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A Proposed Framework for Incorporating Moral Education into the ESL/EFL

Classroom

Article  in  Language Culture and Curriculum · September 2005

DOI: 10.1080/07908310508668742

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A Proposed Framework for Incorporating
Moral Education into the ESL/EFL Classroom
Kassim Shaaban
English Department, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, American University
of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
This paper addresses the issue of incorporating moral education in the English as a
second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) classroom in light of the increasing calls for
having teachers take on a more pro-active role in the moral development of their
students. The moral education model recommended in this study includes the deve-
lopment of fundamental values, principles, and attitudes; continuous character
growth that allows learners to become concerned, informed, and involved citizens;
and laying down the foundations of a critical approach to controversial issues. The
rationale that the study adopts for introducing moral education in ESL/EFL curricula
is based on the assumption that it helps learners in developing their linguistic and
cognitive skills, social awareness, emotional well-being, critical thinking, and a toler-
ant world view, goals that are compatible with the new approaches and methods of
teaching ESL/EFL. The framework proposed for the implementation of this process
includes tentative issues/themes, language skills, learning outcomes, methods of
instruction and evaluation, materials and resources, and instructional activities.

Keywords: moral education, framework, fundamental values, global education, active

learning, cooperative learning

Introduction
Moral education may be defined as strategic teaching of basic values and prin-
ciples – such as fairness, honesty, and respect for others – that would develop in
learners a sense of social and personal responsibility. Without a certain level of
adherence to these values, no community would survive and thrive. In other
words, moral education is the impartment of knowledge, values, beliefs, and
attitudes that help learners become informed, concerned, responsible, caring
citizens who understand and believe in the concepts of ‘justice, fairness, and
human welfare’ (Nucci, 1987: 86). In any human society, moral education
should be thought of as a continuum which begins with the socialisation of
children into those consensus values and virtues that sustain communities. As
children grow older and more mature, they are gradually initiated into a
liberal education where students are taught to think in informed and reflective
ways about controversial moral issues. In pluralistic societies, peaceful coexi-
stence depends, to a large degree, on the acceptance and nurturing of civic
virtues and values such as acting within one’s rights and duties, debating differ-
ences, and making informed decisions. The Character Education Manifesto (see
Nord & Haynes, 2000) considers schools and teachers as the main agents of
introducing and promoting moral education: ‘All schools have the obligation
to foster in their students personal and civic virtues such as integrity, courage,
responsibility, diligence, service, and respect for the dignity of all persons’.

0790-8318/05/02 201-17 $20.00/0 # 2005 K. Shaaban

LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND CURRICULUM Vol. 18, No. 2, 2005

201
202 Language, Culture and Curriculum

Perspectives about the role of the school and the teacher as agents of edu-
cational change have undergone major changes over the last half a century.
For a long time, the teacher was seen as an individual with a sacred mission
that people look up to, but then, in the 1970s and 1980s, the teacher was
viewed as just another person who delivers information and allows learners
to form their own views (Ryan, 1986). Recently, however, there have been
calls for looking at the teacher as more than an information bank and urging
them to take on a transformative role where they continue to deliver infor-
mation but, at the same time, play a leading and guiding role in the life of
the learners (Anderson, 1996; Brown, 1997; Crookes & Lehner, 1998). These
and other educators feel that teachers and schools should ‘help children
become ethically mature adults, capable of moral thought and action when
facing issues such as drug abuse, indiscriminate shootings, and domestic,
regional, and global conflicts’ (Ryan, 1986: 228).
Although some educational institutions teach moral education, or one of its
variants (character education or values education) as a separate school subject,
others teach it as part of other subjects such as social studies or ‘provide at least
a smattering of moral education on an informal basis’ (Carbone Jr., 1970).
However, no matter what model an educational institution follows, ‘any
experienced teacher can testify that the school takes some pains to reinforce
those norms and values that are generally accepted in society at large’
(Carbone Jr., 1970: 598). Researchers have found out that in general, ‘effective
moral education programs are integrated within the curriculum, rather than
treated separately as special program or unit’ (Nucci, 1987: 86).
The calls for the incorporation of moral education into school curricula have
attracted the attention of educators in ESL/EFL and language arts as these
school subjects have no specific content and could, therefore, use instructional
materials and resources that are useful, interesting, and attractive to the
learners. The interrelated topics of peace education, global issues, and
moral education have been proposed as topics that could be imparted to
the learners through the areas of language arts, literature, ESL/EFL, and
social studies (Pereira, 1993; Ryan, 1993; Sanchez, 1998; Shumer, 1999). In
the area of ESL/EFL, researchers have discussed the possible involvement
of TESOL professionals and practitioners in moral education and have
come up with various suggestions regarding the nature of the proposed invol-
vement and its potential contribution to a morally intact community
(Anderson, 1996; Brown, 1997; Cates, 1999). These researchers have suggested
changes in educational policies and curricular guidelines, recommended a
priority list of research topics, and developed some sample instructional
units.

