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CHAPTER 1.0
Introduction
Earthquakes are one of the most destructive natural phenomenon and their occurrence is beyond
the human control but their results are manmade. This, man is responsible to provide protection
measures against earthquake, by way of providing earthquake resistant structure design and safety
measures which is a part of earthquake engineering.
Earthquake engineering deals with the effects of earthquakes on people and their environment and
with methods of reducing those effects. The hazards associated with earthquakes are commonly
referred as Seismic Hazard. The practice of earthquake engineering involves the identification &
mitigation of Seismic Hazards.
Today 100s of millions of people throughout the world live with a significant risk to their life &
property from earthquake damage. The health of many local people, regional & even national
economy are at risk from earthquake. These risk are not unique to United States, Japan, and India,
Nepal or any other country. Earthquake are global phenomenon and a global problem.
Earthquakes have occurred for millions of years & will continue in the future as they have in part.
It is impossible to prevent earthquakes from occurring but it is possible to mitigate the effects of
strong earthquake shaking: to reduce loss of life, injurious & damage.
Effects of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are major hazards and can cause catastrophic damage. They have two types of effects
– direct and indirect. Direct effects causes damages directly & include ground motion and faulting.
Indirect effects cause damages indirectly as a result of the processes set in motion by an
earthquake.
Direct effects: The direct effects of earthquakes are as follows:
a) Seismic waves, especially surface waves, through surface rock layers & regolith result
in ground motion. Such motion can damage and sometimes completely destroy
buildings. If a structure, such as a building or a road straddles a fault, then the ground
displacement that occurs during an earthquake will seriously damage or rip apart that
structure.
b) In regions consisting of hill & steep slopes, earthquake vibration may cause. Landslides
& mudslides of cliffs to collapse, which can damage building & lead to lass of life.
c) Soil vibration can either state a building off its foundations modify its supports, or cause
its foundations to disintegrate.
d) Ground shaking may compound the problem in areas with very wet ground – in filled
land, near the coast, or in locations that have a high water table. This problem is known
as liquefaction when an earthquake shakes wet soil, the soil particles may be jarred
apart, allowing water to seep in between them. This greatly reduces the friction between
soil particles, which is responsible for the strength of soil and the ground then behaves
like quicksand. When this happens, buildings start to lean and can just topple over or
partially sink into the liquefied soil, the soil has no strength to support them. However
as the soil consolidates after the earthquakes, further damage to buildings can occur as
a result of further settlements & sand soil eruptions. Liquefaction can also cause an
increased lateral pressure on retaining walls, resulting in their displacement.
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e) Strong surface seismic waves make the ground heave & lurch, and damage the
structures.
Indirect or consequential effects
The following are indirect effects of an earthquake:
a) Following violent movement of the seafloor, series of sea waves with extremely long
time periods occur. These waves are called tsunamis. These usually take place along
the subduction zone and are very common in the Pacific Ocean.
b) Scieches, similar to small tsunamis, occur as a result of the sloshing of enclosed water
in reservoirs, lakes & harbors shaken by earthquakes.
c) Earthquakes can cause fire by damaging gas lines & snapping electric wires.
d) Earthquakes can rupture dams & levees causing floods, resulting in damage to structure
& considerable loss of life.
Theories and criteria of earthquake design
Earthquake and its occurrence & measurements, its vibration effect & structural response have
been continuously studied for many years in earthquake history & thoroughly documented in
literature. Since then the structural engineers have tried hard to examine the procedure, with an
aim to counter the complex dynamic effect of seismically induced force in structures, for designing
of earthquake resistant structures in a refined & easy manner. The philosophy of seismic design
can be summarized as:
a) The design philosophy adopted in the code is to ensure that structures possess at least
a minimum strength to:
i) Resist minor earthquake (<DBF), which may occur frequently, without
damage.
ii) Resist moderate earthquake (DBE) without significant structural damage
through some non-structural damage.
iii) Resist major earthquake (MCE) without collapse.
"Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) is defined as the maximum earthquake that
reasonably can be expected to experience at the site once during lifetime of the
structure. The earthquake corresponding to the ultimate safety requirements is often
called as Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). Generally, the DBE is half of
MCE."
b) Actual force that appear on structures during earthquakes are much higher than the
design forces specified in the code clause 6.1.3 IS 1893 (part I): 2002. It is recognized
that the complete protection against earthquake of all sizes is not economically feasible
& design based alone on strength criteria is not justified. The basic criteria of
earthquake resistant design should be based on lateral strength as well as deformability
& ductility capacity of structure with limited damage, but no collapse. Ductility in the
structures will arise from inelastic material, behavior & detailing of reinforcement in
such a manner that brittle failure is avoided and ductile behavior is induced by allowing
steel to yield in controlled manner. Therefore, the gap between the actual & design
lateral forces is narrowed down by providing ductility in the structure and additional
reserve strength in structures over & above the design strength.
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c) The design lateral forces specified in the code shall be considered in each of the two
orthogonal directions of the structure. For structures, which have lateral force resisting
elements in the two directions only, the design lateral force shall be considered along
one direction at a time, & not in both directions simultaneously. Structures, having
lateral force resisting elements in direction other than the two orthogonal directions,
shall be analyzed considering the load combination as specified in clause 6.3 of IS 1893
(part 1) : 2002.
d) Earthquake generated vertical inertial forces are to be considered in design unless it is
not significant. Vertical acceleration should be considered in structures with large
spans, those in which stability is a criterion for design, or for overall stability analysis
of structures. Reduction in gravity force due to vertical component of ground motions
can be particularly detrimental in case of pre-stressed horizontal members and of
cantilevered members. Hence special attention should be paid to the effect of vertical
component of the ground motion on pre-stressed or cantilevered beams, girders & slab.
Where both horizontal and vertical seismic forces are taken into account, load
combination specified in the code shall be considered.
e) The response of a structure to ground vibrations is a function of the nature of foundation
soil, materials, form, size & mode of construction of structures; & the duration and
characteristics of ground motion. This code specifies design forces for structures
standing on rock or firm soils, which do not liquefy or slide due to loss of strength
during ground vibrations.
(Reference: Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, P. Agrawal & M. Shrikhande)
Basic requirements for earthquake resistant structure
The basic requirement for earthquake resistant design can be summarized into following:
1) Ductility Requirement
2) Stiffness Requirement
3) Strength Requirement
4) Building configuration
Ductility Requirement
Ductility refers to the survivability of a structure that must respond to strong ground motions.
Ductility serves as the shock absorber in a building for it reduces the transmitted force to one that
is sustainable. Therefore, the survivability of a structure under strong seismic action relies on the
capacity to deform beyond the elastic range, and to dissipate seismic energy through plastic
deformation. As per IS 1893 (part-I) 2002, clause 6.1.3, "Actual forces that appear on structures
during earthquakes are much higher than the design forces specified in the code." In general, it is
not economical to design RCC-Structures to remain elastic during a major earthquake. The basic
approach of earthquake resistant design should be based on lateral strength as well as deformability
and ductility capacity of structure with limited damage but no collapse. It has been demonstrated
that structures designed for horizontal loads recommended in the codes can only survive strong
earthquake if they can have ability to dissipate considered amount of energy. The energy
dissipation is provided mainly by large rotation of plastic hinge. The energy dissipation by inelastic
deformation requires the members of the structures & their connection to possess adequate
ductility. This, ductility is the ability to dissipate a significant amount of energy through inelastic
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action under large amplitude deformation without substantial reduction of strength. Adequate
ductility can be accompanied by specifying minimum requirement and by proper detailing.
Stiffness Requirement:
Stiffness in terms of rigidity is related to serviceability limit. Stiffness is the property of an element
to resist displacement. When two elements of different stiffness are forced to deflect the same
amount, the stiffer element will carry more of the total force because it takes more force to deflect
it. So while designing a building, the designer should consider serviceability in addition to ultimate
strength. Stiffness greatly affects the structure's uptake of earthquake generated forces. On the
basis of stiffness, the structure may be classified as brittle or ductile. A brittle structure, having
greater stiffness proves to be less durable during an earthquake, while a ductile structure performs
well in earthquakes. In seismic design, drift limitation imposed might be considered to be some
kind of serviceability requirement (The maximum lateral displacement of the structure with respect
to total height or relative inter storey displacement is known as drift). Nonstructural elements and
structural non seismic members primarily get damaged due to the drift. Higher the lateral stiffness,
lesser is the likely damage.
Strength Requirement
Strength is the property of an element to resist force. The strength is related to damageability or
ultimate limit state, assuring that the force level developed in structure remains in the elastic range,
or some plastic deformation. Member in the structure should have adequate strength to carry the
design load safely. The designer should concern on the strength of the structural member so that it
avoid brittle type of failure. The basic principle for designing such failure remedy by making a
capacity design.
Building Configuration
IS 1893 (part-1): 2002 has recommended building configuration system is section 7 for the better
performance of buildings during earthquakes. The important feature in building configuration is
its regularity and symmetry in horizontal and vertical plane. In order to economize the cost, seismic
resistance should be initiated at the architectural design stage as it becomes very difficult &
expensive for the structural engineer to make building seismic resistant. As a general principal the
floor plan should be as symmetrical as possible. Some examples for different irregularities are
shown below:
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CHAPTER 2.0
Fundamental of Earthquake Engineering
Earthquakes
An earthquake is a natural phenomenon occurring as a result of sudden rupture of the rocks due to
any reason, which constitute the earth. The vibrations generated due to the occurrence of an
earthquake are termed as earthquake motion. The term earthquake is used to describe both sudden
slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or
by volcanic or magmatic activity or other sudden changes in the earth. In other words, an
earthquake is a sudden tremor or movement of the earth's rest, which originates naturally at or
below the surface. Earthquakes strikes suddenly violently and without warning. The most
important sources of earthquakes from engineering point of view are those of tectonic origin. Thus
an earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of accumulated energy in
elastically strained rocks.
- Energy released radiated in all directions from its source, the focus
- Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves.
- Sensitive instruments around the world records the event.
The rapture of rocks causing an earthquake extends over quite some distance but the point beneath
the earth's surface at which the rupture is initiated is called the by hypocenter or focus its depth is
called the hypo-central (focal) depth, while the point on the earth's surface straight above the
epicenter or hypocenter to any given point is called the epi-central or hypo-central distance,
respectively. Seismic waves originating at the hypo-center propagates in all directions and reach
the earth's surface following different paths.
Epicentral Epicentre
Distance Earth's Surface
Observation
Site
Hypocentre
Grand Surface
Epicentre
Hypocentral
depth
Focus or
hypocentre
Mantle
2900 km
250C
5200 km
Liquid
Inner core Fe, S
solid Fe
6378
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c) Focal depth. The vertical distance between the focus and the epicenter is called focal
depth. It is an important parameter for determining the damaging potential of a
earthquake. Most of the damaging earthquakes have been found of shallow focus with
the focal depths less than about 70km. As the focal depth increases progressively. Also
seismic energy released from a source deeper than 70km gets largely dissipated by the
time it reaches the surface.
d) Epicentral distance. The distance between the focus and the point of determining the
effects of damage of the earthquake is known as epicentral distance.
e) Fore shocks. The smaller tremors which take place before the big or main earthquake are
called fore shocks. These can be caused either by small ruptures or plastic deformations.
f) After shocks. The smaller tremors which take place after the big or main earthquake are
called after shocks. These shocks are caused either by fresh ruptures or the readjustment
of the fractured mass.
g) Major shock. A major shock may result from a rupture of rock over a length of 100 to
400 km and several km wide and thick. The energy released by a damaging earthquake
is of the order of 1020 to 1025 ergs. The bigger is the mass of rupture at one time, bigger
is the earthquake.
h) Magnitude of earthquake. The magnitude of an earthquakes is a quantitative measure of
the actual size of the earthquake.
i) Intensity of earthquake. The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the actual shaking
at a location during an earthquake.
j) Focal region. From the focus, a small region of earth through which the seismic
destruction propagates is called focal region.
k) ISO seismic lines. The lines joining the places or locations of experiencing earthquake of
the same intensity are called iso seismic lines.
l) Homo seismal lines. The line or lines joining the locations or places which receive the
seismic waves simultaneously or at the same times are called homo seismal lines.
CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES
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Earthquakes are primarily caused due to two reasons:
1. Natural disturbances
a) Volcanic causes
b) Tectonic causes
2. Artificial disturbances.
1. Natural Disturbances: The natural disturbances which causes earthquakes are following:
This impact is sometimes strong enough to produce vibrations in the nearby areas. People,
living in Japan and Italy, have experience this type of earthquake frequently. These
earthquakes are not very deep and of mild intensity. The damages caused due to this type of
earthquake is confined within a few kilometers. All volcanic eruptions don't produce
earthquake.
b) Tectonic Causes: Tectonic causes are those which occur inside the earth. According to
the theory of plate tectonics, the Crust (Outermost layer of Earth) is made up of rocks
and is divided into many plates. These plates are constantly in motion in different
directions and with different speeds. These rocks or plates have strain energy stored in
them.
The sudden slip at the fault (A sudden movement along a fracture or crack in the rocks)
results in the release of strain energy in the form of seismic waves which causes the
shaking of the earth. The earthquake which occur due to sudden release of strain energy
as a result of sudden slip of fault is called as tectonic earthquake. This slip may occur
along the preexisting crack/fault or along a new fault plane. The magnitude of these
earthquake depends upon the amount of energy released. More than 90% of total
earthquakes are because of tectonic reasons. Bhuj (2001) and Latur (1993) were tectonic
earthquake.
2. Artificial Disturbances: Sometimes the surface of the earth vibrates due to manmade or
artificial disturbance. These vibrations are very mild and affect the surrounding area only.
The earthquakes of mild intensity are caused due to these external man made agencies. Some
of the artificial disturbances causing earthquakes are listed below:
i) Nuclear tests and explosions.
ii) Mining blasts in the mining area.
iii) A massive landslide along hill slopes caused because of deforestation.
iv) Large and deep excavations.
v) Vibrations induced due to heavy machinery used in industries or movement of heavy
vehicles.
The vibrations or shaking caused due to above reasons is very minor and limited to small
areas only. All these causes occur over the earth's surface so these are also called as surface
causes.
CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are classified according to various criteria explained below:
1) Based on location
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2) Based on focal depth
3) Based on their cause
4) Based on their magnitude
5) Based on the epicentral distance
5) Based on Epi-central Distance : On the basis of epi-central distance (affected area), the
earthquakes are classified into following three types:
a) Local earthquake
b) Regional earthquake
c) Tele seismic earthquake.
a) Local earthquake: The affected area is very less within 10 of the epicenter of the
earthquake.
b) Regional earthquake: The affected area due to the earthquake is within 10 to 100
of the epicenter of earthquake.
c) Tele seismic earthquake: The affected area is greater than 1000 of the epicenter
of the earthquake.
PLATE TECTONIC
The convective flows of hot molten material of the Mantle cause the crust and some portion of the
mantle slide over the hot molten outer core. This sliding of earth's mass takes place in pieces and
is known as tectonic plates. According to some researchers the surface of the Earth is consisted of
seven major tectonic plates and many smaller plates. Some other researchers have suggested that
earth surface is consisted of ten major tectonic plates. The seven major tectonic plates are as
follows:
1. Eurasian plate
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2. North American plate
3. Pacific plate
4. Indo-Australian plate
5. South American plate
6. African plate
7. Antarctic plate
These plates are shown in figure below
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again. When the accumulated energy exceeds the bearing capacity of the materials, earthquake
occurs once again. Thus earthquakes may occur again and again from the same region.
P-Waves
Push and pull
Extension Compression
Fig: Primary Body Waves
ii) Secondary waves: Secondary waves or S-waves are those body waves which propagate
by vibrating the material particles at right angle to the direction of propagation. These
waves are transverse in nature like light waves. There are also called as shear waves.
Properties of Secondary Waves
i) S-waves are slower than P-waves and hence second to reach at the recording station/
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ii) S-waves can travel through solids only because liquids and gases do not have shear
strength.
iii) S-waves are transverse in nature like light waves.
iv) The velocity of S waves depends upon the density and shear strength of the material
through which they pass.
S. Waves
Up and down
Side to side
Direction of motion
c) Surface waves: The seismic waves which travel along the surface are called as surface
waves. These waves do not propagate deep inside of the surface of the earth. These are
also called as long waves. These waves can be visualized as the ripples caused by
throwing a rock into water. Surface waves are the slowest, thus last to reach the recording
station. Surface waves shake the ground surface and are responsible for all the damage
occurring on the earth's surface. These are most destructive in nature. Surface waves are
of two types:
i) Love waves
ii) Rayleigh waves
i) Love waves: These waves were detected by seismologist A.E.H. Love in 1911 and
thus are named as Love waves.
Properties of Love Waves
i) Love waves cause surface motion similar to S-waves, but with no vertical component,
thus the motion in from side to side in a horizontal plane roughly parallel to the earth's
surface.
ii) Love waves travel faster than Rayleigh waves and like S-waves they do not move through
liquid or air.
iii) Love waves along with S-waves cause maximum damage to the structures.
Love Waves Sideways in horizontal plane
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The study of seismic waves and their records is very important in seismology. They not only help
us in assessing the magnitude, intensity and location of the earthquake but also give us information
about the interior of the earth. For example, the S waves help us in knowing that outer core is
liquid because as they pass through the mantle, they disappear. Similarly, movement of P-waves
into the core (outer to inner indicates an increase in velocity), suggest that the inner core is solid.
P (1 )(1 2
P (1 )(1 2)
1
1
2 E 1 2
Vs
P 2(1 ) P
1
E 1 2
= …(c)
P 2(1
Taking the value of (Poisson's) ratio for earth as 0.25 we get
3 E
VP . …(i)
2.5 P
E 1
Vs . … (ii)
P 2.5
VP 3.Vs
VP
or 3 1.734 … (d)
Vs
VP
From equation (d ), 1.734
Vs
Ratio of Rayleigh wave velocity secondary wave velocity i.e.
VR
0.9194 0.92
VS
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From these values Dr. Jai Kishan and associates have given a relation between ratios of V P/VS.
Poisson's ratio and VR/VS and Poisson’s ratio as shown in figure below.
2.5
2.0
VP/VS
1.5
1.0
VR/VS
0.5
POISSON'S RATIO
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Types of Faults
Faulting is the chief cause of earthquakes. The sudden slip of fault produces vibration in the earth's
crust causing earthquakes. Thus, study of different types of faults on the basis of slip of fault, there
are three types of faults.
a) Dip Slip Faults: Those in which net slip is in the direction of the dip of the fault.
b) Strike Slip Fault: Those in which net slip is in the direction of strike of the fault
c) Oblique Slip Faults: Those in which net slip is neither along dip nor along strike of
the fault; rather it is oblique.
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Attenuation relationship relates ground motion parameters to the magnitude of an earthquake &
the distance away from the fault rupture. Relationship have been established for many ground
motion parameters including.
1) Peak ground acceleration (PGA)
2) Peak ground velocity (PGV)
3) Peak ground displacement (PGD)
4) Spectral quantities
Attenuation relationships are developed by statistical evaluation of a large set of ground
motion data.
