twelve years of study-six years at primary school and six at the preparatory and secondary
school levels in institutions of general, religious or commercial education, as well as in
teacher-traininginstitutes for primary teachers.
At present the University offers only undergraduate programmes,which are completedin
four yearsand lead to the award ofbacheior’sdegrees in different subjects.Theseprogrammes
are executed on a non-hierarchicalstage basis.

Yugoslavia
In Yugoslaviahigher education is provided in 19universities,among which nine have been set
up in the last ten years: PriStina (1971), Rijeka (1973), Split (1974),Titograd (1974),Osijek
(1975), Tuzla (1976). incorporating faculties formerly forming part of the University of
Sarajevo. Kragujevac (1976), Mostar (1977). and Bitola, which incorporates previously
existing institutions in the south-westMacedonian region founded between 1935 and 1977.
Higher education institutionsare financed from funds earmarked for this purpose (a special
education tax paid by every employee and certain taxes and grants allocated by the federal
republicand communes).These fundsare administeredand distributedaccordingto ruleslaid
down by the educationaldistricts within the republicsor by the communes grouped in social
entities on a territorial basis.
In Yugoslavia,the university is simply the representative body for a group of faculties.
328 YUGOSLAVIA

Three faculties or more may form themselves into a university.Each faculty constitutes an
entirely independent body. A university m a y consist of a very large number of faculties,each
devoted to a traditional discipline or a branch of technology. The faculty is the highest
institution for teaching and research in any subject. Faculties are usually organized into
departments,sections and groups. S o m e facultiesalso have professorial chairs which act as
basic centres for academic work and teaching.
Universities and faculties are autonomous institutions. Responsibilities previously
exercised by the State have devolved upon the administration of the institutionsthemselves.
They report directly to the people’s assembly of the federal republic to which they belong,and
must keep it informed of their activities.
The languages of instruction are Macedonian, Serbo-Croat and Slovene in the respective
federal republics, as well as Albanian at the University of PriStina,and Hungarian at the
University of Novi Sad.
Freedom of teaching and research are guaranteed by law,in spite of the fact-and this is one
of the characteristics of the system-that Yugoslav universitiesare administered according to
the principles of social management, which means that workers’ delegates and citizens
representing the community participate in their running. However, matters relating to
teaching and research lie within the exclusive province of the teachers and researchers
concerned.
The League of Yugoslav Universities,founded in 1957,has the duty ofexamining matters of
concern c o m m o n to all universities in the country and of co-ordinating their activities.
There are a variety of specializedprofessional institutions of political science,economics,
physical education, administration, mechanical engineering, etc. There are also three
autonomous faculties of theology (one Greek Orthodox and two R o m a n Catholic). These
institutesdiffer from faculties in that their field of teaching is narrower and more specialized.
Qualifications granted by these institutes are, however, considered to be equivalent to the
corresponding ones in universities (see diploma,srrurni nuziv).
A large number of post-secondary institutions offer two-year short courses leading to a
diploma which qualifies the holder for posts in commercial and industrial undertakings and in
the social services (engineers in industry and agriculture, primary teachers). This diploma
may, in certain cases,give access to a faculty or an institutionof specializedhigher education.
Primary teachersare trained in training colleges (recentlyrenamed educational academies)
and teachers of secondary education in arts or science faculties. Teachers of vocational
education are also trained in faculties such as technology, medicine, agriculture,providing
they also follow a supplementary course in education.
In order to enable people in employment to follow courses in higher education, university-
type education is given in the evenings and on Sundays.There are also short training courses
in higher education institutions or special centres.
Access to higher education is based on the secondary-school-leavingcertificate,the muturu,
obtained after eight years of primary and four years of secondary education. T h e studies
leading up to it may be general,technical or vocational. Higher education is also available to
adults without the secondary-school-leavingcertificate w h o have spent at least four years
working in the field they wish to study, provided they pass successfully an entrance
examination, in order to demonstrate their ability to follow university courses. There is a
numerus c/uusus in certain universities for certain subjects (technology, medicine,
architecture), where a competitive examination must be passed.
Until 1960,Yugoslav facultiesgranted only one type of degree,awarded after four,five or
six years according to the subject.Recent laws on higher education,however, have made it
possible to introduce a system of ‘phases’of study. There are three such phases in higher
education.
The first phase usually lasts from two to three years.The qualificationsawarded are of two
YUGOSLAVIA 329

types: the firsfdiploma (a post-secondary diploma) and the strurni naziv (a professional
qualification). Thefirstdiploma representsa phase ofstudydevoted to the acquisitionofbasic
knowledge in a number ofdisciplines.It admitseitherto middle gradeoccupationsor leadson
to furtherstudy,after supplementaryexaminationshave been passed. Primary teachersare
trained in educational academies during this first phase.
The second phase leads,after four to five years’universitystudydevoted to specialization,
particularly on the theoretical level,to a high-gradeprofessional qualification,the srrutni
naziv, or to a second diploma (university diploma). In medicine,dentistry and veterinary
medicine the duration of studies is five years.
The third phase, which is reached after one or two further years’specialization, trains
specialistsor prepares for academicresearch (magisrerium). It leads to a professionaldiploma
or to the akademski stepen (academic degree) of either magisrar or specijalisr.
A final phase may lead,aftera period devoted to highly specializedstudy,to thedoctorule,
after submission of a thesis.

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previouseducation: 12 years,matura)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Education Di P M
Arts Di P M D
Fine arts Di P M
Law Di P M D
Economics,political science, Di P M D
administration
Exact sciences Di P M
Engineering Di P M D
Medical sciences
medicine P M D
dentistry P M D
pharmacy Di P M D
veterinary medicine P M D
Agriculture Di P M D
D doktor Di diploma M magisrar P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Akademski stepen.See srrutni naziv.
Competitive entrance examination.Examination set by faculties where a numerus clausus
applies,even if the candidate has already obtained the mafura.
Diploma.
1 ‘1st phase’ diploma or ‘rerminal‘post-secondaryeducationdiploma-qualification granted
after two to three years,in a certain number of faculties,in institutionsof higher and further
education.Theseyearsare often spentin institutionsspecializingexclusivelyin thisfirstphase
of study (post-secondaryinstitutions). The programmes aim at giving students a practical
training leading to certain occupations:their content is more general in facultiesand more
specialized and narrower in institutionsof further education.Candidates whose diploma is
awarded by a non-universitypost-secondary institutionand who wish to continue further
330 YUGOSLAVIA

with theirstudies have to pass a supplementaryexamination.Thisdiploma,recently instituted,

is also awarded to middle-grade cadres by faculties or institutions of higher and further
education. At the end of each semester,students have to pass an examination in each subject;
in the case of failure,this may be retaken.Failure at the fourth attempt is definitive:depending
on the faculty, it leads either to repeating the semester’s work or to the loss of certain
privileges,or even to being permanently excluded from the faculty. Candidates also have to
pass a yearly examination in order to begin the following year. Certain faculties require a
dissertation in the last year. Usually,the first-yearprogramme includescourses in sociology.
2 ‘2ndphase’ diploma or ‘terminal’higher-education diploma-degree obtained at the end of
the second phase of university education (four to five years according to field of study). This
diploma may be equated with a professional qualification also acquired at the end of this
phase. (See strufni naziv.) In the majority of facultiesof letters,science and mathematics,the
diploma is awarded after an examination consisting of the independent preparation and
defence of a dissertation. Students preparing to be secondary teachers do not normally
prepare the dissertation,but are required to prepare a written memoir. In law and medicine
the student is required to pass examinations in all subjects, but there is no dissertation to
prepare.
3 ‘3rd phase’ diploma-this diploma, which requires one to two years’ preparation, is
acquired after the magisterium course or the specialization course in faculties and institutions
of higher education. It leads to the academic qualification of magistar or specijalist in the
correspondingsubject.In letters,science and mathematics,and in law,the degree is awarded
after an oral examination and the defence of the magisterium dissertation. In medicine, it is
awarded after presentation and defence of amagisterium or specialist dissertation.In order to
acquire the doctorate, the candidate must either have finished his studies in a faculty 07
institution of higher education, have published scientific work, have produced highly
specialized work, or have completed the magisterium and have successfully defended his
doctorate thesis.
Doktor. The title of doctor of science is the sole and highest degree in higher education.It is
granted in most faculties at least two years after the candidate has acquired the qualification of
magistar,and successfully defended a thesis.
Entrance examination.
1 Examination which is taken by candidates to higher education whose matura,acquired in
a vocational school,is not ofthe type required by the faculty or institutionthey wish to attend.
2 Examination for candidates over 18 years of age w h o do not have the matura but have
spent at least four years in an employment considered socially useful.
Magistar. Qualification granted at the end of the third phase of study,at least two years
after the end of the second phase. This third phase may lead to either of two specializations:
that ofspecijalist(expert in the theory of the subject)or that of magistar (academic research).
The basic pattern of studies is similar to that of the other two phases,with the difference that
there is more emphasis on independent research. (See diploma,struEni naziv.)
Matura. School-leaving-certificate obtained at the end of four years of secondary
education,following upon eight years of primary education, in a general secondary school
(gimnazija),in a technical secondary school or fine arts secondary school,or after three years
in a vocational institute for skilled workers. The matara gives access to higher education.
Where a numerus clausus operates,certain facultiesrequire success in a competitive entrance
examination and sometimes a qualifying examination for holders of the matura.
Secondary-school-leaving certificate. The secondary-school-leaving certificates are
variously called:
1 svjedodiba O zavrSnom ispitu (Croatia)
2 svegoEançtvo O poloienom zavrSnom ispitu (Serbia)
3 spriEevalo O zakljuEnem izpitu (Slovenia)
YUGOSLAVIA 33 1

4 svidetelstvo za poloien zavrsen ispit (Macedonia)

Sea also maiura.
Specijalist.See magistar.
Strutninaziv (professionalqualification). In facultiesgiving the ‘1stphase’diploma,the first
professional qualificationis obtained at the same timeas the firstdiploma.Thisisalso the case
in institutionsof furtherand higher education,where the second strurninariv is obtained at
the same time as the ‘2ndphase’diploma.The ‘3rdphase’diploma qualifies its holder for an
akademskisiepen (academic degree). Professional qualificationsspell out more precisely the
level of qualification of their holder, whereas the academic qualification indicates the
particular qualification for the corresponding profession.
Supplementaryexamination.Examination obligatoryfor studentswhose first phase of study
took place in a non-universitypost-secondaryinstitution.For this examination,the student’s
whole record is taken into consideration.

