05BEEE - Unit-05 PDF

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MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SUB CODE & NAME: GE 6252 & BEEE
UNIT – 05
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Types of Signals: Analog and Digital Signals – Modulation and Demodulation: Principles of
Amplitude and Frequency Modulations. Communication Systems: Radio, TV, Fax, Microwave,
Satellite and Optical Fibre (Block Diagram Approach only).
PART – A
1. Define communication.
The term communication refers to the process of transfer of data/message from one place to
another.
2. Draw the basic block diagram of communication system.
3. What are the types of signals?

Signals are broadly classified into two types. They are,
 Analog signal
 Digital signal
4. Define analog signal.

State the characteristics of an analog signal with an example. May-2012
If the amplitude of an analog signal varies continuously with time, then it is called as analog
signal.
Eg. Voltage, current, output signal from a microphone, etc.
5. Define digital signal. Dec-2014

A signal defined at discrete instants of time is called a discrete time signal. Discrete time
signals are represented by sequence of samples. Each sample of this discrete time signal is quantized
and coded to give a digital signal.
GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

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6. Compare analog and digital signals. May-2014, Dec-2015, 2012, 2011, 2010
S.No Analog signals Digital signals

They are continuous signals in both
1 They are non-continuous signals
time and amplitude.
2 Small fluctuations are meaningful. Small fluctuations are not meaningful.
3 They are affected by noise. Less affected by noise.
4 They have infinite amplitude levels. They have only two amplitude levels.
7. Why are digital signals said to be noise immune? May-2013

When the digital signals propagate through the channel, it is not affected by the noise. Hence,
the digital signals are said to be noise immune.
8. What is meant by modulation and demodulation? Dec-2013

Modulation is the process of changing some parameter of a high frequency carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous variation of the message signal.
It is the reverse process to modulation done at the receiver side. Demodulation is the process
of recovering the baseband signal from the modulated wave.
9. What are the types of modulation?
10. What is the need for modulation?

Message signal or voice signals have low frequencies. Signal with low frequencies cannot
travel longer distance. To make message signals or voice signals travel longer distance we approach
a technique called modulation. Modulation is a process in which the characteristics like frequency,
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time, amplitude and phase of a carrier signal is changed according to message signal. In simple, we
mix the message signal with carrier signal.
11. Define amplitude modulation.

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the high frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. (ie) amplitude of the carrier wave
is changed but its frequency remains constant.
12. What is frequency modulation? May-2010

The instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied with the variations of the message signal
while the amplitude of the modulated carrier remains constant
13. Define modulation index. Dec-2014

Modulation index (ma) is defined as the ratio of modulating signal amplitude to carrier signal
amplitude. ma lies between 0 and 1.
14. As related to amplitude modulation, what is over modulation, under modulation and 100%
modulation? May-2013
If modulation index, ma < 1, it is under modulation
ma = 1, it is 100% modulation
ma > 1, it is over modulation
15. What are its advantages and disadvantages of FM as compared to amplitude modulation?
May-2010
Advantages of FM over AM:
1. In FM, amplitude of FM wave is independent of depth of modulation. In AM, amplitude of AM
wave depends on depth of modulation.
2. In FM, when modulation index increases, total transmitted power = constant, bandwidth increases.
In AM, when modulation index increases, total transmitted power increases.
3. FM is much more immune to noise than AM.
4. In FM, when frequency deviation increases, noise can be reduced. AM, does not have this any
frequency deviation.
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5. In FM, there is less adjacent channel interference compared to AM.
6. Since FM transmitter operates in upper VHF and UHF ranges, the space wave is used for
propagation so that the radius of reception is limited to Line of Sight. Thus it is possible to operate
several independent transmitters on the same frequency with less interference that would be possible
with AM.
Disadvantages of FM over AM:
1. FM requires much wider channel, nearly around 7 to 15 times as that required by AM.
2. FM transmitting and receiving equipments are complex and expensive.
3. Since reception is limited to line of sight, the area of reception for FM is smaller than for AM.
16. Why are AM systems preferred in broadcasting over FM systems? May-2014

AM systems preferred in broadcasting over FM systems due to the following advantages:
 Long distance communication
 Consumes less power
17. What is bandwidth for AM wave?

Bandwidth is the difference between highest and lowest frequencies in the transmission of
AM wave.
18. What are the different modes of propagation of radio waves?

 Ground wave
 Sky wave
 Space wave
19. What is the radio transmitter?

The transmitter is the electronic unit, that accepts the information signal to be transmitted and
converts it into an RF signal capable of being transmitted over long distances.
20. Write the characteristics of the radio receiver.

 Selectivity
 Sensitivity
 Fidelity
21. List the advantages of super heterodyne receiver.

 Improved selectivity
 Improved receiver stability
 Higher gain per stage
 Uniform bandwidth
22. What is meant by signal to noise ratio of a receiver?

It is the defined as the ratio of the signal to noise power at the receiver output.

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23. Sketch the block diagram of AM radio transmitter.
24. Draw the block diagram of FM radio transmitter.
25. Sketch the block diagram of super heterodyne AM receiver.
26. Sketch the block diagram of FM receiver. Dec-2014
27. What is interlaced scanning? May-2010

In interlaced scanning, the scanning process is divided into two stages called fields. Each field will
contain only half the total number of lines contained in one frame. The scanning beam which moves
down at double the rate now will scan only alternate lines.