Relationships developed for different regions & fault types (strikes slip vs subduction) and
interpolates vs intraplates.
Relationship only as good as the data set upon which they are based.
The greater the size of the data set the more robust the relationship.
Cambell (1981) proposed attenuation relationship as;
In PGA (g) = - 4.141 + 0.868 M – 1.09ln (R0.0606 exp (0.7m))
Ground Motion Attenuation
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v) At higher accelerations level, low stiffness and non-linearity of soft soil
often prevent them from developing peak acceleration as large as those
becomes on rock.
Liquefaction
1) Loss of shear strength of soil.
2) Typically occur in saturated sands where they convert into the fluid mass and flow
as fluid causing damage to structures.
Causes
1) If a saturated sand is subjected to ground vibration, it tends to compact and decrease
in volume.
2) If drainage is unable to occur the tendency to decrease in volume results in increase
in pore pressure.
3) If pore pressure builds up to a point at which it is equal to the overburden pressure,
the effective stress becomes zero & sand loses its strength completely, liquefaction
occurs.
Effects
1) Liquefied soil exerts higher pressure on retaining walls which can cause them to tilt
or slide.
2) Liquefactions causes settlement of soils.
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The maximum amplitude of the recorded acceleration is termed as the peak response acceleration
and similarly the peak response velocity, and the peak response displacement are the maximum
amplitude of the recorded velocity and displacement respectively.
For a given ground motion, the deformation or acceleration response of SDOF systems of different
natural periods are different and hence the peak responses are also different.
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The dynamic behavior of most building structures is strongly influenced by the fundamental
natural period and the associated mode. The response spectrum provides a convenient method of
estimating the response of the structure with known natural period to specific ground motion.
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Effect of Local Soil Conditions
Significant differences in structural damage in basin as compared with the surrounding exposed
rocks, or even in the basin itself from place to place, have been observed during earthquakes. The
amplitude of shaking in basin can be more than 10 times stronger than the surrounding rocks.
The effects of soil conditions on the ground motion characteristics needs special attention since
most of urbanized areas are generally settled along river valleys over young, soft soil deposits. The
following aspects of local soil conditions are known to affect ground motion characteristics:
1) Impedance contrast: Seismic waves travel faster in hard rocks than in softer rocks and
sediments. As the seismic waves pass from hard medium to soft medium, their celerity
decrease, so they must get bigger in amplitude to carry the same amount of energy.
Thus, shaking tends to be stronger at sites with softer soil layers.
2) Resonance: Tremendous increase in ground motion amplification can occur if there is
resonance of signal frequency with the fundamental frequency of the soil layer.
3) Damping in soil: In a soil layer where the collision of particles during vibration is not
perfectly elastic, the earthquake energy can be absorbed. This elastic damping property
of the soil can cause significant attenuation of seismic waves.
Effects of earthquakes
Earthquakes can damage structures in the following ways;
1. By inertial forces generated in the structures due to severe ground shaking.
2. By changes in the physical properties of the foundation soils – consolidation,
settlements, and liquefaction
3. By direct fault displacement at the site of a structure
4. By landslides, slope instability, or other movements of soil mass on the surface
5. By seismically induced water waves such as Tsunamis (sea waves) or fluid motions in
reservoirs and lakes.
Measure of Earthquakes
The size of an earthquake can be measured using a magnitude scale and an intensity scale.
Magnitude
It is the measure of energy released at the source of an earthquake. It is a quantitative measure of
an earthquake. The magnitude of an earthquake is independent of the location at which the
measurement is obtained. It represents a universal measure of the size of an earthquake,
independently of its damage potential.
Earthquake magnitudes were initially measured from the amplitude of seismic waves by Charles
Richter. However, magnitude of an earthquake can also be measured using other physical
properties of the earthquake. Some of these alternative measures are- Characteristics of fault such
as length of the fault rupture, the fault rupture area, and the extent of relative displacement between
two sides of the fault.
Richter scale: The concept of magnitude was first introduced by Richter. The Richter scale was
first established by Charles Richter in 1935. The measurement is based on the amplitude of seismic
waves measured at a location and corrected with respect to the epicentral distance. The amplitudes
of seismic waves were recorded by a seismograph.
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Seismic Zoning
It is a process of demarcating or mapping areas of:
Equal seismicity
Equal acceleration
Equal destruction in past earthquakes
Equal degree of liquefaction
Equal structural response
Equal 'a' and 'b' values in Gutenberg-Richter relation.
Equal ground characteristics in micro tremor survey.
Equal level of Estimated ground shaking (PSHA)
The goal of seismic zoning is to delineate regions of similar probable intensity of ground motion
in a country, for providing a guideline for provision of an adequate earthquake resistance in
constructed facilities, as a step to disaster mitigation.
The Problem of designing economical earthquake-resistant structures rests heavily on the
determination of reliable quantitative estimates of expected earthquake intensities in particular
region. However, it is not possible to predict with any certainty when & where earthquakes will
occur, how strong they will be, and what characteristics the ground motions will have. Therefore,
an engineer must estimate the ground shaking. A simple method is to use a seismic zone map,
wherein the area is subdivided into regions, each associated with a known or assigned seismic
probability or risk, to serve as a useful basis for the implementation of code provisions on
earthquake-resistant design.
Hence, Seismic zoning involves identifying and segregating regions of similar probable intensity
of ground motion in a country.
Seismic Risk
Seismic risk refers to the risk of damages from earthquake to a building, system, or other entity.
Seismic risk has been defined for most management purposes, as the potential economic, social &
environmental consequences of hazardous events that may occur in a specified period of time.
A building located in a region of high seismic hazard is at lower risk if it is built to sound seismic
engineering principles. On the other hand, a building located in a region with a history of minor
seismicity, in a brick building located on fill subject to liquefaction can be as high or higher risk.
Seismic risks are the harm or losses that are likely to result from exposure to seismic hazards. They
are usually measured in terms of expected casualties (fatalities & injures) direct economic losses
(repair & replacement costs) & indirect economic losses.
Seismic risk = Seismic Hazard Vulnerability exposure (Structure)
Seismic risk, determined by the combination of hazard, vulnerability and exposure, is the
measurement of the damage expected in a given interval of time, based on the type of seismicity,
the resistant of buildings & anthropisation (nature, quality & quantity of assets exposed).
Seismic Risk Evaluation
The evaluation of seismic risk is an important aspect of earthquake-resistant design. The following
factors need to be considered to make an evaluation for a specific area.
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1) Seismological factors: The seismic zoning map provides the input regarding the
probable peak ground acceleration (PGA) in the region based on the history of
earthquakes including the magnitude, intensity & the frequency of occurrence.
2) Geological Factors: These include the rock formation in the area, the active faults in
the region, & the characteristic of fault boundary. Reports of landslides, major
settlements & floods & tsunamis can also be used for the risk evaluation.
3) Engineering property of the soil: The liquefaction potential of soil, location of ground
water table & its movement, areas of subsidence & the stability of slopes in the area,
all need to be considered during risk evaluation.
Hazard Vs Risk
Seismic hazard analysis: Describes the potential for dangerous, earthquake – related natural
phenomenon such as ground shaking, fault rapture, or soil liquefaction.
Seismic risk analysis: Assesses the probability of occurrence of losses (human, socio, economic)
associated with the seismic hazard.
Hazard: It is the potential to cause harm, damage or destruction.
Natural Hazard: Natural processes, which are potential to cause harm, damage or destruction to
mankind & its environment.
Risk: Probability of losses on account of earthquake or other natural or artificial process. The loss
could be people, their property & environment.
Seismic risk = Seismic Hazard Vulnerability Exposure (Structure)
Vulnerability: Probability of occurrences of damages in population on or structure when exposed
to particular process.
Seismic Hazard: Nature or capability of phenomenon (earthquake) that can cause damage or
destruction to people & their made structures.
Or probability of exceedance of a certain level of ground motion to occur in a particular time at a
particular site.
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Earthquakes Quantification
Earthquakes can be quantified by:
– Magnitude
- Micro seismic data
- Principally, value should be unique wherever it is measured
- Deviations exist on account of heterogeneity that exists in the earth.
- Intensity
- Macro seismic data
- Decreases with increasing distance
- Energy volume expands into a larger volume and so the intensity decreases with distance.
- Pre-instrumental earthquakes are assigned magnitudes analysis macro seismic data.
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MOMENT MAGNITUDE (MW)
- The seismic moment of an earthquake converted to a magnitude scale that roughly parallels
the Richter scale. Because it relates directly to the energy released by an earthquake, it has
become the standard in modern.
- All common magnitude scales are based on the logarithm of amplitude at a particular period.
- They cannot measure the full spectrum of magnitudes because of saturation.
- The magnitude scale was envisaged that was free of such defects.
- The total size of an earthquake is best represented by its moment.
- Moment is measure of energy released during earthquake.
- Moment = D A
- is rigidity of the medium
- D is the average slip on the fault
- A is the rupture area on the fault
- An alternative measure of earthquake would be ENERGY release.
- Moment magnitude is based on the logarithm of moment.
- And represents the energy released at the source.
2
- Mw = (log Mo/1.5)-10.73 = log10 Mo 10.73
3
- Mw is the moment magnitude in dyne-cm
- Mo is moment of the earthquake = F.2b
- This scale is derived by Kanamori (1977)
- Ms is converted into Mw using the following relation:
- Log Mo = 1.5Ms + 16.1
- Mw = (log Mo/1.5)-10.73
- Such conversion is required in seismic hazard assessment.
WHY SO MANY MAGNITUDE SCALES??
- Because Most of the magnitudes are based on the measure of maximum amplitude of certain
type.
- Because one type of seismic wave is dominant at one place and other type is dominant at other
place.
- High frequency waves exist in distances less than 1000 km.
- Local magnitude
- Low frequency waves dominate at larger distances
- Ms, or Mb or MB
- Changes in instrumentation (changes in instrument responses)
- The magnitude formula
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- Station distribution (nearby or distant)
MAGNITUDE CLASSIFICATION
- Magnitude less than 2 micro.
- Magnitude 2-4 minor
- Magnitude 4-5 small
- Magnitude 5-6 moderate
- Magnitude 6-7 strong
- Magnitude 7-8 major
- Magnitude >8 great
MAGNITUDE SATURATION
- Ml
- Starts at 6.0
- Mb
- Starts to saturate at 5.5
- Fully saturates at 6.0
- Ms
- Starts to saturate at 7.25
- Fully saturates at 8.0
- Mw
- Does not saturate
SEISMIC ENERGY
- Faulting involves energy, accumulated over hundreds of years, in the form of:
- Heat energy generated at source during slip
- Elastic seismic wave energy radiation
- Log E = 5.8 + 2.4 Mb
- Log E = 11.8 + 1.5 Mb
- An increment of unity in Magnitude corresponds to ~ 30 time’s increment in energy.
SOME FACTS
- There are over a million of earthquakes each year, most of them are insignificant.
- About 3000 of these produce noticeable effects (tremors, ground shakings)
- About 20, each year, cause major damage and destruction
- On average, about 10,000 people die each year because of earthquakes.
- An increment of unity in magnitude corresponds 10 times increment in wave amplitude
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- An increment of unity in magnitude corresponds to 30 times increment in Energy.
- Intensity varies with increasing distance
- Magnitude theoretically should remain same irrespective of increase in distance but deviations
exist due to heterogeneity in earth's crust.
- Great earthquakes occur along either converging boundaries or transform boundaries.
- Earthquakes along diverging zones, in general, have smaller magnitudes.
- ~ 90% of total number of earthquakes/year occur along diverging zones.
- Earthquakes along diverging zones release only -5% of total energy released per year.
Based on the above factors two scales are commonly used –Modified Mercalli Intensity (MML).
Scale and the MSK Scale. Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least severity) to XII
(most severe). The Intensity Scales are developed keeping in view the following things:
a) The experiences people
b) Performance of buildings
c) Changes in natural surroundings
MSK Intensity Scale
MSK Intensity Scale takes into account the type of structure, percentage of damage to each type
of structure, grade of damage to different type of structures and details of intensity scale.
TABLE: Type of Structures (buildings)
Type of Structures Definitions
A Building in fieldstone, rural structures, unburnt-brick houses, clay
houses.
B Ordinary brick buildings, buildings of the concrete block and
prefabricated type, half-timbered structures, buildings in natural hewn
stone.
C Reinforced buildings, well-built wooden structures
Quantity Percentage
Single, few about 5
Many about 50
Most about 75
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G2 Moderate damage Small cracks in walls, fall of fairly damaged large pieces
of plaster, pantiles slip off, cracks in chimneys, parts of
chimneys
G3 Heavy damage Larger and deep crack in walls, fall of ……….
G4 Destruction Gaps in walls; parts of buildings may collapse, separate
parts of the building lose their cohesion; and inner walls
collapse
G5 Total damage Total collapse of buildings
TABLE: Details of MSK intensity scale.
Intensity Descriptions
The intensity of the vibration is below the limit
I Not noticeable of sensibility; the tremor is detected and
recorded by seismographs only.
Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest
Scarcely noticeable (very
II in houses, especially on upper floors of the
slight)
buildings.
The earthquake is felt indoors by a few people,
outdoors only in favorable circumstances. The
Weak, partially observed vibration is like that due to the passing of a light
III
only truck. Attentive observes notice a slight
swinging of hanging objects, somewhat more
heavily on upper floors.
The earthquake is felt indoors by many people,
outdoors by few. Here and there people awake,
but no one is frightened. The vibration is like
that due to the passing of a heavily loaded truck.
IV Largely observed Windows, doors and dishes rattle. Floors and
walls crack. Furniture begins to shake. Hanging
objects swing slightly. Liquids in open vessels
are slightly disturbed. In standing motorcars the
shock is noticeable.
a) The earthquake is felt indoors by all,
outdoors by many. Many sleeping people
awake. A few run outdoors. Animals
become uneasy. Buildings tremble
throughout. Hanging objects swing
considerably. Pictures knock against walls
V Awakening or swing out of place. Occasionally
pendulum clocks stop, unstable objects may
be overturned or shifted. Open doors and
windows are thrust open and slam-back
again.
Liquids spill in small amounts from well-
filled open containers. The sensation of
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vibration is like that due to heavy object
falling inside the buildings.
b) Slight damages in buildings of Type A are
possible.
c) Sometimes changes in flow of springs.
a) Felt by most indoor and outdoor people.
Many people in buildings are frightened
and run outdoors. A few persons lose their
balance. Domestic animals run out of their
stalls. In few instances dishes and glassware
may break, books fall down. Heavy
furniture may possible move and small
steeple bells may ring.
VI Frightening b) Damage of Grade I is sustained in single
buildings of Type B and in many of Type
A. Damage in a few buildings of Type A is
of Grade 2.
c) In few cases cracks up to widths of 1 cm is
possible in wet ground; in mountains
occasional landslips; changes in flow of
springs and in level of well water are
observed.
a) Most people are frightened and run
outdoors. Many find it difficult to stand.
The vibration is noticed by persons driving
motorcars. Large bells ring.
b) In many buildings of Type C damage of
Grade I is caused; in many buildings of
VII Damage of Buildings
Type B damage is of Grade 2. Most
buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade
3, a few of Grade 4.
c) In single instances landslips of roadway on
steep slopes; cracks in roads; seams of
pipelines damaged; cracks in stone walls.
a) Fright and panic; also persons driving
motorcars are disturbed. Here and there
branches of trees break off. Even heavy
furniture moves and partly overturns.
Hanging lamps are damaged in part.
VIII Destruction of Buildings b) Most buildings of Type C suffer damage of
Grade 2, and a few of Grade 3. Most
buildings of Type B suffer damage of Grade
3, and most buildings of Type A suffer
damage of Grade 4. Many buildings of
Type C suffer damage of Grade 4.
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Occasional breaking of pipe seams.
Memorials and monuments move and twist.
Tombstones overturn. Stone-walls collapse.
c) Small landslips in hollows and on banked
roads on steep slopes; cracks in ground up
to widths of several cm. Water in jakes
becomes turbid. New reservoirs come into
existence. Dry wells refill and existing
walls become dry. In many causes change
in flow and level of water is observed.
a) General panic, considerable damage to
furniture. Animals run to and fro in
confusion and cry.
b) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of
Grade 3, and a few of Grade 4. Many
buildings of Type B show damage of Grade
4. Many buildings of Type B show damage
of Grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. Many
buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade
5. Monuments and columns fall.
General Damage to Considerable damage to reservoirs;
IX
Buildings underground pipes partly broker. In
individual cases railway lines are bent and
roadway damaged.
c) On flat land overflow of water, sand and
mud is often observed. Ground cracks to
widths of up to 10cm, on slopes and river
banks more than 10cm; furthermore a large
number of slight cracks in ground; falls of
rock, many landslides and earth flows; large
waves in water. Dry wells renew their flow
and existing wells dry up.
a) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of
grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. Many
buildings of Type B show damage of Grade
5; most of Type A have destruction of
Grade 5; critical damage to dams and dykes
and severe damage to bridges. Railway
General destruction of lines are bent slightly. Underground pipes
X are broken or bent. Road paving and asphalt
buildings
show waves.
b) In ground, cracks up to widths of several
cm, sometimes up to 1m. Parallel to water
course occur broad fissures. Loose ground
slides from steep slopes. From river-bank
and steep slopes, considerable landslides:
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are possible. In coastal areas, displacement
of sand and mud; change of water level in
wells; water from canals, lakes, rivers etc.,
thrown on land. New lakes; occur.
a) Severe damage even to well-built buildings,
bridges, water dams and railway lines;
highways become 1 useless; underground
pipes destroyed.
XI Destruction b) Ground considerable distorted by broad
cracks and fissures, as well as by movement
in horizontal and vertical directions;
numerous landslips and falls of rock. The
intensity of the earthquake requires to be
investigated specially.
a) Practically all structures above and below
the ground are greatly damaged or
destroyed.
b) The surface of the ground is radically
changed. Considerable ground cracks with
XII Landscape Changes extensive vertical and horizontal
movements are observed. Falls of rock and
slumping of river-banks over wide areas,
lakes are dammed; waterfalls appear, and
rivers are deflected. The intensity of the
earthquake requires to be investigated
specially.
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MMI Scale
The details of MMI Scale (Modified Mercalli Scale) are given below.
TABLE: Details of Modified Mercalli Scale (MMI)
Magnitude Intensity
1. It is a measure of the size of the 1. It is an indicator of severity of shaking
earthquake. The size is measured by generated at a location. The severity of
the amount of strain energy released shaking by an earthquake clearly is much
by the fault rupture. Thus the higher near the epicenter than farther
magnitude of earthquakes is a single away at any location.
value for a given earthquake. From an earthquake of a certain
2. At all locations the magnitude of an magnitude, different intensity is
earthquake remains the same. experienced at different locations.
Buildings are designed on the basis of
3. Structures are not designed on the
intensity of earthquake at a particular
basis of magnitude.
place.
4. They are based on direct
It is measured in relation to the effect of
measurements of the size of seismic
the earthquake on human life.
waves.
