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Units=
Absolute Units
An absolute system of units is defined as a system in which the various units are all
expressed in terms of a small number of fundamental units.
The fundamental units in mechanics are measures of length, mass and time. The
sizes of fundamental units, whether centimeter or meter or foot, gram, or kilogram
or pound, second or hour are quite arbitrary and can be selected to fit a certain set
of circumstances. Since length, mass and time are fundamental to most other
physical quantities besides those in mechanics; they are called the Primary
fundamental units.
The volume V of a room is equal to the product of its length (l), width (b), and
height (h) therefore
V=lbh
If meter is chosen as the the unit of length, then the volume of a room
6m X 4m X 5m is 120 m3. The number of measures (6 X 4 X 5 =120) as well as units
(m x m x m = m3) are multiplied. The derived unit for volume is thus m3.
Supplementary Units
S. No Name Unit
1 Area m2
2 Volume m3
3 Density kg/m3
4 Angular velocity rad/sec
5 Angular acceleration rad/sec2
6 Pressure, Stress kg/m2
7 Energy Joule(Nm)
8 Charge Coulomb
9 Electric Field Strength V/m
10 Capacitance (ASec/V)
11 Frequency Hz
12 Velocity m/sec
13 Acceleration m/sec2
14 Force Kg-m(N)
15 Power Watt
(J/sec)
16 EMF Volt (W/A)
Dimensions
Area A = l x b
Since l and b each have the dimensions of a length, [L], the dimensions of area is
If meter (m) is unit of length, then meter square (m2) can be used as unit of area.
In mechanics has the three fundamental units are length, mass and time. The
dimensional symbols are length [L], Mass [M], time [T]
Conversions
A Few Standard Conversions
The classification of standards is based on the function and the application of the
standards.
Primary standards are absolute standards of such high accuracy that they
can be used as the ultimate reference standards. These standards are maintained
by national standards laboratories in different part of the world. The primary
standards, which represent the fundamental units and some of the derived
electrical and mechanical units, are independently calibrated by absolute
measurements at each of the national laboratories.
The secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in industrial
measurement laboratories. The responsibility of maintenance and calibration of
these standards lies with the particular industry involved. These standards are
checked locally against reference standards available in the area. Secondary
standards are normally sent periodically to the national standards laboratories for
calibration and comparison against primary standards.
Measurements
Methods of Measurement
Instrument
Classification of Instruments
There are many way in which instruments can be classified. Broadly, instruments
are classified into two categories.
These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can
only be measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument. These
instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another
secondary instrument which has already been calibrated against an absolute
instrument. A voltmeter, a glass thermometer, and a pressure gauge are typical
examples of secondary instruments.
Static Characteristics
Desirable Undesirable
Repeatability
Dynamic Characteristics
Desirable Undesirable
Calibration
The various performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by
a process called “Calibration”.
Static Error: It is the difference between the measured value and true
value of the quantity
Mathematically
δA = Am − At ----------- eq (1.1)
δA: Absolute error or Static error
Where, Am: Measured value of the quantity
At : True value of the quantity
. Static Correction: It is the difference b/w the true value & measured
value of the quantity mathematically
δC=(−δA)=(At−Am)
Limiting error or Relative error:
(εr) = δA/At
εr=(Am − At)/At
Percentage relative error:
% εr = (δA/At) × 100
From relative percentage error, accuracy is expressed as
A = 1 − |εr|
Where A: relative accuracy
And a = A × 100%
Where a = Percentage accuracy
Error can also be expressed as percentage of Full Scale Deflection (FSD) as,
Am At
X 100
F .S .D
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
Absolute error δA = Am − At = 1.46 – 1.50 = − 0.04 V
Absolute correction δC = − δA = + 0.04 V
Relative error,εr= δA/At= (− 0.04 /1.50) ×100= −2.67 %
Relative error (expressed as a percentage of F.S.D.) = (− 0.04 / 2.5) ×100 =−1.60 %
Where F.S.D. is the Full Scale Deflection.