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28. Draw the block diagram of microwave communication system.
29. List the various types of microwave antennas. May-2014

 Micro strip Patch Antennas
 Horn antennas
 Parabolic antenna
 Plasma antennas
 MIMO antennas
30. What are the applications of microwave communication? May-2015, Dec-2010

 Telephone networks
 TV broadcast
 Communication applications of railways etc.
31. What is the use of satellite? Dec-2014

State the functions of satellite transponder. Dec-2012
A satellite is a radio repeater, which receives the signal from the transmitting earth station, frequency
converts, amplifies and retransmits the signal towards the receiving station.
List the different sections of satellite system.

 Uplink
 Satellite transponder
 downlink
32. Give typical values of uplink frequency and downlink frequency in satellite
communication. May-2012
Typical frequencies used are 6/4 GHz and 14/12 GHz.
33. Draw the general structure of a satellite communication system. Dec-2011

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34. Draw the block diagram of optical fibre communication system. May-2015
35. What are the advantages of optical fibre communication? May-2014, Dec-2013
 Large bandwidth
 Fibres have small diameters, so they have small size and weight.
 Uses glass or plastic as fibres, hence provides good electrical isolation.
 Optical fibre is a dielectric waveguide, so it is free from electromagnetic and radio frequency
interference.
 High degree of signal security.
 Avoids cross talk.
 Optical fibres have high tensile strength, so they are flexible and compact.
 High tolerance to temperature, so have long life span.
36. Define total internal reflection. Dec-2015
If a light ray travelling in the core of higher refractive index is incident at the core-cladding
interface with an angle of incidence, with respect to normal, greater than critical angle, it will be
reflected back into originating dielectric medium. This phenomenon is known as total internal
reflection.

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PART – B
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
1. Explain the principle of communication system with the help of block diagram. Dec-2011
The basic function of a communication system is to communicate a message. The block

diagram of a communication system is as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Block diagram of communication system
Information source:
 Information to be transmitted is given by the information source.
 Mostly, information will be non-electrical in nature.
 Eg. Audio signal in speech transmission and picture signal in television transmission.
 This information is converted into corresponding electrical signal known as message signal
by using a transducer.
Transmitter:
 Use of transmitter is to transmit the available electrical signal to a form which can be
transmitted through the communication channel.
 Message signal (electrical signal) cannot be directly transmitted.
 Hence this message signal is superimposed on a high frequency carrier signal before
transmission. This process is known as modulation.
 After modulation, modulated carrier is amplified by using power amplifiers in transmitter
and fed to transmitting antenna.
Channel:
 Channel is a medium through which signal travels from transmitter to receiver.
 There are various types of channels, such as atmosphere for radio broadcasting, wires for line
telegraphy and telephony.
Noise source:
 When the signal propagates through the channel, it is attenuated by various mechanisms and
affected by noise from external source.
 Noise is an unwanted signal that interferes with reception of wanted signal.
 Careful design of communication system need to be adopted to reduce the effect of noise in
wanted signal.
Receiver:
 At the receiving end, a weak modulated carrier that is transmitted from the transmitter is
received.
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 The received signal power will be very small.
 So it is amplified to increase the power level.
 Demodulation is done to recover the original message signal from the modulated carrier.
 Recovered message signal is further amplified to drive the output transducer.
TYPES OF SIGNALS:
Signals are broadly classified into two types. They are,

 Analog signal
 Digital signal
Analog signal:
If the amplitude of an analog signal varies continuously with time, then it is called as analog
signal.
Eg. Voltage, current, output signal from a microphone, etc.
Fig. 2 Analog signal
Digital signal:
A signal defined at discrete instants of time is called a discrete time signal. Discrete time
signals are represented by sequence of samples. Each sample of this discrete time signal is quantized
and coded to give a digital signal.
Fig. 3 Digital signal
PRINCIPLES OF MODULATION:
2. Describe the principle of modulation and its needs. May-2014

What is meant by modulation and demodulation? May-2012
Modulation:
Modulation is the process of changing some parameter of a high frequency carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous variation of the message signal.

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The carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has a constant amplitude and frequency.
The function of a carrier signal is to carry the message signal. Message signals are low frequency
audio signals (200 Hz to20 kHz) which contain the information to be transmitted.
Low frequency message signals are not suited for long distance communication. Hence the
low frequency audio signals are modulated with a high frequency signal, so that it can be transmitted
over long distance.
Demodulation:
It is the reverse process to modulation done at the receiver side. Demodulation is the process
of recovering the baseband signal from the modulated wave.
Need for modulation:
3. What is the need for modulation? May-2013
Antenna dimension:
When free space is used as communication media, messages are transmitted and received
with the help of antennas. For effective transmission and reception, the dimension of the antenna
should in the order of quarter wavelength of the signal (λ/4) that is transmitted.
If an audio signal is directly transmitted, the required dimension of the antenna is large,
which is practically not possible. Hence modulation is performed to increase the frequency range,
thereby reducing the dimension of the antenna.
Interference:
In the audio frequency range of 20 Hz – 20 kHz, the programmes of different stations will get
mixed up and will be inseperable in the common communication channel. Hence to reduce the
interference, modulation of message signals from different stations are done on different carrier
frequencies which transforms the modulated signal into different frequency slots.
Channel characteristics:
Different communication channels have their own frequency ranges. Hence the low
frequency signals should be transformed into their desired frequency range for the communication
through the respective channel. So transformation to the desired frequency range is done by
modulation.
Ease of design:
Modulation translates the signals to higher frequencies. So the design of amplifiers and
antenna systems are made easy.
Adjustment of bandwidth:
Signal to noise ratio in the receiver is a function of the bandwidth of the modulated signal.
Bandwidth can be adjusted by the modulation process resulting in the improvement of signal to
noise ratio.
TYPES OF MODULATION:
4. Explain in detail with necessary diagram the types of analog modulation. Dec-2014
Different modulation schemes have been developed for the transmission of signals.
Modulation can be classified as analog and digital modulation. They can be further classified as
shown in Fig. 4.