Zaire
In the Republic of Zairehigher educationwas reorganized to a largeextentin 1971 by the legal
decree which created the National University of Zaire (UNAZA).It is a single institution
which groups together all the faculties of the former Lovanium University at Kinshasa,ofthe
former Official University of the Congo (Lubumbashi)and the former Free University of the
Congo (Kisangani), as well as all the institutions of higher education. The three former
universities have become ‘university campuses’: the university campus at Kinshasa, the
university campus at Kisangani and the university campus at Lubumbashi.
The University is under the control of the State Commissioner of Higher Education and
ScientificResearch.It is governed by a board of administration made up of representativesof
the Government,of the businessworld,of the academic authorities,and ofthe professorsand
students.
The Universityis headed bya rectorand ageneral administrator.Each campusisheaded by
a vice-rector.T h e institutesare headed by a director-generalof a director,accordingto size.
Each campus is subdivided into faculties and each institute into sections,according to
subject. Faculties are headed by a dean and sections by a head of section.
Access conditions,organization and programmes,and academic degreesare determined by
law.
The campus at Kinshasa comprisesfacultiesof law,medicine,dentistry,pharmacy,science
(mathematics,physics,chemistry), economics,polytechnics (civil engineering).
The campus at Kisangani comprises faculties of biology,psychology and education.
The campus at Lubumbashi comprises the following faculties: arts (African, French,
English and Latin languagesand literatures,history,philosophy), geology,geography,social
sciences, administration,political science, polytechnical studies (civil engineering), and
332 ZAIRE

veterinary medicine. T h e Institute of Agricultural Training offers courses leading to the title
of agricultural engineer.
The University also comprises 18 institutes of higher technological education (applied
technology, building and public works, medical technology, commerce, information
technology,statistics,agriculture, arts and crafts,rural development,social studies,arts)and
13 teacher-training colleges to train secondary teachers.
At Kinshasa, Kisangani, Lubumbashi and Kanan, the multidisciplinary centres for
development and continuing education offer evening courses in industrial sociology,political
and administrative sciences, commerce and finance,and school and professional orientation
for candidates w h o are already employed. They are first phase studies which lead to the
graduate degree.
Teachers of primary education are trained at secondary level in teacher-training colleges.
Teachers of secondary education are trained at the University and at a number of higher
institutes of teacher-training. The three campuses have a department of agrégation de
l'enseignement secondaire which organizes a one-yearcourse in teacher-trainingfor students
who already hold a final degree from one of the faculties,in order to train them for teaching.
The course leads to a diplôme d'agrégé de l'enseignement secondaire de second cycle. Higher
institutes of teacher-training train gradués and licenciés in applied education,w h o will then
teach in lower- and upper-secondary education respectively.
The language of instruction is French.
Access to higher education takes place after twelve years of primary and secondary
education. Access conditions to the Universityare determined bylaw. Candidates must hold a
diplôme d'Eiat, obtained through success in the examen dEiai, which is taken throughout the
country at the end of secondary education.The State Commissionerof Higher Education and
Scientific Research determines further conditions according to subject chosen. Candidates
w h o obtain at least 60 per cent intheexamen &Etat may enter the faculty,those w h o obtain 55
per cent may gain access to higher institutes.In certain institutes,candidates who have not
obtained 55 per cent in the diplôme d'Etai may follow a preparatory year and then gain access
to the first year if they succeed.
In order to gain access to a polytechnical faculty in mathematics and physics, candidates
must succeed in an entrance examination which usually requires one year's preparation.
The campuses and institutesaccept candidateswhose secondary education and results show
aptitudes for studies chosen.Access also depends on the number of places available. Each year
the board of administration fixes the number of candidates admitted in each faculty and
section.
Foreign students m a y be admitted if they meet the conditions required for access to higher
education in their o w n country. In this way, for example, holders of a French-type
baccalauréai may enter for the first year of the first phase (graduat).Thegeneral certi3cate of
education,ordinary level, gives access to the preparatory year and the general certificaie of
education, advanced level in two subjects, gives access to the first year.
The first stage (graduat)lasts three years and leads to thegradué degree.A preparatory year
is either compulsory or recommended before starting studies in certain faculties and institutes.
Most institutes only offer first phase studies. In secretarial studies given by the Institute of
Commerce at Kinshasa, the first phase lasts two years and leads to the capacitariat degree.
Practical work is always included in training courses. At the end of the first phase,students
must write a thesis dealing with the purpose of their studies.
To enter for the second phase in institutes of higher technologicaleducation and institutes
of education,candidates must have at least two years' professional experience following upon
the gradué degree. Moreover, in higher institutes of education, candidates must pass a
national competitive examination to enter for the second phase.
The second stage (se'cond phase) usually lasts two years and leads to the licence or to a
ZAIRE 333

professionalqualification ofpharmacien, dentiste,ingénieur,architecte,etc.In medicine and

veterinary medicine the phase lasts three years(the last ofwhich ismainly devoted to practical
training) and leads to the degree of docteur en médecine and docteur en médecine vétérinaire.
At the end ofthe secondstage,studentsmust write a dissertationwhich showstheircapacity
for scientific research.
For holders of a second phase degree there are two courses at the campus of Kinshasa,
which lead to the diplôme spécial en gestion de l'environnement and to the diplôme spécial en
bibliothéconomie.
T h e third stage (third phase) takes place in every faculty.O n the one hand it consists of a
two-yearscientificand pedagogicalcourse which leads to adiplôme d'études supérieures (DES)
and requires a dissertation based on personal research. O n the other hand,it requires the
preparation of a thesis which constitutes high-level,original and unpublished scientific
research.ï h e third phase leads to the doctorat,usually obtained after four to six years'study.
At the faculty of medicine the third phase has a special structure:doctors devote three or
four years to a specializationin one of the medical fields,after which they obtain adiplôme de
spécialiste. They then begin the last stage of academic training,which mainly consists ofthe

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years,diplôme d'Bat)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Education G L ASS D
Arts G L D
Fine arts G
Architecture G P
Law G L D
Administrative and G L D
political science
Economics G L D
Commerce cap G
Informationtechnology G L D
Science G L D
Engineering G P D
Medical sciences
biomedical science, G D AES
medicine
dentistry G P D
pharmacy G P D
veterinary medicine G D AES
Agriculture G P D

A E S agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur

ASS agrégation de l'enseignement secondaire du second cycle
Cap capacitariat
D doctorat
G graduat
L iicence
P professional qualification
334 ZAIRE

preparation of an agrégation thesis. This leads to the diplôme d'agrégé de l'enseignement

supérieur en médecine.
At the faculty of veterinary medicine, the third phase leads to the diplôme d'agrégé de
l'enseignement supérieur en médecine vétérinaire.
In facultiesand institutes,programmes are conceived in such a way that studentsare able to
exercise a profession at the end of each phase. Greater emphasis is put on professionalization
in the institutes than in most faculties.

GLOSSARY
Agrégation de l'enseignement secondairedu second cycle.Academic qualificationawarded at
the end of the one-year teacher-trainingcourse organized for graduates who wish to teach in
secondary education.
Agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur en médecine. Highest academic qualification
awarded at the end of the third phase in medicine. It requires at least six years'scientific work
following upon the professional qualification of docteur en médecine. In order to enter for the
agrégation,candidates must already hold the diplôme de spécialiste. T h e final examination
consists of a public lesson and the presentation and defence in public of a thesis which
constitutes high-level, original and unpublished scientific research.
Agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur en médecine vétérinaire. Highest academic
qualification awarded at the end of the third phase in veterinary medicine. It requires at least
four years' individual research following upon the professional qualification of docteur en
médecine vétérinaire. In order to enter for the agrégation,candidates must already hold the
D E S degree (see diplôme d'études supérieures). T h e final examination consists of a public
lesson and the presentation and defence in public of a thesis which constitutes high-level,
original and unpublished scientific research.
Capacitariat. Academic qualification which only exists in the 'secretarial' section. It is
awarded at the end of a two-year phase of higher education.
Certificat. Document which certifies that candidates have successfully completed an
intermediate year of studies.
Diplôme. Document which certifies the award of an academic qualification.
Diplôme d'Etat. Qualification obtained after successin the examen d'Erat organized on the
national scale at the end of secondary education. After six years in primary school and two
years in an orientation class,candidates follow their secondary education for four years in the
following options: literature,science, commerce,education,technical studies,socialsciences,
arts.
Diplôme d'études supérieures. Intermediate academic qualification awarded between the
second phase and the qualification of docteur or agrégé de l'enseignement supérieur en
médecine/médecine vétérinaire.It is awarded after a two-yearcourse and consists of scientific
and pedagogical training in depth. The final examination also includes the submission and
defence of a dissertation.
Diplôme spécial. Qualification awarded at the end of a specialized training course. T h e
course is only open to holders of a second phase qualification,but it is not necessarily a third
phase course.
Docteur. Highest academic qualification awarded at the end of the third phase by faculties
other than the faculty of medicine and the faculty of veterinary medicine (which award a
professional doctorate). It requires at least four years of individual research following upon
the diplôme de licence,d'ingénieur civil,etc. In order to enter for thedoctorar,candidatesmust
already hold the D E S (see diplôme d'érudes supérieures). T h e final examination to obtain the
qualification of docteur comprises the submission and defence in public of a thesis which
constitutes high-level,original and unpublished scientific research.
Entérinement. Recognition by the State of degrees awarded by the UNAZA. T h e
ZAIRE 335

Commission d’Entérinement,which operates in the Department of Higher Education and

Scientific Research, ensures that every requirement concerning the award of academic
qualifications(entranceconditions,duration of studies,programmes,examinations,etc.)has
been respected.The entérinement legalizes degrees.
Graduat. Academic qualification awarded at the end of the first phase of university
education after three years’study.In addition to courses and exercises,the programme is
made up of practical work and a dissertation.
Licence. Academic qualificationawarded at the end of two years’,study after the gradua?.
The course consists of practical work and the submissionof a dissertation,as well as courses
and exercises.In some facultiesand institutes the term licence is replaced by a term which
refers to the profession or the speciality (see professional qualification).
Professional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded at the end of the
second stage of higher education,after two years’study (ingénieurcivil,ingénieur agronome,
ingénieur géomètre topographe.pharmacien,dentiste,architecte)or three years’study (docteur
en médecine. docteur en médecine vétérinaire).

Zambia
In Zambia higher education is provided in two types of institution:the University of Zambia
and various specialized institutions.
The university is divided into schools for the following disciplines:agricultural sciences,
education,engineering,humanities and social sciences,law,medicine and natural sciences.
The highest administrative body is a council on which serve members of the Government,
graduates and teaching staff. as well as representatives of outside bodies. The highest
academic body is the senate,which comprisesthe deans and directors of the various schools,
departments and institutes as well as representatives of other teaching staff and students.
Financial resources are provided from governmentfundsand from donors.At the university
there are also schools of extramural studiesand ofcorrespondencestudiesand an institutefor
African studies.
The various specialized institutionscomprise colleges and institutes:a college of applied
arts and commercial studies,a technical college and a college for the development of natural
resources;an institute of technology,an instituteof public administration and an instituteof
air services training.
The language of instruction is English.
Primary teacher-trainingtakes place at secondary level in teacher-trainingcolleges,where
the course lasts two or three years.Primary teacherswho have gained at least three passes in
the general certificateof education,ordinary level,and who have taught for at least fouryears
may sit for an associate certificate of education at the University of Zambia. Secondary
teachers are trained in four-yearbachelor of arts or bachelor of science programmes at the
336 ZAMBIA

university. There also exists a certificateof education which m a y be taken after one year’s
postgraduate study.
Access to higher education is based on the general certificateof education taken after eight
years of primary education followed by four years of secondary education. There are two
levels: ordinary and advanced. In order to enter higher education a candidate must usually
obtain five passes at ordinary level in the subjects he has chosen, depending upon the
institution in which he wishes to study. Passes gained subsequently at advanced level may
exempt a candidate from some parts of his course in higher education. Each application for
the university is examined individually.
The first main stage of higher education leads to a bachelor’s degree or a professional
qualification. The degree is obtained in four years in arts subjects, science, law and social
work; in five years in agriculture and engineering;in seven years in medicine. The university
also awards a diploma in social work and librarianshipafter two or three years’ study.Other
institutions of higher education offer specialized courses of varying length. Part-time courses
also exist and the time taken to complete them is consequently longer.
A second stage leads to the master’s degree or a higher professional qualification. The
master’s degree is awarded in arts and science, law and education after two years’ study and
the presentation of a dissertation. A doctorate of philosophy degree (PhD) is about to be
introduced and would lead to a third stage in higher education.

P R O F I L E OF H I G H E R S T U D I E S

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 12 years, general certificateof education)

years 2 3 4 5 6 7

Education B C M
Arts Di B M
Law B M
Social work Di/P B
Science B M
Engineering B
Medicine
Agriculture

B bachelor’s degree C certificate of education Di diploma M master’s degree

P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First degree of higher education obtained in four years in arts,science,
law and social work, in five years in agriculture and science,in seven years in medicine.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualijication.
General certificate of education. Secondary-school-leavingcertificate awarded after eight
years of primary education followed by four years of secondary education.Examinations are
at two levels: ordinary and advanced. For entry to higher education the candidate must have
gained a certain number of passes at ordinary level in the subjects chosen,in accordance with
the requirements of the institution which he wishes toenter.Passesat advanced level may gain
him exemption from certain parts of the course in higher education.
ZAMBIA 337

Master’s degree. Higher degree awarded after graduate studies in arts (MA), science(MSc),
law (LLM)and education (MEd).
F’rofessional qualification. Qualification of higher education awarded either at
undergraduate or at graduate level.At undergraduate level the University of Zambia awards a
diploma in social work after a two-year course;a teacher-trainingcollege awards a certificate
valid for lower-secondary education after a three-year course; other institutions of higher
education offer courses of varying length. At graduate level the university awards a
postgraduate certificate of education after a one-year course.

Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe higher education is provided in the University of Zimbabwe,Salisbury (new title
adopted in 1980). The University, originally established in 1953 became an independent
institution in 1970 with the title of University of Rhodesia,accepting students in 1971 to read
for its o w n degrees and diplomas. Its statutes were made under the original royal charter of
1955 which was retained unaltered as the basic constitutional instrument of the new
university.T h e University is governed by a council and,for academic matters,by a senate;it
draws most of its funds from the Government.
The University has faculties of arts,education,engineering, medicine,sciences (including
agriculture), and social studies. Several institutes are attached to it (education, adult
education, mining research, social research). Four centres are associated with it (science
education, regional and urban planning, inter-racial studies,computing). T h e University is a
multi-racial institution open to all students without distinction on racial grounds.
Teaching takes place in English.
Access to higher education is based on the United Kingdom general certificate of education
(at advanced level), usually obtained after seven years of primary followed by six years of
secondary education. Candidates must obtain five passes,of which two must be at advanced
level. There is also a university test of proficiency in English.
The first main stage (undergraduatestudies)leads,after three to six years according to the
field of study,to the bachelor’sdegree awarded as agenera1,honours orspecialhonoursdegree,
or to a professional qualification awarded as a certificate or diploma. In social work and
education,the course only takes one year but candidateshave to hold adiploma or certificate.
In arts, administration, science, economics, sociology, psychology, law, accountancy,
agriculture,pharmacy, the degree is obtained either after three years as a general degree or
four years (specialhonours). The degree of bachelor of education (adulteducation)is conferred
after four years (part-time studies). In the field of engineering studies last four years, in
medicine six years.
T h e second stage (graduate studies) leads,after one or two years according to the field of
study and to the system of studies (full-time or part-time)to the master’s degree, by course-
work, research, examination, and after submission of a thesis.
338 ZIMBABWE

T h e third stage requiresa minimum of three years’specializationand individual research,as

well as presentation of a thesis and leads to the degree of doctor of philosophy, which is
obtainable in all faculties.T h e degree of doctor of medicine,which is open to graduates of the
University or of other universities in sixth or any subsequent year after award of the degree of
bachelor of medicine, is also awarded by thesis.
Finally a higher doctorate is awarded in law (LLD),humanities (DLitt)and science (DSc)
after submission of published work representing a substantial contribution to knowledge in a
particular field,and after at least eight years’studyfollowingupon the first degreeor after five
years’ teaching in the University.
Various courses also lead to higher professional qualifications at sub-degree level (higher
certijïcate or diploma).

PROFILE OF HIGHER STUDIES

Duration of Studies
(Previous education: 13 years, general certificate of education, advanced level)

years 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Education Cer B M
Arts B B(s) M D DLitt
Law B B LLD
Accountancy B B(s)
Administration B B(s)
Science B B(s) M DSc
Engineering B
Medical sciences
medicine
pharmacy B
Agriculture B

B bachelor’sdegree B(s) bachelor’sdegree (specialhonours) Cer certificateD doctor

of philosophy degree M master’s degree P professional qualification

GLOSSARY
Bachelor’s degree. First qualification of higher education,obtained after three years in arts,
science, administration,economics, sociology, psychology, law, accountancy, agriculture,
pharmacy,four years in engineering and six years in medicine.Severaltypes of first degree are
awarded,general,honours,and special honours. First degrees of good standard are generally
required for admission to higher degrees.
Certificate. See professional qualification.
Diploma. See professional qualijïcation.
Doctor’s degree. Higher degree obtained after the bachelor’s degree and the master’sdegree
and a minimum period of three years’research devoted to preparing a thesis.The qualification
is that of doctor of philosophy. Higher doctorates are also awarded for published work
representing an original and substantial contribution to knowledge,e.g. humanities (DLitt),
science (DSc), law (LLD).
General certificate of education.School-leaving-certificategiving access to higher education
(various subjects at ordinary level and two subjects at advanced level).
Higher degree. See master’s degree, doctor’s degree.
ZIMBABWE 339

Honours degree. See bachelor‘s degree.

Master’s degree. Higher degree ofhigher education,obtained according to the field ofstudy
after a period of one or two years’studyfollowing the bachelor’sdegree and the presentation
of a thesis.
Professional qualification. Qualification awarded in the University,or its constituent or
attached centreshstitutesfollowing upon studies leading to a certificate or diploma. T h e
University also offers courses leading, after postgraduate or graduate studies,to higher
certificatesor diplomas.
340 APPENDIX 1

A endix 1
NTa ional bodies dealing with the application of conventions on
the recognition of studies, di lomas and degrees in higher
education under the auspices P Unesco
’ O
The following list contains the names and addresses of those national bodies in charge of the
application of the conventionson the recognition of studies,diplomas and degrees adopted
under the auspices of Unesco.

Australia
Committee on Overseas Professional Qualifications, P.O. Box 1407, Canberra City. ACT
2601

Austria
A formal decision to set up a centre has not yet been taken.Informationon the equivalence of
diplomas will be provided by:
Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung, Postfach 65,Minoritenplatz5,A-1014
Wien
Osterreichische Rektorenkonferenz, Schottengasse VM,A-1010Wien

Belgium (French-speakingsector)
Ministère de l’éducation nationale et de la culture française, Secrétariat général, Cité
administrative de I’Etat, Bloc D - 7ème étage, Quartier Arcades, 204, rue Royale, B-1010
Bruxelles
(Dutch-speakingsector)
Ministerie van Nationale Opvoeding en Nederlandse Cultuur, Restuur Hoger Onderwijs en
-
Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, Rijksadministratief Centrum, Arkaden 4e verdieping, B-
1010 Brussel

Benin
Commission nationale d’étude des équivalences de diplômes, BP 892, Porto Novo

Canada
Canadian Bureau for International Education, 141 Laurier West,Ottawa,Ontario KIP 553,
Tel: 6131237-4820

Colombia
-
Institut0 Colombiano para el Foment0 de la Educacion Superior ICFES,Calle 17 No 3-40,
Bogota, DE,Tel: 28.36.758

Congo
Ministère de l’éducation nationale, Faculté des sciences, BP 69,Brazzaville

Costa Rica
Sefior Vice Ministro Técnico, Ministerio Educacion Publica, San José

Cuba
Direccion de Organismos Internacionales,Ministeno de Relaciones Exteriores,Calle 5a entre
G y H,Vedado, Ciudad Habana

Cyprus
The Ministry of Education, Nicosia
APPENDIX 1 341

Denmark
Ministry of Education,FrederiksholmsKana1 21,DK-1220 Kabenhavn K

Ecuador
Cornision de Cooperacion Técnica,Director General de RelacionesCulturales,Ministerio de
Relaciones Exteriores,Quito,Tel:522-528,230-100

El Salvador
Ministerio de Educacih,Subsecretaria de Education, San Salvador

Finland
Department for Higher Education and Research,Ministry of Education,Rauhankatu 4,SF-
00170 Helsinki 17

France
Ministère de l’éducationnationale.Délégation aux relations universitaires internationales,
Bureau des échanges universitaireset des relations multilatérales,8 rue Jean Calvin,75005
Paris

Gabon
Université nationale Omar Bongo,BP 13131,Libreville,Tel:73.25.06,73.25.44,73.25.78

Federal Republic of Germany

Zentralstelle für auslandisches Bildungswesen, Sekretariat der Kulturministerkonferenz,
Nassestr 8,D-5300 Bonn

Greece
Temporary contact address:Ministry ofNational Education and Religion,15 MitropoleosSt,
Athens 118

Holy See
Congrégation pour l’enseignementcatholique,Vatican City,Italy,Tel:(39-6)698

Iceland
Ministry for Education and Culture,Reykjavik

Ireland
Department of Education,Marlborough Street.IRL-Dublin 1

Italy
Centro Nazionale di Informazione in Materia di Equipollenzia di Titoli di Studio,Direzione
Generale degli Scambi Culturali,Minister0 della Pubblica Istruzione,Via Trastevere,00100
Roma

Ivory Coast
Université nationale,O8 B P V 34,Abidjan 08,Tel:43-90-00

Lebanon
Monsieur le Secrétairenational de la Commissiondes Equivalences,Ministèredel’Education
nationale,Beyrouth,Bâtiment Unesco,Tel: 302.353
342 APPENDIX 1

Mali
Ecole normale supérieure, BP 241, Bamako, Tel: 221.89

Malta
National Equivalence Information Centre, Education Department, 32-33 Marzamxetto
Road, Valletta

Mexico
Seiîor Secretario Técnico,Director General de Incorporaciony Revalidation, Secretaria de
EducaciOn Publica, Adil no 571 9” Piso, Col Granjas México, México, DF,Tel:657.13.01,
657.37.51

Morocco
Division de la Réglementation et des Equivalences de Diplômes, Ministère de I’Education
nationale et de la Formation des Cadres, Royaume du Maroc, Rabat

Netherlands
NUFFIC,Department of Information and Diploma Evaluation, Badhuisweg 251, PO Box
90734, NL-2509 LS D e n Haag

Netherlands Antilles
Departamento de Enseiîanza, Santa Ros 48, Curaçao, Tel: 67.44.66

Niger
Ecole des Lettres, Université de Niamey, BP 418, Niamey

Norway
A n official centre has not been set up; the Royal Ministry of Church and Education has
requested the following to exchange information on equivalence matters:
T h e Director’s Office, Section for Study Questions, PO Box 1072, University of Oslo,
Blindern, N-Oslo 3

Panama
Organism0 Provisional para la Implementation de la Aplicacion del Convenio,Ministerio de
Educacion, AV. Justo Arosemena, Edificio Poli. Apartado 2440, Panama, Tel: 62.22.00,
62.20.55,Telex: Mineduc

Portugal
Ministério de Educaçfio e Inv. Cient.,DG Ensino Superior,AV.5 de Outubro,N o 107-7,P-
Lisboa

Rwanda
Ministère de I’Education nationale, BP 622, Kigali
Institut pédagogique du Rwanda, BP 56, Butaré

Senegal
Rectorat de l’universitéde Dakar, Servicejuridiqueet des équivalences,Ecole Polytechnique,
BP 10,Thiès, Tel:51.13.84, 51.16.32
Spain
SecciOn de Convalidaciones de Estudios Extranjeros, Ministerio de Educacion y Ciencia,
Cartagena 83, Madrid
APPENDIX 1 343

Sudan
Secretary General,The National Council for Higher Education,PO Box 2081,Khartoum,
Tel:72515,79970-6,Cables: Higher Education Khartoum

Sweden
National Equivalence InformationCentre,The InformationOffice,Swedish National Board
of Universities and Colleges (UHA),PO Box 16334,S-10326 Stockholm

Switzerland
The followingoffice exercises the functionsof an equivalence informationcentre,both on the
national and international level:
Office central universitaire suisse,Sophienstrasse 2,CH-8032Zurich

Togo
Université du Bénin,Ecole des Lettres, Lomé,Tel:77.48

Turkey
Denklik Bürosu Müsaviri,Talim Terbiye Dairesi,Millî Egitim Bakanligi, TR-Ankara

United Kingdom
National Equivalence Information Centre, The British Council, Higher Education
Department, IO Spring Gardens,London S W l 2BN

United Republic of Tanzania

Principal Secretary,Ministry of National Education,PO Box 9121,Dar-es-Salaam,
Tanzania
Permanent Delegation of Tanzania to Unesco,Ambassade de Tanzanie,32 rue du Général
Delestraint,75016 Paris,France

United States of America

The Associate Director for Educational and Cultural Affairs,InternationalCommunication
Agency,Washington. DC 20547,Tel:(202)724.9032