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Chapter 3.0
Basic Structural Dynamics
3.1 Introduction
The primary purpose of structural dynamics is to present methods for analyzing the stresses and
deflections developed in any given type of structure when it is subjected to an arbitrary dynamic
loading. The objective focuses to an extension of standard methods of structural analysis, which
are generally concerned with static loading only but to permit consideration of dynamic loading as
well. In this context, the static-loading condition may be looked upon merely as a special form of
dynamic loading. In the analysis of a linear structure it is convenient to distinguish between the
static and dynamic components of the applied loading, to evaluate the response to each type of
loading separately, and then to superpose the two response components to obtain their total effect.
When treated thusly, the static & dynamic methods of analysis are fundamentally different in
character.
The term 'dynamic' simply means 'time varying'. A dynamic load is one, the magnitude, direction
or point of application / or position varies with time. Similarly the structural response to a dynamic
load, i.e., the resulting stresses & deflections.
In general, structural response to any dynamic loadings expressed basically in terms of
displacements of the structure.
3.1.1 Dynamic Problems
A structural dynamic problem differs from its static-loading counters part in two important respect.
The first difference to be noted by definition, is the time-varying nature of the dynamic problem.
As both loading and response vary with time, it is evident that a dynamic problem does not have
a single solution, as a static problem does, instead the analyst must establish a succession of
solutions corresponding to all times of interest in the response history i.e. a structural dynamic
problem does not have s single solution, Thus, a dynamic analysis is clearly more complex & time-
consuming than a static analysis.
Since the earthquake forces are considered dynamic, instead of obtaining a single solution as in a
static case, a separate solution is required at each instant of time for the entire duration of the
earthquake. When a dynamic load P(t) is applied dynamically to a structure e.g. on a simple beam
as shown in figure, the resulting displacements are associated with accelerations that produce
inertia forces resisting the accelerations. Thus the internal moments and shears in the example
structure (beam) of figure must equilibrate not only the externally applied force, but also the inertia
force resulting from the acceleration of the beam. These inertia forces cause the system to vibrate.
P
P(t)
a) Static loading
inertia force
b) Dynamic loading
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Fig: static and dynamic loading
Degree of Freedom
In structure dynamics the number of independent coordinate necessary to specify the position or
configuration of a system at any time is referred as degree of freedom. In general, a continuous
structure has on infinite number of degree of freedom. The process of idealization or selection of
an appropriate mathematical modeling permits the reduction in the number of degree of freedom
to a discrete number and in some cases to just a single degree of freedom. Figure below shows
some examples of structures which may be represented for dynamic analysis as one-degree – of
freedom systems; that is, structure modeled as systems with a single displacement coordinate.
F(t)
y
F(t)
y
(b)
(a) y
(c)
C m P(t)
O O
Fig: Mathematical model for one degree of Different Terms used in structural Dynamics
Different terms used in structural dynamics
Natural frequency. The full number of cycles per unit time is known as Natural frequency. When
no external force acts on the system after giving it an initial displacement, the body vibrates. These
vibrations are known as free vibrations and their frequency is called as natural frequency. It is
expressed as radian per second or Hertz.
Stiffness. The force required to produce unit deformation is called stiffness. It is an elastic property
that describes the level of resisting force that develops when a body undergoes a change in length.
The unit of stiffness is Newton per meter (N/m) or N/mm. (1N/mm=100N/m).
Amplitude. The maximum deformation or displacement of a vibrating system from its mean
position is known as amplitude. Usually it is denoted by A.
Free vibration. The vibration which persists in a structure after removal of the force causing the
motion in the structure is known as free vibration. It takes place when a system oscillates under
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the action of forces inherent in the system itself. No external forces act on them. Oscillation of a
simple pendulum is a good example of the free vibration.
Forced vibration. The vibration which is maintained in a structure by steady periodic force acting
on the structure is called forced vibration. When the excitation is oscillatory, the system is forced
to vibrate at the excitation frequency. The behavior of a system under forced vibration depends
upon the type of excitation. Forced vibration may be either deterministic or random.
Fundamental mode of vibration. The mode having the lowest natural frequency is known as
fundamental mode of vibration of a structure.
Damping. The resistance to the motion of a vibrating body is called damping. The vibrations of a
system associated with this resistance are called as damped vibrations. It is a phenomenon in which
the vibrational energy of the system is gradually decreased or amplitude of vibration is gradually
reduced. The unit of damping is N/m/s.
Resonance. When the frequency of an external force is equal to the natural frequency of the
vibrating system in such situations the amplitude of the vibration becomes excessively high. This
phenomenon is known as resonance. The failure of major structures such as bridges and buildings
largely is due to resonance.
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.). The motion of periodic form is called as harmonic motion.
The harmonic motion is represented in terms of circular sine and cosine functions. All harmonic
motions are periodic in nature, but all the periodic motions are not always harmonic. The to and
fro motion of a body about a fixed point is called simple harmonic motion. Following are the
characteristics of a S.H.M.
a) The motion is periodic.
b) When displaced from the mean position or the fixed point, a restoring force acts on the
particle tending to bring it to the mean position.
c) The restoring force on the particle is directly proportional to its displacement.
A simple harmonic motion may be of the type
x = A sin(t+)
or, x = A sin pt + B cos pt
Where,
x = Displacement
A = Amplitude
= Frequency
P = Angular or circular frequency. It is measured in radians per second
= Phase angle.
In this text x = A sin pt + B cos pt has been used as H.S.M. equation.
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TYPES OF VIBRATIONS
Whatever may be the cause of vibrations, a structure vibrates in one of the following four
deformation or a combination of thereof. The line diagram of these deformations during vibrations
are shown in figure below.
(a) Extensional vibrations. This type of vibrations develop in vertical direction by a rigid block
tied with a spring, one end of which is tied with a fixed support as shown in figure below.
Spring
Weight
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(a) Mathematical modal of SDoF (b) Portal frame having same behaviour
as mass 'm' in fig (a)
FI
FS
m P(t)
FD
(c)
Fig: Downward & upward force due to self-weight & reaction concels
Let the displacement be V at any time t. The velocity and acceleration of the mass at the same time
0 00
would be v and v respectively, Besides the exciting force P(t), the forces acting on the mass
would be inertia force (fI(t)), spring force (fs(t), and damping force (fD(t)) which can be expressed
as
Fs(t) = elastic force = Spring, stiffness * displacement = K+V(t)
00
FI(t) = Inertia force = mass * acceleration = M V (t)
0
FD(t)= Damping force = Damping constant * velocity = C V (t)
P(t) = applied force
Above figure (c) can be expressed in condition of equilibrium forces.
- FS-FD-FI+P(t)=0
FI+FS+FD = P(t)
00 0
m v (t) + c v (t) + kv(t) = P(t) (1)
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Influence of gravity on SDOF equilibrium equation
fs(t) fD(t)
K C fs(t) fD(t)
fI(t) fi(t)
m
(w)
W W
st = static displacement
V(t) V(t)
P(t) P(t)
P(t)
V(t)
(a) (b) (c)
= k
m
Where, A and B are constants which depend upon the initial conditions of the motion.
Note: The motion described by equation (4) is harmonic &therefore periodic. The period T of the
2
motion is determined as T
The period is usually expressed in seconds per cycle or seconds. The value reciprocal to the period
1
is the natural frequency 'f' given by f
T 2
The natural frequency f is usually expressed in hertz or cycles per second.
As the quantity differs from the natural frequency f only by the constant factor, 2, is also
sometimes referred to as the natural frequency. may be called circular or angular natural
frequency. The unit of is radian per second. The natural vibration properties , t and f depend
on only mass and stiffness of the structure. The stiffer the structure, the higher natural frequency
of the same mass & the shorter natural period. Similarly a heaver (more mass) structure of the
same stiffness will have lower natural frequency & longer natural period.
If at time t = 0, v = v(0) , then the constants A and B from equations (3) & (4) will be
v(t=0) = ACos0+Bsin0
= v(t-0) = v(0)
A = v(0)
Now,
0
v (t=0) = A(-sint) + bcost
0
v (t=0 = -A. 0 + B 1
0
v(0)
B
Substituting value of A and B in equation (3)
0
v ( 0)
v(t) = v(0) Cost + Sint (5)
w
This solution represents a simple harmonic motion and is shown in figure
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v(t)
v(0)
v(0)
Q/w
T= 2
(onecycle )
Velocity Vs time
Fig: Un-damped free vibration response
The motion represent by equation (5) & depicted by fig also may be interpreted in terms of
0
v ( 0)
pair of vectors, v(0) & rotating counter – clockwise in the complex plane with angular
velocity , as shown in figure.
Using previously stated relations among the free vibration constants & the initial conditions,
imaginary A=v(0)
wt
Real
0
B=v(0)/w
The natural period, T, defined as the time required for the phase angle, t, to travel from 0 to 2
is given by
2 m K
T 2
k m
1 1 k
f
T 2 2 m
The quantity which have identified previously as the angular velocity (measured radians per unit
of time) of the vectors rotating in complex plane, also is known as the circular frequency. Usually
for structural & mechanical systems the period T is measured in seconds & the frequency is
measured in cycles per second commonly referred to as Hertz (Hz).
C c2 4mk
S
2m
C C
2 2
C 4mk C k
= - (5)
2 m ( 2 m) 2m m
2
2m 2m
K k
Since 2 i.e.
m m
C
2
C
S1, 2 =
2
- (6)
2m 2m
Where, is angular frequency or circular frequency
Three types of motion are represented by this expression, according to whether the quantity under
the square root sign is positive, negative or zero.
Three types of motion
2
C
2
2m
2
C
2
2m
2
C
2
2 m
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Case I: Critical Damping
For a system oscillating with critical damping, then the expression under the radical in equation
(6) is equal to zero.
2
Ccr k
0
2m m
Ccr = 2 km - (7)
Where, Ccr designates the critical damping value. Since the natural frequency of the un-damped
system is designated by k , the critical damping coefficient given by equation (7) may also
m
be expressed in alternative notation as
2k
Ccr = 2m =
Then, both values of S given by equation (6) are the same i.e.
Cc
S1 S2 - (8)
2m
The required solution of the equation of motion for this case
v(t) = A1es1t + A2tes2t (Since, S1 = S2)
= es1t (A1+A2t)
= e-t (A1+A2t) - (9)
v(t) = -e-t (A1 + A2t) + e-tA2 - (10)
Applying the initial condition at t = 0
v(t) = v(0)
v (t) = v(0)
Then, v(0) = A1 [From equation 9]
v (0) = -v(0) + A2 A2 = v(0) + v(0) [From equation 10]
Putting the value of A1 & A2 in equation (9)
v(t) = e-t(A1+A2t)
= v(0) e-t + [ v (0) + v(0)]te-t
v(t) = [v(0) (1+t) + v (0)t]e-t - (11)
Is the required solution for the critically damped system which is portrayed graphically in figure
(a) for positive value of v (0) & v (0)
Note that this free response of a critically damped system does not include oscillation about the
zero-deflection position; instead it simply returns to zero asymptotically in accordance with the
exponential term of equation. (11)
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v(0)
v(0)
2m
Although it is very unusual under normal conditions to have over critically damped structural
systems, they do sometimes occur as mechanical systems, therefore it is useful to carry out the
response analysis of an over critically damped system.
2
C
2
2 m
C>2m = Cc
C C
= - (1)
Cc 2m
2
C C
S=
2
- (2)
2m 2m
2
C
Since, , the expression under the radical of equation (2) is positive, thus the
2
2m
roots of the characteristic equation are real & distinct, & consequently the solution is given by
v(t) = A1es1t + A2eS2t - (3)
From equation (2)
C
2
C
S1, 2
2
2m 2 m
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= 2 2
S1, 2 = - 2 1
= -W - (4)
Where, W = 2 1
Substitute the two values of S given by (4) in equation (3) and simplifying leads eventually to
v(t) = [ASinht + Bcosht] exp (-t) - (5)
A & B can be evaluated using the initial conditions v (0) &v (0). It is easily shown from the
equation (5) that the response of an over critically damped system is similar to the motion of a
critically damped system as shown in figure (a), however the asymptotic return to the zero-
displacement position is slower depending upon the amount of damping
Critically damped (e = 1)
v(t) Over damped (e > 1 or c > cc)
Fig: Free Vibration of under damped, critically damped or over damped system
= 2 1
= -i𝐷
where, 𝐷 = 1 2
𝐷 is the free vibration frequency of the damped system.
The complete solution is
v(t) = A1 es1t + A2 es2t
=𝐴1 𝑒 (−+𝑖 𝐷)𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 (−−𝑖 𝐷)𝑡
= 𝑒 (−𝑡) (𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝐷𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝐷𝑡 ) (3)
equation (3) can be expressed in the equivalent trigonometric form
v(t)=[Acos𝐷 t + Bsin𝐷 t] e(-t) (4)
At time t = 0, v(t) = v(0)
𝑣̇ (t) = v(0)
𝑣̇ (t) = -e−t (Acos𝐷 t) + Bsin𝐷 t) + e−t (-𝐷 ASin𝐷 t+𝐷 Bcos𝐷 t) (5)
v(0) = A [From equation 4]
𝑣̇ (0) = - (A+0) + 1 (𝐷 B) [From equation 5]
𝑣̇ (0) = -A + 𝐷 B
v(0)
B= v(0).
D D
Equation (4) becomes
-t v(0) v(0)
v(t) = e v(0)Cos D t Sin D t (6)
D
Alternatively, this response can be written in the form
v(t) = Cos(Dt+)e-t
in which
= A 2 B2
1
2 2
v ( 0) v ( 0)
= v(0) 2
D
v(0)
1
= tan D
v(0) v(0)
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Under damped system oscillates about the neutral position with a constant circular
frequency D.
2 2 T
Damped period of vibration is given by TD
D 1 2 1 2
A plot of the response of an under critically damped system subjected to an initial
displacement v(0) but starting with zero velocity is shown in figure below.
v(0)
Logarithmic Decrement
A practical method for determining experimentally the damping coefficient of a system to initiate
free. Vibration, obtain a record of the oscillatory motion as the one shown in figure and measure
the rate of decay of the amplitude of motion. The decay may be conveniently expressed by the
logarithmic decrement which is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive
peak amplitudes.
v(0) v(0)
D v1 3
D D
t
2 4
D D
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2 2 T
TD
D 1 2
1 2
vn
If the amplitudes at times t n and tn+TD are vn& vn+1 respectively, the ratio of
vn 1
t
vn v e
0
vn v1 e (t TD )
e t
= = eTD
e t .e TD
= e(2/D)
= exp 2
D
vn
exp 2 (7)
vn 1 D
This is called amplitude decay ratio.
Taking the natural logarithm (ln) on both sides of equation (7) and substituting
vn 2
D 1 2 , then logarithmic decrement of damping is ln (8)
vn 1 1 2
For low values of damping, equation (8) can be approximated by 2
(9)
After m number of cycles
vn v v v v
0 . 1 . 2 . n 1
v n m v1 v 2 v3 v m
1 v
= em ln n
m v n m
v 2
ln n m
2
vnm 1
Note: Damping hasan effect of lowering the natural frequency from to D and lengthening the
natural period from T to TD. These effects are negligible for damping ratios below 20 percent, a
range that includes more structures. For most structures the damped properties. n and TD are
approximately equal to the un-damped properties and T respectively.
Examples:
Question:
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Q. Vertical cable is 3.5m long withcross sectional areas is 5cm2. It supports a weight of
45KN at its lower end. Determine the natural period T & natural frequency of the system.
Solution
Given,
Area of cross section of the cable = 5cm2
Length of the cable = 3.5m
Weight W=45KN
45 1000
M= 4568kg
9.81
E = 2.45 106kg/cm2
AE 5 2.45 106
K= 35 103 kg / m
L 350
= 35000981 = 344 106N/m
3.44 10 6
Un-damped Natural frequency k 27.36 radians
m 4586
2 2 3.142
T 0.273
27.261
1 1
f 3.66cps (Cycle per second)
T 0.273
Q. A vibrating system consisting of a weight of W=10lb & a spring with stiffener k=20lb in
is viscously damped so that the ratio of two consecutive amplitudes is 1.00 to 0.85.
Determine
a) The natural frequency of the un-damped system.
b) The logarithmic decrement
c) The damping ratio
d) The damping coefficient, and
e) The damped natural frequency
Solution
a) The un-damped natural frequency of the system in radians per second is
20lb in
\ km 386 27.78rad / sec
in Sec 2
Or in cycles per second
f & 4.42 cps
2
b) The logarithmic decrement is given by
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y1 1
ln Ln 0.163
y2 0.85
c) The damping ratio is approximately equal to
0.163
= 0.026
2 2
20 10
d) Damping coefficient, c= Ccr = 0.026 2
386
= 0.037 lb sec/in
e) The natural frequency of the damped system is
D 1 2
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v (0) v(0)
v(1) = e -t v(0) Cos D t Sin D t
D
C 400 400
0.1
Cr 2m 2 100 6.32
D 1 2 5.99rad / s
-t v(0) v(0)
v(1) = -e v(0) cos D t Sin D t
D
v(0) v(0)
+ e -t D v(0)Sin D t D cos D t
D
Q. A platform of weight W=4000lb is being supported by four equal columns which are
clamped to the foundation as well as to platform experimentally it how been determined
that a static force of f=1000 Lb it is estimated that damping in the structure is of order 5%
of critical damping determine this structure the following (i) un-damped natural frequency
(ii) Absolute damping coefficient (iii) Logarithmic decrement and (iv) The number of
cycles & the time required for the amplitude of motion to be reduced from an initial value
of 0.1 inch to 0.01 inch:
a) The stiffness coefficient (force per unit displacement) is computed as:
F 1000
K 10,000lb / in
0.1
The un-damped natural frequency
K K 10,000 386
3109rad / sec
m W/g 4000
b) The critical damping is
Ccr= 2 km 2 10,000 4000 / 386
= 643.8 lb.sec/in
Absolute damping = Ccr = 0.05*643.8 = 32.19 lb.sec/in
c) Logarithmic decrement is
ln vn vh 1 2 2 (0.05) 0.314
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vn v v v
0 . 1 ... n 1
v n m v1 v 2 v m
v0 0.1
Ln 0.314m n 0.314m
vn m 0.01
n10
m 7.33 7cycles
0.314
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v (0) v(0)
exp( t ) v(0) D Sin D t D cos D t
D
= 1.8 0.697676 [5 (-0.718194)+1.6020.6958] + 0.697676 [-5 11.86 0.6958 +
1.602 11.86 (-0.718194)]
= -34.72cm/sec
Q. Consider the frame shown in figure. This is a rigid steel frame to which a horizontal
dynamic force is applied at the upper level. As part of the overall structural design it is
required to determine the natural frequency of the frame. Two assumptions are made (1)
The masses of the columns & walls are negligible and (2) The girder is sufficiently rigid
to prevent rotation at the top of the columns (The assumptions are not mandatory for the
solution of the problem, but they serve to simplify the analysis)
v(t) v(t)
200 lb/ft
P(t) K
m
L=15' W 8 24 P(t)
c
25'
W = 200 25 = 5000 lb
I = 82.5 in4
E = 30 106 psi
12E(2I) 12 30 106 165
K 10,185 b/in
L3 (15 12)3
Therefore, the natural frequency is
1 k 1 kg 1 10,185 386
f
2 m 2 W 2 5000
f=4.46 cps
Q. Consider a RCC frame structure shown in figure. Assume (a) the masses of columns are
negligible & (b) the girder is sufficiently rigid to prevent rotation at the top of the column.