Some guiding principles

This article attempts to provide a rationale for extending moral education into
ESL/EFL contexts, proposes a framework for incorporating moral education in
the ESL/EFL classroom, and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of
such a framework.
However, before presenting the proposed framework, it is important to point
out that one must recognise the controversial nature of the subject of moral
Incorporating Moral Education into ESL/EFL 203

education and the sensitivities it may engender, especially among liberal

educators who could perceive moral education as a form of indoctrination
which molds people and engages them in what might be construed as a form
of preaching. To guard against possible misinterpretation of the motives for
this work, the following basic beliefs are set forth:

(1) The nature of the work of schooling involves dealing with issues that
could easily be labelled under moral education, for values are manifested
in what we do, how we act, and what we say. Without intending to, most
of the time parents and teachers engage in teaching values through their
own words and deeds (Nyberg, 1990). In fact, it seems almost impossible
to avoid moral education in schools. The question, thus, becomes not so
much whether educational institutions should teach moral education
but rather how they should do it (Satz, 2000). If moral discussions in the
modern classroom are inevitable, then steps need to be taken to apply
some control over these discussions and not leave them to chance.
(2) Teachers need not avoid tackling moral issues. In reality, they should be
encouraged to do so not with the purpose of steering their students in
the direction of a certain point of view or converting them to a new doc-
trine, religious or otherwise, but rather to prepare them to think carefully
and critically about moral issues and to ‘provide them with more broadly
based and supple frameworks for doing so’ (Satz, 2000).
(3) One major issue of contention in relation to moral education is what to
teach. Many researchers believe that moral education should be presented
to students in two main phases (Carbone Jr., 1970; Nyberg, 1990; Westby,
2002). The first phase lasts until high school and involves the socialisation
of the learner by making him aware of the values, attitudes, and standards
of appropriate behaviour that prevail in his immediate social environ-
ment. The second phase involves taking the learner ‘beyond the level of
relatively passive acceptance of norms, merely because they are prevalent
in his surroundings, to a point at which he is capable of critical, indepen-
dent judgment in these matters’(Carbone Jr., 1970).
(4) Another issue of contention is whose values to teach. This issue could be
more sensitive in an EFL context where the values of the immediate
environment will differ in some significant ways from the values of
English-speaking societies. This article does not recommend the impo-
sition of a certain moral code. In fact, many of the relevant issues are not
settled, vary among cultures, and raise debate even within the same cul-
tural context. In the early stages, this article calls for the adoption and nur-
turing of universal socialisation values, such as honesty, responsibility,
integrity, telling the truth, keeping promises, respecting others, and
valuing liberty and equality. In the latter stages, the aim should be the
development of independent, reflective moral agents, individuals
capable of making informed decisions and justifying the principles that
guide such decision (Satz, 2000).
(5) Finally, this article does not in any way suggest that the topics and content
used to teach in an ESL/EFL programme be all related to moral education.
What is being suggested is that the ESL/EFL programme will serve as
204 Language, Culture and Curriculum

another venue for presenting and discussing the values taught in the
school curriculum, as a separate subject or through other subjects. Such
an arrangement will provide ESL/EFL learners with topics and content
that are familiar and could generate discussions and arguments which
are essential for the development of critical thinking skills as well as posi-
tive character traits.