Upper Volta
Ecole des Lettres, Université de Ouagadougou,Tel:329.44

Venezuela
Oficina Ministerial de Asuntos Internacionales,EdificioMinisterio de Educacion,Mercedesa
Salas,Caracas
Ministerio de Educacion, Mercedes a Salas,Caracas,Tel: 562.95.25(58-2),562.95.05
Centro Regional para la Educacion Superior en America Latina y el Caribe (CRESALC),
Avenida los Chorros,cruce con Calle Acueducto,Altos de Sebuch,Caracas,Tel:284.2175,
284.5075,284.2968

Yugoslavia
Savezni zavod zamed-unarod,,nu naucnu, proswetno-Kulturnu i techniEku,&3aradnju,
KosanEicev Venac 29,Beograd
344 APPENDIX 2

Appendix 2
International conventionson the recognition of studies,diplomas
and degrees in higher education adopted under the auspices of
Unesco
REGIONAL CONVENTION O N THE RECOGNITION OF STUDIES,DIPLOMAS AND
DEGREES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

The States of Latin America and the Caribbean, Parties to the present Convention.
Considering the close bonds of solidarity that unite them,expressed in the cultural sphere by
the conclusion among them of numerous bilateral, sub-regionalor regional agreements;
Desirous of strengthening and increasing theirco-operationin matters relating to education
and the use of human resources and with the aim of promoting the maximum integration of
the area, of encouraging knowledge and safeguarding the cultural identity of its peoples, as
well as of achieving a constant and gradual improvement in the quality of education and
contribution to their firm resolve to fostereconomic,social and cultural development and full
employment in each country of the region and in the region as a whole;
Convinced that, as part of this co-operation, the international recognition of studies,
diplomas and degrees, which would ensure the greater mobility of students and persons
engaged in an occupation within the region,is not only advisable but also a highly positive
factor in accelerating the development of the region,since it implies that increasing numbers
of scientists, technicians and specialists would be trained and their services fully utilized;
Reufflrming the principles set forth in agreements for cultural co-operation already
concluded between them, and resolved to ensure their more effective application at the
regional level,and to take into consideration the existence and validity of new ideas expressed
in the recommendations and conclusionsadopted in this connectionby the competent organs
of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,particularly in all
that relates to the promotion of life-long education, the democratization of education,the
adoption and application of an educational policy that will take account of structural,
eonomic and technological developments, of social and political change, and of cultural
contexts;
Convinced that, in order to meet the needs of their countries in a dynamic and permanent
manner, educational systems must be closely linked to plans for economic and social
development;
Conscious of the need to take into consideration,when applying criteria for the evaluation
of a person’s qualificationsfor admission to higher levels of educationor for the occupations,
not only the diplomas,certificates or degrees he has obtained, but also the knowledge and
experier. ~ehe has acquired;
Having in mind that the recognition by all the Contracting States of studies completed and
diplomas,certificates and degrees obtained in any one of them is an effective instrument for:
(a) making the best use of the educational facilities of the Region,
(b) ensuring the highest degree of mobility of teachers, students, research workers and
members of the professions within the Region,
(c) overcoming the difficulties encountered by persons who return to their country of origin
after receiving an education abroad,
(d) bringing about the fullest and most effective use of the human resources of the region
with a view to ensuring full employment and preventing the migration of talent to highly
industrialized countries:

Resolved to organize and strengthen their future co-operation in this respect by means of a
APPENDIX 2 345

regional conventionwhich would be the starting point for dynamic action carried out,in the
main, through national and regional bodies set up for that purpose,
Have agreed as follows:

I. Definitions
Article I
For the purposes of this Convention:

Recognition of a foreign diploma,degree or qualification is understood to mean the

acceptance thereofby the competent authoritiesof a Contracting State and the grant to
the holders of such diplomas,degrees or qualificationsof rights that are enjoyed by the
holders of comparablenational diplomas,degrees or qualifications.Such rights refer to
the continuation of studies and to the practice of a profession:
(i) Recognition for the purpose of commencing or continuing studies at a higher
level shall enable the holder concerned to be admitted to the higher education
establishments of the State granting such recognition,under the sameconditions
as are applicable to holders of national diplomas,degrees or qualifications;
(ii) Recognition for the purpose of practising a profession means acceptance of the
technical competenceof the holder of the diploma,degreeor qualification,andit
implies the rights and the obligationsof the holder of national diplomas,degrees
or qualifications,possession ofwhich is required for the practice ofthe profession
in question.Such recognitiondoes not have the effect of exempting the holder of
the foreign diploma,degree or qualification from the obligation to comply with
any other conditions that may be required,for the practice of the profession in
question,by national legal provisions as well as by the competent governmental
or professional authorities.
Middle or secondary education is understood to mean the stage of studies of any kind
which follows the initial, elementary or basic education and which, among other
purposes,may constitute the stage prior to higher education;
Higher education is understood to mean any form of education and of research at post-
secondary level.This education is open to all persons who are sufficientlyqualified for it
either because they have obtained a secondary-school-leavingcertificate or diploma,or
because they possess the appropriate training or knowledge,under the conditions
determined for the purpose by the State concerned;
Partial studies in higher education are understood to mean studies which,according to
the standards of the institution where the said studies were pursued, have not been
completed in respect either of their duration or of their content.Recognition by one of
the Contracting States ofpartial studiespursued in an institutionsituated in the territory
of another Contracting State,or in an institution under its authority,shall be granted
having regard to the level of training reached,in the view of the State granting
recognition,by the person concerned.

Objectives
Article 2

(1) The Contracting States declare their intention:

(a) To promote joint use of available educational resources by placing their training
institutionsat the serviceof the integraldevelopment of all the peoples in the region,for
which purpose they shall take measures aimed at:
(i) harmonizing in so far as possible conditions for admission to the higher
education institutions in each State,
 APPENDIX 2

adopting similar terminologyand similar criteria for evaluation,so as to make it

easier to apply the system of comparability of studies,
adopting, with regard to admission to subsequent stages of study, a dynamic
conception taking into account the knowledge vouched for by diplomas or
personal experience and achievements,subject to the provisions of article 1, sub-
paragraph (ch
adopting, in evaluating partial studies, broad criteria based on the level of
education reached rather than the content of the curricula followed,having due
regard to the interdisciplinary nature of higher education,
granting immediate recognition of studies,diplomas,degrees and certificatesfor
academic purposes and for purposes of the practice of a profession,
promoting the exchange of information and documentation in the fields of
education,scienceand technology,so as to serve the purposes of this Convention.
to strive at regional level for the continuous improvement of the curricula which,
togetherwith appropriateplanning and organization,will contributeto the optimum use
of the training resources of the region;
(c) to promote inter-regional co-operation with respect to the recognition of studies and
degrees;
(d) to set up the national and regional bodies needed to facilitate the most rapid and effective
application of this Convention.
(2) The Contracting States undertake to adopt all the national and internationalmeasures
that may be necessary to ensure the gradual achievement of the objectives set out in this
Article, principally through bilateral, sub-regionalor regional agreements,as well as
through agreements between institutions of higher education, and such other means as
may be conducive to co-operation with the competent organizations and institutions,
both national and international.

III. Commitments for Immediate Implementation

Article 3
For the purpose of continuing studies, and in order to allow of immediate access to further
stages of education in higher education institutions situated in their territories or in an
institution under their authority,the Contracting States shall recognize secondary education
leaving certificates or diplomas awarded in another Contracting State, possession of which
entitles holders to be admitted to the further stages of education in the higher education
institutions situated in the territory of their country of origin or in institutions under the
authority of the latter.

Article 4
The Contracting States shall grant, for the purpose of continuing studies and for immediate
admission to the further stages of higher education,recognition of higher education degrees,
diplomas or certificates obtained in the territory of another Contracting State, or in an
institution under its authority,which attest to the termination of a complete stage of higher
education studies. It will be required that the certification specifies the number of years,
semesters or trimesters or, in general, complete periods of studies.

Article 5
The Contracting States undertake to adopt the necessary measures to secure, as soon as
possible,for the purpose of the practice of aprofession,recognition of degrees,diplomas,and
qualifications in higher education conferred by the competent authorities of another
Contracting State.
APPENDIX 2 347

Article 6
The ContractingState shall adopt as soon as possible proceduresapplicableto the recognition
of partial studiesin higher educationpursued in anotherContracting Stateor in an institution
under its authority.

Article 7

(1) The benefits accorded under Articles 3,4,5and 6 shall be applicable to all persons who
have pursued their studies in one of the Contracting States, irrespective of their
nationality.
(2) All nationals of a Contracting State who have obtained in a non-contractingState,one
or more diplomas,degrees or qualificationscomparableto those referred to in Articles 3,
4,or 5,shall be entitled to benefit from the applicable provisions provided that their
diplomas,degrees or qualifications have been recognized in their country of origin.

IV. Agencies and Machinery for Implementation

Article 8
The Contracting States undertake to work for the attainment of the objectives defined in
Article 2,and to ensure the applicationand fulfilmentof the commitmentsset forth in Articles
3.4,5,6 and 7,by means of

(a) national bodies,

(b) the Regional Committee,
(c) bilateral or sub-regionalbodies.

Article 9
The Contracting States recognize that the attainment of the objectives and the fulfilment of
the commitments defined in this Convention require,at the national level,close and constant
co-operationand co-ordinationon the part of a considerablevariety of authorities,whether
governmental or not,and,in particular,on the part of the universitiesand other educational
institutions.They therefore undertake to set up for the examinationand solution ofproblems
relating to the application of this Convention,appropriate national bodies which shall be
representative of all the sectors concerned,and to take the relevant administrativemeasures
for ensuring their speedy and efficient operation.

Article 10

(1) There shall be established a Regional Committee,consistingof representativesofall the

Contracting States,the Secretariat of which shall be situated in a Contracting State
within the region and placed under the responsibility of the Director-Generalof the
United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.
(2) The task of the Regional Committee shall be to promote the application of this
Convention.It shallreceiveand examineperiodic reportsfrom the Contracting Stateson
progress to date and difficultiesmet with in applying this Convention,as well as studies
on the Convention prepared by its Secretariat.
(3) The Regional Committee shall make general or specific recommendations to the
Contracting States.

Article II
The Regional Committee shall elect its Chairman and draw up its Rules of Procedure.It shall
meet at least once-everytwo years,its firstmeeting being held three months afterthe deposit of
the sixth instrument of ratification.
348 APPENDIX 2

Article I2
The Contracting States may entrust to bilateral or sub-regionalbodies,already existing or
specially set up for the purpose,the task of examining the problems entailed at the bilateral or
sub-regional level by the application of this Convention and of proposing solutions to them.

V. Co-operation with International Organizations

Article 13
The Contracting States shall take the appropriate measures to enlist the co-operationof the
competent governmental and non-governmental international organizations in their
endeavors to ensure the successful application of this Convention. They shall enter into
agreements with those organizations and decide,jointly with them,on the most appropriate
forms of co-operation.

VI. Ratification, Accession and Entry into Force

Article 14
This Convention shall be open for signature and ratification:

(a) to the States of Latin America and the Caribbean invited to attend the regional
diplomatic conference convened to adopt this Convention and,
(b) to other States of Latin America and the Caribbean members of the United Nations, of
any of the Specialized Agencies brought into relationship with the United Nations or of
the International Atomic Energy Agency, or which are parties to the Statute of the
International Court of Justice, which may be invited to become parties to this
Convention by a decision of the Regional Committee adopted by a majority to be
determined by its Rules of Procedure.

Article 15
nie Regional Committee may authorize States Members of the United Nations, of any of the
Specialized Agencies brought into relationship with the United Nations or of the
International Atomic Energy Agency, or which are parties to the Statute of the International
Court of Justice, outside the region of Latin America and the Caribbean, to accede to this
Convention. In that case, the decision of the regional Committee must be adopted by a two-
thirds majority of the Contracting States.

Article I6
Ratification of or accession to this Convention shall be effected by the deposit of an
instrument of ratification or accession with the Director-General of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Article 17
This Convention shall enter into force between the States that have ratified it, one month after
the deposit of the second instrument of ratification.Subsequently,it shall enter into force in
respect of each State one month after that State has deposited its instrumentof ratification or
accession.

Article 18

(1) Contracting States may denounce this Convention.

