small fittings, and nonpressure components to a shell, must conform to

ASME Code requirements. Details that are used for the primary
circumferential and longitudinal welds were discussed earlier in
conjunction with weld joint categories.
The ASME Code specifies weld detail requirements for vessel fabrication
(e.g., type and size of weld, weld locations, etc.). It also specifies welder
and welding procedure qualification requirements. The paragraphs that
follow highlight several of the ASME Code requirements. Refer to the
ASME Code for further information related to these and other weld details.
1.0 Thickness Transitions
The thickness of a pressure vessel head sometimes differs from the
thickness of the shell it is attached to (e.g., when a hemispherical
head is attached to a cylindrical shell). The transition between the
component thicknesses must be made in a taper to avoid excessive
local stress. Head-to-shell thickness transitions are illustrated in
Figure 6.1.
2.0 Intermediate Heads
An intermediate head is attached to the inside of a cylindrical shell
when it is needed to separate two sections of the vessel. The butt
weld between shell sections also attaches to the head, and a fillet
weld is also located between the head and shell. The ASME Code
permits elimination of the fillet weld if there is no access and if the
service is noncorrosive. However, the fillet weld should generally be
used for all refinery applications to avoid the potential for
accelerated corrosion due to process fluid getting between the head
and shell. The attachment of an intermediate head to a cylindrical
shell is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
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Typical Head-to-Shell Transitions
Figure 6.1
3.0 Openings
Fabrication details for various types of openings are specified.
These include unreinforced nozzles (e.g., a nozzle neck welded
directly to the vessel shell or head), a nozzle with a reinforcing pad
added, and a self-reinforced nozzle (i.e., where extra thickness is
145
provided in the nozzle neck to provide the necessary reinforcement).
These were illustrated in Figure 4.15.
In some cases, a nozzle neck that has a weld-end may be attached
to a pipe that is thinner. This attachment between components of
different thicknesses could occur if extra thickness was included in
the nozzle neck for reinforcement or if the pipe and nozzle materials
and/or allowable stresses differ. In such cases, the nozzle neck
must be tapered to the pipe thickness. Tapers are also used to join
shell sections that are of different thicknesses. Shell thickness and
nozzle thickness tapers are illustrated in Figures 6.2 and 6.3,
respectively.
Typical Shell Transitions
Figure 6.2
Nozzle Neck Attachment to Thinner Pipe
Figure 6.3
4.0 Stiffener Rings
Stiffener rings may be attached to the vessel shell by continuous,
intermittent, or a combination of continuous and intermittent welds.
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Intermittent welds must be placed on both sides of the stiffener and
may be either staggered or in-line. The ASME Code specifies
acceptable spacing, size, and length of the welds. Stiffener ring
attachment weld options are illustrated in Figure 6.4.
Stiffener Ring Attachment
Figure 6.4
B. Postweld Heat Treatment Requirements
Welding heat changes the crystal structure and grain size of the weld heat
affected zone (HAZ). Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) may be necessary
to restore the material structure to the required properties. The need for
PWHT for these metallurgical reasons depends on the materials involved
and the service conditions that they are exposed to. PWHT requirements
for these metallurgical or process reasons are not included in the ASME
Code. They must be specified by the user based on the service and
materials involved.
As the weld metal and HAZ cool from the very high welding temperatures,
the thermal contraction that occurs in the locally heated area is resisted by
the cooler base metal that surrounds it. This resistance results in residual
stresses that remain in the structure. For thicker plates, these residual
stresses must be removed by PWHT. PWHT requirements based on
stress relief considerations are contained in the ASME Code, Section VIII.
147
The ASME Code contains the temperature and hold time requirements
when PWHT is needed for stress relief considerations. These ASME
Code PWHT requirements are based on material type and thickness, as
specified in Paragraph UCS-56 for carbon and low-alloy steels. The
ASME Code specifies the minimum PWHT temperature and the minimum
holding time at temperature based on the material P-No. and thickness.
Acceptable PWHT procedures are also specified to ensure that adequate
stress relief will occur. Heatup and cooldown rates must be controlled
within specified limits in order to avoid excessive local thermal stresses
during PWHT.
148
VII. Inspection and Testing
A. Inspection
Overall inspection of completed pressure vessels includes an examination
of the following:
## Base material specification and quality
## Welds
## Dimensional requirements
## Equipment documentation
The most common defects for which welds are examined are as follows:
## Poor weld shape due to part misalignment.
## Cracks in welds or HAZ of the base metal.
## Pinholes on the weld surface.
## Slag inclusions or porosity in the form of voids.
## Incomplete fusion between weld beads or between the weld and the
base metal.
## Lack of penetration or an insufficient extent of penetration of the weld
metal into the joints.
## Undercut, an intermittent or continuous groove that is located adjacent
to the weld and that is left unfilled by weld metal.
Several of these common weld defects are illustrated in Figure 7.1.
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Typical Weld Defects
Figure 7.1
The presence of defects reduces the strength of the weld below that
required by the design calculations, reduces the overall strength of the
fabrication, and increases the risk of failure. Weld inspection must be
performed in a manner that will detect unacceptable defects while not
damaging the vessel material. This type of inspection is called
nondestructive examination, or NDE.
The five primary weld NDE methods are as follows:
## Radiographic examination (RT)
## Visual Inspection (VT)
## Liquid penetrant examination (PT)
## Magnetic particle test (MT)
150
## Ultrasonic examination (UT)
The choice of which weld examination method or methods to use depends
on the weld quality required of the joint, the position of the weld, the
material to be joined, and the particular defects that are most likely to
occur. These weld NDE methods are briefly discussed in the paragraphs
that follow. Figure 7.2 summarizes the types of NDE, the defects typically
found by each, and the advantages and limitations of each process.
NDE TYPE DEFECTS
DETECTED
ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
Radiographic Gas pockets, slag
inclusions, incomplete
penetration, cracks
Produces permanent
record.
Detects small flaws.
Most effective for buttwelded
joints.
Expensive.
Not practical for
complex shapes.
Visual Porosity holes, slag
inclusions, weld
undercuts,
overlapping
Helps pinpoint areas
for additional NDE.
Can only detect what
is clearly visible.
Liquid Penetrant Weld surface-type
defects: cracks,
seams, porosity, folds,
pits, inclusions,
shrinkage
Used for ferrous and
nonferrous materials.
Simple and less
expensive than RT,
MT, or UT.
Can only detect
surface imperfections.
Magnetic Particle Cracks, porosity, lack
of fusion
Flaws up to � in.
beneath surface can
be detected.
Cannot be used on
nonferrous materials.
Ultrasonic Subsurface flaws:
laminations, slag
inclusions
Can be used for thick
plates, welds,
castings, forgings.
May be used for
welds where RT not
practical.
Equipment must be
constantly calibrated.
Summary of NDE types
Figure 7.2