ESL/EFL and Moral Education: The Rationale

The ESL/EFL classroom is a natural place for instruction in moral education as
the English language education discipline lends itself rather well to the
dynamics of moral values. The global expansion of English to various parts of
the world and to various academic disciplines and professional fields –
especially business administration, engineering, medicine, and technology –
makes the infusion of professional ethics through the English classroom a
commendable practice, as it has the potential of helping people live fuller
lives. Although most of these content fields offer special courses in professional
ethics, the ESL classroom can provide the same information in an indirect and
more interesting way. Furthermore, the tradition of ESL/EFL as part of humanities
and the emphasis it lays on contact and interaction between peoples and cultures
provide a climate conducive to the development of positive character traits, intra-
cultural and intercultural appreciation and empathy, and understanding of the
values of others, issues that are at the heart of moral education.
The emphasis in modern curricula around the world on the development of
critical thinking could be well-served through the tackling of topics related to
moral issues. The rationale for including such issues is that they normally
stir controversy, require learners to get involved in dialogue and discussion,
and give them the chance to study, analyse, generalise, and evaluate. These
kinds of learning processes are in line with the communicative approach to
teaching a second/foreign language which is now the prevalent approach in
most ESL/EFL contexts. Notice, for example, that the activities and techniques
mentioned by Mullins (1990) and Cotton (1997) for civic and moral education
include practice in class discussion, asking and responding to open-ended
questions, research, writing projects, cooperative group projects, simulations,
role play, brainstorming, interaction with guest speakers, community service
projects, problem solving, and critical thinking exercises. These techniques
and activities could have come straight out of any recent textbook on ESL/
EFL methodology, especially in relation to the learner-centred communicative
approach. Therefore, the English classroom may serve as a natural venue for
these tasks and activities that would usually culminate in having the students
write an essay or make an oral a presentation on the topic of study.
Another reason for introducing moral education in the ESL/EFL classroom is
that it has traditionally been an appropriate place for discussing and promoting
social values. In the new methodology that connects ESL/EFL learning to
content learning, the subject matter and topics for discussion can readily
provide students with a rich environment for getting data from different
sources and for approaching an issue from different perspectives. Thus
a discussion of the ethics of polluting the environment could draw on
Incorporating Moral Education into ESL/EFL 205

information from history, geography, geology, biology, chemistry, literature,

and art. These different perspectives and sources of data would enrich the lear-
ners’ ability to make informed choices, to be in close touch with the community
they live in and feel its problems, and to develop their critical thinking skills.
It is important to stress at this point that the field of ESL/EFL is not a place
where anything goes. In fact, the history of ESL/EFL teaching, with the exception
of English for specific purposes (ESP) programmes, shows that instructional
materials have always been biased towards social sciences where issues like
the environment, global peace, and stories illustrating appropriate societal
values and attitudes (courage, honesty, hard work, tolerance, and the like)
abound (Gambee & Klausman, 1992; Wenden, 1992). Traditionally, ESL/EFL
programmes have espoused worthy causes that strive to create a better environ-
ment for people to live in, locally and globally.
The attempts to introduce moral education in a systematic manner into the
ESL classroom are, however, still in their early stages. Therefore, it is the
intent of this paper to suggest a framework for curriculum and instruction
that proposes issues, themes, and content to be dealt with, linguistic and
cognitive skills to be promoted, methods and activities to be used in the class-
room, and resources and materials that teachers and students can draw upon.
A basic premise of this framework is that it would help facilitate the work of
practitioners who can then organise their syllabi and consequently link moral
education to classroom practice most effectively.

A proposed framework
The proposed framework for incorporating moral education in ESL/EFL
classes, presented in Table 1, is modelled after the framework for transformative
pedagogy proposed by Cummins (2000) and the framework for peace education
suggested by Ghaith and Shaaban (1994). The framework is intended to provide
a broad guide to the implementation of any moral education programme in
the ESL classroom. It is assumed that such a programme will effectively
promote second language learners’ linguistic and cognitive development and,
at the same time, encourage the growth of their character. It follows from this
thesis that for optimal development to take place, motivating and cognitively
challenging activities and tasks must be infused into the dialogue and be part
of the interaction between teachers and students. The framework consists of
the following parts: message, language skills, methods, outcomes, activities,
resources, and assessment.

Message
The starting point in the proposed framework is a focus on issues that will
make up the content or message or meaning. The interpretation of these
issues presented in the form of text or debates must go beyond mere literal
comprehension to encompass critical interpretation. In other words, learners
acting on new comprehensible input must relate it to experience and previous
knowledge (i.e. they must activate their cognitive schema and analyse the
information critically). Teachers can draw for comprehensible input on topics
drawn from various content areas such as literature, social studies, art, internet
discussions, medicine, etc.
 206

Table 1 Proposed framework for incorporating moral education in ESL classes

Message Language Methods Outcomes Activities Resources Evaluation
Respect for self and Forms and uses Cooperative Critical Identification Fairy tales Self-assessment
others learning thinking
Comprehension Simulation Literature Journals
Cultural appreciation Critical analysis Problem Learner Discussion Art Logs
solving autonomy
Lack of prejudice Writing skills Dialogue Involvement Presentations History Debates
Appropriate values Oral communication Modelling Intercultural Mini-research Internet Observations
and attitudes interaction
Explanation Debates Multimedia Peer assessment
Pragmatics Experience Character Community Research papers
growth service
Peace and human Active Tolerance Checklists
rights learning
Global concerns
Communication
Environment
Language, Culture and Curriculum
Incorporating Moral Education into ESL/EFL 207