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In analog modulation, sinusoidal signals are used as carrier signals. In digital modulation,
series of pulses are used as carrier signals.
Fig. 4 Classification of modulation
Principles of Amplitude modulation:
5. Explain briefly the principle of modulating a carrier signal by amplitude modulation and
also obtain the expression for power. May-2012
What is meant by amplitude modulation? Dec-2012
Explain the principle of amplitude modulation. May-2015, 2014, 2013, Dec-2015, 2013
Write short notes on amplitude modulation. May-2014
With suitable diagram, discuss the basic principles and limitations of amplitude
modulation. Dec-2011
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the high frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. (ie) amplitude of the carrier wave
is changed but its frequency remains constant as shown in Fig. 5(c).
Let the carrier signal be,

𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
Modulating signal is,

𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
Where, Vc – amplitude of carrier signal

Vm – amplitude of modulating signal (message signal)
The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude modulated wave is,

𝑒 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

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Amplitude of the amplitude modulated wave (A) is,
𝐴 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
∴ 𝑒 𝑡 = ( 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝑚
= 𝑉𝑐 1 + cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝑐
= 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚𝑎 = = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑉𝑐
Modulation index (ma) is defined as the ratio of modulating signal amplitude to carrier
signal amplitude. ma lies between 0 and 1.
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

𝒎𝒂 𝑽𝒄
𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + [𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒎) 𝒕 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒄 − 𝝎𝒎 )𝒕]
𝟐
Hence the AM wave consists of three frequency components,
(i) fc – carrier frequency component
(ii) fc + fm – sum of frequency component, upper side band frequency component
(iii) fc - fm – difference of frequency component, lower side band frequency component
Bandwidth = upper side band frequency – lower side band frequency

= (fc + fm) – (fc - fm) = 2 fm

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Fig. 5
Principles of frequency modulation:
6. Explain frequency modulation. Obtain the mathematical representation of frequency

modulated wave. Dec-2012
Explain the principle of frequency modulation. May-2015, 2014, 2013, Dec-2015, 2013
Write short notes on frequency modulation. May-2014
In frequency modulation, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied with the
variations of the message signal while the amplitude of the modulated carrier remains constant as
shown in Fig. 5(e).
The instantaneous frequency of the frequency modulated carrier is,

𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)
kf – frequency sensitivity constant
fc – unmodulated carrier frequency
𝜔𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 2𝜋 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)
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Then,
𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑡 + 2𝜋 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Frequency modulated wave is given by,
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
∴ 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 +
𝜔𝑚
𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
Where, δ = kf Vm = peak frequency deviation
𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 [𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒎 𝒕]

Where,
𝛿 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑓 = = = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑓𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Modulation index (mf) for FM is defined as the ratio of frequency deviation to modulating
signal frequency.
For normal band, mf < 1

For wide band, mf > 1
 FM wave consists of a single carrier frequency component and an infinite number of side
frequency components.
 FM signal is less affected by noise.
Principles of Phase modulation:

In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is varied with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, but amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant as shown in Fig. 5(d).
The instantaneous angle of the phase modulated carrier is,

𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡
Where, ωc - angle of unmodulated carrier
kp - phase sensitivity

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Phase modulated wave is,
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑡
= 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒎 𝒕
Where, mp = kp Vm = modulation index
Advantages of FM over AM:
7. Give some advantages of FM over AM. May-2014

Compare and contrast the two types of modulation. May-2013
1. In FM, amplitude of FM wave is independent of depth of modulation. In AM, amplitude of AM

wave depends on depth of modulation.
2. In FM, when modulation index increases, total transmitted power = constant, bandwidth increases.
In AM, when modulation index increases, total transmitted power increases.
3. FM is much more immune to noise than AM.
4. In FM, when frequency deviation increases, noise can be reduced. AM, does not have this any
frequency deviation.
5. In FM, there is less adjacent channel interference compared to AM.
6. Since FM transmitter operates in upper VHF and UHF ranges, the space wave is used for
propagation so that the radius of reception is limited to Line of Sight. Thus it is possible to operate
several independent transmitters on the same frequency with less interference that would be possible
with AM.
Disadvantages of FM over AM:
1. FM requires much wider channel, nearly around 7 to 15 times as that required by AM.
2. FM transmitting and receiving equipments are complex and expensive.
3. Since reception is limited to line of sight, the area of reception for FM is smaller than for AM.
RADIO
8. Draw and explain the objective and principles of various subsystems in the block diagram of
radio transmission systems. Dec-2011
 Radio communication is the process of sending information from one place and receiving it
in another place by means of radio waves.
 Radio waves are electromagnetic waves which travel with the velocity of light (3x10 8 m/s).