Determine the natural frequency of the frame.
10KN/m
Size of column = 240 mm 240 mm
Soln
12EI
K K1 4m
m L3
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K = K1 + K2 = 2k1
= 2 12E I
L3
Size of column
= 240 240 mm
bd 3
I 2.7648 *10 4 m 4
12
K = 2592 103
10 4
m 103 4.077 103 kg
9.81
2592 103
25.213 rad/s
4.077 103
Q. The mass and stiffness of the system as shown in figure are m=5kips sec2/in & k=20 kips/in
& that it is un-damped. If the initial displacement is v(0)=1.8 in & the displacement at t=1.2
sec is also 1.8in, determine
a) The displacement at t=2.4sec
b) The amplitudes of free vibration .
weight W=mg
v
P(jacking force)
K/2
K/2
2
9.26
= (1.8) 2
2
4.97in ~ 5.0in
Some units
Weight (W) N lb
NS2 lbSec 2
Mass (m) kg or
m in
Cyclic frequency HZ or cycle/ sec
rad/sec
lb
Stiffness (K) N
m in
Damping coefficient (0) NS lb S
m in
EI Nm 2
lb in 2
K/2
K/2
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g = 386 in/sec2
1 1
2) Un-damped frequency of vibration, f 0.714Hz
T 1.4
=2f = 4.48 rad/sec
3) Damping properties
0.20
Logarithmic properties ln 0.223
0.16
Damping ratio 3.55%
2
0.0355 2 (1920)
Damping coefficient C=Cc = 2m= * 448
386
= 1.584 kips. sec2/in
1
Damped frequency, D 1 2 (0.999) 2
~ 4.48 red/sec
4) Amplitude after six cycles
6
v
6
4
v6 1 v0 (0.20) 0.0524in
v0 5
Q. The SDOF structure shown in figure consists of 10 kip weight supported by a massless
column. Application of a 5.kip static horizontal force to the weight produces a horizontal
deflection of 0.04 in. Compute (a) the natural circular frequency (b) the natural period of
vibration
Solution.
W=10 kips
5kips
a) K 125kip / in
0.04in
The natural circular frequency is given by
k kg 125 386.1216
m w 10
= 69.5 rad/sec
b) The natural period
2 2
T 0 0.09 Sec
69.5
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Then,
v0
v(t) = Sin0 t v0Cos0 t
0
= (0.04 in) Cos (69.5t)
Q. A cantilever beam 3.5m long supports a mass of 450 kg at its upper end. Determine its
natural frequency & natural period of vibration E=2.45 106 kg/cm2& moment of inertia
I=1400 cm4.
Solution,
Consider the cantilever beam as shown in figure 450 kg
Length of cantilever beam = 3.5m
Weight at upper end W=450kg
L=3.5m
Modules of elasticity E = 2.45 106 kg/cm2
Moment of inertia I = 1400 cm4.
3EI
Flexural stiffness of the cantilever K
L3
3 2.45 106 1400
= = 240 kg/cm
(350)3
= 240981 N/cm = 2.354105N/cm
1 k
f
2 m
1 2.354 105
=
2 450
= 0.364 cps
2f
= 2.285 rad/sec
2
T 1 2.75 sec
f
Q. A vertical cable is 3.5m long, whose cross-sectional areas is 5cm2. It supports a weight of
45KN at its lower end. Determine the natural period T & natural frequency of the system.
E=2.45106kg/
Soln, Given,
Area of cross section of the cable = 5cm2
Length of the cable = 3.5m
Weight W=45KN
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45 1000
m 4586kg
9.81
E = 2.45 106kg/cm2
AE 5 2.45 106
K
L 35
= 35 104 kg/m
= 350000 9.81 = 3.43 106 N/m
Natural frequency, k
m
3.43 106
= 27.36 rad/sec
4586
2 2
T 0.273sec
27.36
1 1
f 3.66 cycle per sec. (cps)
T 0.273
Q. A free vibration test is conducted on an empty elevated water tank. Such as shown in figure.
A cable attached to the tank applies a lateral (horizontal) force of 164 kips & pulls the tank
horizontally by 2 in. The cable is suddenly cut the resulting free vibration is recorded. At
the end of four complete cycles, the time is 2.0 sec. & amplitude is 1 in. From these data
complete the following: (a) damping ratio (b) natural period of un-damped vibration (c)
stiffness (d) weight (e) damping coefficient and (f) number of cycles required for the
displacement amplitude to decrease to 0.2 in.
Soln
F = 16.4 kips
V = 2 in = 1
m = 4 cycles
t4 = 2 sec.
v = 1 in = 2 fig. water tank
We know,
2
a) Ln 2m 2 4
1
1 2
Damping ratio n 0.0276 2.76%
8 1
(Assuming is very small)
b) Natural period of un damped vibration
2
For one cycle, Tn 0.5Sec
4
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Tn
TD since, is very small
1 2
Tn ~TD ~0.5Sec
c) Effective stiffness F = K.
16.4 = K 2 K=8.2 kips/in
d) Effective weight
2
T
2 2
4
T 0.5
k
m
8.2 8.2
4 or, m
m (4) 2
= 0.0519 kips Sec2/inch
W = mg
= 0.0519 386
= 20.06 kips
e) Damping coefficient
C C
Cc 2m
C = 2m
= 0.0276 2 0.0519 4
= 0.036 kip. sec/in
f) No of cycle (m) = ?
v
n 1 2m
v1 i
2
or, n 2m * 0.0276
0.2
m = 13.28 cycles
~ 13 cycles.
Q. Determine the ratio of damped natural frequency to un-damped natural frequency for
various values of damping ratio of .
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Given, = 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.5
Soln,
D
i) = 0.02, 1 (0.02) 2 0.996
D
ii) = 0.05, 1 (0.05) 2 0.9987
D
iii) = 0.01, 1 (0.01)2 0.995
D
iv) = 0.02, 1 (0.02)2 0.98
d
v) = 0.04, 1 (0.04) 2 0.916
d
vi) = 0.05, 1 (0.05) 2 0.886
Q. An empty elevated water tank is pulled by a steel cable by applying a 30KN force. The
tank is putted horizontally by 5cm. The cable is cut suddenly & the resulting free vibration
is recorded. At the end of five complete cycles, the time is 2.0 S and the amplitude is 2 cm.
Determine the damping ratio, natural period of un-damped vibration, effective stiffness,
effective weight & damping coefficient for the given data:
Soln,
1 vn 1 5
a) Damping ratio, ln ln
2m vn m 2 5 2
= 0.292
= 2.92 %
b) Natural period of un-damped vibration
Tn TD 1 2
2.0
TD = 0.4 sec
5
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f) Damping coefficient, C 2 km
= 0.0292 2 600 2.43
= 2.23 kN-S/m
Q. A SDOF system of mass 'm' & stiffness 'k' is found to vibrate with a natural frequency of
12 hertz. If the stiffness is decreased by 1000N/m, the natural frequency is altered by 50%.
Determine mass & stiffness for the original system.
k
m
f = 12 Hz
n = 2f
= 212 = 75.4 rad/s
Now, Natural frequency of modified system is
50
mod = 75.4 – 75.4 *
100
= 37.7 rad/s
now,
2n k
m
Similarly, 2mod k mmod
n ke / m
2
k1
mod ke(mod) k1 1000
m
2
75.4 k
37.7 k 1000
4k – 4000 = k
3k = 4000 K= 4000 1333.33N / m
3
& w 2n k / m
1333.33
m = 0.23 kg
75.42
Springs in parallel and series
a) In parallel (All Springs having same deflection)
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k1
p(t) ke=k1+k2
k2
1 1 1
k e k1 k 2
Q. Determine the natural period of the system. Assume that the beam & springs supporting
the weight ‘w’ are weightless.
wl3
b
3EI
k
W 3EI
kb 3
3
w Wl l
3EI
k1 p(t)
3EI
ke=k1+k2+kb = 2k +
l3
L
ke w 1
w f T
m 2 f
2 m
T 2
w ke
W L3
T 2 .
g (2KL3 3EI )
Q. Determine an expression for the natural frequency of the weight W. Neglect mass of the
beams.
W
v(t)
L/2 L/2
Kb = Ke = Kb+K
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W W 48EI
Kb 3
b WL 3
L
48EI
1 1
1
Ke 48EI K
L3
Ke 1 KL3 48EI
m Ke 48EIK
f
2
1 48EIKg
=
2 (KL3 48EI) w
A B
A C C
B Kb1 Kb2
v1=1 v2=1
C K
3EI 3EI
K b1 K
Kb2 W
a3 b3
a b
W
L
m w a 3b3 1
T 2 2
k g 3EI (a b ) k
3 3
W 1 a 3b3
= 2 3
g K 3EI (a b )
3
Q. A system is consisted of five spring as shown in figure. Find the mass of the system if the
natural frequency f of the system is 6. The stiffness of the springs is given as follows:
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K1 = 1500N/m K2 = 3000 N/m
K3 = 2000 N/m K4 = K5 = 1000 N/m
Soln,
The springs K1, K2& K3 are in series. Upper support
K1
Their equivalent stiffness Ke1 will be
1 1 1 1 K2
Ke1 K1 K 2 K 3 K3
1 1 1
=
1500 3000 2000
423 9 K4 K5
=
6000 6000
6000 Lower support
K e1 666.67 N / m
9
Lower springs K4& K5 are in parallel. Their equivalent stiffness Ke2 will be
Ke2 = K4+K5
= 1000+1000 = 2000 N/m
Final stiffness = Ke1 + Ke2
= 666.67 + 2000 = 2666.67 N/m
W
Frequency f
2
=2f
= 2 3.14 6
= 37.7 rad/sec
2666.67
2 K m ke 2 1.877kg
m w (37.7)2
Q. A iron flat 15cm wide and 4cm thick is used as a simply supported beam over a span
of 2m. At its mid span it is connected by a spring of stiffness of 200kg/cm and a mass of 400kg is
attached at the lower end of the spring. Determine the natural frequency o the system.
E=2.45kg/cm2.
Solution
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Weight = 400kg
Stiffness of spring K=200kg/cm
48EI
The stiffness of simply supported beam K b
L3
bd 3
I
12
Width of beam b=15cm
Stiffness of spring K=200kg/cm
15 4 4 4
Moment of inertia of the flat I
12
= 80 cm4
Stiffness of flat as simply supported beam
48 2.45 106 80
Kb
200 200 200
= 48 24.5 = 1176kg/cm
The two springs one flat as beam and the other spring are in series. Hence their equivalent
stiffness will be as
1 1 1 1 1
K c K f K s 1176 200
Q. A SDoF System of mass 'm' & stiffness 'K' is found to vibrate with a natural frequency of
12 hertz. If the stiffness is decreased by 1000N/m, the natural frequency is altered by 50%.
Determine mass & stiffness for the original system.
K
m
f = 12hz
wn = 2f
= 2 12 = 75.4 rad/s
Now, natural frequency of modified system is
50
mod 75.4 75.4 *
100
= 37.7 rad/s
We how,
2n K
m
Similarly, m
2mod K
mod
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n Ke / m
2
K1
mod Ke(mod) K1 1000
m
2
75.4 K
37.7 K 1000
4K – 4000 = K
3K = 4000 K = 4000/3 = 1333.33N/m
& 2n K / m
1333.33
m
75.42
= 0.23kg
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Equation of motion
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P3(t) m3 V 3
K 3 (V3 V2 ) C3 (V3 V 2 )
K 3 (V3 V2 ) C3 (V3 V 2 )
P2(t) m2 V2
K 2 (V2 V1 ) C2 (V 2 V1 )
K 2 (V2 V1 ) C2 (V 2 V1 )
P1(t) m1 V1
K1V1 C1 V1
Fig (C) Free Body Diagram
The equation of motion of the system can be formulated by expressing the equilibrium of the
effective forces associated with each of its degree of freedom. In general four types of forces will
be involved, the externally applied load P(t) and the forces resulting from the motion, that is inertia
fI, damping fD & elastic fS [ i.e. for each mass the externally applied load must be balanced by
the inertia, damping and elastic forces that resist motion]. Thus for each of the several degrees of
freedom the dynamic equilibrium may be expressed as
FI1 + FD1 + FS1 = P1(t)
FI2 + FD2 + FS2 = P2(t)
FI3 + FD3 + FS3 = P3(t)
Or when the force vectors are represented in matrix form
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FI + FD + FS = P(t), Which is the MDoF equivalent of the SDoF equation
As shown in figure the lumped masses are concentrated at floor level. The restoring forces,
displacement and damping are related. Considering the free body diagram of the masses M1, M2&
M3 as shown in figure (b) & (c).
For mass 3
m3 V3 K3 (V3 V2 ) C3 (V3 V 2 ) P3 (t ) (1)
For mass 2
m2 V2 K 2 (V2 V1 ) C2 (V2 V1 ) K3 (V3 V2 ) C3 (V3 V 2 ) P2 (t ) or,
m2 V 2 V2 (K 2 K3 ) K 2V1 V 2 (C2 C3 ) C2 V1 K3V3 C3 V3 0 (2)
For mass 1
m1 V1 K1V1 C1 V1 K 2 (V2 V1 ) C2 (V 2 V1 ) P1 (t )
Or, m1 V1 V1 (K1 K 2 ) V1 (C1 C2 ) K 2V2 C2 V2 P1 (t ) (3)
Arranging in the matrix form of above three equations
M 1 0 0 V 1 ( K 1 K 2 ) K2 0 V1
0
M2 0 V 2 K 2 ( K 2 K 3 ) K 3 V2
0 0 M 3 V 3 0 K3 K 3 V3
(C1 C2 ) C2 0 V1 P1 ( t )
C V
2 ( C 2 C 3 ) C 3 2 P2 ( t )
0 C3 C3 V 3 P3 ( t )
Where, [m] = mass matrix
[C] = Damping matrix
[K] = Stiffness matrix
{v} = Displacement matrix
{P(t)} = Force matrix
{f}I + {f}D + {F}S= {P(t)}
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Q. Find the equation of motion in matrix form for the given system.
K 2K K
m1 m2
v1 v2
0 V1 3K
m1 2 K V1 0
0
m2 V 2 2 K 3K V2 0
Mass Matrix Stiffness matrix
Q. Find the equation of motion in matrix form for the given system.
K
m1 m2
C 2C
v1 v2
0 m 2C 3C 2K 3K y 0
2 V 2 V 2
2
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Chapter 4.0
Lateral Load Resisting Systems for Buildings
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recommended only up to thirty-storeys due to a limitation
on the drift.
Dual Systems These consist of moment-resisting frames either braced or
with shear walls. The coupling of the above two systems
completely alters the moment and shear diagrams of both
the walls and the frame. The characteristic of this
combination is that in the lower floors the wall retains the
frame, while in the upper floors the frame inhibits the
large displacements of the wall. As a result, the frame
exhibits a small variation in story shear between the first
and the last floors. The two systems may be designed to
resist the total design force in proportion to their lateral
stiffness.
Tube systems It is a fully three-dimensional system that utilizes the
entire building perimeter to resist lateral loads. For taller
buildings, the relatively recent framed-tube, trussed-tube,
tube-in-tube, and bundled-tube systems are used.
WN
WW WE B
O WS X
L
Consider a one storey building of LB dimensions with a wall as shown in figure. Let WN, WS,
Ww, WEbe the lumped weight of the wall respective to its direction considered.
Let, center of mass be X, Y which can be found by taking statical moment about a point
considered. 'O'.
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WW 0 WS L WN L WL L
X cm 2 2
WW WS WN WE
WS 0 WW B WE B WN B
Y cm 2 2
WW WS WN WE
General,
WiYi
X WiXi Y
Wi Ei
Center of Rigidity (CR)
Center of Rigidity is the point that locates the position of a storey shear force which will cause
only relative floor translations. Center of Rigidity means the point where force is supposed to
resist. It is also referred as center of stiffness of a system.
It as a result of lateral forces, on floor of the building translates horizontal as a rigid body
relative to the floor below, a constant inter-story displacement say 'X' will be imposed on all
frames & walls in that story. Therefore, the induced forces in these elastic frames & walls, in the
relevant planes, will be proportional to the respective stiffness. The resultant total force, Vj=Vx,
induced by the translational displacement X, will pass through the center of rigidity (CR).
The position of CR may be different in each story it is relevant to storey shear forces applied in
any direction in a horizontal plane. Such a force may be resolved into two components, such as
Vx &Vy which will cause simultaneously storey translations 'x' & 'y' respectively. The
displacement due to story twist are proportional to the distance of the element from the center of
rotation i.e. CR.
Determination of center of Rigidity
RN
RW RE B
RS
O
L
The center of Rigidity X r & Yr is calculated by taking statical moments about a point 'O'. The
stiffness of slab is not considered in the determination of center of rigidity.
Considering Earthquake force in x-direction ( )
R i Xi
X CR (Using relative stiffness of wall parallel to y-axis)
Ri
1 1
RS * R N *
= 2 2 1
Rs R N 2
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RS * 0 R N * B R N B
YCR
RS R N RS R N
Considering Earthquake force in y=direction ( )
RW * 0 RE L R EL
XCR
RW RE RW RE
B
RW * RE * B
2 2 B
Y CR
RW RE 2
FLOOR DIAPHRAGMS
Definition and Function
A horizontal system (roof, floor or other membrane or horizontal bracing) acting to transmit lateral
forces to vertical-resisting elements.
The floors and roof a building, in addition to resisting gravity loads, are also generally designed to
act as diaphragms. In this respect, they are required both to distribute seismic forces to the main
elements of horizontal resistance, such as frames and shear walls, and also to tie the structure
together so that it acts as a single entity during an earthquake. The robustness and redundancy of
a structure is highly dependent on the performance of the diaphragms. For diaphragm transmit
inertia forces generated by earthquake accelerations of the floor mass at a given level to all
horizontal force resisting elements.
Precast floor without an in-situ topping are not generally recommended in seismic areas.
In a ductile structure, diaphragms will almost always be required to remain elastic, so that they can
sustain their function of transferring forces to the main lateral-resisting structure, and tying the
building together. Diaphragms should in principle therefore have the strength to sustain the
maximum forces that may be induced in them by the chosen yielding mechanism within the rest
of the structure.
Eurocode 8 deals with this rather simply be specifying that diaphragms should be designed for 1.3
times the shear forces obtained directly from the analysis.
Usually, the seismic analysis of buildings is carried out on the assumption that deflections in the
diaphragms are so small compared with those in the main lateral load-resisting structure that the
diaphragms can be treated as rigid. In most cases, this is quite satisfactory, because usually
diaphragm flexibility affects neither overall structural stiffness (and hence natural period) nor the
distribution of forces within a structure. Moreover, during a major earthquake, in ductile structures
where the diaphragms are designed to remain essentially elastic, the superstructure deflections are
likely to include large plastic deformations, increasing the disparity still further.