By its very nature, the ESL classroom is a place where students try to learn
about a new language and its culture, a fact that renders the ESL classroom
an ideal place for developing a well-balanced individual who is open to
other concepts, beliefs, and attitudes. There is a need for the inclusion of
culture in language teaching with the increasing emphasis placed all over the
world on globalisation and international and intercultural communication.
Positive involvement in a global society requires the ability to communi-
cate in a global language. One of the growing networks of international
communication is the internet where the dominant Language is
English. Therefore, English language study can no longer remain a
mere academic interest, nor even a deliberate skill to gather information
and techniques that will promote natural prosperity. It is an essential
skill for . . . world citizenship. (Cummins, 2000: 7)
The task of determining the content of English language courses is therefore
essential to the process of learning. This process should be in tune with the
goals and objectives of curriculum development in general but, particularly,
with the identified needs of the students. Cates (1999) identifies geographical lit-
eracy, world themes, and global issues as the key content areas. He believes that
English language classrooms are appropriate places for learners to identify and
evaluate the belief and value systems of foreign cultures and their own through
the medium of English. Urch (1992) suggests the study of world cultures, major
global topics, and the planet as an interdependent entity. Yoshimura (1993)
proposes placing emphasis on the study of human rights, the environment,
peace education, and intercultural communication. Brown (1997) suggests the
study of topics such as global interdependence, humane treatment of every
living creature, cultural awareness and tolerance, and non-violent approaches
to settling disputes. The present framework recommends placing emphasis
in the ESL/EFL classroom on the following messages that help build and
develop the moral character of the learners: basic rights and wrongs, societal
duties and responsibilities, respect for self and others, cultural awareness and
appreciation, recognition and avoidance of prejudice, basic social values and
attitudes, respect for the environment, societal and global peace, concern for
the planet, and intracultural and intercultural communication.

Methods
The methodology suggested for implementing moral education in the ESL/
EFL classroom in accordance with the present framework centres around creat-
ing an active learning environment in the classroom. Active learning involves
allowing students to participate in making decisions about the classroom and
the school operations that have direct or indirect bearing on their learning. It
involves having the teacher build an open classroom climate characterised by
intensive student participation and interaction, respect for students, open
discussion, and positive reinforcement. One of the proponents of active learn-
ing, Mullins (1990), considers active learning as ideal for teaching topics like
civic and moral education:
208 Language, Culture and Curriculum

The passive transmission of facts is rejected as an inappropriate method of

teaching that should be modified in favor of active approaches to learn-
ing. Students are to engage in reading, writing, observing, debating,
role play, simulations, and the use of statistical data to develop skills in
critical thinking, decision making, and problem solving. Cooperative
and collaborative types of learning are also emphasized. (Mullins, 1990: 4)
The various aspects of active learning identified by Mullins (1990) will be put to
use in the ESL/EFL classroom through the application of an adapted version
of the approach suggested by Ryan (1986) which involves what he calls ‘the
five E’s’ of moral education: example, explanation, exhortation, environment,
and experience.

Cooperative learning
The first method of presenting moral education in the ESL/EFL classroom
suggested in this paper is the cooperative learning model of classroom inter-
action; this corresponds to the ‘environment’ in Ryan’s model. Cooperative
learning was adopted because it embodies many of the values and concepts
inherent in moral education: interdependence, tolerance, respect for others,
cooperation, development of social skills, and individual accountability. The
importance of cooperative learning as a framework of classroom interaction
in educational contexts has been emphasised by educators and researchers
who believe that cooperative learning activities and similar classroom inter-
action strategies constitute documented examples of the academic and personal
benefits that accrue when coercive relations of power shift to collaborative
relations (Cummins & Sayers, 1995; DeVillar & Faltis, 1991; Johnson &
Johnson, 1991; Kagan, 1992; Kessler, 1992; Slavin, 1990).

Dialogue
Another major method of approaching moral education discussions is dialo-
gue; this corresponds in Ryan’s model to ‘exhortation.’ And here lies a major
difference between Ryan’s model and the model suggested in this article, as
the latter does not endorse any form of preaching, recommending instead an
interactive approach that allows learners to decide for themselves after
thoroughly debating an issue. In a dialogue situation, people talk to each
other and argue for or against a certain position. Students should learn the
value of conducting dialogues on issues: when participants in a dialogue
agree with each other, they learn the value and rightness of those consensus
values; when they disagree, they learn about the alternatives and withhold
judgment (Nord & Haynes, 2000). People may, for instance, agree about the
need for democracy yet disagree about the right of a woman to abortion.