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Propagation of radio waves:
Radio communication is established between two points, where radio waves leaves a
conductor of suitable length called transmitting antenna and are picked up at the receiving end by
another conductor of suitable length called receiving antenna.
The number of modes by which radio waves travel from transmitting antenna to receiving
antenna are,
 Ground wave
 Sky wave
 Space wave
Radio Transmitter:
After modulation, the radio waves are transmitted over long distance with the help of
electronic circuit called transmitter. The simplest form of transmitter consists of oscillator,
generating high frequency wave connected to an antenna.
1. Amplitude modulated transmitters:

It consists of two sections
(i) Audio frequency (AF) section
(ii) Radio frequency (RF) section
Fig 6. Block diagram of amplitude modulated radio transmitter
(i) AF section:
 The AF Section of the transmitter generates the modulating wave (signal). The conversion of
sound energy into electrical energy is performed by the microphone.
 The Electrical energy available from available from the microphone is very low. Hence, it is
amplified through an amplifier.
 The output from AF amplifier is fed to the AF power amplifier.
 The power amplifier provides the required audio frequency power.
 The output of the AF power amplifier is given to the modulator.
 A modulator is an electronic circuit with transistor and passive components, which performs
the process of modulation.

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(ii)RF section:
 The frequency carrier wave is generated by crystal controlled oscillator.

 The output of the crystal controlled oscillator is power amplified by RF power amplifier.
 The buffer isolates the RF power amplifier from the oscillator.
 This arrangement keeps the frequency of the crystal controlled oscillator as a constant.
 In the modulator the RF wave and modulating AF signal are mixed to produce the amplitude
modulated wave.
 The output of this section is fed to the antenna for transmission.
2. Frequency modulated (FM) transmitter:
Frequency modulated systems are operated usually at a frequency at a frequency above 40

MHz. Frequency modulated broadcasting is done in television sound, mobile radio etc. The
functional block diagram of a FM transmitter employing phase modulation is shown in figure below.
The phase modulation is essentially a frequency modulation.
Fig 7. FM transmitter
It consists of a crystal oscillator, which produces the carrier wave and the output of this is fed
into the phase modulator. The buffer is a low frequency amplifier which isolates the crystal oscillator
from the phase modulator.
The modulating signal is produced from a microphone. Since this AF modulating signal has
uneven power, it is fed into a network called pre-emphasis network, where all the frequencies in the
modulating signal are made to have equal power. The output of the pre-emphasis network is then
amplified and sent for phase modulation. The modulated output is then power amplified using a
power amplifier and then fed into the transmitting antenna for transmission.
Radio receiver:
A radio receiver has the function of the selecting the desired signal from all other unwanted
signal, amplifying, demodulating it and finally producing it in the desired manner.
1. Simple (or) straight radio receiver:
The receiving antenna receives the radiowaves from different broadcasting stations. The desired
radiowave is selected by the radio frequency amplifier, which employs a tuned parallel circuit. The

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tuned RF amplifier amplifies this selected radiowave. The amplified radiowave is fed to the detector
circuit which consists of a PN diode. This circuit extracts the audio signal from the radiowave. The
output of the detector is the audio signal, which is amplified by one or more stages of audio
amplification. The amplified audio signal is given to the loud speaker for sound reproduction.
Fig 8. Simple radio receiver
Disadvantages
Simple radio receiver circuit has
 Poor sensitivity
 Poor selectivity
2. Super heterodyne AM receiver:
The shortcomings of straight radio receiver were overcome by the invention of super
heterodyne receiver. All the modern receivers utilize the super heterodyne circuit.
Fig 9. Super heterodyne AM receiver

(i) RF amplifier:
The RF amplifier uses a tuned parallel circuit. The radiowaves from various broadcasting
stations are intercepted by the receiving antenna and are coupled to this stage. This stage selects the
desired radiowave and enhances the strength of the wave to the desired level.
(ii) Mixer and local oscillator:
The amplified output of RF amplifier is fed to the mixer stage, where it is combined with the
output of a local oscillator. The two frequencies beat together and produce an intermediate frequency
(IF). The intermediate frequency is the difference between oscillator frequency and radio frequency.
The output of this section is always equal to the intermediate frequency 455 kHz.