(2) The denunciation shall be notified to the Director-General of the United Nations
Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization by means of an instrumentin writing.
(3) The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the date of receipt of its
notification.
APPENDIX 2 349

Article 19
This Convention shall in no way affect the international treaties and conventionsin force
between Contracting States, nor existing national standards, which provide for greater
advantages than those granted under this Convention.

Article 20
The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organizationshall inform the ContractingStatesand the other Statesreferred to in Articles 14
and 15,as well as the United Nations,of each deposit of the instruments of ratification or
accession referred to in Article 16,and of each deposit of the instruments of denunciation
provided for in Article 18.
Article 21
In conformity with Article 102of the Charter of the United Nations,this Conventionshallbe
registered with the Secretariatof the United Nations on the request ofthe Director-Generalof
the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.

IN FAITH WHEREOF the undersigned duly authorized, have signed the present
Convention.
Done at Mexico City,this nineteenth day of July 1974in the English,French and Spanish
languages,the three versionsbeing equallyauthentic,in a singlecopy which shallbe deposited
in the archives of the United Nations Educational,Scientificand Cultural Organization,and
certified true copies ofwhich shallbe delivered to all the Statesreferred to in Articles 14and 15
as well as to the United Nations.

CONVENTION ON THE RECOGNITION OFSTUDIES,DIPLOMAS AND DEGREES IN

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE ARAB AND EUROPEAN STATES BORDERING O N
THE MEDITERRANEAN

The Arab and European States bordering on the Mediterranean,Partiesto this Convention,
Desiring to strengthen the cultural bonds which history and geographical proximity have
established between them since the most ancient timesand to pursue apolicyofjointactionin
the sphere of education,scientifictraining and cultural activities,thereby contributing to the
strengthening of their co-operationin all its aspects in the interests of the well-being and
lasting prosperity of their peoples,
Convinced that these goals would be more easily attained if the right of the inhabitantsof
each of the Contracting States to have free access to the educational resources of the other
Contracting States and, in particular, to continue their education in higher educational
institutions in those other States were recognized,
Considering that the recognition by all the Contracting States of studies,certificates,
diplomas and degrees obtained in any one of them is calculated todevelop the mobility of
persons and the exchange of ideas,knowledge and experience in science and technology,
Noting that this recognition constitutes one of the conditions necessary for:

enabling the means of education existing in their territories to be used as effectively as

possible for the common good;
ensuring that teachers,students,researchworkersand professionalworkers have greater
mobility;
(3) alleviating the difficultiesencountered on their return home by persons who have been
trained abroad,
350 APPENDIX 2

Desiring to ,ensurethat studies,certificates,diplomas and degrees are recognized as widely as

possible, taking into account the principles of the promotion of life-long education, the
democratization of education, and the adoption and application of an education policy
allowing for structural,economic,technologicaland social changes and suited to the cultural
context of each country,
Determined to sanction and organize theirfuture collaborationin these matters by means of
a Convention, which will be the starting point for concerted dynamic action taken in
particular by means of national, bilateral and multilateral machinery set up for the purpose,
Mindful that the ultimate objective set by the General Conference of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization consists in ‘preparingan international
convention on the recognition and the validity of degrees,diplomas and certificatesissued by
establishments of higher learning and research in all countries’,
Have agreed as follows:

I. Definitions
Article I

(1) For the purposes of this Convention the ‘recognition’of a foreign certificate,diploma or
degree of higher education means its acceptance by the competent authorities of a
Contracting State and the granting to the holder of the rights enjoyed by persons
possessing a national certificate, diploma or degree with which the foreign one is
assimilated. Such rights extend to either the pursuit of studies, or the practice of a
profession, or both, according to the applicability of the recognition.
(a) Recognition of a certificate,diploma or degree with a view to undertaking or
pursuing studies at the higher level shall entitle the holder to enter the higher
educational and research institutions of any Contracting State under the same
conditions as regards studies as those applying to holders of a similar certificate,
diploma or degree issued in the Contracting State concerned.
(b) Recognition of a foreign certificate,diploma or degree with a view to the practice
of a profession is the recognition of the holder’s technical capacity,required for
the practice of the profession concerned. Such recognition does not exempt the
holder of the foreign certificate, diploma or degree from complying with any
conditions other than those relating to technical capacity for the practice of the
profession concerned which may be laid down by the competent governmental or
professional authorities.
(2) For the purposes of this Convention:
(a) ‘secondary education’ means that stage of studies of any kind which follows
primary or elementary and preparatory education and the aims of which may
include preparing pupils for admission to higher education;
(b) ‘highereducation’ means all types of education and research at post-secondary
level open in the different States and according to the conditions laid down by
them to all persons who are properly qualified,either because they have obtained
a secondary-school-leavingdiploma or certificate or because they have received
appropriate training or acquired appropriate knowledge.
(3) For the purposes of this Convention, ‘partialstudies’means any education of which the
duration or the content is partial by comparison with the norms prevailing in the
institution in which it was acquired. Recognition of partial studies pursued in an
institution situated in the territory of another Contracting State and recognized by that
State may be granted in accordance with the educational level reached by the student by
reference to the criteria used by the training bodies in the receiving State.
APPENDIX 2 35 1

II. Aims
Article 2

(1) The Contracting States solemnlydeclare their firm resolve to co-operateclosely with a
view to:
(a) enabling the educational and research resources available to them to be used as
effectively as possible in the interestsof all the Contracting States,and,for this
purpose:
to make their higher educational institutions as widely accessible as
possible to students or researchers from any of the Contracting States;
to recognize the studies,certificates, diplomas and degrees of such
persons;
to harmonize the entrance requirementsof the educational institutionsof
each country;
to adopt terminology and evaluation criteria which would facilitate the
application of a system which will ensure the comparability of credits,
subjects of study and certificates,diplomas and degrees;
to adopt a dynamic approach in matters of admission to furtherstages of
study, bearing in mind not only knowledge acquired,as attested by
certificates,diplomas and degrees, but also the individual’s experience
and achievements,so farasthese may be deemed acceptable by competent
authorities;
to adopt flexiblecriteria for the evaluation of partial studies,based on the
educational level reached and on the content ofthe courses taken,bearing
in mind the interdisciplinarycharacter of knowledge at university level;
to improve the system for the exchange of information regarding the
recognition of studies,certificates,diplomas and degrees;
(b) constantly improving curricula in the Contracting States and methods of
planning and promoting higher education,taking into account the requirements
for economic,socialand cultural development,the policiesof each countryand
the objectives that are set out in the recommendations made by the competent
organs of the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization
concerning the continuous improvement of the quality of education, the
promotion of life-longeducation and the democratization of education;
(c) promoting regionaland world-wideco-operationin the matter of the recognition
of studies and academic qualifications.
(2) The Contracting States agree to take all necessary steps at the national,bilateral and
multilateral levels, in particular by means of bilateral, sub-regional,regional or other
agreements,agreements between universities or other higher educational institutions
and arrangementswith the competent national or internationalorganizationsand other
bodies,with a view to the progressive attainment of the goals defined in the present
article.

III. Undertakings for Immediate Application

Article 3

(1) For the purposes of the continuation of studies and immediate admission to the
subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in their
respective territories,the Contracting States recognize,under the same conditions as
those applying to their own nationals,secondary-school-leavingcertificatesissued in the
other Contracting States,the possession of which qualifies the holders for admission to
352 APPENDIX 2

the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in the

territories of those Contracting States.
(2) Admission to a given higher educational institution may, however,be dependent on the
availability of places and also on the conditions concerning linguistic knowledge
required or accepted by the educational bodies of the Contracting States in order to
undertake the studies in question.
Article 4

(1) T h e Contracting States agree to take all necessary steps at the national level with a view
to:
(a) recognizing,for the purpose of the immediatepursuit of studies and admission to
the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in
their respective territories and under the conditions applicable to nationals,
academic qualifications obtained in a higher educational institution situated in
the territory of another Contracting State and recognized by it, denoting that a
full course of studies at the higher level has been completed to the satisfaction of
the competent authorities;
(b) defining, so far as possible, the procedure applicable to the recognition, for the
purpose of the pursuit of studies,of periods of study spent in higher educational
institutions situated in the other Contracting States.
(2) T h e provisions of Article 3,paragraph 2,above shall apply to the cases covered by this
Article.

Article 5
The Contracting States agree to take the necessary steps to ensure that certificates,diplomas
or degrees issued by the competent authorities of the other Contracting States are effectively
recognized so far as possible for the purpose of practising a profession within the meaning of
Article 1, paragraph I(b).

Article 6

(1) Considering that recognition refers to the studies followed and the certificates,diplomas
or degrees obtained in the recognized institutions of a given Contracting State, any
person,of whatever nationality or political or legal status,w h o has followed such studies
and obtained such certificates,diplomas or degrees shall be entitled to benefit from the
provisions of Articles 3, 4 and 5.
(2) Any national of a Contracting State w h o has obtained in the territory of a non-
Contracting State one or more certificates,diplomas or degrees similar to those defined
in Articles 3, 4 and 5 may avail himself of those provisions which are applicable, on
condition that his certificates,diplomas or degrees have been recognized in his home
country and in the country in which he wishes to continue his studies,without prejudice
to the provisions of Article 20 of this Convention.

IV. Machinery for Implementation

Article 7
The Contracting States shall endeavour to attain the goals defined in Article 2and shall ensure
that the agreements set forth in Articles 3, 4 and 5 above are put into effect by means of

(a) national bodies;

(b) the Intergovernmental Committee defined in Article 9;
(c) bilateral or sub-regional bodies.
APPENDIX 2 353

Article 8

(1) The Contracting States recognize that the attainment of the goals and the execution of
the agreements defined in this Convention will require,at the national level,close co-
operation and co-ordinationof the efforts of a great variety of national authorities,
whether governmental or non-governmental,particularly universities and other
educational institutions.They therefore agree to entrust the study of the problems
involved in the application of this Convention to appropriate national bodies, with
which all the sectors concerned will be associated and which will be empowered to
propose appropriate solutions.The Contracting States will furthermore take all the
administrativemeasures required to speed up the effective functioning of these national
bodies.
(2) Every national body shall have at its disposalthe necessary means to enable it either to
collect,process and file all information of use to it in its activities relating to studies,
diplomasand degrees in higher education,or to obtain the informationit requiresin this
connexion at short notice from a separate national documentation centre.

Article 9

(1) A n Intergovernmental Committee composed of experts mandated by the Contracting

States is hereby set up and its secretariatentrusted to the Director-Generalof the United
Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.
(2) The function ofthe IntergovernmentalCommittee shallbe to promote the application of
this Convention.It shall receive and examinethe periodic reportswhich the Contracting
States shall communicate to it on the progress made and the obstacles encountered by
them in the application of the Convention and also the studies carried out by its
secretariaton the said Convention.The Contracting States undertake to submit to the
Committee their reports at least once every two years.
(3) The IntergovernmentalCommittee shall,where appropriate,addressto the Contracting
States recommendationsof a general or individualcharacterconcerningthe application
of this Convention.
(4) The secretariatof the IntergovernmentalCommittee shallhelp national bodiesto obtain
the information needed by them in their activities.

Article IO
The IntergovernmentalCommittee shall elect its Chairman and adopt its Rules of Procedure.
It shall meet for the first time three months after the sixth instrument of ratification or
accession has been deposited.

Article 11
The Contracting States may entrust existingbilateral or sub-regionalbodies or bodies set up
for the purpose with the task of studying the problems involved at the bilateral or regional
levels in the application of this Convention and contributing to their solution.

V. Documentation
Article 12

(1) The Contracting States shall periodically engage in wide exchanges of informationand
documentation pertaining to studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees in higher
education.
(2) They shall endeavour to promote the development of methods and machinery for
354 APPENDIX 2

collecting, processing, classifying and disseminating all the necessary information

pertaining to the recognition of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees in higher
education, taking into account existing methods and machinery as well as information
collected by national, regional and international bodies, including Unesco.

VI. Co-operation with International Organizations

Article 13
The Intergovernmental Committee shall make all the appropriate arrangements for
associating the competent international organizations, both governmental and non-
governmental, with its efforts to ensure that this Convention is applied as fully as possible.