Explanation
The third method recommended for use in presenting moral issues is that of
explanation. Explanation helps clarify many misconceptions and misunder-
standing, especially in the ESL/EFL classroom where misinterpretation of
linguistic and contextual clues could lead to misunderstanding of what is
being read. Durkheim (1961: 120) endorses this method and states that ‘to
teach morality is neither to preach nor to indoctrinate; it is to explain.’
Incorporating Moral Education into ESL/EFL 209

Modelling
The fourth method recommended for implementing moral education in the
ESL/EFL classroom is that of modelling which corresponds in Ryan’s model to
‘example.’ Teaching by modelling could take one of two forms. In the first form,
the teacher sets himself as an example, which could be a taxing affair for him as
he has to ensure that any behaviour he displays has to be within the limits of
what he has defined as virtuous, good, honest, and the like. Another way of
teaching by example comes through the presentation to students of characters
from history or literature who could serve as models of goodness or badness,
courage or cowardice, virtue or vice, and the like.
Active involvement
The fifth and last method adopted in the framework is that of active involve-
ment which corresponds in Ryan’s model to ‘experience.’ This method is
particularly relevant to language classrooms where the language experience
approach is one of the most popular methods of teaching, especially in beginning
classes. Hands-on activities associated with this method are especially relevant
to students of the globalisation era who are information rich and experience poor
(Coleman, 1974). This method is also in line with the modern schema theory
of reading comprehension which recognises the role of form and content
background knowledge in enhancing comprehension (Dubin et al., 1986).

Outcomes
The proposed framework aims at creating lifelong learners who could on their
own deal with issues and moral dilemmas that might face them in the future,
guided by the skills that they have acquired in the classroom. The active learning
approach and the open classroom climate recommended in the framework
would normally result in reinforcing the learners’ autonomy and self-esteem
in the sense that they would be able to approach difficult situations by means
of researching the issues, discussing them with others, reflecting on the
results of their research and deliberations, and making informed decisions.
Another perceived outcome, one with lifelong effects, is the development of
the learner’s critical thinking skills. It has been shown that critical thinking
courses and texts could result in the ‘fragmentation’ of thinking skills as think-
ing can not be separated from content (Carr, 1990: 1). For critical thinking to be
developed, the following elements are identified by educators, researchers,
and programme designers as essential: content knowledge, procedural knowl-
edge, ability to monitor and control thinking skills, and positive attitudes
(Costa, 1985; Keating, 1988). In the context of moral education in the ESL/EFL
classroom, critical thinking helps learners figure out what to believe in a
variety of contexts, ‘in a rational way that requires the ability to judge the
plausibility of specific assertions, to weigh evidence, to assess the logical
soundness of inferences, to construct counter arguments and alternative
hypotheses’ (Nickerson et al., 1985: 4 –5 cited in Hirose, 1992). For the learners
to arrive at these abilities, they should be trained in asking open-ended ques-
tions (why, how, and what if), thinking problems through, analysing, concep-
tualising, and reflecting on how their beliefs might affect others. The ESL
learning model suggested by Krashen (1982) which recommends providing
210 Language, Culture and Curriculum

comprehensible input, narrow content reading, lowering anxiety, and monitor-

ing the learning is one model to apply to moral education as it helps students
develop their critical thinking abilities, improve language skills, and develop
moral values and a critical approach to moral issues in an anxiety-reduced
learning environment.
A third perceived outcome which has social implications for the learners is
involvement in, and concern about, the issues faced in their immediate environ-
ment as well as in the world at large. Educators believe that involvement
through discussions and hands-on activities helps students learn better; the
literature on cooperative learning has expressed the importance of students’
involvement in maxim forms with variations in form, such as the following:
I hear (tell me) and I forget; I see (show me) and I remember, I do (teach me)
and I understand, I discuss (involve me) and I learn (Olsen, 1994: 50).
Involvement in the context of moral education could take the form of commu-
nity service, participating in social clubs and environment programmes, and
defending human rights. Language activities related to involvement may
include participating in debates, writing letters to concerned organisations
and magazines, and making presentations about issues of concern.
Related to the points discussed above is the core of the mission of moral
education; to create responsible, socially aware, concerned citizens. In early
grades, this takes the form of instilling in learners the basic pro-social attitudes
and values; helping them distinguish right from wrong and good from bad,
and providing them with a storehouse of moral examples to guide them. In
higher grades and at the university, this aspect of moral education involves
the development of the learner’s sense of social belongingness and responsi-
bility, concern for people and causes, and a rational approach to all issues so
that the learner can arrive at informed decisions about these issues. On a
global scale, this involves the development of global awareness, intercultural
communication skills, and concern for the environment and human rights
everywhere. This aspect relates to accepting the other and coexistence with
and tolerance/acceptance of what is different in gender, ethnicity, social
status, nationality, political and religious orientation, and the like.
In brief, the framework hopes to contribute to the comprehensive character
growth of the learner as an individual, as a member of society, and as a
citizen of the world.