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For example, if 600 kHz station is tuned, then local oscillator will produce a frequency of
1055 kHz and consequently the output from the mixer will have frequency of 455 kHz. By achieving
this fixed intermediate frequency, the amplifier circuit in such receivers can be made to operate with
maximum stability, selectivity and sensitivity.
(iii) IF amplifier:
The output of the mixer circuit is fed to the tuned IF amplifier. This amplifier is tuned to one
frequency (i.e. 455 KHz) and is amplified.
(iv) Detector:
The output from the IF amplifier is coupled with input of a detector. The audio signals are
extracted from the IF output. Usually a diode detector circuit is used because of its low distortion
and excellent audio fidelity (reproducing ability).
(v) AF amplifier:
The detected AF signal is usually weak and so it is further amplified by the AF amplifier.
Then, the output signal from the amplifier is fed to the loud speaker, which converts the audio signal
into sound waves corresponding to the original sound at the broadcasting station.
3. FM Super heterodyne receiver:
An FM receiver is a super heterodyne type like a typical AM receiver.
Fig 10. Super heterodyne FM receiver
The RF section selects the incoming modulated signals and is amplified. It is then fed into
the mixer and local oscillator. Here the frequency of the modulated signal is changed to intermediate
frequency. For FM receivers, this IF is 10.7 MHz.
The intermediate frequency wave is amplified using IF amplifier and then its amplitude is
maintained constant using a limiter. The output of this section is applied to the FM detector which
demodulates the modulated wave.
The AF signal from the FM detector is then passed on through a de-emphasis network, where
the various frequencies attain their original power distribution. Finally it is fed into the loud speaker
after performing AF amplification.

20
TELEVISION
9. With block diagrams explain TV transmission and reception system. Dec-2014
Draw and explain the functional block diagram of monochrome TV transmitter and
receiver with neat sketch. May-2015, 2014, Dec-2015
Explain the operation of monochrome TV transmitter. May-2014
Draw a typical television video signal. Explain how this is converted into an image on a
TV screen. May-2013
With the help of block diagram describe the working of typical TV transmitter and
receiver. Dec-2012
The word “Television” literally means “seeing at a distance.” The principle of television
broadcasting is essentially the same as that of sound broadcasting.
In sound broadcasting, sound waves are converted into equivalent electrical signals using
microphone, which are modulated and transmitted.
In picture broadcast (television), the bright and dark spots of a scene are systematically
scanned to produce equivalent electrical signals. These picture signals are modulated and are then
transmitted.
At the receiving end, the picture signals are extracted from the modulated wave. These are
made to reproduce the bright and dark spots of the original scene on the fluorescent screen of a
cathode ray tube called viewing tube. The sound associated with the scene is transmitted
simultaneously to provide a complete picture and sound reproduction at the receiver.
Although the end result required is a motion picture, television is basically a system for
reproducing a still picture. Many of these are shown one after the other in rapid sequence during
each second, to give the illusion of motion.
The first requirement of the television system is that it should be capable of transmitting and
receiving a simple still picture. Usually sound signals are frequency modulated, while picture signals
are amplitude modulated.
Television transmitter:
The functional block diagram of TV transmitter can be broadly divided into two sections,
 Amplitude modulated transmitter – for video modulation
 Frequency modulated transmitter – for audio modulation
The synchronising and scanning circuits produce sets of pulses for providing synchronising
pulses for proper functioning of the TV system. This timing unit contains number of wave
generating and wave shaping circuits. The repetition rate of its various output pulse trains is
controlled by a frequency stabilised master oscillator.
The output signal of a camera tube corresponding to the image to be televised is amplified
through a number of video amplifier stages. The image signals together with the synchronising and
blanking pulses are raised to a level suitable for modulating the RF carrier wave generated in the RF
channel.
The allotted picture carrier frequency is generated by the crystal controlled oscillator. The
continuous wave output is given large amplification before feeding to the power amplifier.

21
Fig 11. TV transmitter
In the modulator, its amplitude is made to vary in accordance with the modulating signal
received from the modulating amplifier.
The microphone converts the sound associated with the picture being televised into
proportionate electrical signal. The audio signal from the microphone after amplification is
frequency modulated, employing the assigned carrier frequency.
The output of the sound FM transmitter is finally combined with the AM picture transmitter
output, through a combining network and fed to a common antenna for radiation of energy in the
form of electromagnetic waves.
Television receiver:
The receiving antenna intercepts radiated RF signals and the tuner selects the desired channel
frequency band. The antenna provides RF picture and sound signals for the RF amplifier stage. The
RF amplifier stage is then coupled into the mixer stage.
The mixture is connected to the local oscillator. The RF audio and video signals are
heterodyned into intermediate frequency by the mixer and local oscillator. The RF amplifier, mixer
and local oscillator stages are combinely called as the RF tuner.
The output signal from the tuner circuit is amplified by using a common IF amplifier. Then
the video and audio components are separated by a detector. The sound signals are detected from
FM waves, amplified and then fed into the loud speaker, which reproduce the sound.
The video components are first passed into a detector which separates the picture signal from
the synchronising pulses. The line synchronising pulses and the frame synchronising pulses are fed
into the horizontal and vertical deflector plates of the picture tube.
The blanking pulses are given to the control grid of the electron gun of the picture tube. The
picture signals are applied to the filament of the electron gun of the picture tube. According to the
variations of potential in the picture, electrons are emitted from the electron gun.

22
Thus, the intensity of the fluorescent screen of the picture tube is in accordance with the
variation of potential in the picture and the picture is reproduced.
Fig 12. TV receiver
FAX (FACSIMILE)
10. Describe the principle of operation of fax system. Dec-2014
 Capable of transmitting and receiving printed matter which may include graphics, drawings,
pictures, handwritten text, etc.
 Two types of facsimile system are

 Photographic facsimile
 Document facsimile
 Photographic facsimile: gray level information is transmitted and printed in addition to black
and white. There are 16 gray levels.
 Document facsimile: it handles only black and white levels.
 Information is transmitted using regular telephone lines at the same tariff as the telephone
charges.

