TRUE LOAD RECONSTRUCTION & LIFE PREDICTION: A VEHICLE

SUSPENSION APPLICATION

Ismael Alves Coutinho

Maxwell Soares Caiafa

ABSTRACT

Reliability is essential at commercial vehicles development: crucial for brand reputation and
to avoid financial losses due to inoperative machinery. Vehicle suspension purpose is
absorbing track roughness and ensure a comfortable and safe ride. The damper is an essential
component of this system and its support must withstand typical loads, especially impacts,
since the efforts are proportional to event velocity. Consistent load histories are decisive for a
satisfactory life prediction. The true loads calculation method adopted in this work blend
computational (FEA) with experimental tools. The instrumented component is transformed
into a load cell through strategic positioning of strain gauges. The approach allows
measurement of real application loads at specific durability missions, strictly related to
vehicle’s application. A controlled special track, named Pot Hole, was considered as
application example of the method. Rain flow, cycle counting, Palmgren-Miner linear
cumulative damage are used then to predict component’s durability life.

Keywords: Load reconstruction. Rain flow. Durability. FEA. Damper support.


Post graduate student in mechanical engineering - PUC-MG. CAE Engineer - CNHI: Iveco

CAE Engineer - CNHI: Iveco
1 INTRODUCTION

Vehicle suspension purpose is absorbing track roughness and ensure a comfortable

and safe ride. The damper is an essential component of this system and its support must
withstand typical loads, especially impacts, since the efforts are proportional to event velocity.
The aim of this work is:

a) measure damper loads at one particular mission, part of the validation plan of the
component, named: Pothole;
b) correlate strains from the virtual model with measured values;
c) predict component’s durability at the quoted mission.

The key aspect of approach considered in this paper is load reconstruction, that allows
stress/strain correlation crucial for durability prediction quality.
Pothole track is one mission among others presented at the mandatory validation plan
for great percentage of trucks’ components, including the damper support. It consists in a
controlled circuit, illustrated by Figure 01, composed by three different pavements: cobble
stones, body twist and chuckholes.

Figure 01 - Pothole mission: cobble stones, body twist and chuckholes

Source: Picture of durability track at Sete Lagoas factory

Product development engineering was coupled with experimental data and virtual
tools to compose three solid legs for robust design achievement.
2 METHODOLOGY

Reliable loads, relative to product’s application is decisive for durability life prediction.
Therefore, a key aspect of this work is to transform the evaluated component: damper support,
into a load cell. It was accomplished throughout strategically placement of 5 strain gauges
according with Dhingra (2003b) recommendations. The methodology is based on Hooke’s
law and elasticity theory. The process could be arranged in the following steps:

a) identify appropriate load cases according with component nominal operation. In the
specific case of the assessed damper support two loads conditions were considered:
vertical (Z axis direction) and longitudinal (X axis direction) forces, please refer to
Figure 02;
b) the expected strains at the part are determined aided by a Finite Elements Analysis
(FEA);
c) measure the real strains at the part during appropriate durability missions, according
with product vocation. Specifically for automotive industry, this is a strategical step
and must be aligned with market demand in order to develop a lean and robust product.
Highway, city and off road are general examples of completely different tracks, each
one with its own characteristic. The final validation mission can be composed by any
combination i.e. 10% highway + 50% city + 40% off road of the vehicle missions;
d) make the inverse path of step 2: from the measured strains, determine true loads
magnitude for each considered condition.

After follow all steps, the computed strain results are compared with the measured
values to assess reconstruction quality, Hunter (2003).
The instrument positions must be optimized, also aided by static loads/displacements
FE analysis, that allow the recognition of sensitive areas to each investigated load case.
The final stage is the fatigue calculation. From stress/strains time history, rainflow
technic, Matsuishi and Endo (1968), is used to transform the variable signal in cycles and
accumulate damage.
2.1 Vehicle Suspension And Damper Support

The rear primary suspension of a prototype is composed by parabolic leaf springs,

anchored by two supports, and one telescopic damper according to Figure 02.

Figure 02 - Damper support and curb operational position

Source: Virtual CAD mockup of the vehicle

The forces produced by the damper of course related to vehicle’s travel mission profile
and are proportional to its piston velocity and direction according to bounce or rebound
movement.
The damper support was originally designed with four seam welds which areas of
particular interest, since it is a potential failure area depending on weld repeatability and
quality. The seam welds are presented at Figure 03.

Figure 03 - Damper support seam welds

Source: Technical specification of the component

2.2 Fatigue Theory & Calculation

Fatigue is a localized damage process of a component produced by cyclic loading. It is

the result of the cumulative process consisting of crack initiation, propagation, and final
fracture of a component. During cyclic loading, localized plastic deformation may occur at the
highest stress site. This plastic deformation induces permanent damage to the component and
a crack develops.
In general, it has been observed that the fatigue process involves the following stages:

a) crack nucleation;
b) short crack growth;
c) long crack growth; and
d) final fracture.

Cracks start on the localized shear plane at or near high stress concentrations, such as
persistent slip bands, inclusions, porosity, or discontinuities. The localized shear plane usually
occurs at the surface or within grain boundaries. This step, crack nucleation, is the first step in
the fatigue process. Once nucleation occurs and cyclic loading continues, the crack tends to
grow along the plane of maximum shear stress and through the grain boundary.
The crack growth refers to long crack propagation normal to the principal tensile stress
plane globally and in the maximum shear stress direction locally. In this stage, the
characteristics of the long crack are less affected by the properties of the microstructure than
the Stage I crack. This is because the crack tip plastic zone for Stage II crack is much larger
than the material microstructure.
Once a crack has formed or complete failure has occurred, the surface of a fatigue
failure can be inspected. A bending or axial fatigue failure generally leaves behind clamshell
or beach markings. The name for these markings comes from the appearance of the surface.
An illustration of these markings is shown in Figure 04.
 Figure 04 - Fatigue process and beach marks at the seam weld root of the failed part

Source: Lee, et. al. (2005)

According to Lee, et. al. (2005), there are three commonly used methods: the stress-
life (S-N) method, the strain-life (ε-N) method, and the linear elastic fracture mechanics
(LEFM). For seam welds the implemented algorithm adopts only S-N method. For all other
areas (ε-N) approach was the chose one due to its enhanced precision.