TYPES OF DIAPHRAGM
a) Rigid Diaphragms
A diaphragm may be considered rigid when its midpoint displacement, under lateral load, is less
than twice the average displacements at its ends. Rigid diaphragm distributes the horizontal forces
to the vertical resisting elements in direct proportion to the relative rigidities. It is based on the
assumption that the diaphragm does not deform itself and will cause each vertical element to
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deflect the same amount Rigid diaphragms capable of transferring torsional and shear deflections
and forces are also based on the assumption that the diaphragm and shear walls undergo rigid body
rotation and this produces additional shear forces in the shear wall. Rigid diaphragms consist of
reinforced concrete diaphragms, precast concrete diaphragms, and composite steel deck.
b) Flexible Diaphragm
Flexible diaphragms – Roofs or floors including, but not necessarily limited to, those sheathed
with plywood, wood decking, or metal decks without structural concrete topping slabs. Metal
decks with lightweight fill may or may not be flexible. Diaphragms are considered flexible when
the maximum lateral deformation of the diaphragm is more than two times the average story drift
of the associated story. This may be determined by comparing the computed midpoint in-plane
deflection of the diaphragm itself under lateral load with the drift to adjoining vertical elements
under tributary lateral load.
A diaphragm is considered flexible, when the midpoint displacement, under lateral load, exceeds
twice the average displacement of the end supports. It is assumed here that the relative stiffness of
these non-yielding end supports is very great compared to that of the diaphragm. Therefore,
diaphragms are often designed as simple beams between end supports, and distribution of the
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements on a tributary width, rather than relative stiffness.
Flexible diaphragm is not considered to be capable of distributing torsional and rotational forces.
Flexible diaphragms consist of diagonally sheated wood diaphragms, sheathed diaphragms etc.
The rigidity of the diaphragms is classified into two groups on relative flexibility: right and flexible
diaphragm.
Flexible Vs. Rigid Diaphragms (another definition)
The purpose of determining whether a diaphragm is flexible or rigid is to determine whether a
diaphragm should have the loads proportioned according to the tributary area or the relative
stiffness of the supports. For flexible diaphragms, the loads should be distributed according to the
tributary area, whereas for rigid diaphragms, the load should be distributed according to the
stiffness. The distribution of seismic forces to the vertical elements of the lateral force resistance
system is dependent first on the relative stiffness of the vertical elements vs, the horizontal
elements, and second on the relative stiffness of the vertical elements when they have varying
deflection characteristics. The first issue defines when a diaphragm can be considered flexible or
rigid. In other words, it sets limits on whether the diaphragms can act to transmit torsional
resistance or cantilever. When the relative deflections of the diaphragm and shear wall are
determined at the factored load resistance level, and the mid-span deflection of the diaphragm is
determined to be more than two times the average deflection of the vertical resistant elements, the
diaphragms may be considered as being flexible. Conversely, a diaphragm should be considered
rigid when the diaphragm deflection is equal to or less than two times the shear wall drift.
Obviously, the performance of most diaphragms falls in a broad spectrum between perfectly rigid
and flexible. However at the current time, there are no design tools available to provide for
analyzing diaphragms in the intermediate realm.
Therefore, model building codes simply differentiate between the two extreme conditions.
The flexible diaphragm seismic forces should be distributed to the vertical resisting elements
according to the tributary area and simple beam analysis. Although rotation of the diaphragm may
occur because lines of vertical elements have different stiffness, the diaphragm is not considered
sufficiently stiff to redistribute the seismic forces through rotation. The diaphragm may be
visualized as a single-span beam supported on rigid supports in this instance.
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For diaphragms defined as rigid, rotational or torsional behavior is expected and the action results
in a redistribution of shear to the vertical force-resisting elements. Requirements for horizontal
shear distribution invoice a significantly more detailed analysis of the system than the assumption
of flexibility.
Torsional response of a structure due to an irregular stiffness at any level within the structure can
be the potential cause of failure in the building. As a result, dimensional and diaphragm aspect
ratio limitations are imposed for different categories of construction. Also, additional requirements
are imposed on the diaphragm when the structure is deemed to have a general torsional irregularity
such as when reentering corners or discontinuities are present.
Diaphragm Discontinuity
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including those having cut-out
or open areas greater than 50 percent of the gross enclosed diaphragm area, or changes in effective
diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 percent from one storey to the next.
w kN/m w kN/m
Seismic
Seismic force
force k=1 k=1 k=1
Reaction Reaction
w
/4 w
/4 w
/4 w
/4 w
/3 w
/3 w
/3
TORSION
For the seismic resistant designs all Indian codes have assumed that the buildings is symmetrical
in plan and the center of gravity of the mass and the center of rigidity of the building are nearly
coincident.
The center of rigidity is the geometric center of stiffness of the variouselements.
Centre of rigidity
Centre of mass
Consider the plan of a floor shown in Figure, The one edge of the floor rests on wall and the other
on the columns as shown. The wall is stiffer than columns, hence for vibration in the direction
parallel to the wall, the center of rigidity will be nearer to the wall as it is stiffer than columns.
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If the mass is contributed predominantly by the floor, then the mass of the floor will be close to
the center of the floor. The distance 'e' between the center of mass and center of rigidity is known
as eccentricity, which causes torsion in the building.
Where a building is considerably unsymmetrical, it is essential to investigate the torsional forces
properly. Similar situation may arise when buildings of different rigidities are connected rigidly
with each other.
In simple cases, the effect of torsional oscillations can be determined. It is difficult to evaluate
torsional stresses in buildings statically, even due to torques applied. The dynamic problem is
much more complicated due to coupling between translational and torsional oscillations.
The IS code suggests an adhoc provision of an increase in shear resulting from horizontal torsion
due to an eccentricity between the center of mass and center of rigidity. Negative shears are
neglected. The design eccentricity is taken as 1.5 times the computed eccentricity between the
center of mass and center of mass and center of rigidity.
Torsionally Uncoupled System
When the center of mass and center of rigidity coincide, torsional shear forces will not be induced
on the wall then the system is considered as torsionally uncoupled system.
X Xr
i.e
Y Yr
Torsionally coupled system
When the center of mass and center of rigidity do not coincide, torsional shear forces will be
induced on the wall in addition to the direct shear force. The horizontal load P will be at the center
of mass, thus a torsional moment, Mt is induced that is equal to Pyex, where ex equals the distance
between the line of force center of mass & the center of rigidity.
{Even in symmetrical structure, where e=0, a minimum eccentricity amounting to 5% of the
building dimension is assumed which is called accidental eccentricity}
EL EL
CM CM CM
e Iey couple
EL EL
CR
Mt=ELXey
r3
CR
r2
Qi ri
CR
K i ri
Fi ( EL e)
2
K i i
r
(Force in each member)
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Solved example:
Q. Calculate the lateral force in the wall of one storey building due to the lateral force 200kN
applied in y-direction &passing through center of mass.
The roof diaphragm is rigid in its own plane and mass at
roof is uniformly distributed.
Given center of mass (CM) = (15, 5)
Center of Rigidity (CR) = (17.33, 5.55)
Solution:
1. Determination of direct shear force
K1F K 200 200K
1) F1
F K 0.5Kf1.5k 3K
= 66.66 kN ()
K 2 F 0.5K 200
2) F2 33.33kN()
F 3K
K 3F 1.5K 200
3) F3 100kN()
F 3K
4) F4 = 0
5) F5 = 0
2. Determination of shear force due to couple
ex = 17.33.15 = 2.33m
ey = 5.55 – 5 = 0.55m
Since, l load is in y-dirn so ex is used.
Now, Mt = EL*ex = 2002.33 = 466kNm
K i ri
Wall Ki ri Kiri Kiri2 Fi Mt
k i ri
2
0.546 S
Data:
Thickness of floor and roof slab = 12.0 cm W 18m
Thickness of walls = 15 cm
Density of concrete = 25 kN/m3
10m
Density of masonry = 20 kN/m3
N
Live loads:
Live load on roof = 0 (for seismic calculation = 0)
Live load on floors = 1 kN/m3
Seismic zone = V
Zone factor Z = 0.36
Importance factor I = 1.0
Reduction factor R = 3.0
The foundation soil is medium hard
Solution
The Center of mass X CM and Y CM is estimated by taking moment at a point say at P in this case.
Point P is situated at the corner of south and west wall. The respective weights are used as forces
in the summation of moment. The calculations are shown in tabular form below.
Table: For calculations of center of mass
w.x w.y
Item Weight i(kN) X(m) Y(m)
(kN-n) (kN-m)
Roof 10 18 3 = 540 5.0 9.0 2700 4860
North wall 10 3.5 5 = 175 5.0 18 875 3150
South wall 10 3.5 5 = 175 5.0 0 875 0
Eastern wall 18 3.5 5 = 315 10.0 9.0 3150 2835
Western wall 18 3.5 5 = 315 0 9.0 0 2835
wx=7600.0 wy=13680.0
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w.x 7600
Xcm 5.0
w 1520
w.y 13680
Ycm 9.0
w 1520
Thus the center of mass of building will be at the center of the plan the building.
The center of rigidity X CR and Y CR is calculated by taking static moments about a point say at P,
the corner of south and western wall, using relative stiffnesses of the walls as forces in the
summation of moment. In the determination of center of rigidity, the rigidity of roof is not
considered. The calculations are shown in Table below.
Table: Calculations for center of rigidity
Item Rx Ry X(m) Y(m) Y Rx X Ry
N Wall 0.454 - - 18 8.172 -
S Wall 0.546 - - 0 0 -
E Wall - 0.5 10 - - 5.0
W Wall - 0.5 0 - - 0
Rx=1.0 Ry=1.0 y Rx=1.0 XRx=1.0
x R y 5.0
X CR 5.0 From West wall
Ry 1.0
y R x 8.172
Y CR 8.172 From Southwall
Rx 1.0
Torsional Eccentricity
Torsional eccentricity in y direction.
Eccentricity between the center of mass and center of rigidity
ey=9.0 – 8.172 = 0.90 = 1.73 m
Add minimum 5% as accidental eccentricity = 0.05 10 = 0.5m
Total eccentricity = 0.0 + 0.5 = 0.5m
Torsional moment
The torsional moment due to E-W seismic forces rotate the building in y direction, hence
MTx = Vx.ey =409.5 1.73 (Base shear = 409.5)
= 708.7 kN-m
Similarly torsional moment due to N-S forces rotate the building in x direction.
MTy = Vy.ex = 409.5 0.5 = 204.75 kN-m
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For period 0.2, which is in between 0.1 and 0.55, the value of say Sa/g is 2.5 is constant.
VBx = VBy
Distribution of direct shear force and torsional force
As we are considering the seismic forces in E-W direction, the walls in N-S direction will resist
the forces and walls in E-W direction may be neglected.
The distribution of direct shear and torsional shear is shown in Table below
Table: Distribution of forces in North and South shear walls
Torsional Total
Direct shear shear shear
Item Rx d*y(n) Rxdy Rx. d 2y
force (kN) force** force
(kN) (kN)
N. wall 0.454 (18-8.172) 4.432 43.82 290.75 + 39.1 329.85
= 9.828 4.992 36.46 118.75 - 39.62 118.75
8.172
Rx d 2y =
80.29
Note: *Distance of considered wall from center of rigidity. (18 – 8.172) = 9.828
R xd y
**Torsional force in N wall = VB .e y
R x d 2y
4.432
= 409.5 1.73 39.1
80.29
R x .d y
Torsional force in S wall = VD C y
R x d 2y
4.492
= 409.5 1.72 39.62
80.29
Direct S.F.
Torsional forces are additive on the North wall and subtractive on the N. Wall
south wall as shown. The code direct that negative torsional shear shall Torsional
Force
be neglected. Hence the total shear acting on the south wall is simply
Applied
direct shear only. force
Seismic
C.G. Force
The center of mass, center of rigidity and forces are shown in Fig.
C.R.
Resisting
Force
South Wall
Example: Determine the torsional forces in a one storey shear wall
masonry structure with a rigid diaphragm roof with the following data.
There are four with the following data. There are four shear walls with Torsional Force
Direct S.F.
relative rigidity. The rigidity of walls are shown on the Figure below
Data:
Height of parapet walls =1m
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Height of walls up to roof level = 4.0m
S. Wall
5m 5.0m 5m
Rx=0.2
W. Wall
9m Rx=0.7 Rx=0.3 6m
E. Wall
Rx=0.8
A N. Wall
wx=7837.5 Wy=3622.5
Wx 7837.5
Center of mass from W wall Xcm 7.094
W 1105
= 7.1 m
W.y 3622.5
Center of mass from N wall, Ycm 3.278
W 1105
Location of center of rigidity
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Let the coordinates of center of rigidity be x cr and y cr Taking moment about a point say 'A' at the
left corner of the building of N wall and W wall. The stiffness of roof and height of parapet are not
considered in the calculations for center of rigidity.
Table
Item Rx Ry x (m) y (m) Y Rx X Ry
E. wall - 0.3 15 - - 4.5
W. wall - 0.7 0 - - 0.00
S. wall 0.2 - - 9.0 1.8 -
N. wall 0.8 - - 0 - -
Rx=1.0 Ry=1.0 y Rx=1.8 xRy=4.5
xR y 4.5
X CR 4.5m
Ry 1.0
y R x 1.8
Y CR 1.8m
Rx 1.0
Torsional eccentricity
Torsional eccentricity in x direction ex Xcm XCR
= 7.1 – 4.5 = 2.5m
Accidental eccentricity @ 5% = 0.05 15 = 0.75 m
Total eccentricity = 2.6 + 0.75 = 3.35m
Torsional eccentricity YCM YCR = 3.278 – 1.8 = 1.478m
Accidental eccentricity @ 5% = 0.05 9 = 0.45 m
Total eccentricity = 1.478 + 0.45 = 1.93 m
Torsional moment
The torsional moment due to seismic force in East and West direction wall rotate the building in x
direction hence
MTx = Vxey = 330 1.93 = 639.9 kN-m
Similarly the seismic force in North-south direction will rotate in the direction hence
MTy =Vy.ex=330 3.35
= 1105.5 kN-m
Distribution of direct shear force and torsional shear force
i) If the seismic force is considered only in East and West direction, then the walls in the
south and North direction will resist the seismic forces and the walls in East and West
direction may be ignored.
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ii) If the seismic force is considered in South and North direction the walls in East and West
direction will resist the seismic forces and the walls in south and North direction may be
ignored. The distribution of forces in the walls will be as follows:
Direct shear force in south wall
Rx
= Vx
Rx
= Relative rigidity of the wall concerned Base shear
= 0.2 330 = 66 kN
Direct shear force in the North wall
= Relative rigidity of the wall Base shear
= 0.8 330 = 264 kN
Rigidity shear force in the south wall
R x .d y 1.44
= Vx .e y 636.9 70.85kN
R x .d 2
y 12.5
Rigidity shear force in North wall
R x .d y 1.44
= Vx .e y 636.9 70.85kN
R x .d 2
y 12.5
(It is minus as distance dy is ( - ) as point is down ward the center of rigidity).
The distribution of forces in south and north shear walls is shown in Table below:
Direct Torsional Total
2
Item Rx dy(m) Rx .dy Rx. d y shear force shear force shear
kN kN force kN
S. wall 0.2 (9.8-1.8)=7.2 1.44 10.368 66.0 70.85 136.85kN
N. wall 0.8 - 1.8 1.44 2.592 264.0 -70.85 264.0*
* Neglecting negative rigidity shear as per code.
Direct shear in Eastern wall
= Relative rigidity of concerned wall Base shear
= 0.3 330. = 99 kN
Similarly direct shear in western wall = 0.7 330 = 231 kN
R yd x
Rigidity shear in East wall = Vy .e x
R y d 2x
Distance of center of rigidity from Eastern wall = 15.0 – 4.5 = 10.5m
Distance of center of rigidity from Western wall = - 4.5
Note: The direction of center of rigidity from Eastern wall is in opposite direction, hence negative.
Table
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3.15
= 330 3.35 73.7kN
47.25
R yd x
Similarly torsional rigidity in Western wall = Yy e x
R y d 2x
3.15
= 330 3.35 73.7kN
47.25
Results are shown
S. Wall
15m
Column
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lb = moment of resistance
b) Frame with infinitely rigid beam (lb= )
In this kind of framed structure, the joint are rigidly connected and the stiffness of the beam is in
inconsiderable amount i.e. k=. The lateral forces that act on the frame generate a moment in the
horizontal as well as vertical member of the rigid joint. These moment are ultimately transferred
to the foundation. In comparison to the frame without rigid joint, this kind of frame is 50% more
functional from structural point of view. This is high preferable in the seismic zone.
(This kind of structure have high frequency with law time period)
P P
2) Shear Walls
Shear walls are specially designed structural wall incorporated in building to resist lateral forces
that are produced in the plane of wall due to wind, earthquake and other forces. They are usually
provided in tail building and have been found to be advantageous in avoiding total collapse of the
building under seismic forces. The design of these walls for seismic forces require special
consideration as they should be safe under repeated load shear wall can be classified as follows:
a) Simple rectangular type and the flanged wall (Barbel)
Barbel type shear wall are formed where a wall is provided monolithically betn two columns. The
columns at the end are then called boundary element.
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Shear wall
Column
Shear wall
Coupling Beam
Frame member
Infill wall
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Shear wall
Column
Open Space
Shear wall
Plan
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CHAPTER 5.0
Seismic Resistant Building Design as per I.S. codes
Introduction
An earthquake generates motions in the ground in all directions. When a structure standing on the
ground encounters such ground motions, it vibrates in all the three directions. The predominant
direction of shaking or vibrating is horizontal. All structures primarily are designed for gravity
loads (mass time's gravity in the vertical direction). Usually a factor of safety is used in the design
specifications; hence most of the structures remain adequately protected against vertical shaking.
Generally the inertia forces generated by the horizontal components of ground motions need
greater attention in the seismic design. The vertical inertia forces generated by the earthquake must
also be considered in the design unless checked and proved to be insignificant.
Generally building are not susceptible to vertical ground motion, but its effect should be taken into
account in the design of R.C.C. columns steel column connections and pre-stressed concrete
beams. Vertical accelerations
Steps involved in the earthquake resistant design
Following steps are involved in the design of an earthquake resistant building or structure:
a. Selection of the workable over all structural concept
b. B. Establishing proper sizes of the members.
c. C. performing structural analysis of the members to verify that the stress and displacement
requirements are satisfied.
d. Providing structural and non structural details so that the building may accommodate all
stresses and distortions likely to be developed.
The nature of the soil has a great influence on the intensity of ground shaking, which causes
structural damage. These damages have been found to occur even when the soil underlying a
building may remain perfectly stable during the earthquake.
a. Nature of sub soil. It has been observed that loose and unstable soils coincide with heavy
damage i.e. building situated on loose and unstable soils suffer heavy damage. On the other
hand buildings situated on rocks are damaged very less.
b. It has been found that prominent periods of ground vibrations during earthquake are the
periods of natural vibrations of bedded soil layer characteristics of a given locality. Soft
soils are found to have large periods where as firm soils have smaller periods.
c. The type of soil also has been found to influence the amplitude of its vibrations. Vibration
amplitudes of different soils have been found as follows:
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The influence of actual soil conditions on the seismic hazards can be established by the special
studies of local conditions according to their seismic risk potential. This procedure is called
micro zoning. From micro zoning it will be revealed that cities situated on loose soil are likely
to suffer greater destruction as loose soils amplify the earthquake vibrations. On the other hand
cities situated on hard rock would suffer less destruction. Thus micro zoning will help to
prepare detailed seismic maps of a city according to density of population and seismic risk on
the basic construction of big structures on ……..