23
Fig 13. Block diagram of FAX system
 Input document is applied to scanning process. This scanner converts the print material into
set of points represented by electric signals. This signal is compressed using the compression
technique and then transmitted.
 The transmitted signal is received by the receiver and it is decompressed to get the original
document. Then it is fed to the printer to get the printed document.
Facsimile transmission:
 Document or photograph to be transmitted is wrapped around the drum.

 Light from the lamp is focused by means of optical lenses to illuminate the narrow slit in the
drum.
 The drum is set in motion to give rotational and axial movement.
 As the photograph is feed over the slit, the photograph is scanned.
 Light rays reflected from the drum surface are focused towards mark aperture using an
optical lens.
 The light rays pass through a small aperture and illuminate the cathode of a photoelectric
cell.
 The cathode converts light rays into electric current.
 If the portion of the photograph is black, then light rays falling on it is fully absorbed.
 The reflected light rays reaching the photoelectric cell are zero. So the electric current
produced by the tube is zero.
 If the illuminated spot is white, light rays falling on it is fully reflected.
 The reflected rays reaching the photoelectric cell are maximum producing the maximum
current.
 For photograph with intermediate shades, photoelectric signal current is inversely
proportional to the darkness of the photograph.
 The modulated signal is developed by the photoelectric cell. This signal is amplified using
amplifier.
24
 This amplified output is given to detector. In reactance tube, detected signal is frequency
modulated.
 The frequency modulated signal is mixed with a sinusoidal local oscillator signal with centre
frequency of 1.9 kHz.
 The modulated signal is transmitted through telephone lines.
Fig 14. FAX transmission system
Facsimile reception:
 Facsimile receiver is similar to transmitter.

 Transmitted signal is applied to the lamp. Lamp consists of inert gas.
 Lamp gives an optical output based on the signal voltage.
 The optical signal is focused on a photographic paper fixed over the rotating drum.
 For proper reception, the transmitting and receiving signal drums should be operated in
synchronization.
 For this purpose, synchronizing signal of 1020 Hz is transmitted along the fax signal.
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION:
11. Explain in detail with necessary block diagrams the microwave communication systems.
Dec-2014, May-2013
With a neat block diagram, explain the principle of operation of microwave
communication. May-2012
 Electromagnetic waves in the frequency range: 1 GHz to 30 GHz – microwaves.

 Travel only on Line of Sight paths.
 Transmitter and receiver should be visible to each other.
 Repeater stations are provided at the interval of 50 km in between the transmitter and
receiver stations.

25
 Has large transmission bandwidth, so thousands of telephone channels and few TV channels
can be transmitted in same route.
 Normally 3 to 12 GHz frequency range is used.
 Transmitter output power can be low.
Fig. 15 Microwave communication system
Sending station:
 Consists of two terminal stations and one or more repeater stations.

 At sending terminal, thousands of telephone channels and few TV channels are frequency
multiplexed to form base band signal.
 Base band signal is frequency modulated with an Intermediate Frequency (IF) carrier in low
frequency range.
 Then it is converted to microwave frequency of 4 GHz.
 This signal is fed through a directional antenna towards repeater station located at about 50
km.
Repeating station:
 At repeater station, the signal is received on one antenna directed towards the originating
station.
 Received signal is down converter to IF.
 This signal is amplified and then up converted to a new frequency of 6 GHz.
 The incoming and outgoing signals in repeater station are maintained at different frequency
range to avoid interference.
 The new signal is again retransmitted towards receiving station.
Receiving station:
 In receiving station, the signal is down converted to IF.

 This signal is demodulated to recover the base band signal.
 Base band signal is demultiplexed to recover the individual telephone or television channel
signals.
Applications:
 Telephone networks
 TV broadcast
 Communication applications of railways etc.

26
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:
12. Explain in detail with necessary block diagrams the satellite communication systems.
Dec-2014
Explain the configuration of satellite communication with neat diagram. Give its merit and
demerits. Dec-2013
With help of block diagram describe the working of a satellite (earth station transmitter)
communication and its short notes on earth station receiver. May-2014
 A satellite is a radio repeater, also called as transponder, placed in the sky.

 Satellite system consists of a transponder, and a minimum of two earth stations (for
transmitting and receiving).
 Transponder receives the signal from the transmitting earth station, frequency converts,
amplifies and retransmits the signal towards the receiving station.
Fig. 16 Satellite system
Classification:
 Active type
 Passive type
Active type: Receives, amplifies and retransmits the signal back towards earth.
Passive type: Simply reflects the signal back to earth without any amplification.
Orbits:
Once launched, a satellite remains in orbit due to centrifugal force and gravitational force.
Based on the coverage, orbits are classified as,
 Polar orbit
 Inclined orbit
 Equatorial orbit
Geosynchronous satellite:
Satellite placed at a height of 35,786 km from the earth’s surface and has an orbital velocity
equal to earths velocity is called geosynchronous satellite.
Geo-stationary satellite:
A geosynchronous satellite that lies on the earth’s equatorial plane is called as the geo-
stationary satellite.

27
Satellite communication system:
The three basic sections in satellite system are:

1. Uplink model (transmitting earth station)
2. Satellite transponder (satellite)
3. Downlink model (receiving earth station)
Typical frequencies used are 6/4 GHz and 14/12 GHz.
1. Uplink model:
 Earth station transmitter is called as uplink model.