VII. Institutions of Higher Education under the Authority of a Contracting State but Situated
outside its Territory
Article 14
The provisions of this Convention apply to studies pursued at and to certificates,diplomas
and degrees obtained from any institution of higher education under the authority of a
Contracting State, even when this institution is situated outside its territory.

VIII. Ratification, Accession and Entry into Force

Article 15
This Convention shall be open to the signature and ratification of the Arab and European
States bordering on the Mediterranean which have been invited to participate in the
diplomatic Conference entrusted with drafting it.

Article 16

Other States which are members of the United Nations, of one of the Specialized
Agencies or of the International Atomic Energy Agency or which are parties to the
Statute of the International Court of Justice m a y be authorized to accede to this
Convention.
Any request to this effect shall be communicated to the Director-Generalof the United
Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organization who shall transmit it to the
Contracting States at least three months before the meeting of the Inter-Governmental
Committee.
The Committee shall meet as an A d hoc Committee for the purpose of considering such a
request. Its members must have an express mandate to that effect from their
Governments. In such cases, the decision of the Committee shall require a two-thirds
majority of the Contracting States.
This procedure shall apply only when a majority of the States referred to in Article 15 has
ratified the Convention.

Article 17
Ratification of this Convention or accession to it shall be effected by depositing an instrument
of ratification or accession with the Director-Generalof the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Article I8
This Convention shall enter into force one month after the second instrument of ratification
has been deposited but solely with respect to the States which have deposited their instruments
of ratification. It shall enter into force for each other State one month after that State has
deposited its instrument of ratification or accession.
APPENDIX 2 355

Article 19

(I) The Contracting States shall have the right to denounce this Convention.
(2) The denunciation shall be signified by an instrument in writing deposited with the
Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization.
(3) The denunciation shall take effect twelve months afterthe instrument of denunciation
has been received. However,persons having benefited from the provisions of this
Convention who may be pursuing studies in the territory of the State denouncing the
Convention will be able to complete the course of studies they have begun.

Article 20
This Convention shall not affect in any way the treaties and conventionsalready in force
between the Contracting States or the national legislation adopted by them in so far as such
treaties,conventions and legislation offer greater advantages than those provided for in the
Convention.

Article 21
The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization shall inform the Contracting States and the other States mentioned in Articles
15 and 16 and also the United Nations of the deposit of all the instrumentsof ratificationor
accession referred to in Article 17 as well as of the denunciationsprovided for in Article 19.

Article 22
In comformity with Article 102 of the United Nations Charter,this Convention shall be
registered with the Secretariatof the United Nationsat the request of the Director-Generalof
the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.

IN FAITH WHEREOF the undersigned representatives,being duly authorizedthereto,have

signed this Convention.

Done at Nice,this seventeenth day of December 1976,in the Arabic,English,French and

Spanish languages,the four texts being equally authoritative,in a single copy which shall be
deposited in the archives of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization.A certified copy shall be sent to all the States referred to in Articles 15 and 16
and to the United Nations.

CONVENTION ON THERECOGNITION OF STUDIES,D I P L O M A S A N D DEGREES IN

H I G H E R EDUCATION IN THE ARAB STATES

Preamble
The Arab States,Parties to the present Convention,
Considering the common heritage and the close community,intellectual and cultural ties
which bind them together, and desirous of giving clearer, concrete expression to the
intellectual and cultural co-operation enshrined in the Arab Cultural Treaty of 21 Dhoul
Hydgah 1364 (27November 1945)and the Pact of Arab CulturalUnity of 16 Chawal 1383(29
February 1964), and the relevant bilateral and multi-lateralagreements,
Desirous of promoting education and scientific research,strengthening their co-operation
in those areas and making good use of human resources,with the aim of achievingeconomic,
socialand culturaldevelopment and maximum integrationof the area and ofpreservingtheir
cultural identity,
 APPENDIX 2

Convinced of the necessity of ensuring the recognition of studies, diplomas and degrees in
higher education with a view to facilitatingthe mobility of students,members of the teaching
profession, and other specialists and research workers within the region,and being aware of
the need to develop education, to promote access thereto and improve its quality and to
promote lifelong education,
Convinced that, on account of the diversity and complexity of programmes of study,it is
desirable that the recognition of stages of training completed should take into account not
only the diplomas and degrees obtained but also the courses of studies followed and the
knowledge and experience acquired,
Resolved to organize their co-operation and strengthen it in respect of recognition of
studies,diplomas and degrees of higher education by means of a convention which would be
the starting point for concerted,dynamic action carried out, in particular,through national,
bilateral, subregional and regional bodies set up for that purpose,
Expressing the hope that this Convention will be a step towards more wide-ranging action
leading to an international convention between all the Member States of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
Have agreed as follows:

I. Definitions
Article 1

(1) For the purpose of the present Convention the ‘recognition’ of a certificate,
qualification,diploma or degree of higher education obtained in one of the Contracting
States means its acceptance by the competent authorities of another Contracting State
and the granting to the holder of the rights enjoyed by persons possessing a certificate,
qualification, diploma or degree issued by that State with which the certificate,
qualification,diploma or degree obtained in the first Contracting State is comparable.
Such rights extend to either the pursuit of studies,or the practice of aprofession,or both,
according to the applicability of the recognition.
(a) Recognition by a Contracting State of a certificate, qualification, diploma or
degree awarded by another contracting State with a view to undertaking or
pursuing studies at the higher level shall entitle the holder to enter the higher
educational and research institutions of any other Contracting State under the
same conditions as those applying to holders of a similar certificate,
qualification,diploma or degree issued in the Contracting State concerned.Such
recognition does not exempt the holder of the certificate,qualification,diploma
or degree from complying with the other conditions laid down by the law or with
the regulations governing admission to higher educational institutions.
(b) A Contracting State which recognizes a certificate, qualification, diploma or
degree enabling the holder to practise a profession thereby recognizes the
holder’s technical ability and confers on him rights and obligations identical to
those which he would have if he obtained such a certificate, qualification,
diploma or degree directly in that State with a view to the practice of the same
profession. Such recognition does not exempt the holder of the certificate,
qualification,diploma or degree from complying with the other conditions laid
down by the law in force in each State or conditions for the practice of the
profession concerned which may be laid down by the competent governmentalor
professional authorities.
(2) For the purposes of the present Convention:
(a) ‘secondary education’ means that stage of studies of any kind which follows
APPENDIX 2 357

primary, elementary. preparatory or intermediate education and the aims of

which may include preparing pupils for higher education;
(b) ‘highereducation’means all types of education and research at post-secondary
level. Such education is open to all persons who have obtained a diploma or
certificate attesting that they have successfullycompleted their educationat the
secondary level or at an equivalent level in accordance with the conditions laid
down for that purpose by the State concerned.
(3) For the purpose of the present Convention,‘partialstudies’means any education of
which the duration or the contentis partial by comparison with the norms prevailing in
the institution in which it was acquired.Recognition by a Contracting State of partial
studies pursued in an institution situated in the territory of another Contracting State
and recognized by that State may be granted in accordance with the educational level
reached by the student in the opinion of the State granting recognition.

II. Aims
Article 2

(1) The Contracting States solemnly declare their firm resolve to co-operateclosely with a
view to:
(a) enabling the educational resources available to them to be used as effectively as
possible in the interests of all the Contracting States,and. for this purpose:
6) to adopt terminology and evaluation criteria as similar as possible,
especially as regards the harmonization of the names of diplomas and
degrees and of stages of study,in order to simplify the application of a
system which will ensure the comparability of credits,subjects of study
and diplomas;
(ii) to improve the system for the exchange of information regarding the
recognition of studies,diplomas and degrees;
(iii) to co-ordinatethe entrance requirementsof the educational institutionsof
each country;
iiv) to adopt a dynamic approach in matters of admissionto furtherstagesof
study, bearing in mind not only knowledge acquired,as attested by
diplomas and degrees, but also the individual’s experience and
achievements,so far as these may be deemed acceptableby the competent
authorities;
(VI to adopt flexible criteria for the evaluation ofpartial studies,based on the
educational level reached and on the content of the coursestaken,bearing
in mind the interdisciplinary character of knowledge at university level;
(vi) to make their higher educational institutions as widely accessible as
possible to students from any of the Contracting States;
(vii) to recognize the studies,diplomas and degrees of such persons. and to
encourage exchanges and the greatest possible freedom of movement of
teachers,students and research workers in the region;
(viii) to alleviate the difficulties encountered by those returning home after
completing their education abroad,so that their reintegrationinto the life
of the country may be achieved in the manner most beneficial both to the
community and to the development of their own personality;
(b) constantly improving higher education curricula in the Contracting States
through planning and continuous evaluation so as to take account of the
personality and identity ofthe Arab nation,of development requirementsand of
the recommendationsmade by the competent organs of Unesco,ALECSO and
358 APPENDIX 2

the Association of Arab Universities concerning the continuous improvement of

the quality of education, the promotion of lifelong education and the
democratization of education;
(c) promoting the widest and most effective use of human resources so as to
contribute to the acceleration of the development of the countries concerned
whilst at the same time avoiding the ‘brain drain’ from the Arab States;
(d) promoting interregionalco-operation in the matter of the recognition of studies
and academic qualifications.
(2) The Contracting States agree to take all necessary steps at the national,bilateral and
multilateral levels, in particular by means of bilateral, subregional, regional or other
agreements,agreements between universities or other higher educational institutions
and arrangements with the competent national or internationalorganizationsand other
bodies, with a view to the progressive attainment of the goals defined in the present
Article.

III. Undertakings for Immediate Application

Article 3

(1) For the purpose of the continuation of studies and direct admission to the subsequent
stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in their territories,each of
the Contracting States recognizes, under the same academic conditions as those
applicable to its nationals, secondary-school-leavingcertificates issued in the other
Contracting States,provided their possession qualifies the holders for direct admission
to the subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in the
territories of those Contracting States.
(2) Admission to a given higher educationalinstitution may, however,be dependent on the
availability of places, and on compatibility with the host country’s planning and
development needs.

Article 4
Each of the Contracting States agrees to take all necessary steps with a view to:

(a) recognizing,for the purpose of the immediate pursuit of studies and admission to the
subsequent stages of training in higher educational institutions situated in its territory
and under the conditions applicable to its nationals,academic qualifications obtained in
a governmental higher educational institution situated in the territory of another
Contracting State and recognized by it, denoting that a full course of studiesat the higher
level has been completed to the satisfaction of the competent authorities, taking into
account the relevant provisions of the preceding articles;
(b) endeavouring to establish the procedures,criteria and methods for recognizing degrees
and diplomas awarded by higher educational institutions situated in the other
Contracting States, as well as recognizing, for the purpose of the pursuit of studies,
periods of study and partial studies in such institutions;
(c) endeavouring to apply the provisions of paragraph (b) of the present Article to the
studies, diplomas, degrees and qualifications awarded by regional higher educational
institutions, under the authority of the League of Arab States or any other Arab
intergovernmental organization.

Article 5
Each Contracting State agrees to take the necessary steps to ensure as far as possible that
certificates,diplomas, degrees or qualifications issued by the competent authorities of the
APPENDIX 2 359

other ContractingStates are effectively recognized for the purpose of practising a profession,
in accordance with Article 1, paragraph 1.

Article 6

Any person,of whatever political or legal status,who has followed studies in one of the
Contracting States shall be entitled to benefit from the provisions of Articles 3,4and 5,
provided this is not contrary to the laws and internationallegal obligations of the host
country.
Without prejudice to the provisions contained in Article 20 of the present Convention,
any national of a Contracting State who has obtained in the territory of a non-
ContractingState one or more certificates,qualifications,diplomas or degreessimilarto
those definedin Articles 3,4and 5 above may availhimselfofthose provisionswhich are
applicable, on condition that the certificates,qualifications,diplomas or degrees in
question have been recognized in his home countryand in the countryin which he wishes
to continue his studies or practise a profession.

Machinery for Implementation

Article 7
The ContractingStatesshall endeavourto attainthe goalsdefined in Article 2and shallensure
that the agreements set forth in Articles 3,4 and 5 above are put into effect by means of

(a) national bodies;

(b) the Regional Committee,which will seek the co-operationof the existing competent
regional institutions,and in particular the Arab Educational,Cultural and Scientific
Organization and the Association of Arab Universities;
(c) bilateral or subregional bodies.