When earthquake forces are considered the allowable bearing pressure in soils shall be
increased as per table shown below depending upon type of foundation of the structure and the
type of soil.
Table Percentages of permissible increase in allowable bearing pressure or resistant of soils.
(Clause 6.3.5.2)
S.No Foundation Type of soil mainly constitution the foundation
Type I rocks or hard Type II medium Type III soft
soil: well graded gravel Soils: all soils soils : all soils
and sand gravel with N between 10 other than SP
mixtures with or and 30 and poorly with N<10
without clay binder and graded sands or
clayey sands poorly gravelly sands
graded or sand clay with little or no
mixtures (GB, CW, SB, fines (sp1) with
SW and SC) having N2 N>15)
above 30 where N is the
standard penetration
value
1 2 3 4 5
I Piles passing 50 50 50
through any soil but
resting on soil type I
Notes:
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1. The allowable bearing pressure shall be determined in accordance with 196403 or IS 1888
2. If any increase in bearing pressure has already been permitted for forces other than seismic
forces, the total increase in allowable bearing pressure when seismic force is also included
shall not exceed the limits specified above.
3. Desirable minimum field value of N and H soil of sinner value are met compacting may be
adopted to achieve these values or deep pile foundation going to stronger strata should be
used.
4. The values of N (corrected values) are at the founding level and the allowable bearing
pressure shall be determined in accordance with IS 6403 or IS 1888.
Load combinations
Clause 6.3 of IS 1893 discusses various load combinations for design of structures while
considering earthquake forces. For limit state design of reinforced concrete and prestressed
concrete structures, the following load combinations should be used.
1. 1.5(DL+IL)
2. 1.2(DL+IL_+EL)
3. 1.5(DL_+EL)
4. 0.9 DL_+EL
Where
DL= dead load
IL= Imposed load
El= Earthquake load
+and-sign with earthquake load is taken because earthquake load is reversible in direction.
Represent the behavior of the structure under assumed ground motion expected at the site proper
modeling of the structure, material elements and connection is required for the accurate dynamic
analysis.
Increase in permissible stresses in materials when earthquake forces are considered along with
other normal design forces, the permissible stresses in material may be increased by one third.
However for steel the stress will be limited to yield stress or 0.2 percent proof stress.
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Based on the external action and behavior of structure the analysis can further be classified as
linear static analysis linear dynamic analysis, non linear static analysis or non liner dynamic
analysis.
The linear static or equivalent static analysis can be used for regular structures with low to medium
heights. The linear dynamic analysis can be performed in two ways as
1. Response spectrum method
2. By the elastic time history method
The significant difference between liner static and linear dynamic analysis is follows:
1. Magnitude (Level of forces
2. Distribution of forces along the height of the structure.
Non liner static analysis is an improvement over liner static or dynamic analysis as it allows
inelastic behavior of the structure. This method is simple to use. It provides information regarding
strength, deformation and the ductility of the structure. It also provides distribution of demands
along the height of the structure.
This method facilitates the identification of the critical members that are likely to attain the limit
states during the earthquake. This limit state should be taken into consideration at the time of
design and detailing process.
However this method is based on many assumptions, which neglect the resonance etc. inspite of
these shortcomings, this method provides a reasonable estimation of the global deformation
capacity, especially for structures which respond according to the first mode.
During an earthquake the actual behavior of structure is only described by a non liner dynamic
analysis or inelastic time history method. This method is based on direct numerical integration of
the elasto-plastic deformation of the structural elements.
Methods of elastic analysis
The most commonly used methods of elastic analysis are based on the approximations. The effects
of yielding can be estimated by liner analysis of the building, using design spectrum for inelastic
systems. Forces and displacements due to each horizontal component of the ground motion are
determined separately by the analysis of an idealized building of one lateral degree of freedom per
floor in the direction of the ground motion component being considered. Such analysis may be
carried out by any of the following methods.
i. By equivalent lateral force method (static method)
ii. By response spectrum analysis method (Dynamic method)
iii. By elastic time history method. It is a refined method of dynamic analysis
Both static and dynamic method lead directly to the lateral forces in the direction of ground motion
component. The main differences between the two methods are in the magnitude and distribution
of the lateral forces over the height of the building. The static method mainly is suitable for
preliminary design of building. The preliminary design of the building is then used for dynamic
analysis or any other refined method as elastic time history method.
Equivalent lateral force method (Seismic Coefficient method)
The seismic analysis of most of the structures is still carried out on the assumption that the lateral
force (horizontal force) due to earthquake is equivalent to the actual (Dynamic) loading. This
method requires only natural period or fundamental period of the building, and periods and shapes
of higher modes of vibration are not required. Hen ce this method is less laborious. The base shear,
which is the total horizontal force on the structure is calculated on the basis of mass of the structure,
its fundamental period of vibration and structure in terms of lateral forces according to the code
formula. The planar models appropriate for each of the two orthogonal (x and y) lateral directions
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are analyzed separately. The results of the two analysis and other effects as that of tensional
motions of the structures are combined. This method usually is limited to low to medium height
buildings with regular configuration.
Response spectrum analysis
This method is also known as mode superimposition or model method this method is applicable
especially to those structures, whose responses are significantly affected by the models others than
fundamental mode. Generally this method is applicable to the analysis of the dynamic response of
asymmetrical or having areas of discontinuity or irregular structures in their linear range of
behavior. Particularly this method is applicable to the analysis of forces and deformations in the
multi storey building due to medium intensity of ground shaking. This ground shaking causes a
moderately large but essentially linear response in the structure. This method is based on the fact
that for certain form of damping, which are reasonably models for many buildings, the response
in each natural mode of vibration can be computed independently of the others.
The total response can be determined by combining the model response. Earthquake mode
responds with its own particular pattern of deformation (Mode shipping) with its own frequency
and with its own model damping. The time history each model response can be determined by the
analysis of single degree freedom (SDOF) oscillator with properties chosen to be representative of
the particular mode and the degree to which it is excited by the earthquake motion in general the
responses should be determined only in the first few model the response to the earthquake mainly
is due to lower modes of vibration. A complete modal analysis provides the history of response
that is history of forces, displacements, and deformation of a structure to a specified ground
acceleration history. However for design of structures complete response history is seldom
required. For design purposes the maximum response value during the period of earthquake
usually are sufficient.
In its most general form this method is applicable to arbitrary three dimensional structural systems.
But for the purpose of design of buildings, can be simplified from the general case by restricting
its application to the lateral motion in a plane. The planar models for each of the two orthogonal
directions can be analyzed separately and the result of the analysis and others effects such as
torsional motion of the structure are combined
Comparative study of equivalent lateral force and response spectrum analysis
The main difference is in the magnitude of base shear and distribution of lateral forces. It is shown
in tabular from in table below
Table
S.no. Equivalent lateral force method Response spectrum method
1 Both are based on the basic In this method the force calculations are
assumptions made based on compound period and mode
shapes of several modes modes of
2. In this method the force vibrations
calculations are based on the This method can be applied to the
estimate of the fundamental period analysis of model
3 The force distribution is based on It requires more computation efforts in
simple formula appropriate for analysis
buildings with regular distribution
of mass and stiffness over the
4. height It is more completed.
This formula usually is used
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Elastic time history method
Thought linear time history analysis over comes all disadvantages of mode response spectrum
analysis provided non linear behavior is not required, but it is more laborious, this method requires
large number of calculations for determining the response at discrete times. In most cases this in
not required.
Assumptions made in model analysis
In the model analysis of a building certain assumption has to be made for simplicity in calculations.
In building analysis usually following assumptions are made.
1. In the model of a building usually the floor is assumed rigid and the columns as flexible.
2. In the model of a building for simplicity usually the floor is assumed infinitely rigid as
compared to columns.
3. In multi storied buildings the lateral force or load is assumed to act at floor level.
4. In case of R.C.C. structures the effective length of columns is assumed as distance from
the centre to centre of the floors. This assumption is reasonable for buildings having the
ratio of moment of inertia per unit length of the beam to that of the column of the order 3
to 8.0.
5. The elastic modulus of R.C.C. column is assumed to be between 0.15 to 0.3x10 11 N\m2.
The value of elastic modulus is a function of composition of concrete and its age under
stress.
6. The damping of the system usually is chosen arbitrarily. It (damping) varies with strain in
material, its nature and details of construction
7. The damping is specified in terms of model damping. The percentage damping for various
materials increases with strain levels and in the following range:
Material Damping
Concrete 5 to 10%
Steel 2 to 5%
Masonry 5 to 10%
Soil 10 to 30%
Timber 2 to 5%
The model analysis for estimation of ground motions is adopted for important and special
structures only. For routine structures and for preliminary design of special structures empirical
coefficients are used. For a rational design these coefficients should be based on detailed dynamic
study of a class of typical structures.
Zone Factor
Seismic zoning assesses the maximum severity of shaking that is anticipated in particular region.
The zone factor (z) thus is defined as a factor to obtain the design spectrum depending on the
perceived seismic hazard in the zone in which the structure is located. The basic zone factors
included in the code are reasonable estimate of effective peak ground acceleration. Zone factor as
per IS 1893 (Part) 2002 are given in table below
It depends on the expected seismic damage of the structure. This factor represents the structures
ductility characteristics. He level of R table Ductility. The code IS 1893 gives the value of table
for different types of buildings on the basis of experiences with past earthquakes
Table Response reduction factor (1) R for Building Systems (clause 6.4.2)
S. No. Lateral Load Resisting System (2) R (3)
(1)
Building frame systems
(I) Ordinary RC moment resisting frame (OMRF)2 3.0
(II) Special RC Moment Resisting frame (SMRF)3 5.0
III Steel frame with 4.0
(a) Concentric Braces 5.0
(b) Eccentric Braces
IV Steel moment resisting frame designed as per SP 6(6) 5.0
Building with shear wall (4)
V Load bearing masonry wall buildings (5)
(a) Unreinforced 1.5
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1. The value of response reduction factors are to be used for buildings with lateral
load resisting elements, and not just for the lateral load resisting elements built in
isolation.
2. OMRF are those designed and detailed as per IS 456 or IS 800 but not meeting
ductile detailing requirement as per IS 13920 or SP 6 (6) respectively.
3. SMRF defined in 4.15.2
4. Building with shear walls also include building s having shear walls and frames
but where:
a. Frames are not designed to carry lateral loads, or
b. Frames are designed to carry lateral loads but not fulfill the requirements of
dual systems.
5. Reinforcement should be as per IS 4326.
6. Prohibited in zones IV and V.
7. Ductile shear walls are those designed and detailed as per 13920
8. Buildings with dual systems consist of shear walls (or braced frames) and moment
resisting frames such that:
a. The two systems are designed to resist the total design force in proportion to
their lateral stiffness considering the interaction of the dual system at all floor
levels; and
b. The moment resisting frames are designed to independently resist at least 25
percent of the design seismic base shear.
Where is height of building in meters (this excludes the basement storey's, where basement walls
are connected with the ground floor deck or fitted between the building columns. But it includes
the basement storey's, when they are not so connected), and d is the base dimension of the building
at plinth level, in meters along the considered direction of the lateral force
Fig: Design response spectrum for rock and soil sites for 5 per cent damping
Acceleration spectrum or base shear coefficients as a function of natural period. These coefficients
are ordinates of the acceleration spectrum, divided by acceleration due to gravity. This relationship
works well in SDOF systems. The spectral ordinates are used for the computation of inertia forces.
Figures above relates to the proposed 5 per cent damping for rocky or hard soils sites and table
below gives the multiplying factors for obtaining spectral values for various other damping (note
that the multiplication is not to be done for zero period acceleration). The design spectrum
ordinates are independent of the amounts of damping (multiplication factor of 1.0) and their
variations from one material or one structural solution to another.
Table Multiplying factor for obtaining spectral values for damping (other than 5 per cent
damping)
Damping (per cent) 0 2 5 7 10 15 20 25 30
Factors 3.20 1.40 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.50
Equivalent lateral force method
This method of finding design lateral forces is also known as the static method or the equivalent
static method or the seismic coefficient method. This procedure does not require dynamic analysis,
however, it accounts for the dynamics of building in an approximate manner. The static method is
the simplest one-it requires less computational effort and is based on formulae given in the code
of practice. First, the design base shear is computed for the whole building, and it is then distributed
along the height of the building. The lateral forces at each floor level thus obtained are distributed
to individual lateral load resisting elements.
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Seismic base shear
The total design lateral force or design seismic base shear (Vb) along any principal direction is
determined by
Where Ah is the design horizontal acceleration spectrum value, using the fundamental natural
period, T, in the considered direction of vibration and W is the seismic weight of the building
(section 5.9.2). The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ah for a structure is determined by the
expression.
For any structure w3ith T<0.1 s, the value of Ah will not be taken less than Z/2 whatever be the
value of I/R z is he zone factor given table for the maximum considered earthquake (MCE). The
factor 2 in the denominator is use so as to reduce the maximum considered earthquake (MCE)
zone factor to the factor for design basic earthquake (DBE). I is the important factor and depends
upon the functional use of the structure, the hazardous consequences of its failure post earthquake
functional needs, historical value, or economic importance. R is the response reduction factor
depends on the perceived seismic damage performance of the structure characterized by ductile or
brittle deformations. This factor is used to decide what building materials are used, the type of
construction, and the type of lateral bracing system. Sa/g is the response acceleration coefficient
as given by figure represent free-field ground motion. For other damping values of the structure,
multiplying factors given in table should be used.
For rocky or hard soil sites
Seismic weight
The seismic weight of the whole building is the sum of the seismic weights of all the floors. The
seismic weight of each floor is its full dead load plus the appropriate amount of imposed load, the
letter being that part of the imposed loads that may reasonable be expected to be attached to the
structure at the time of earthquake shaking. It includes the weight of permanent and movable
partitions, permanent equipment, a part of the live load, etc. while computing the seismic weight
of each floor, the weight of columns and walls in any storey should be equally distributed to the
floors above and below the storey. Any weight supported in between storey's should be distributed
to the floors above and below in inverse proportion to its distance from the floors.
As per IS 1893 (Part I), the percentage of imposed load as given in table should be used. For
calculating the design seismic forces of the structure, imposed load on the roof need not be
considered.
Percentage of imposed load to be considered in seismic weight calculation
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Imposed uniformly distributed floor load (KN/m2) Percentage of imposed load
Up to and including 3.0 25
Above 3.0 50
Note
1. The proportions of imposed load indicated above for calculating the lateral design force
for earthquakes are applicable to average conditions.
2. Where the probable loads at the time of earthquake are more accurately assessed, he
designer may alter the proportions indicated or even replace the entire imposed load
proportions by the actual assessed load.
3. Lateral design force for earthquakes should not be calculated on contribution of impact
effects from imposed loads
4. Other loads apart from those given above (e.g., snow and permanent equipment) should be
considered as appropriate
Where Q is the design lateral force at floor I, w is the seismic weight of floor I, hj is the height of
floor I measured from the base and n is the number of storey's in the building, i.e. the number of
levels at which the masses are located.
Distribution of horizontal design lateral force to different lateral force resisting element in the case
of building in which floors are capable of providing rigid horizontal diaphragm action, the total
shear in any horizontal plane is distributed to the various vertical elements of the lateral force
resisting system assuming the floors to be infinitely rigid in horizontal plane. For buildings in
which floor diaphragms cannot be treated as infinitely rigid in their own plane, the lateral shear at
each floor is distributed to the vertical elements resisting the lateral forces, accounting for the in
plane flexibility of the diaphragms.
For a regular (uniform building, the above equation gives an inverted parabolic distribution of
forces as show in fig.
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Expressions used for design load calculation and load distribution with height in this procedure
are based on the assumptions that (a) the fundamental mode dominates the response and (b) mass
and stiffness are evenly distributed with building height, thus giving a regular mode shape. In tall
buildings, higher modes can be quite significant; ad in irregular buildings, mode shapes may be
somewhat irregular. Hence, for tall and irregular buildings dynamic analysis is generally preferred.
Methods of Dynamic analysis
Dynamic analysis may be performed either by the response spectrum method or by the time history
method. However, in either method, the design base shear Vb is compared with base shear Vb
calculated using a fundamental period Ta. Where VB is less than Vb all the response quantities,
e.g., member forces, displacement, storey forces, storey shears, and base reactions, should be
multiplied by Vb/Vb. The value of damping for buildings may be taken as 2 and 5 per cent of the
critical value, for the purpose of dynamic analysis of steel and RCC buildings respectively.
The dynamic analysis is carried by the time history method or response spectrum method.
Response Spectrum
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In the response spectrum method, the peak response of a structure during an earthquake is obtained
directly from the earthquake response (or design) spectrum. This procedure given an approximate
peak response, but this is quite accurate for structural design applications. In this approach, the
multiple modes of response of a building to an earthquake are taken into account. For each mode,
a response is read from the design spectrum, based on the modal frequency and the modal mass.
The responses of different modes are combined to provide an estimate of total response of the
structure using modal combination methods such as complete quadratic combinations (CQC),
square root of sum of squares (SRSS), or absolute sum (ABS) method.
Response spectrum method of analysis should be performed using the design spectrum specified
or by a site specific design spectrum, which is specifically prepared for a structure at a particular
project site. The same may be used for the design at the discretion of the project authorities.
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The spectral values of Sd Spv and Spa are related as
Spa = 2 Sd = (.Sd)
2 2
2
= Spv .Spv Sd
T T
Normally they plotted on a single graph with log scale on each axis, and called tripartite
log plot. The response spectra for a single earthquake record is used for analysis, but they are not
suitable for the purpose of design. They are not found suitable for design purposes, because in
design response spectra, information regarding the effect of near and distant earthquake is required,
which they do not provide. They also do not account for the inherent variability of earthquake
motion with respect to both frequency and amplitude at a given station.
Response spectrum method
In this method, maximum model response is estimated for each mode, using response
spectrum. The number of modes to be combined in the analysis are such that the sum total of all
modes considered is at least 90% of total seismic mass.
Mode shapes
Mode shapes are the displacement shapes of an vibrating system corresponding to the
natural frequencies.
Under the undamped free vibrations, multi mode of freedom buildings having N degree of
freedom will vibrate in N modes of vibrations. The equation of multi-degree undamped free
vibration system can be written as
..
m x Kx 0
As the mass is assumed to execute the simple harmonic motion. The solution of the
equation may be assumed as.
x = n sin n t
then differentiating equation (15.13) w.r.t. twice we get
2 x ..
x n 2n sin n t
t 2
where, n represent displaced shapes of vibrating system (i.e. mode shapes) which do not
change with time 't' but vary only with amplitude. n is circular frequency.
..