 Earth transmission transmitter consists of
 IF modulator
 IF to RF microwave up-converter
 High power amplifier (HPA)
 Band pass filter (BPF)
 IF modulator converts the input base band signals to intermediate frequency (IF) using FM or
PSK.
 Up converter translates the IF to an appropriate RF carrier frequency.
 HPA amplifies the output power to an appropriate level to be sent to the transponder.
 Most used HPAs are klystron and travelling wave tube amplifier.
Fig. 17 Uplink model
2. Satellite Transponder:
 Satellite transponder consists of

 Band Pass filter
 Input low noise amplifier (LNA)
 Frequency translator
 High power amplifier (HPA)
 It is an RF – RF repeater.

28
Fig. 18 Satellite Transponder
3. Downlink model:
 Downlink model consists of

 Band pass filter (BPF)
 LNA
 RF- IF down converter
 Demodulator
 BPF restricts the input noise power to LNA.
 LNA – tunnel diode amplifier, parametric amplifier.
 RF-IF down converter converts the received RF signal to IF frequency.
 Demodulator converts IF to baseband signals.
Fig. 19 Downlink model
 Communication between three or more earth stations can be made by Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA).
Advantages:
 Provide coverage for large number of users.
 Offers multipoint communication.
 Offers telecommunication links in hilly areas.
 Global connection across the world is possible.

29
Disadvantages:
 Time delay of 250 ms between transmission and reception arises.
 If any malfunction in satellite occurs, it cannot be corrected easily.
 Initial cost is large.
Applications:
 TV broadcasting.
 Mobile communication.
 Weather forecasting etc.
OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION:
13. Write short notes on optical fiber communication systems. May-2013

Draw the block diagram of optical fibre communication system and explain the
function of each block. May-2012
Explain the principles of different blocks in the block diagram of optical fibre
communication system. Dec-2011
 In optical fibre communication, electromagnetic waves in the optical frequency are used as
carrier.
 Optical frequency range – 1014 to 1015 Hz.
 A fibre can carry 10 million TV channels.
Optical fibre:
 Optical fibre is a piece of very thin, highly pure glass, with an outside cladding of glass.
 Cladding has slightly different chemical composition and different refractive index.
 Materials used for optical fibres are glass and plastic and their refractive index is around 1.5.
 Different varieties of optical fibre cables are
 Silica clad silica
 Plastic clad silica
 Plastic clad plastic
Fig. 20 Fibre optic cable
 Optical fibre consists of a central cylindrical core of constant refractive index n1 and
concentric cladding of refractive index n2.
 Relative refractive index difference is given by,
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
∆=
2 𝑛1 2

30
Total internal reflection:
If a light ray travelling in the core of higher refractive index is incident at the core-cladding
interface with an angle of incidence, with respect to normal, greater than critical angle, it will be
reflected back into originating dielectric medium. This phenomenon is known as total internal
reflection.
Fig. 21 Transmission of light ray in optical fibre
 In optical fibre, transmission of light ray takes place by a series of total internal reflections.
 Based on the type of propagation of light in the optical fibre, they are classified as,
 Single mode step index
 Multimode step index
 Multimode graded index
Step index – refractive index has a step change at the core-cladding interface.
Graded index – refractive index gradually reduces from the centre to the outside of the fibre.
Optical fibre communication system:
 The message to be transmitted is concerted into a suitable electrical form by the electrical
transmit section.
 This electrical signal is allowed to modulate the light output from the optical source.
 The optical source may be LED or injection laser diode (ILD).
 The modulated light is launched into the optical fibre.
 Optical fibre is the communication channel linking the transmitter and receiver.
 At the receiving end, input optical signal is converted into suitable electrical variations by
optical detector.
 Optical detector may be PIN photodiode or avalanche photodiode.
 The electrical variations are converted into original message by electrical receive section and
given to destination.

31
Fig. 22 Optical fibre communication system

Advantages:
 Large bandwidth
 Fibres have small diameters, so they have small size and weight.
 Uses glass or plastic as fibres, hence provides good electrical isolation.
 Optical fibre is a dielectric waveguide, so it is free from electromagnetic and radio frequency
interference.
 High degree of signal security.
 Avoids cross talk.
 Optical fibres have high tensile strength, so they are flexible and compact.
 High tolerance to temperature, so have long life span.
Applications:
 Computers
 LAN
 Industrial electronics
 Telecommunications

32
Anna University Questions
Part – A:
1. State the characteristics of an analog signal with an example. May-2012

2. Define digital signal. Dec-2014
3. Compare analog and digital signals. May-2014, Dec-2015, 2012, 2011, 2010
4. Why are digital signals said to be noise immune? May-2013
5. What is meant by modulation and demodulation? Dec-2013
6. What is frequency modulation? May-2010
7. Define modulation index. Dec-2014
8. As related to amplitude modulation, what is over modulation, under modulation and 100%
modulation? May-2013
9. What are its advantages and disadvantages of FM as compared to amplitude modulation?
May-2010
10. Why are AM systems preferred in broadcasting over FM systems? May-2014
11. Sketch the block diagram of FM receiver. Dec-2014
12. What is interlaced scanning? May-2010
13. List the various types of microwave antennas. May-2014
14. What are the applications of microwave communication? May-2015, Dec-2010
15. What is the use of satellite? Dec-2014
State the functions of satellite transponder. Dec-2012
16. Give typical values of uplink frequency and downlink frequency in satellite communication.
May-2012
17. Draw the general structure of a satellite communication system. Dec-2011
18. What are the advantages of optical fibre communication? May-2014, Dec-2013
19. Draw the block diagram of optical fibre communications. May-2015
20. Define total internal reflection. Dec-2015
Part – B
1. Explain the principle of communication system with the help of block diagram. Dec-2011
2. Describe the principle of modulation and its needs. May-2014