Example: A meter reads 127.50 V and the true value of the voltage is 127.43 V
Determine (a) The static error, (b) The static correction for this instrument
Solution:
From Eqn. 1.1, the error is
δA = Am − At= 127.50 – 127.43 = + 0.07 V
Static Correction δC = − δA = − 0.07 V
Example: A thermometer reads 95.45°C and the static correction given in the
correction curve is –0.08°C. Determine the true value of the temperature.
Solution:
True value of the temperature At= Am + δC = 95.45 – 0.08 = 95.37°C
3. Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity.
Note: This form of notation indicates the accuracy is expressed in terms of limits of
error.
So for the accuracy limits specified above, there will be ±0.05 units of error in
any measurement.
So for a reading of 50 units, there will be a error of ±0.05 units i.e., ±0.1%
while for a reading of 25 units, there will be a error of ±0.05 units and i.e.,
±0.2%.
Example: Accuracy can be specified as ±0.1% of true value. This indicates that as
readings gets smaller, error also gets reduced.
Accuracy as “Percentage of Scale Span”: For an instrument with a max , amin
representing full scale and lowest reading on scale, then (amax−amin) is called
span of the instrument (or) scale span.
Accuracy of an instrument can be specified as percent of such scale span.
Example:
For an instrument having scale span from 25 to 225 units, then accuracy can
be specified as ±0.2% of scale span i.e., ± [(225−25)× 0.2/100] which is ±0.4
units of error in every measurement.
Solution:
When the error is specified as a percentage of full scale deflection, the
magnitude of limiting error at full scale = ± 1/100 ×1000= ± 10 W
Thus the Wattmeter reading when the true reading is 100 W may be
100 ± 10 W i.e., between 90 to 110 W
Relative error = ± 10/100 ×100= ± 10%
(i). Conformity
Significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude and
measurement precision of the quantity.
Normally, large numbers with zeros are expressed in terms of powers of ten.
Example: Approximate population of a city is reported as 4,90,000 which actually
is to be read as the population lies between 4,80,000 to 5,00,000 but due to
misconception it can also be implied as population lies between 489,999 to 490,001.
∆qo
Output
∆qi
qo
Input qi
6. Hysteresis
Many times, for the increasing values of input an instrument may indicate
one set of output values, and for the decreasing values of input, the same
instrument may indicate it different set of output values. When these output values
are plotted against the input the following types of graphs are achieved. For the
increasing and the decreasing inputs, the output shows a maximum variations at
half of full scale, for this reason hysteresis error is specified at 50% of the full scale.
7. Threshold
The smallest change in the input that gives a perceivable change on the
output of an instrument is called the resolution.
In most of the instruments, when the input is increased from zero value there
is a small dead band or dead zone for which no perceivable output is indicated by
the instrument. Thus the smallest input that gives some perceivable output is the
threshold of the instrument. Then we can say the resolution is the smallest change
in input that can be measured and threshold is the smallest input that can be
measured. Then needless to say that the resolution has a meaning only after the
threshold input has been passed.
8. Repeatability
Repeatability is a measure of closeness with which a given input may be
measured over and over again.
Measurement of Errors
The measurement error is defined as the difference between the true or
actual value and measured value
The true value is the average of the finite number of measurement
Measured value is the precise value
1. Gross Errors
Gross errors may occur because of the human mistakes. For example consider
the person using the instruments takes the wrong reading, or they can record the
incorrect data. Such type of error comes under the gross error. The gross error can
only be avoided by taking the reading carefully
Two methods can remove the gross error. These methods are
The reading should be taken carefully.
Two or more reading should be taken of the measurement quantity. The
readings are taken by the different experimenter and at a different point
removing the error.
These type of errors include the loading effect and the misuse of the
instruments.
2. Systematic Error
The systematic errors are mainly classified into three categories
(i) Instrumental Errors (ii) Environmental Errors (iii) Observational Errors
(i)Instrumental Errors
These errors may be due to wrong construction, wrong calibration of
measuring instruments.
These types of error may arise due to friction or may be due to hysteresis.
(ii) Environmental Errors
These errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices.
External condition includes temperature, pressure, humidity or it may
include magnetic field
(iii) Observational Errors
Such types of errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading.
3. Random Errors
The error which is caused by the sudden change in the atmospheric condition,
such as type of error is called random error.