2.2.1 Cycle Counting & Rainflow

The fatigue damage theories indicate, Lee, et. al. (2005) that fatigue damage is
strongly associated with the cycle ratio, 𝑛𝑖 /𝑁𝑖,𝑓 , where 𝑛𝑖 and 𝑁𝑖,𝑓 are, respectively, the
number of applied stress and/or strain cycles and the fatigue life at a combination of stress
and/or strain amplitude and mean stress levels. The fatigue life, 𝑁𝑖,𝑓 , can be obtained from
baseline fatigue data generated from constant-amplitude loading tests.
Cycles can be counted using time histories of the loading parameter of interest. In
Figure 5, one complete stress cycle in a time domain is related to a closed hysteresis loop in
the local stress–strain coordinate and consists of two reversals. The reversal can be described
as the event of unloading or loading.
According to Lee, et. al. (2005), one-parameter cycle counting methods such as level
crossing, peak-valley, and range counting, are unsatisfactory for the purpose of describing a
loading cycle and fail to link the loading cycles to the local stress–strain hysteresis behavior
that is known to have a strong influence on fatigue failure.
Two-parameter cycle counting methods, such as the rainflow cycle counting method,
can, however, faithfully represent variable-amplitude cyclic loading. Dowling (1979) states
that the rainflow counting method is generally regarded as the method leading to better
predictions of fatigue life.
Three-point cycle counting method: it is a variation form rainflow counting method,
originally develop by Matsuishi and Endo (1968).

Figure 5 - a) Definition of cycles b) Three point rules for rainflow cycle counting

Source: Lee, et. al. (2005)

As per the SAE standards, the three-point cycle counting method requires that the
stress time history be rearranged so that it contains only the peaks and valleys and it starts
with either the highest peak or the lowest valley, whichever is greater in absolute magnitude.
Then, the cycle identification rule is applied to check every three consecutive points from the
beginning until a closed loop is defined. The two points forming the cycle are discarded and
the remaining points are connected to each other. This procedure is repeated from the
beginning until the remaining

2.3 Loads Reconstruction

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is widely used in the design of product. While the
Finite Element Analysis methodology has become much more sophisticated in recent years
giving analysts greater fidelity in their models in terms of geometric representation, the
analyst still needs to provide the model with loading information.
This task was accomplished throughout load reconstruction method presented by
Hunter (2003). It transforms the component into a load cell, allowing mission related efforts
measurements. It requires strain gauge sensors precise placement and algebra calculations to
determine the wanted loads.
 The applicability of the approach outlined by Dhingra and Hunter (2003a; 2003b)
requires the structure to behave linearly under the event of interest. The structure may behave
non-linearly prior to or after the event of interest. However, during the interested event, the
strain response must be proportional to the applied load.
The controlled strain points are presented at Figure 6.

Figure 6 - Instrument points position at the developed damper support

Source: Picture of the instrumented component

3 DURABILITY RESULTS

The results are presented in terms of failure probability risk assuming a Gaussian
distribution of material mechanical properties. Figure 7 summarizes the durability results at
Potholes track.

Figure 7 - Durability results

Failure Probability
Part Mission
Risk [%]
Damper support Pot Hole 97.8

Source: Wikimedia Commons - Standard deviation diagram, based an original graph by Jeremy Kemp
(2005)
 Failure probability risk at Pot Hole mission of 97.8% is based on to extremely severe
application combined with a low material mechanical property of the component.
The critical areas of damper support coincide with seam weld and are presented at
Figure 8.

Figure 8 - Damper support failure risk areas around seam welds

Source: Altair Hyperview image produced by the author

It is worth noting the wide variability of life related to seam weld quality. If an
exceptional weld, with quality significantly greater than the average, is considered, it is
expected a life 170 times greater than a poor quality welding process. It is where lies the
importance of an automated welding process, assuring repeatability and a narrow life
variation around satisfactory union quality.

3.1 Correlation

The Figure 9 presents the correlation between measured strains and calculated results.
 Figure 9 - Correlation between virtual and measured strains at IVECO’s Pothole
durability mission

Source: Altair Hypergraph image produced by the author

The comparison proves that load reconstruction technic is truly able to measure real
loads and can be applied in any structures that operate linearly in nominal operation,
becoming its own load transducer through proper management of FEA data and strain data
collection.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Load reconstruction is a powerful tool to determine usual operational conditions of a

component under development with fidelity to assure a lean and robust concept. The virtual
model predicted time histories strains are well correlated with measured value. Since
durability life is logarithmic related to stress/strains, this fidelity is crucial for reliable CAE
results.
After the measurements, a valuable data base can be constructed allowing consistent
standards and specifications composing in order to investigate future design modifications
due to any reasons, for instance but not only: fulfill manufacturing process requirements for
optimization or material replacement due to commercial market limitations or cost reduction
opportunities without any structural resistance loss.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge CNHI: IVECO LatAm, Puc Minas and
CAPES for continually support research crucial for country technological development and
for this work achievements.
This paper is entirely dedicated to Verli Alves Coutinho, who transmitted the passion
for science and enlightened the knowledge importance to her children.
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