What is meant by modulation and demodulation? May-2012
3. Explain in detail with necessary diagram the types of analog modulation. Dec-2014
4. Explain briefly the principle of modulating a carrier signal by amplitude modulation and also
obtain the expression for power. May-2012
What is meant by amplitude modulation? Dec-2012
Explain the principle of amplitude modulation. May-2014, 2013, Dec-2013
Write short notes on amplitude modulation. May-2014

33
With suitable diagram, discuss the basic principles and limitations of amplitude modulation.
Dec-2011
5. Explain frequency modulation. Obtain the mathematical representation of frequency modulated
wave. Dec-2012
Explain the principle of frequency modulation. May-2014, 2013, Dec-2013
Write short notes on frequency modulation. May-2014
6. Give some advantages of FM over AM. May-2014

Compare and contrast the two types of modulation. May-2013
7. Draw and explain the objective and principles of various subsystems in the block diagram of radio
transmission systems. Dec-2011
8. With block diagrams explain TV transmission and reception system. Dec-2014

Describe the functional block diagram of monochrome TV transmitter and receiver with neat
sketch. May-2015, 2014, Dec-2015
Explain the operation of monochrome TV transmitter. May-2014
Draw a typical television video signal. Explain how this is converted into an image on a TV
screen. May-2013
With the help of block diagram describe the working of typical TV transmitter and receiver.
Dec-2012
9. Describe the principle of operation of fax system. Dec-2014
10. Explain in detail with necessary block diagrams the microwave communication systems.
Dec-2014, May-2013
With a neat block diagram, explain the principle of operation of microwave communication.
May-2012
11. Explain in detail with necessary block diagrams the satellite communication systems.
Dec-2014
Explain the configuration of satellite communication with neat diagram. Give its merit and
demerits. Dec-2013
With help of block diagram describe the working of a satellite (earth station transmitter)
communication and its short notes on earth station receiver. May-2014
12. Write short notes on optical fiber communication systems. May-2013

Draw the block diagram of optical fibre communication system and explain the function of
each block. May-2012
Explain the principles of different blocks in the block diagram of optical fibre communication
system. Dec-2011
13. Describe the principle of amplitude and frequency modulation and its needs. May-2015
14. Explain the principles of amplitude and frequency modulation. Dec-2015

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1

MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE

2. Draw the basic block diagram of communication system.

3. What are the types of signals?

4. Define analog signal.

5. Define digital signal. Dec-2014

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

S.No Analog signals Digital signals

3 They are affected by noise. Less affected by noise.

7. Why are digital signals said to be noise immune? May-2013

8. What is meant by modulation and demodulation? Dec-2013

9. What are the types of modulation?

10. What is the need for modulation?

11. Define amplitude modulation.

12. What is frequency modulation? May-2010

13. Define modulation index. Dec-2014

3. FM is much more immune to noise than AM.

5. In FM, there is less adjacent channel interference compared to AM.

Disadvantages of FM over AM:

2. FM transmitting and receiving equipments are complex and expensive.

16. Why are AM systems preferred in broadcasting over FM systems? May-2014

17. What is bandwidth for AM wave?

18. What are the different modes of propagation of radio waves?

19. What is the radio transmitter?

20. Write the characteristics of the radio receiver.

21. List the advantages of super heterodyne receiver.

22. What is meant by signal to noise ratio of a receiver?

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

24. Draw the block diagram of FM radio transmitter.

25. Sketch the block diagram of super heterodyne AM receiver.

26. Sketch the block diagram of FM receiver. Dec-2014

27. What is interlaced scanning? May-2010

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

29. List the various types of microwave antennas. May-2014

30. What are the applications of microwave communication? May-2015, Dec-2010

31. What is the use of satellite? Dec-2014

List the different sections of satellite system.

33. Draw the general structure of a satellite communication system. Dec-2011

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

36. Define total internal reflection. Dec-2015

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

The basic function of a communication system is to communicate a message. The block

Fig. 1 Block diagram of communication system

Signals are broadly classified into two types. They are,

Fig. 2 Analog signal

Fig. 3 Digital signal

2. Describe the principle of modulation and its needs. May-2014

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

Need for modulation:

3. What is the need for modulation? May-2013

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

Fig. 4 Classification of modulation

Principles of Amplitude modulation:

Let the carrier signal be,

Modulating signal is,

Where, Vc – amplitude of carrier signal

The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude modulated wave is,

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

Bandwidth = upper side band frequency – lower side band frequency

GE 6252 / BEEE Unit – 5 Muthukumar.G.G/EEE/MEC

Principles of frequency modulation:

6. Explain frequency modulation. Obtain the mathematical representation of frequency