Substituting the value of x in equation (15.12) we get.
m(n 2n sin n t ) KnSin n t 0
Modal Analysis
Buildings with regular, or nominally irregular, plan configurations may be modeled as a
system of masses lumped at the floor levels with each mass having one degree of freedom, that of
lateral displacement in the direction under consideration. In the modal analysis, the variability in
masses and stiffness is accounted for in the computation of lateral force coefficients. The following
expressions are used for the computation of various quantities.
a) Modal mass The modal mass (Mk) of mode k is given by
2
n
Wi ik
M k in1
g Wi (ik ) 2
i 1
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, ik is the mode shape coefficient at floor i in
mode k, and Wi is the seismic weight of floor i.
b) Modal participation factor The modal participation factor (Pk) of mode k is given by
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n
W i ik
Pk n
i 1
W (
i 1
i ik )2
c) Design lateral force at each floor in each mode The peak lateral force (Qik) at floor I in kth
mode is given by
Qik = AkikPkWi
where Ak is the design horizontal acceleration spectrum value using the natural period of
vibration (Tk) of kth mode.
d) Storey shear forces in each mode The peak shear force (Vik) acting in storey i in mode k is
given by
n
Vik
j i 1
ik
e) Storey shear forces due to all modes considered The peak storey shear force (Vi) in storey
i due to all modes considered is obtained by combining those due to each mode as explained
in Section 5.11.2.
f) Lateral forces at each storey due to all modes considered The design lateral forces, Froof
and Fi at roof and at floor i are given by
Froof = Vroof
Fi=Vi-Vi+1
Free vibration analysis
Free Vibration response of MDoF system
v1 v2
m2
K1 K2
K2/2 K2/2 m1 m2
m1
K1/2 K1/2
For mass M1
m1 v1 K1v1 K 2 ( v2 v1 ) 0 (1)
For mass M2
m2 v 2 K 2 ( v2 v1 ) 0 (2)
Let
V1 = a, sint V2 = a2 Sint
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V1 -a1 2Sint V 2 -a2 2Sint
Substituting values of v1 , v1 , v2 & v 2 , in (1)
m1a12 Sin t - K 2 (a 2Sin t - a, Sin t) K1a Sin t 0
or, m1a1w 2 (K1 K 2 )a1 K 2a 2 0
or, K1 K 2 m12 )a1 K 2a 2 0 (3)
From (2)
m2a 22Sin t K 2 (a 2Sin t a1Sin t ) 0
or, K 2 m22 a 2 K 2a1 0
Method - 1
From equation (3) & (4), we can get the values of a1 & a3. Equating the ratio of amplitude
a1
a
2
From (3)
a1 K2
a 2 K1 K 2 m1w 2
From (4)
a1 K 2 m 2w 2
a2 K2
Equating both
K2 K 2 m 22
K1 K 2 m12 K2
K1
K 2 m12 K 2 - m22 ) - K 22 0
This is called frequency equation.
Method – 2
Matrix form of equation (3) & (4)
K1 K 2 m1w 2 K2 a1
0
K2 K 2 m22 a 2
a1
0
a 2
K1 K 2 m1w 2 K2
0
K2 K 2 m 22
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K 1
K 2 m12 K 2 - m22
Method – 3
[m] v [K]v 0 (1)
Since v cannot be zero so
1
[K] [m] 0
2
Where, 2
n
Natural Frequency and Mode Shape
(This is also discussed above)
mV KV 0
(a) / m V +KV = 0
By analogy with the behavior of SDoF systems, it will be assumed that the free-vibration motion
is simple harmonic, which may be expressed for a MDoF system as
V( t ) V Sin ( wt ) (b)
In this expression V represents the shape of the system (which does not change with time; only
the amplitude varies) and is a phase angle. When the second time derivation of equation (b) is
taken, the accelerations in free vibration are
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V 2 V Sin (t ) (c)
Substituting (b) and (c) in equation (a)
2 mV Sin(t ) K V Sin (t ) 0
or, 2 mV K V 0
K 2
[m] V 0
Since, V cannot be zero, so
K 2 [m] 0 is the frequency equation or characteristics equation of the system with respect
to the circular frequency w.
We know from {Sign}
A IC 0 (d)
K2=10,000 N/m
m1=50kg
1
K1=15,000 N/m
50 0 2
Mass matrix, [M] NS m
0 40
K K 2 K2
Stiffness [K ] 1
K2 K 2
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25,000 10,000
=
10,000 10,000
2.5 1
= 10,000
1 1
[K] 2 [m] 0
2.5 1 50 0
10,000 2 0
1 1 0 40
2.5000 10000 2 50 0
10000 10000 0 40 0
502
25 10000 1
0
402
1 1
10000
2
Let B
10000
Then, the matrix becomes
2.5 50B 1
0
1 1 40B
(2.5-50B) (1-40B)-1 = 0
Solving, we get
1 10.95
rad / sec
2 \ 25.10
Q. Determine the natural frequency & fundamental time.
m2
m 1 = 136 lb.sec2/in
E = 30x106 psi
m2
I1 = 248.6 in4
15' I2 = 106.8 in4
K 1 I1 I1 K1
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b b 2 4ac
Solving, 2
2a
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a11
0.619
a 21
For 2=24.35 rad/sec
2
K1 K 2 2 m2 K2 a 21
(K1+K2- m1) a21-k2a22=0 (3)
K2 K 2 2 m 2 a 22
-K2a22+a12 (K2-2 m2) =0 (4)
From (3)
a12 K2
a 22 K1 K 2 2 m1
= -7.833
Now if a11 = 1 if a12 = 1
1 1
a 21 1.61 a 22 0.127
0.619 7.833
a21=1.61 a 22=-0.127
a11=1
a12=1
Q. A four storey reinforced concrete frame building is as shown, is situated in zone V. The height
between the floors is 3m & the total height of building is 12m. The dead load & normal live load
is lumped at respective floor. The soil below the foundation is assumed to be hard rock. Assume
building is intended to be used as a hospital. Determine the total base shear as per IS 1893 (part I):
2002 & Distribute the base shear along the height of the building.
M4=2500KN
Solution,
M3=3000KN
3m We know,
Z I Sa
3m Ah * *
M2=3000KN 2 R g
M1=3000KN
3m I = Importance Factor
3m = 1.5 [IS 1893: 2002 Table 6]
Z = Seismic Zone
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= 0.36 [Table 2]
Soil type = Hard Rock
Sa
2.06
g
T=0.075h = 0.075*120.75
= 0.489
Sa 1
& for hard sock
g T
R= 5 (special, RC moment resisting frame)
Z I Sa 0.36 1.5
Ah * * * * 2.06
2 R g 2 5
~
= 0.11124 0.12
Total seismic weight of building (W) = 33000+125000
= 11m500KN
VB = Ah.W
= 0.12 * 11500 = 1397.25KN
Determination of Lateral force
Wihi 2
Qi VB *
Wihi 2
Now,
Wihi2=2500*122+3000*92+3000*62+3000*32=738000
Now,
Wihi 2
Lateral Force in floor = Q = VB *
Wihi 2
3000 * 32
Lateral force in first floor = Q1 = 1397.25*
738000
= 51.118 KN
3000 * 62
Q2 1397.25 *
738000
= 204.48KN
3000 * 92
Q3 1397.25 *
738000
= 460.07 KN
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2500 *122
Q4 1397.25 *
738000
= 817.902 KN
Q. Consider a three degree of freedom system as shown in figure. Determine the mode shapes.
m
K
m
K
m
K
We know,
From frequency equation
|[K] – w2[m]|=0
K1 K 2 K2 0
K K 2 K 2 K3 K 3
0 K3 K 3
2K K 0
= K 2K K
0 K K
m 0 0
M 0 m 0
0 0 m
Now |[K]-w2[m]|=0
2K K 0 m 0 0
K 2K K 2 0 m 0 0
0 K K 0 0 m
(2K 2 m) K 0
K ( 2k m)
2
K 0
0 K (K 2 m)
Assuming 2 , then
2K m K 0
K 2K m K 0
0 K K m
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Expanding the determinant
2K m(2K m) (K)(K) (K)[(K)(K m) 0 (K)] =0
or, m23 5Km22 6K 2m K3 0
Dividing by K3
m33 5Km22 6K 2 m K 3
3 0
K3 K2 K3 K
m m2
Assuming
1
K K
3 52 61 1 0
Solving Then
11 0.198 12 0.198 K
m
12 1.555 22 1.555 K
m
13 3.247 32 3.247 K
m
A 2 m2 K
A3 K
Now, On solving
1st Mode 2nd mode 3rd mode
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A1 0.445 -1.247 1.802
A2 0.802 -0.555 -2.247
A3 1 1 1
ELEVATION
Fig a
7m
7m
6 x 5 = 30 m
PLAN
Fig b
Determine the base shear and its distribution along the height of the building.
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Solution. The elevation and plan of the building is shown in Fig a and b
Equivalent lumped weight at various floors:
For calculating earthquake force the design live load is taken 25% of the given load as per
code. No live load will be considered acting on the roof.
Hence effective weight at all floors except roof = 5000 + 0.25 2500
= 5000 + 625.0 = 5625 N/m2 = 5.625 kN/m2
Weight at roof = 5000 N/m2 = 5.0 kN/m2
The plan area of the building = 14 30 = 420 m2
Equivalent weight on roof level = 420 5 = 2100 kN
Equivalent weight on other floors = 420 5.625 = 2362.5 kN
Total effective weight W = 2100 + 5 2362.5
= 2100 + 11812.5 = 13912.5
(i.e. Roof weight + Sum of all floors.)
h
(i) Natural period T 0.9 (d width)
d
1
= 0.09 21 0.505 0.51
14
For T=0.51 and hard soil, from table 15.7, the value of S a/g for
1 1
2.0
T 0.51
For seismic zones IV, zone factor Z=0.24, importance factor I=1.0 and for concrete frame
building taking reduction factor 5, we get
Z I Sa
Ah
2 R g
0.24 1
= 2.0
2 5
0.24
= 0.05
5
Design base shear along x-axis = Ah W
= 0.05 13912.5 = 695.63 = 696.0
The lateral load at different floors can be determined by the following relation.
VB w i h i2
Qi n
w
i 1
i h12
Where,
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wi = Weight working at level i
hi = Height of the floor from the base
VB = Base shear
i = 1, indicates the height at 1st floor level.
The calculations are shown in the tabular form as below in Table below
Table ……
w i h i2 Vi = kN,
Mass w i h i2 in n
Qi in kN
Wi kN hi in m
No. kN/m 2 wih
i 1
2
i VB Col.5
sum of col.
6 from top
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. 2100.00 21.0 926100.0 0.3700 257.5 257.5
5. 2362.50 17.5 723515.6 0.2895 201.9 459.4
4. 2362.50 14.0 463050.0 0.1853 129.0 588.4
3. 2362.50 10.5 260465.6 0.1031 71.77 660.17
2. 2362.50 7.0 115762.5 0.0441 30.7 690.87
1. 2362.50 3.5 29531.25 0.0118 8.2 698.87
wi = wih i2
1392.5 2498425.0
Note. Calculation by log. Difference due to approximation in values.
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Q. A ten-storey OMRF building has plan dimension as shown in figure. The storey height is
30m. The dead load per unit area of the floor, consisting of the floor slab, finishes, etc. is
4kN/m2. Weight of partitions on floor can be assumed to be 2kN/m2. The intensity of five
load on each floor is 3 kN/m2 and on the roof is i.5 kN.m2. The soil below the foundation
is hard and the building is located in zone IV. Determine the seismic forces and shears at
different floor levels.
Solution
Design parameters:
For Delhi (zone IV), zone factor, Z=0.24
Importance factor, I = 1.0
Response reduction factor, R=3.0 (OMRF)
Seismic weight :
Floor area = 24 24 = 576m2
Dead load = 4 kN/m2
Weight of partitions = 2 kN/m2
For live load upto and including 2 kN/m2,
Percentage of live load to be considered = 25%
Total seismic weight on the floors,
W=Wi
where Wi is the sum of loads from all the floors, which includes dead loads and
appropriate percentage of live loads.
Effective weight at each floor except the roof = 4.0 + 2.0 + 0.25 3 = 6.75 kN/m2, and at
the roof = 4.0 kN/m2.
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Weight of the beams at each floor and the roof = 0.3 0.6 240 25 = 270 kN
Weight of the columns at each floor = 0.3 0.6 2.4 25 25 = 270 kN
1
Weight of the column at the roof = 270 135kN
2
Total plan area of the building is 24m 24m = 576 m2
Equivalent load at roof level = 4576+1080+135=3519 kN
Equivalent load at each floor = 6.75576+1080+270=5238 kN
Seismic weight of the building, W=3519+5238 9 = 50661 kN
Base shear
Fundamental natural period of vibration of a moment-resisting frame without infill
Ta = 0.075h0.75 = 0.075 (30)0.75 = 0.96 s
Average response acceleration coefficient, Sa/g, for 5% damping and type I soil is 1.04
Design horizontal seismic coefficient,
ZI(Sa / g) 0.24 1.0 1.04
Ah 0.0416
2R 23
Base shear VB=AhW=0.416 50661 = 2107.5 kN
Design lateral load and shear force at various floor levels
Wi h i2
Design lateral, force at floor i, Qi VB n
W h
j 1
j
2
j
The calculation of design lateral forces at each floor level is shown in Table below
Table: Lateral loads and shear forces at different floors levels
w i h i2 w i h i2
Mass No. Wi (kN) (hi (m) Qi (kN) Vi = (kN)
(kN/m 2 ) Wi h i2
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Wi h i2 = 16602570
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Provision for ductile detailing in the members of reinforced concrete buildings are given in IS:
13920: 1993 titled "Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Subjected to Seismic
Forces". These provisions are for the anchorage, splices, bar cut offs and joint details etc. It is
observed in past earthquakes that the problems in structural detailing may also be one of the cause
of damage. Thus, this chapter focuses on the provisions of ductile detailing for RC buildings and
important clauses of IS 13920: 1993 to understand the importance of ductility of reinforced
concrete structures subjected to seismic forces.
Codal Provision of IS 13920: 1993
General Specifications (Clause 5.0)
The design and construction of reinforced concrete buildings shall be governed by IS:
456: 2000 except as modified by this code.
For all buildings which are more than 3 storeys in height, the minimum grade of
concrete shall be M 20.
Steel reinforcement of grade Fe 415 or less shall be used. Strong steel is not preferred
in earthquake prone region because low strength steel are more ductile, show long yield
and greater breaking strain. Mild steel should be used as main reinforcement in those
structural elements where earthquake damage is expected, such as beams. Higher
strength steel is good for other structural elements where possibility of damage is loss
under earthquake loads.
Flexural Members (Clause 6.0)
The beams and slabs are flexural members which are designed to resist flexure (bending). The
cracking pattern of a beam is shown in Fig. 6.1. The vertical cracks at the centre are the bending
or flexure cracks. The cracks at the end are diagonal tensions cracks caused due to shear.
Reinforcement is provided to avoid all types of cracking. The various provisions of reinforcement
and detailing for beams are as follows:
The flexural members are subjected to very little axial stresses. The factored axial stress
on these members under earthquake loading shall not exceed 0.1 fck where fck is the
characteristic compressive strength of concrete.
The member should have width to depth ratio of more than 0.3.
The width of the member shall not be less than 200mm.
The depth of the member shall not be more than one fourth of the clear span.
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Longitudinal Reinforcement
Longitudinal bars are provided in the beams to resist bending cracks. In frames, both top and
bottom faces of the beam (at the ends) are subjected to tension, thus steel bars are required on both
faces at the ends and on the bottom face at the middle portion of beam. Figure 6.2 shows the critical
sections in a beam of a frame where tension may develop during earthquake and steel
reinforcement is required.
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c) The maximum spacing of stirrups should not exceed half the depth of beam.
d) The contribution of bent up bars and inclined stirrups to shear resistance should not
be considered.
e) The spacing of stirrups over a length of 2d at either end of a beam should not
exceed.
i) d/4
ii) 8 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar but in no case less than
100mm.
f) The first stirrup should be at a distance not greater than 50 mm from joint face.
Columns and Frame Members Subjected to Axial Load and Bending (Clause 7.0)
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Columns are the vertical compression. Members which are subjected to axial load and bending.
They contain two types of reinforcement
a) Longitudinal bars
b) Transverse reinforcement
The earthquake load can cause tension on both faces of columns in frames because of their
reversible nature as shown in Figure.
The codal provisions applicable to columns and to frame members which have a factored
axial stress >0.1 fck under the effect of earthquake load are given below-
The minimum dimension of the member should not be less than 200 mm. In frames,
which have beams with center to center span exceeding 5m or columns of unsupported
length exceeding 4m., the shortest dimension of the column should not be less than
300mm.
The ratio of the cross-sectional dimensions (shortest/other dimension) should not be
less than 0.4.
Longitudinal Reinforcement of Columns (Clause 7.2)
In the case of RC columns, it is very common practice to lap columns bars. The lap length
depends on types of reinforcement and concrete.
Lap length should be provided ONLY in the middle half of the column and not near its top
or bottom ends.
Only half the vertical bars in the column are to be lapped at a time in any storey.
When laps are provided ties must be provided over the entire lap length at spacing not
exceeding 150 mm centre to centre.
The ductile detailing of a column with spliced bars is shown in Fig. 6.8.
Transverse Reinforcement of Columns
Transverse reinforcement of lateral lies in columns also serve three purposes:
a) They carry the horizontal shear forces induced by the earthquake. Thus prevent
diagonal cracking.
b) They hold together the vertical bars and keep them in place.
c) They prevent buckling of the vertical bars.
The following are the codal provision for lateral ties of a column (Clause 7.3)
Transverse reinforcement for circular columns should be spiral or circular.
For rectangular columns, lateral ties is a closed stirrup having a 1350 hook with
appropriate extension of 10 times bar diameter but not less than 75mm as shown in
figure
The parallel legs of ties should not be more than 300 mm apart. If it is more than 300
mm then a cross tie or a pair of over lapping ties are required as shown in Figure.
The spacing of ties should not exceed half the least lateral dimension except where
special confining reinforcement is provided.
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Special confining reinforcement should be provided over the full length of column
which has lot of stiffness variation. It may be because of presence of bracing, a
mezzanine floor or a R.C.C. wall extending over a part of column height as already
explained in article 5.4 (b). Short column effect.
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The spacing of ties used as special confining reinforcement should not be more than ¼
of minimum member dimension but not less than 75mm or more than 100mm.
The area of bar forming circular ties (spiral) to be used as special confining
reinforcement shall not be less than
f ck A g
Ash 0.09SD k 1.0
f y Ak
Where Ash = Area of bar
S = Pitch of spiral
Dk = Diameter of core, measured to the outside of spiral
Fck = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete
Fy = Yield stress of steel ties
Ag = Gross X-area of the column
2
Ak = Area of concrete core = Dk
4
The area of X-section, Ash of the bar forming rectangular ties, as special confining
reinforcement shall not be less than
f ck Ag
Ash 0.18Sh A 1.0
fy k
Where h = Longer dimension of rectangular core measured upto outside of ties and)
300mm.
Ak = Area of core in the rectangular ties.