Resources
The literature on moral education is rich with resources that ESL/EFL practi-
tioners can call upon for use in their classes. The two most recommended
resources are history and literature which are both subjects that English
language arts and ESL/EFL classes normally draw upon. The knowledge
acquired in these two subjects helps make up for the deficiencies of personal
experiences and insights (Nord & Haynes, 2000). The study of literature
gives students insights into the hearts and minds and the joys and pains of
human beings in different times and places. In the primary grades, researchers
and educators recommend the use of fairy tales; in higher grades, they recom-
mend the use of well-known works of literature that deal with controversial
Incorporating Moral Education into ESL/EFL 211

issues such as Shakespeare’s plays, Dickens’s novels, women’s literature, world

literature, and ethnic literature. The idea is that literature, be it fairy tales,
poems, novels, or plays, inevitably explores moral issues, and writers take
stands on these issues. Very often, it considers the moral ambiguities of life
that usually relate to the lives of the students; discussions of these ambiguities
constitute a form of critical reflection on what is right and what is wrong (Nord
& Haynes, 2000). Literature, therefore, has a message that provides the learners
with valuable lessons about their present and their future.
The inclusion in the ESL/EFL classroom of history texts, on the other hand,
gives students the chance to reflect on and appreciate history as a record of
social, political, religious, and economic achievements, as well as moral experi-
ments that provide insights into the nature and causes of human successes and
failures, sufferings and prosperity, and rights and wrongs. When ESL/EFL stu-
dents read history, ‘they are exposed to the heroes, the weaklings, and the villains
of the [target] culture; they see the consequences of human courage and cowar-
dice, and they are inspired or repelled thereby’ (Ryan, 1986: 231).
Another rich resource for ESL/EFL classes is community service which
represents a form of hands-on approach to moral education. Shumer (1999)
believes that community service activities allow the learners to participate
actively in aspects of the community they live in, provide them with the
opportunity to apply the skills and knowledge they have acquired in real-
life situations, and create a true sense of caring and sharing. Educators
believe that there is a direct link between community service and emotional
development (Nyberg, 1990). Conrad and Hedin (1991) report that 75% of
learners who participated in community service learning programmes
found them to be more instructive than traditional teaching approaches. It
needs to be emphasised, however, that for these programmes to optimally
succeed, the service needs to be integrated into the academic curriculum
and time should be allowed for ‘thinking, talking, or writing about the
service activity’ (Shumer, 1999: 1). ESL/EFL students, for instance, could
make oral presentations, participate in discussions and dialogues, or write
journal entries and essays about their involvement in which they reflect on
the experience.
A relatively new source that would provide a wealth of materials for study
and project work is information technology, mainly in the form of the internet,
multimedia, and videos. Increasingly, educators are accessing the World Wide
Web and using e-mail for content information, classroom use, discussing issues,
and preparation of lessons and instructional materials. Furthermore, the world
of technology has recently witnessed a proliferation of educational games that
are instructional and enjoyable at the same time. Johnson (1998) recommends
the use of the ‘Conflict Resolution Game’ which allows participants to
assume the roles of conflicting nations which have to devise ways to co-exist.
Sanchez (1998) recommends the use of Disney movies such as The Lion King,
Beauty and the Beast, Pocahontas, Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella because they
teach moral lessons indirectly, move hearts and minds, and stimulate imagin-
ations. Sanchez also recommends drawing on the ‘PBS Video’ catalogue for
biographies and documentaries suitable for classroom use, especially the
series of 30-minute video programmes known as ‘Adventures from the Book
212 Language, Culture and Curriculum

of Virtues’ which address moral issues such as work, honesty, responsibility,

courage, compassion, self-discipline, and cooperation. In brief, we can
conclude that using ESL/EFL textbooks as basic workbenches, ‘with libraries,
databases, and networks as tools, students can delve deeply into issues that
interest them’ (Anderson, 1996: 3).

