1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer to the
study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the
Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other earth sciences,
including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major aspect of
integrated earth system science and planetary science.

Geology describes the structure of the Earth beneath its surface, and the processes that
have shaped that structure. It also provides tools to determine the relative and absolute ages of
rocks found in a given location, and also to describe the histories of those rocks. By combining
these tools, geologists are able to chronicle the geological history of the Earth as a whole, and
also to demonstrate the age of the Earth. Geology provides the primary evidence for plate
tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and the Earth's past climates.

In science study, engineering geology is the application of geological principle in civil

engineering (and as a subdivision of the mining engineering). Engineering geology in practice
are responsible in civil engineering project that involve the earth or other materials which
include. The identification and evaluation of the physical environment of the side and the
analysis of the impact of the geology processes on the proposed project. As a result, it is
important to the civil engineers to understand about history, nature and the variety behaviour
of the soil and rock.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To plot ground profile and rock formations from geological map – inclined beddings.
3.0 THEORY

A geological map is one which shows in the first place, the occurrence and distribution of the
rocks at the surface of the ground. Conventional sign may show certain facts of observation
about them. The geological map allows the geological structure of the country to be inferred.

Beds of rocks are bounded by bedding surfaces, which may be horizontal, tilted or bent in any
form or direction. A series of beds which have been laid down regularly one on the other, and
which may be treated as a whole, form a conformable series. It follows that the lower beds are
the older. In such a series of bedding surfaces are parallel. Each bedding surface is usually
common to two beds of rock, being the top of one and the bottom of the one next above. In the
simplest case, these surfaces are planes: bedding planes.
4.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL

1. Geological map

2. Graph paper/drawing paper

3. Ruler

4. Pencil
5. Colour Pensil
 5.0 PROCEDURE

a) The cross-section was plotted with the horizontal and vertical scales accordingly
to the scale of the geological map on a piece of graph paper or blank sheet. The
vertical scale is normally exaggerated to improve visibility of the profile.
b) A line was draw to join the line of cross-section on the map, says A - B.
c) A blank piece of paper was used, the points of intersection was marked
accordingly between the lines with the contours respective to its heights.
d) The points was transferred to the cross-section profile respective to the heights of
the contours.
e) The points was jointed to form the profile of the ground elevation.

6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

By referring to Map 7,

- Highlights the rock boundary to focus for determination of strike line.

- Select two pints within the marked boundary of similar heights.

- Draw the line between the two points to indicate the first strike line. Its value
corresponding to two value of the contour.

- Select another point (of ascending @ descending contour value).

- Draw a line that touches the parallel the select point to the first strike line.

- Measure the distance (say, d1) cut at right angles to the parallel lines.

- Determine the angle of dip of the fold.

- Similarly, repeat similar procedure to the other wings of the fold.

- Identify the thickness of the outcrop.

7.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

The term fold is used in geology when one or a stack of originally flat and planar
surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of plastic
deformation. Sedimentary folds are those due to slumping of sedimentary material
before it is lithified. Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain
sized folds. They occur singly as isolated folds and in extensive fold trains of different
sizes, on a variety of scales.

Folds form under varied conditions of stress, hydrostatic pressure, pore

pressure, and temperature - hydrothermal gradient, as evidenced by their presence in
soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow
structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale
constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones.

Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be
formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of
a propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by differential compaction or due to the
effects of a high-level igneous intrusion.
 Monocline
A monocline is a step-like fold in rock strata consisting of a zone of steeper dip
within an otherwise horizontal or gently-dipping sequence. Monoclines may be formed
in several different ways:

i. By differential compaction over an underlying structure, particularly a large fault at the

edge of a basin due to the greater compatibility of the basin fill, the amplitude of the
fold will die out gradually upwards.
ii. By mild reactivation of an earlier extensional fault during a phase of inversion causing
folding in the overlying sequence.
iii. As a form of fault propagation fold during upward propagation of an extensional fault
in basement into an overlying cover sequence.
iv. As a form of fault propagation fold during upward propagation of a reverse fault in
basement into an overlying cover sequence.
 Anticline
In structural geology, an anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest
beds at its core. The term is not to be confused with antiform, which is a purely
descriptive term for any fold that is convex up. Therefore if age relationships between
various strata are unknown, the term antiform must be used.