Article 8

(1) The Contracting States recognize that the attainment of the goals and the execution of
the agreementsdefined in the presentConvention will require,at the nationallevel,close
co-operationand co-ordinationofthe efforts ofa variety ofnationalauthoritieswhether
governmental or non-governmental,particularly universities and other educational
institutions.They therefore agree to entrust the study and solution of the problems
involved in the application of the present Convention to appropriate national bodies,
with which the sectors concerned will be associated,and to take all the administrative
measures required to speed up the functioning of these national bodies effectively.
(2) Every national body shall have at its disposal the necessary means to enable it either to
collect,process and file all information of use to it in its activities relating to studies,
diplomasand degrees in higher education,or to obtain the informationit requiresin this
connection at short notice from a separate national documentation centre.

Article 9

(1) A Regional Committee of Contracting States composed of representativesof all the

Contracting States is hereby set up and its secretariatentrusted to the Director-General
of the United NationsEducational,Scientificand CulturalOrganization in co-operation
and co-ordinationwith the Arab Educational,Cultural and ScientificOrganization and
the Association of Arab Universities. Unesco, ALECSO,the Association of Arab
Universities, and any other international governmental or non-governmental
360 APPENDIX 2

organization designated by the Committee shall be permitted to be represented at its

meetings.
The function of the Gommittee of Contracting States shall be to promoteandextend the
application of the present Convention. It shall receive and examine the periodic reports
which the Contracting States shall communicate to it on the progress made and the
obstaclesencountered by them in the application of the Convention and also the studies
carried out by its secretariaton the said Convention. The Contracting States undertake
to submit to the Committee their reports at least once every two years.
The Regional Committee shall assist the institutions of higher education in the
Contracting States in carrying out at their request self-evaluation in regard to this
Convention at least once every five years,in accordance with a system to be established
by the Committee for this purpose. The Committee shall also address recommendations
of a general or individual character to the contracting States.
The Regional Committee shall undertake the necessary studies required to adapt the
objectives of this Convention in accordance with the evolving requirements of social,
cultural and economic development in the Contracting States and shall submit its
recommendations to them;these recommendations shall take effect after their approval
by not less than two-thirdsof the Contracting States.
The secretariat of the Committee of Contracting States shall co-operate with national
bodies to obtain the information needed by them in their activities.
The Regional Committee shall be entitled to propose to Contracting States plans and
procedures for implementing the Convention and co-ordinatingits practical application
by the Contracting States and Unesco.

Article 10
The Regional Committee shall meet for the first time three months after six States have
deposited their instrument of ratification. It shall elect its Chairman and adopt its Rules of
Procedure. It shall set up the technical organs and bodies needed for the accomplishment of its
work and shall define their competence and powers. It shall meet at least once every year and
whenever necessary.

Article II
The Contracting States may entrust bilateral, subregional or regional bodies already in
existence or set up for the purpose with the task of studying,and contributing to the solution
of, the problems involved in the application of the present Convention at the bilateral,
subregional or regional levels.

V. Documentation
Article I2

(1) The Contracting States shall periodically engage in wide exchanges of information and
documentation pertaining to studies, diplomas and degrees in higher education.
(2) They shall endeavour to promote the development of methods and means for collecting,
processing, filing and disseminating all the necessary information pertaining to the
recognition of studies,certificates,qualifications and degrees in higher education,while
taking into account the methods and means used and information collected in this
respect by the various national, regional and international agencies, especially the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, the Arab
Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization and the Association of Arab
Universities.
APPENDIX 2 361

VI. Co-operationwith International Organizations

Article 13
The Regional Committee shall make all the necessary arrangements for associating the
competent international organizations,both governmental and non-governmental,with its
effortsto ensure that the present Convention is applied asfullyas possible.For this purpose it
shall conclude the appropriate agreements and arrangements with them.

VI1 Institutionsof Higher Education under the Authority of a Contracting State but Situated
outside its Territory
Article 14
The provisions of the present Convention apply to studies pursued in,and to certificates,
qualifications,diplomasand degrees obtained from,any institutionof higher education which
is affiliated to an institutionunder the authority of a Contracting State and which is situated
outside its territory,within the limits authorized by the provisions in force in each of the
Contracting States.

VIII. Ratification,Accession and Entry into Force

Article 15
The present Convention shall be open to the signature and ratification of Arab States
members of the League of Arab States and of Unesco,and of any other State member of the
League of Arab Statesand ofany other Statebelonging to the Arab Statesregion asdefined by
Unesco.

Article 16

(I) Other States which are members of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization may be authorized to accede to this Convention.
(2) Any such request should be communicated to the Director-Generalof the United
Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization,who shall transmit it to the
Contracting Statesat least three months before the meeting of the Regional Committee.
(3) The Committee shall meet as an ad hoc committee to take a decision concerning the
request.Its members shall be given specific authorization by their governmentsto that
effect.Decisionsin such cases shallbe bya two-thirdsmajority of the Contracting States.
(4) This procedure shall apply only when a majority of the Statesreferredto in Article 15 has
ratified the Convention.

Article 17
Ratification of the present Convention or accession to it shall be effected by depositing an
instrument of ratification or accession with the Director-Generalof the United Nations
Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Article 18
The present Convention shall enter into force one month aftertwo Stateshave deposited their
instrument of ratification,but solely with respect to the States which have deposited their
instrumentsof ratification.It shall enter into force for each other State one month after that
State has deposited its instrument of ratification or accession.

Article 19
(I) The Contracting States shall have the right to denounce the present Convention.
(2) The denunciation shall be signified by an instrument in writing deposited with the
362 APPENDIX 2

Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization.
(3) The denunciation shall take effect 12 months after the instrument of denunciation has
been received. It shall have no retroactive effects,nor shall it affect the recognition of
studies,qualifications,diplomas or degrees which has taken place in accordance with the
provisions of the Convention when the State denouncing the Convention was still bound
thereby.Such recognition shall continue to have its full effect after the denunciation has
become effective.

Article 20
This Convention shall not affect in any way the treaties and conventions already in force
between the Contracting States or the national legislationadopted by them in so far as such
treaties,conventionsand legislation offer greater advantages than those provided for in the
present Convention.

Arricle 21
The Director-General of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
Organization shall inform the Contracting States and the other States mentioned in Articles
15 and 16 and also the United Nations of the deposit of all the instruments of ratificationor
accession referred to in Article 17 as well as of the denunciations provided for in Article 19.

Article 22
In conformity with Article 102 of the United Nations Charter,the present Convention shall be
registered with the Secretariat of the United Nations at the request of the Director-Generalof
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

IN FAITH THEREOF the undersigned representatives,being duly authorized thereto,have

signed the present Convention.

Done at Paris, this 22nd day of Muharram 1399 (22 December 1978) in the Arabic, English
and French languages,the three texts being equally authoritative,in a single copy which shall
be deposited in the archives of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization.A certified true copy shall be sent to all the States referred to in Articles 15 and
16 and to the United Nations.

CONVENTION O N THE RECOGNITION OF STUDIES,DIPLOMAS AND DEGREES

CONCERNING HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE STATES BELONGING TO THE
EUROPE REGION

Preamble
The States of the Europe Region, Parties to this Convention,
Recalling that,as the General Conference of Unesco has noted on several occasions in its
resolutions concerning European co-operation,‘the development of co-operation between
nations in the fields of education,science,culture and communication,in accordance with the
principles set out in Unesco’s Constitution,plays an essentialrole in the promotion of peace
and international understanding’,
Comcious of the close relationship that exists between their cultures,despite their diversity
of languagesand the differences in economic and social systems,and desiring to strengthen
their co-operation in the field of education and training in the interests of the well-being and
lasting prosperity of their peoples,
APPENDIX 2 363

Recalling that the States meeting in Helskini expressed,in the Final Act ofthe Conference
on Security and Co-operationin Europe (I August 1975), their intention ‘toimprove access,
under mutually acceptable conditions,for students,teachersand scholarsofthe participating
States to each other’s educational,cultural and scientific institutions ...in particular by. ..
arriving at the mutual recognition of academic degrees and diplomas either through
governmentalagreements,where necessary,or directarrangementsbetween universitiesand
other institutions of higher learning and research’,and also by ‘promotinga more exact
assessment of the problems of comparison and equivalence of academic degrees and
diplomas’,
Recalling that,with a view to promoting the attainment of these objectives,most of the
Contracting States have already concluded bilateral or sub-regionalagreements among
themselves concerning the equivalence or recognition of diplomas; but desiring, while
pursuing and intensifyingtheir efforts at the bilateral and subregionallevels,to extend their
co-operationin this field to the whole Europe Region,
Convinced that the great diversity of higher education systems in the Europe Region
constitutes an exceptionally rich cultural asset which should be preserved,and desiring to
enable all their peoples to benefit fully from this rich culturalasset byfacilitatingaccessby the
inhabitants of each Contracting State to the educational resources of the other Contracting
States,more especiallyby authorizing them to continue their education in higher educational
institutionsin those other States,
Considering that, to authorize admission to further stages of study,the concept of the
recognition of studies should be employed,a concept which in a context of social and
international mobility,makes it possible to evaluate the level of education reached bearing in
mind knowledge acquired, as attested by diplomas and degrees obtained and also the
individual’s other relevant qualifications, so far as these may be deemed acceptable by
competent authorities,
Considering that the recognition by all the Contracting States of studies,certificates,
diplomas and degrees obtained in any one of them is intended to develop the international
mobility of persons and the exchange of ideas,knowledge and scientific and technological
experience,and that it would be desirable to accept foreign students into establishments of
higher education on the understanding that recognition oftheirstudiesor diplomas shallat no
time confer on them greater rights than those enjoyed by national students,
Noting that this recognition constitutes one of the conditions necessary for:

(1) enabling means of education existing in their territories to be used as effectively as

possible,
(2) ensuring that teachers,students,researchworkers and professionalworkershave greater
mobility,
(3) alleviatingthe difficultiesencountered on their return by persons who have been trained
or educated abroad,

Desiring to ensure that studies,certificates,diplomas and degrees are recognized as widely as

possible, taking into account the principles of the promotion of lifelong education,the
democratization of education,and the adoption and application of an education policy
allowing for structural,economic,technologicaland social changesand suited to the cultural
context of each country,
Determined to sanction and organize theirfuturecollaborationin these matters by means of
a conventionwhich will be the startingpoint forconcerted dynamic action taken in particular
by means of national,bilateral,subregional and multilateral machinery already existing or
that may be deemed necessary,
Mindful that the ultimate objective set by the General Conference of the United Nations
 APPENDIX 2
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization consists in ‘preparing an international
Convention on the Recognition and the Validity ofDegrees,Diplomas and Certificatesissued
by establishments of Higher Learning and Research in all Countries’,
Have agreed as follows:

I. Definitions
Article 1

(1) For the purpose of this Convention,the ‘recognition’of a foreign certificate,diploma or

degree of higher education means its acceptance as a valid credential by the competent
authorities in a Contracting State and the granting to its holder of rights enjoyed by
persons who possess a national certificate,diploma or degree with which the foreign one
is assessed as comparable.
-
Recognition is further defined as follows:
Recognition of a certificate,diploma or degree with a view to undertaking or
pursuing studies at the higher level shall enable the holder to be considered for
entry to the higher educational and research institutionsof any Contracting State
as if he were the holder of a comparable certificate,diploma or degree issued in
the Contracting State concerned.Such recognition does not exempt the holder of
the foreign certificate,diploma or degree from complying with the conditions
(otherthan those relating to the holding of a diploma) which may be required for
admission to the higher educational or research institution concerned of the
receiving State.
Recognition of a foreign certificate,diploma or degree with a view to the practice
of a profession is recognition of the professional preparation of the holder for the
practice of the profession concerned,without prejudice,however,to the legal and
professional rules or procedures in force in the Contracting States Concerned.
Such recognitiondoes not exempt the holder of the foreign certificate,diploma or
degree from complying with any other conditions for the practice of the
profession concerned which m a y be laid down by the competentgovernmental or
professional authorities.
Recognition of a certificate,diploma or degree should not, however, entitle the
holder to more rights in another Contracting State than he would enjoy in the
country in which the certificate,diploma or degree was awarded.
(2) For the purposes of this Convention, ‘partialstudies’means periods of study or training
which while not constituting a complete course are such that they add significantlyto the
acquisition of knowledge or skills.