Activities
Identification
Identification is a major rhetorical technique used in ESL/EFL classes that
lends itself to moral education. Students may be asked, for example, to identify
the characteristics of a good person or of a healthy social order. They could be
involved in collective brainstorming drawing on their knowledge of history,
literature, current events, and politics for models that can be analysed.

Simulation
Simulation is another activity that students can be involved in when discus-
sing moral issues, especially controversial ones. After researching certain
stances on an issue, students can argue for one stance or another in an atmos-
phere of tolerance and respect for the opinions of others. Such activities help
improve the students’ rhetorical and oral skills. They may also write an essay
about the subject.

Viewing
A third type of activity is viewing a movie or an episode of a sitcom illustrat-
ing a controversial issue – such as abortion, euthanasia, homosexuality – or a
documentary about a certain topic – such as nuclear energy, pollution, globa-
lisation – and reacting to it by participating in discussion groups, making a
presentation, writing a letter to an editor or an entry in a journal, or writing
an essay.

Guest presentations
Another activity involves guest presentations whereby outside resource
persons would be invited to the classroom for a presentation followed by a
question and answer session. The school may, for example invite a policeman,
a Greenpeace activist, or an official of the Environment Protection Agency to
talk about his experience and expertise about the nature of his work and its
moral implications. After that, students can ask all kinds of questions that
can often show understanding, interest, awareness, and reflection. Initially,
the majority of the questions can be prepared ahead of time under the guidance
of the teacher.

Mini-research projects
A more demanding activity that teachers can ask students to be involved in,
especially with high proficiency students is the mini-research project
(Stempelski, 1993). In this activity, students, preferably in groups, identify a
moral issue that they are interested in researching, brainstorm about it to
form a knowledge base, consult references and select ideas and quotations
Incorporating Moral Education into ESL/EFL 213

from them, survey people’s opinions and attitudes, discuss their findings, and
report the findings to the teacher and the rest of the classroom in the form of a
presentation. The students may also be asked to write individual essays about
the topic. The cognitive and linguistic skills involved in this activity are:
reading, note-taking, speaking, listening, composition, inquiry, conclusions,
and presentation.

Assessment
The assessment component of the framework is vital for the effective inte-
gration of moral education in ESL/EFL classes. In addition to traditional
measurements of achievement, the assessment modes should include valid,
reliable, and practical assessment of the development of cognitive and linguis-
tic skills, shifts in attitudes, and character growth. The most practical and
logical approach is to give students a pre-test at the start of the course and a
post-test after the instructional units related to moral education are completed
in order to assess the resulting growth and development of moral concepts,
attitudes, and practices. Adler et al. (1993), Parker (1990), and Rudner (1991)
suggest the use of authentic, performance-based, integrative assessment
techniques which view evaluation as an integral part of the teaching process.
The present framework suggests the adoption of the assessment principles
and guidelines suggested by Parker (1990) for the assessment of civic
education. The outcomes should be conceptualised as performance tasks; the
identified moral tasks should be authentic in the sense that they should
resemble real life moral dilemmas, situations, and issues; the tasks should be
standard setting, pointing learners to a rich level of knowledge and experience;
students should be asked to perform just a few tasks in order to go into them in
depth; all students should participate, preferably through cooperative learning
groups; the tasks should involve higher order thinking; and tasks should be
known to students in advance. The teacher evaluates the performance of the
learners on theses tasks through formal and informal assessment techniques
and procedures such as observation checklists, dialogue journal writing,
self- and peer-assessment, objective tests, written essays, research papers,
conferences, and presentations.

Discussion
The literature on incorporating moral education in language classes shows
variation in attitudes towards the subject. On the one hand, we find activists
who call for the adoption of a critical transformative pedagogy in the classroom
and believe that teachers should ‘embody in [their] teaching a vision of a better
and more humane life’ (Giroux & McLaren, 1989, cited in Brown, 1997) and that
the ‘crucial issue . . . is to turn classrooms into places where the accepted canons
of knowledge can be challenged and questioned’ (Pennycook, 1994: 298). On
the other hand, we find linguists and practitioners who call for giving
learners the freedom to think and decide for themselves without any pressure
from ESL teachers who, in the words of Phillipson (1992: 27) usually have a
‘covert political agenda’ that go beyond language teaching into spreading lin-
guistic imperialism’ which leads to linguicism. Brown (1997: 23) advocates a
214 Language, Culture and Curriculum