Beam Column Joint (Clause 8.0)
In RC buildings, portions of columns that are common to beams are called beam column joints. It
is seen that these joints are severely damaged in earthquake loads. The various codal provisions
for Beam detailing column joints are as follows:
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The special confining reinforcement as required at the end of the column should be
provided through the joint as shown in Fig. 6.12. The spacing of ties should not exceed
150mm.
It is preferred to have large column size for Seismic zone III, IV and V. The column
should be at least 300 mm in each direction, when they support beams that are longer
than 5 m or columns are taller than 4m.
In exterior joints where beams ends at columns longitudinal beam bars need to be
anchored into the column to ensure proper gripping. The length of anchorage should
be development length in tension plus ten times the bar diameter.
In an interior joint the beam bars (both top and bottom) should go through the joint
without any cut or bent in the joint region.
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Shear Walls
Reinforced Concrete (RC) buildings have vertical plate like RC walls called shear walls, in
addition to slabs, beams and columns. These are like wide beams which are vertically placed.
There walls start at foundation level and are continuous throughout the building height. Their
thickness can be as low as 150mm or as high as 400mm in high rise buildings. There are provided
in multi-storeyed buildings. Properly designed and detailed RC buildings with shear walls have
shown very good performance in past earthquakes. Figure shows a reinforced concrete building
with shear walls. The provisions for design of shear walls are given IS 13920: 1993 (clause 9.0).
Some of them are explained below:
Shear walls should be provided along both length and width.
Door or window openings may be provided in shear wall but they should be small in
size and symmetrically located.
Shear walls in buildings must be symmetrically placed.
Steel bars should be provided in vertical and horizontal grids in shear walls.
Minimum area of reinforcing steel should be 0.0025 times the X-sectional area along
each horizontal and vertical direction. The vertical reinforcement should be distributed
uniformly across the wall cross section.
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Example
Let us consider a one bay four-storey shear building. Taking the masses and columns stiffness of
each storey as shown. The summed shear stiffness (2 ki) of columns.
m4=4
k=3 k=3
m3=4
k=3 k=3
m2=8
k=4 k=4
m1=8
k=5 k=5
(14 2 8 6 0
(11)
[K M] (1) (18 8) 6
2 2
(12 4)
2
6 +
0 6 (6 2 4)
8 6 0
(1) (1 2 )
(8) 0 (12 4)
2
6
0 6 (6 2 4)
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Therefore, the structure has four Eigen-values, which are the natural frequencies of the
system.
(18 2 8) 8 0 0
8 (14 8)
2
6 0
[K M]
2
0 6 (12 2 4) 6
0 0 6 (6 2 4)
2=0.2028, 1.1280, 2.8385 and 4.3306
Eigen-vector for 2=0.20285
16.3776 8 0 0
8 12.3776 6 0
[K M]
2
0 6 11.1888 6
0 0 6 5.1888
Assume, x1 = 1.0, then
Row 1 gives: 16.3776 – 8x2=0, x2=2.0472
Row 2 gives: -8x1 + 12.3776x2 – 6x3=0, x3=2.8899
Row 3 gives: -6x2+11.1888x3-6x4=0, x4=3.3418
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1 .0
2.0472
X
2.8899
3.3418
8 0 0 0 1.0
0 8 0 0 2.0472
X T MX [1.0 2.0472 2.8899 3.3418] 119.5983
0 0 4 0 2.8899
0 0 0 4 3.3418
1.0 0.0914
2.0472 0.1872
1
X
119.5983 2.8899 0.2643
3.3418 0.3056
Eigen-vector for 2 = 1.1280
8.9760 8 0 0
8 6 0
K 2 M
0
4.9760
6 7.4880 6
0 0 6 1.4880
Assume, x1 = 1.0, then
Row 1 gives: 8.9760-8 x2=0, x2=-0.4028
Row 2 gives: -8x1+4.9760x2-6x3=-0.4028
Row 3 gives: -6x2+7.488 x3-6x4=0, x4= -1.6242
1.0
1.1220
X
0.4028
1.6242
8 0 0 0 1.0
0 8 0 0 1.1220
X T M X [1.0 1.1220 - 0.4028 - 1.6242] 29.2722
0 0 4 0 0.4028
0 0 0 4 1.6242
1.0 0.1848
1.1220 0.2074
1
X
29.2722 0.4028 0.0744
1.6242 0.3002
Eigen-vector for 2 = 2.8385
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4.7080 8 0 0
8 8.7080 6
K M
2
0 6 0.6460
0
6
0 0 6 5.3540
Assume, x1 = 1.0, then
Row 1 gives: -4.7080-8x2=0, x2=-0.5885
Row 2 gives: -8x1-8.7080x2-6x3=0, x3=-0.4792
Row 3 gives: -6x2-0.6460x3-6x4=0, x4=0.5370
1.0
0.5885
X
0.4792
0.5370
8 0 0 0 1.0
0 8 0 0 0.5885
X T MX [1.0 0.5885 0.4792 0.5370] 12.8429
0 0 4 0 0.4792
0 0 0 4 0.5370
1.0 0.2790
0.5885 - 0.1642
1
X
12.8429 0.4792 - 0.1337
0.5370 0.1498
Eigen-vector for 2=4.3306
16.6448 8 0
8 20.6448 6 0
[K M]
2
0 6 5.3224 6
0 0 6 11.3234
Assume, x1 = 1.0, then
Row 1 gives: 16.6448 – 8 x2 = 0, x2= -2.0806
Row 2 gives: 8 x1 – 20.6448 x2 – 6 x3 = 0. x3=5.8256
Row 3 gives: -6 x2 – 5.3224 x3 – 6 x4 = 0, x4 = -3.0871
1.0
2.0806
X
5.8256
3.0871
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8 0 0 0 1.0
0 8 0 0 2.0806
X MX [1.0 2.0806 5.8256 - 3.0871]
T
216.501
0 0 4 0 5.8256
0 0 0 4 3.0871
1.0 0.0680
2.0806 0.1414
1
X
216.501 5.8256 0.3959
3.0871 0.2098
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0.0914 0.1848 0.2790 0.0680
0.1872 0.2074 0.1642 0.1414
i , , ,
0.2643 2 0.0744 3 0.1337 4 0.3959
0.3056 0.3002 0.1498 0.2098
The modal participation factor (pk) of mode k is,
n
W i ik
Pk n
i 1
W (
i 1
i ik )2
W i i 1
W111 W2 21 W331 W4 41
P1 i 1
4
Wi (i i )2
W (
1 11 ) 2 W2 ( 21) 2 W3 ( 31) 2 W4 ( 41) 2
i 1
W i i2
W112 W2 22 W332 W4 42
P2 i 1
1.6383
4
W ( i i2 ) 2 W (
1 12 ) 2 W2 ( 22 ) 2 W3 ( 32 ) 2 W4 ( 42 ) 2
i 1
2
4
Wi i1 [9.81(8(0.0914 ) (8(0.1872 ) 4(0.2643 ) 4(0.3056 ))]2
M1 i 1
4 2 9.81[9.81(8(0.0914 ) 2 8(0.1872 ) 2 4(0.2643 ) 2 4(0.3056 ) 2 )]
g Wi ( i1 )
i 1
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= 20.3249
2
4
Wi i 2
M 2 4i 1 2.6841,
2
Wi ( i 2 )
i 1
Similarly, M3 = 0.9664, M4 = 0.0246.
Model Contributions of Various Modes, Clause: 7.8.4.2
M1 20.3249
For mode 1, 0.8468 84.68%
M 24
M 2 2.6841
For mode 2, 0.1120 11.20%
M 24
M3 0.9664
For mode 3, 0.0402 4.02%
M 24
M 4 0.0246
For mode 4, 0.0010 0.10%
M 24
The effective mass for all modes considered will be 84.68+11.20+4.02+0.1-100%.
It is clear from the values of the participation factors and effective mass, their value decreases as
the mode number increases. The practical significance of this fact is that, in general it is not
necessary to include all the modes in a calculation. Only a few significant modes need to be
included in order to obtain reasonable results for practical problems. Therefore, the Clause 7.8.4.2
of IS 1893 (Part I) : 2002 states that "The number of modes to be used in the analysis should be
such that the sum total of modal masses of all modes considered is at least 90% of the total seismic
mass and missing mass correction beyond 33 Hz are to be considered, modal combination shall be
carried out only for modes upto 33 Hz".
Design lateral force at each floor in each mode, clause: 7.8.4.5 (c)
The design lateral force (Qik) at floor i in mode k is given by,
Qik = AkikPkWi
Where Ak is design horizontal acceleration spectrum value as per 6.4.2 using the natural period of
vibration (Tk) of mode k.
The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ak for various modes are worked out using
Z I Sa
Ah .
2R g
Design Lateral Force in Each Mode
A1 P1 11 W1
A P W1
1 1 21
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r
* c
e
where the summation is for the closely-spaced modes only. The peak response quantity due to the
closely spaced modes * is then combined with those of the remaining well-separated modes by
the method of SRSS.
Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS), Clause 7.8.4.4 (a)
A more reasonable method of combining modal maxima for two-dimensional structural system
exhibiting well-separated vibration frequencies is the square-root-of-the squares (SRSS). The peak
response quantity () due to all modes considered shall be obtained as,
r
(
k 1
k )2
where k is the absolute value of quantity in mode 'k', and r is the numbers of modes being
considered.
Using the above method, the storey shears are as follows,
V1 = [V11)2 + (V12)2 + … (V1(n-1))2 + (V1n)2]1/2 kN
V2 = [V21)2 + (V22)2 + … (V2(n-2))2 + (V2n)2]1/2 kN
V3 = [V31)2 + (V32)2 + … (V3(n-1))2 + (V3n)2]1/2 kN
Vn = [Vn1)2 + (Vn2)2 + … (Vn(n-1))2 + (Vnn)2]1/2 kN
Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC), Clause 7.8.4.4
For three-dimensional structural systems exhibiting closely spaced modes, the peak response
quantities shall be combined as per Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC) method
r r
P
i 1 j 1
1 ij j
Where,
r = Number of modes being considered,
i = Response quantity in mode i (including sign),
j = Response quantity in mode j (including sign),
Pij = Cross modal coefficient,
8 2 (1 ij )1.5
Pij =
(1 ij2 ) 2 4 2ij (1 ij ) 2
Where,
= Modal damping ratio (in fraction),
ij = Frequency ratio j/i,
i = Circular frequency in ith mode, and
j = Circular frequency in jth mode.
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Therefore all the frequency ratios and cross modal components can be represented in matrix form
as shown below,
111 211 ... x 111 n 11
11 12 13 14
112 212 n 112 n 12
24
...
22 23
ij 21 ...
31 32 33 34
1 21n 1 ... n 11n 1 n 1n 1
41 42 43 44 1 n 1
11n 21n ... 31n n 1n
as,
P11 P12 P13 P14 1
P P22 P23 P24 2
1 23 4 21
P31 P32 P33 P34 3
P41 P42 P43 P44 4
Here the terms i and j represent the response of different modes of a certain storey level. Using
the matrix notation the storey shears are worked out
V1, V2, V3 … Vn respectively.
Lateral forces at each storey due to all modes, clause 7.8.4.5 (f)
The design lateral forces Froof and Fi, at roof and at ith floor, are calculated as,
Froof = Vroof, and Fi = Vi – Vi+1
F4 = V4 kN,
F3 = (V3 – V4) kN
F2 = (V2 – V3) kN
F1 = (V1 – V2) kN
Example
Consider a mass and stiffness matrix for the undamped free vibration of the system as below.
Determine the lateral force at each storey.
1800 800 0 0 8 0 0 0
800 1400 600 0 0 8 0 0
K kN / m, [M] t,
0 600 1200 600 0 0 4 0
0 0 600 600 0 0 0 4
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Natural frequencies
1=4.5036, 2=10.6209, 3=16.8479 and 4=20.8101
Eigen-vectors
0.914 0.1848 0.2790 0.0680
0.1872 0.2073 0.1642 - 0.1414
1 , , ,
0.2642 2 0.0744 3 0.1337 4 0.3959
0.3056 0.3002 0.1498 - 0.2098
Time Periods
1.3951 0 0 0
0 0.5916 0 0
T s
0 0 0.3729 0
0 0 0 0.3019
Modal Participation Factors
P1 = 4.5084, P2 = -1.6383, P3 = -0.9831, P4 = 0.1569
Modal Mass
M1 = 20.3249, M2 = 2.6841, M3 = 0.9664, M4 = 0.0246
Design Lateral Force at Earth Floor in Each Mode
The design lateral force (Qik) at floor i in mode k is given by,
Qik=AkikPkWi
Sa1
For T1 1.3951 0.7169, From Figure 2 of IS1893 (Part 1) : 2002
g
Sa2
For T2 0.5916 1.6903, From Figure 2 of IS1893 (Part 1) : 2002
g
Sa3
For T3 0.3729 2.5, From Figure 2 of IS1893 (Part 1) : 2002
g
Sa4
For T4 0.3019 2.5, From Figure 2 of IS1893 (Part 1) : 2002
g
Z 1 Sa
The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ah for various modes are worked out using Ah=
2R 8
Z I Sa1 0.24 1
, A1 0.7169 0.0172
2R g 2 5
Z I Sa1 0.24 1
A2 1.6903 0.0405
2R g 2 5
Similarly,
A3 = 0.060,
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A4 = 0.060.
Design Lateral Force
[Qi1]=(A1 P1 i1 Wi]
A1 P1 11 W1 ((90.172)(4.5084)(0.0914)(8 9.81)) (0.5567)
A P1 21 W2 ((0.172)(4.5084)(0.1872)(8 9.81)) (0.1396)
[Qi1 ] 1 kN
A1 P1 31 W3 ((0.0172)(4.5084)(0.2646)(4 9.81)) (0.8043)
A1 P1 41 W4 ((0.0172)(4.5084)(0.3056)(4 9.81)) (0.9301)
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Storey Shear Forces due to All Modes Considered
Maximum Absolute Response (ABS)
V1= [|V11| + |V12| + |V13| + |V14|] = [|3.4307| + |2.6303| + |0.5686| + |-0.7244|] = 7.3539 kN
V2= [|V21| + |V22| + |V23| + |V24|] = [|2.8740| + |1.6680| + |-0.7229| + |-0.7746|] = 6.0394 kN
V3= [|V31| + |V32| + |V33| + |V34|] = [|1.7344| + |0.5886| + |0.0372| + |0.0687|] = 2.4289 kN
V4= [|V41| + |V42| + |V43| + |V44|] = [|0.9301| + |0.7816| + |0.3467| + |-0.0775|] = 2.1359 kN
Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS)
V1 = [(V11)2 + (V12)2 + (V13)2 + (V14)2]½
= [(3.4306)2 + (2.6303)2 + (0.5686)2 + (-0.7244)2]½ = 4.4199 kN
V2 = [(V21)2 + (V22)2 + (V23)2 + (V24)2] ½
= [(2.8739)2 + (1.668)2 + (-0.7229)2 + (-0.7746)2]½ = 3.4877 kN
V3 = [(V31)2 + (V32)2 + (V33)2 + (V44)2] ½
= [(1.7344)2 + (0.5886)2 + (0.0372)2 + (0.0687)2]½ = 1.8332 kN
V4 = [(V41)2 + (V42)2 + (V43)2 + (V44)2]½
= [(0.9301)2 + (0.7816)2 + (0.3467)2 + (-0.0775)2]½ = 1.2657 kN
Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)
r r
P
i 1 j 1
i ij j
Where
r, Number of modes being considered
Pij, Cross modal coefficient
i, Response quantity in mode i (including sign)
j, Response quantity in mode j (including sign)
8 2 (1 ij )1ij.5
Pij
(1 ij2 ) 2 4 2ij (1 ij ) 2
Where
, Model damping ratio (in fraction)
ij, Frequency ratio, j/i
i, Circular frequency in ith mode, and
j, Circular frequency in jth mode
Therefore all the frequency ratios and cross modal components can be represented in matrix
form shown below,
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8 (0.05) 2 (1 1) 11.5
P11 1
(1 12 ) 2 4 (0.05) 2 1 (1 1) 2
4 4
P
i 1 j 1
i ij j = 1P111 + 1P122 + 1P133 + 1P144+ 2P211+1P222+
1P233+1P244+ 1P311+1P322+1P333+1P344+
1P411+ 1P422+ 1P433+1P444
In matrix form, it can be represented as
P11 P12 P13 P14 1
P P22 P23 P24 2
[1 2 3 4 ] 21
P31 P32 P33 P34 3
P41 P42 P43 P44 4
Here the terms i or j represent the response of different modes of a certain storey level.
Using the matrix notation the storey shears are worked out as follows:
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= [4.4328]
= [3.5064]
= [1.8411]
= [1.2776]
Lateral Forces at Each Storey due to All Modes Considered
Maximum Absolute Response (ABS)
Froof = F4 = V4 = 2.1359 kN
F3 = V3 – V4 = 2.4289 – 2.1359 = 0.2930 kN
F2 = V2 – V3 = 6.0394 – 2.4289 = 3.6105 kN
F1 = V1 – V2 = 7.3539 – 7.3539 – 6.0394 = 1.3145 kN
Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS)
Froof = F4 = V4 = 1.2657
F3 = V3 – V4 = 1.8332 – 1.2657 = 0.5674 kN
F2 = V2 – V3 = 3.4877 – 1.8332 = 1.6544 kN
F1 = V1 – V2 = 4.4199 – 3.4877 = 0.9322 kN
Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)
Froof = F4 = V4 = 1.2776 kN
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F3 = V3 – V4 = 1.8411 – 1.2776 = 0.5635 kN
F2 = V2 – V3 = 3.5064 – 1.8411 = 1.6653 kN
F1 = V1 – V2 = 4.4432 – 3.5064 = 0.9368 kN
Comparison of ABS, SRSS and CQC Results
Method of Modal Combination Base Shear in kN
ABS 7.3539
SRSS 4.4199
CQC 4.4432
Summary
Determination of design lateral forces is the primary requirement of seismic analysis and design
of a structure. The design lateral forces are often carried out by equivalent static lateral force
procedure and dynamic analysis of structures. Dynamic analysis is carried out either by response
spectrum method or by time history method. The aim of this chapter is to present a clause wise
approach for determination of lateral forces as per IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2002 with the help of worked
out examples. Equivalent static and response spectrum method has been used in this chapter for
determining the design lateral forces. Determination of lateral forces from earlier version of IS
1893 has also been worked out to know the impact of change of code. Seismic design philosophy
for earthquake resistant design of structures has also been explained in brief.
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References
1. Earthquake Resistant Design of structures by: Pankaj Agrawal and Manish Shirkhande (PHI
Publication)
2. Dynamic of structures by Patrick Paultre (Wiley )
3. Earthquake resistant building construction by Neelam Sharma (Katson Books)
4. Earthquake resistant design of structures by S.K Duggal (Oxford Higher)
5. Structural Dynamics theory and computation second edition by Mario Paz (CBS, Publishers and
Distributors)
6. Dynamics of structures by Clough and Penzin
7. Elements of Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures and Tsunami by B.L Gupta and Amit
Gupta (Standard Publishers Distributors)
8. Other related internet sites