On a geologic map, anticlines are usually recognized by a sequence of rock

layers that are progressively older toward the center of the fold because the uplifted
core of the fold is preferentially eroded to a deeper stratigraphic level relative to the
topographically lower flanks. The strata dip away from the center, or crest, of the fold.
If an anticline plunges, the surface strata will form Vs that point in the direction of
plunge. Anticlines are typically flanked by synclines although faulting can complicate
and obscure the relationship between the two. Folds typically form during crustal
deformation as the result of compression that accompanies orogenic mountain building.
 Syncline
In structural geology, a syncline is a fold, with younger layers closer to the
center of the structure. A synclinorium is a large syncline with superimposed smaller
folds. Synclines are typically a downward fold, termed a synformal syncline (ie. a
trough); but synclines that point upwards can be found when strata have been
overturned and folded (an antiformal syncline).

On a geologic map, synclines are recognized by a sequence of rock layers that

grow progressively younger, followed by the youngest layer at the fold's center or
hinge, and by a reverse sequence of the same rock layers on the opposite side of the
hinge. If the fold pattern is circular or elongate circular the structure is a basin. A notable
syncline is Wyoming's Powder River Basin. Folds typically form during crustal
deformation as the result of compression that accompanies orogenic mountain building.

Dome
In structural geology, a dome is a deformational feature consisting of
symmetrically-dipping anticlines; their general outline on a geologic map is circular or
oval. The strata in a dome are upwarped in the center; if the top of a dome is eroded off,
the result will be a series of concentric strata that grow progressively older from the
outside-in, with the oldest rocks exposed at the center.

Many geologic domes are too large to be appreciated from the surface, and are
apparent only in maps. Well-known regional structural domes include the Llano Uplift
and the Ozark Dome. Localized domes may be formed when magma forms a shallow
intrusion warping the overlying strata. Salt domes are formed above a diapiric intrusion
of low density evaporite rocks.
 Basin
A structural basin is a large-scale structural formation of rock strata formed by
tectonic warping of previously flat lying strata. Structural basins are geological
depressions, and are the inverse of domes. Some elongated structural basins are also
known as synclines. Structural basins may also be sedimentary basins, which are
aggregations of sediment that filled up a depression or accumulated in an area; however,
many structural basins were formed by tectonic events long after the sedimentary layers
were deposited.

Basins appear on a geologic map as roughly circular or elliptical, with

concentric layers. Because the strata dip toward the center, the exposed strata in a basin
are progressively younger from outside-in, with the youngest rocks in the center. Basins
are often large in areal extent, often hundreds of kilometers across. Structural basins are
often important sources of coal, petroleum, and groundwater.
9.0 CONCLUSION

Base on the map sketch, we can see every layer of rock effect from folding. We
must follow step by step every each procedure to sketch true line of fold. Folds are a
bend of flexure in layered rocks. It is the most common kind of deformation in layered
rocks usually well collusion of developed in great mountain systems due to collusions
of tectonic plates.

Geological maps graphically communicate vast amounts of geologic

information. A geological map represents the projection on a flat piece of paper of the
intersection between geological 3D features with the surface topography with added
benefit of depicting the relative age, composition and relationships among rocks and
sediments at and near the earth’s surface.

Therefore, based on the ground profile and rock formations, there is occurring
of inclined bedding which bent in any from and direction. The bedding of shale forming
a shape seems like a cane. On the shale, there is bedding of sandstone (represented by
yellow colour). Sandstone is the youngest among three of these rocks. Clay stone is the
oldest among the rocks because it is located and covering the lowest area or position of
the contour.