middle ground between these two positions that . . . ‘allows us to assume our
responsibilities as agents of change while at the same time respecting the
autonomy of the learner.’ His model is based on allowing students the
freedom of expression, respecting everyone’s point of view, entertaining differ-
ent views, and refraining from any preaching. The moral agenda he proposes
for use in the classroom reiterates the declaration of a ‘global ethic’ suggested
by the United Nations Religious Organization which preaches global interde-
pendence, humane treatment of all people, tolerance, the abolition of ethnic
and gender discrimination, equitable economic systems, and commitment to
peace (Brown, 1997: 23– 24).
The framework for incorporating moral education in the ESL/EFL classroom
proposed in this article identifies with the middle ground suggested by Brown.
The emphasis is on creating students who possess the basic moral virtues of
honesty, respect for others, care for the environment, responsibility, and inte-
grity, but who at the same time are capable of critical thinking and making
informed decisions after considering all sides of an issue without being preju-
diced against those whose views differ from theirs. In this respect, the proposed
framework refrains from using religion as the basis of moral education
although it endorses the basic virtues that seem universal in all world religions.
Discussions of some of the theological aspects of the various religions could stir
trouble in the modern classroom. A glance at the divisive role played by ‘poli-
ticised’ religion in places like Indonesia, Ireland, India, and Lebanon would
clearly demonstrate the dangers of basing moral education on religion. It is
for this reason that the framework calls for nurturing civic values and virtues
that help promote peaceful coexistence in pluralistic societies. It also calls for
adopting the ‘global ethic’ that maintains people’s awareness of their rights
and responsibilities and encourages them to become informed world citizens
who debate rather than fight out their differences in their pursuit of the
welfare of the society and the world they live in.
Another major issue related to the implementation of the framework
is the role of the teacher. While the framework endorses the role of the
teacher as an active moral agent in the classroom, it calls on teachers not
to go beyond the limit of their mission by becoming dogmatic and didactic.
Teachers and schools should, therefore, help their students reach an
informed and reflective understanding of moral issues discussed in the
classroom, but they should avoid taking sides or making biased judgments.
In fact, the basic role of the school and the teacher, after instilling in
children the basic virtues and truths, is the development of critical thinking
skills and a critical attitude that will help them detect biases in all written
and spoken texts.
One final issue related to the present framework is the question of the ability
of the ESL/EFL to implement the proposed programme. Wetsby (2002)
considers that in the majority of teacher education programmes, ‘teachers
are [not] prepared to complement their work to develop children academically
with the need to address their character formation, citizenship preparation, and
social development.’ In relation to this question, researchers have recognised
the need for teacher training to help teachers acquire the basic conceptual
knowledge and the appropriate methodology of presenting the issues and
Incorporating Moral Education into ESL/EFL 215

guiding the students in their acquisition of knowledge and attitudes. Crookes

and Lehner (1998: 2), for example, suggest the introduction of a critical peda-
gogy course as part of ESL/EFL teacher training where ‘the most effective
means of training problem-posing teachers is to teach them by problem-
posing methodology and curriculum.’ The training course would introduce
teachers to the use of effective techniques for: developing critical thinking;
drawing, in collaboration with learners, on real life situations for moral
themes and issues; active learning; posing problems; and intercultural
communication.

Conclusion
The tentative framework for incorporating moral education in the ESL/EFL
classroom proposed in this study aims at helping ESL/EFL teachers become
agents of positive change in their societies through providing their students
with a rich, challenging learning environment that allows them to grow into
knowledgeable, responsible, caring, socially pro-active citizens. It was
argued that the ESL/EFL classroom is an ideal vehicle for imparting knowl-
edge and skills embodied in moral education because the goals, methods,
and activities advocated in modern ESL/EFL practices are highly compatible
with the goals of moral education. It was stressed, however, that the framework
refrains from using religion as the basis for moral education in order to avoid
the trap of politicising the issues. The framework does call instead for the
adoption of a moral education model that promotes civic education values,
basic social skills and attitudes, tolerance, and intercultural as well as intra-
cultural communication. Above all, the framework calls for the development
of research-oriented, critical thinking approaches and attitudes to dealing
with moral and controversial issues so that the learners can make informed
decisions on their own.

Correspondence
Any correspondence should be directed to Kassim Shaaban, English
Department, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, American University of Beirut,
Riad El Solh, 1107 2020, Beirut, Lebanon (shaaban@aub.edu.lb).

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