II. Aims
Article 2

(1) The Contracting States intend to contribute through their joint action both to the
promotion of the active co-operation of all the countries of the Europe Region in the
cause of peace and international understanding, and to the development of more
effective collaboration with other Member States of Unesco with regard to a better use of
their educational, technological and scientific potential.
(2) The Contracting States solemnly declare their firmresolve to co-operate closely within
the framework of their legislation and constitutional structures,as well as within the
framework of existing intergovernmental agreements, with a view to:
(a) Enabling, in the interest of the Contracting States, and consistent with their
general policy for educational provision and administrativeprocedures,the best
use of their available education and research resources,and for this purpose:
APPENDIX 2 365

(i) to make their higher educational institutions as widely accessible as

possible to students or researchers from any of the Contracting States;
(ii) to recognize the studies,certificates, diplomas and degrees of such
persons;
(iii) to examine the possibility of elaborating and adopting similar
terminology and evaluationcriteriawhich would facilitatethe application
of a system which will ensure the comparability of credits,subjects of
study and certificates,diplomas and degrees;
to adopt a dynamic approach in matters of admission to furtherstages of
study,bearing in mind knowledge acquired,as attested by certificates,
diplomas and degrees, and also the individual’s other relevant
qualifications,so far as these may be deemed acceptable by competent
authorities;
to adopt flexiblecriteria for the evaluation of partial studies,based on the
educational level reached and on the contentofthe coursestaken,bearing
in mind the interdisciplinary character of knowledge at the higher
educational level;
to improve the system for the exchange of information regarding the
recognition of studies,certificates,diplomas and degrees;
(b) Constantly improving curricula in the Contracting States and methods of
planning and promoting higher education, on the basis of not only the
requirementsfor economic,socialand culturaldevelopment,the policiesofeach
country and also the objectives that are set out in the recommendationsmade by
the competent organs of the United Nations Educational,Scientificand Cultural
Organization concerning the continuous improvement of the quality of
education,the promotion of lifelong education and the democratization of
education,but also the aims ofthe fulldevelopmentofthe human personalityand
of understanding.tolerance and friendshipamong nationsand in general all aims
concerning human rights assigned to education by the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and the United Nations International Covenants on Human
Rights and the Unesco Convention Against Discrimination in Education.
(c) Promoting regional and world-wide co-operation for the solution of the
‘problems of comparison and equivalence between academic degrees and
diplomas’... as well as for recognition of studies and academic diplomas.
(3) The Contracting States agree to take all feasible steps at the national,bilateral and
multilateral levels, in particular by means of bilateral,subregional,regional or other
agreements,arrangements between universitiesor other higher educational institutions
and arrangementswith the competent national or internationalorganizationsand other
bodies,with a view to the progressiveattainmentby the competentauthoritiesconcerned
of the goals defined in the present article.

III. Undertakings for Immediate Application

Article 3

(1) The Contracting States in addition to any obligationsof governments,agree to take all
feasible steps with a view to encouraging the competentauthorities concerned to give
recognition,as defined in Article 1, paragraph 1 to secondary school leavingcertificates
and other diplomas issued in the other Contracting States that grant access to higher
education with a view to enabling the holders to undertake studies in institutions of
higher education situated in the respective territories of the Contracting States.
(2) Withoutprejudice to the provisionsof Article 1, paragraph l(a), however,admission to a
 APPENDIX 2
given higher educational institution m a y also be dependent upon the availability of
places and the qualifications concerning linguistic knowledge required in order
profitably to undertake the studies in question.

Article 4

(1) T h e Contracting States,in addition to any obligations of governments,agree to take all

feasible steps with a view to encouraging the competent authorities concerned to:
(a) give recognitionas defined in Article 1, paragraph 1 to certificates,diplomas and
degrees with a view to enabling the holders to pursue advanced studies and
training and undertake research in their institutions of higher education;
(b) define, so far as possible, the procedure applicable to the recognition, for the
purpose of the pursuit of studies, of the partial studies pursued in higher
educational institutions situated in the other Contracting States.
(2) The provisions of Article 3, paragraph 2 above shall apply to the cases covered by this
article.

Ariicle 5
T h e Contracting States, in addition to any obligations of governments, agree to take all
feasible steps with a view to encouraging the competent authorities concerned to give
recognition to the certificates,diplornas or degrees issued by the competent authorities of the
other Contracting States for the purpose of practising a profession within the meaning of
Article 1, paragraph l(b).

Article 6
Where admission to educational institutionsin the territory of a Contracting State is outside
the control of that State, it shall transmit the text of the Convention to the institutions
concerned and use its best endeavours to obtain the acceptance by the latter of the principles
stated in Sections II and III of the Convention.

Article 7

Considering that recognition refers to the studies followed and the certificates,diplomas
or degrees obtained from institutionsapproved by the competent authorities concerned
in the Contracting State in which the certificates,diplomas, or degrees were obtained,
any person, of whatever nationality or political or legal status, w h o has followed such
studies and obtained such certificates, diplomas or degrees shall be eligible for
consideration to benefit from the provisions of Articles 3, 4 and 5.
Any national of a Contracting State w h o has obtained in the territory of a non-
Contracting State one or more certificates,diplomas or degrees comparable to those
defined in Articles 3,4 and 5 m a y avail himself ofthose provisions which are applicable,
on condition that his certificates,diplomas or degrees have been recognized in his home
country and in the country in which he wishes to continue his studies.

Machinery for Implementation

Article 8
T h e Contracting States shall undertake to work for the attainment of the objectives defined in
Article 2 and shall make their best efforts to ensure that the undertakingsset forth in Articles
3, 4,5 and 6 above are put into effect by means of:

(a) national bodies;

APPENDIX 2 367

(b) the Regional Committee defined in Article 10;

(c) bilateral or subregional bodies.

Article 9

The Contracting States recognize that the attainment of the goals and the execution of
the undertakingsdefined in this Convention will require,at the national level,close co-
operation and co-ordinationof the efforts of a great variety of national authorities,
whether governmentalor non-governmental,particularly universities,validating bodies
and other educational institutions.They therefore agree to entrust the study of the
problems involved in the applicationof this Convention to appropriatenational bodies,
with which all the sectorsconcerned will be associated and which will be empowered to
propose appropriatesolutions.The Contracting States will furthermoretake allfeasible
measures required to speed up the effective functioning of these national bodies.
The Contracting States shall co-operate with the competent authorities of another
Contracting State especiallyby enabling them to collectall informationofuseto them in
their activities relating to studies,diplomas and degrees in higher education.
Every national body shall have at its disposal the necessary means to enable it either to
collect,process and file all information of use to it in its activities relating to studies,
diplomasand degrees in higher education,or to obtain the information it requires in this
connection at short notice from a separate national documentationcentre.

Article 10

A regional committee composed of representatives of the governments of the

ContractingStatesis hereby set up.Its Secretariatis entrusted to the Director-Generalof
the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Non-ContractingStates ofthe Europe Region which have been invited to take part in the
diplomatic conference entrusted with the adoption of this Convention shall be able to
participate in the meetings of the Regional Committee.
The function of the Regional Committee shall be to promote the application of this
Convention. It shall receive and examine the periodic reports which the Contracting
States shall communicate to it on the progress made and the obstacles encountered by
them in the application of the Convention and also the studies carried out by its
Secretariat on the said Convention.The ContractingStatesundertaketo submita report
to the Committee at least once every two years.
The Regional Committee shall,where appropriate,address to the Contracting States
recommendationsof a general or individualcharacterconcerningthe applicationofthis
Convention.

Article II

(1) The Regional Committee shallelect its Chairman for each sessionand adopt its Rules of
Procedure.It shallmeet in ordinary sessionat leastevery two years.The Committeeshall
meet for the first time three months afterthe sixth instrumentof ratification or accession
has been deposited.
(2) The Secretariatof the Regional Committee shall prepare the agenda for the meetings of
the Committee,in accordance with the instructions it receivesfrom the Committeeand
the provisions of the Rules of Procedure.It shall help national bodies to obtain the
information needed by them in their activities.
368 APPENDIX 2

V. Documentation
Article I2

(I) The Contracting States shall engage in exchanges of information and documentation
pertaining to studies, certificates,diplomas and degrees in higher education.
(2) They shall endeavour to promote the development of methods and machinery for
collecting, processing, classifying and disseminating all the necessary information
pertaining to the recognition of studies, certificates, diplomas and degrees in higher
education,taking into account existing methods and machinery as well as information
collected by national, regional, subregional and international bodies,in particular the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

VI. Co-operation with International Organizations

Article 13
The Regional Committee shall make all the appropriate arrangements for associating with its
efforts, for the purpose of ensuring that this Convention is applied as fully as possible, the
competent international governmental and non-governmental organizations. This applies
particularly to the intergovernmental institutionsand agencies vested with responsibility for
the application of subregional conventions or agreements concerning the recognition of
diplomas and degrees in the States belonging to the Europe Region.

VIL Institutions of Higher Education under the Authority of a Contracting State but Situated
outside its Territory
Article 14
The provisions of this Convention shall apply to studies pursued at, and to certificates,
diplomas and degrees obtained from,any institution of higher education under the authority
of a Contracting State,even when this institutionis situated outside its territory,provided that
the competentauthorities in the Contracting State in which the institutionis situated have no
objections.

VIII. Ratification, Accession and Entry into Force

Article I5
This Convention shall be open for signature and ratification by the States of the Europe
Region which have been invited to take part in the diplomatic conference entrusted with the
adoption of this Convention as well as by the Holy See.
Article 16

(1) Other States which are members of the United Nations, of one of the Specialized
Agencies or of the International Atomic Energy Agency or which are Parties to the
Statute of the International Court of Justice m a y be authorized to accede to this
Convention.
(2) Any request to this effect shall be communicated to the Director-General of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization who shall transmit it to the
Contracting States at least three months before the meeting of the ad hoc committee
referred to in paragraph 3 of this article.
(3) The Contracting States shall meet as anadhoc committee comprisingone representative
for each Contracting State, with an express mandate from his government to consider
such a request. In such cases, the decision of the committee shall require a two-thirds
majority of the Contracting States.
(4) This procedure shall apply only when the Convention has been ratified by at least U)of
the States referred to in Article 15.
APPENEIX 2 369

Article 17
Ratification of this Convention or accession to it shallbe effected by depositing an instrument
of ratification or accession with the Director-Generalof the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Article 18
This Convention shall enter into force one month after the fifth instrumentofratification has
been deposited,but solely with respect to the States which have deposited their instrumentsof
ratification. It shall enter into force for each other State one month after that State has
deposited its instrument of ratification or accession.

Article 19

(I) The Contracting Stater shall have the right to denounce this Convention.
(2) The denunciation shall be signified by an instrument in writing deposited with the
Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization.
(3) The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the instrument of denunciation
has been received. However. persons having benefited from the provisions of this
Convention who may be pursuing studies in the territory of the State denouncing the
Convention will be able to complete the course of studies they have begun.

Article 20
The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization shall inform the Contracting States and the other States mentioned in Articles
15 and 16 and also the United Nations of the deposit of all the instrumentsof ratificationor
accession referred to in Article 17 and the denunciations provided for in Article 19 of this
Convention.

Article 21
In conformity with Article 102 of the United Nations Charter,this Convention shall be
registered with the Secretariatof the United Nations at the request of the Director-Generalof
the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned representatives,being duly authorized,have

signed this Convention.

Done at Paris,this 21st day of December 1979, in the English,French,Russian and Spanish
languages,the four texts being equally authoritative,in a singlecopy which shallbe deposited
in the archives of the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.A
certified copy shall be sent to all the States referred to in Articles 15 and 16 and to the United
Nations.