Asme B31.3 - 2008

Document Title: Guidance on Corrosion Engineering
Document Number:
Revision: R00
DESIGN GUIDE
Formatted Table
DOCUMENT TITLE: Guidance on Corrosion Engineering
DOCUMENT NUMBER:
R00 09/10/2018 Issued for Comments M.Y.

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DESIGN GUIDE Page 1 of 47

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CONTENTS Formatted: Font: Bold, Font color: Auto
Foreword ................................................................................................................... 54
Document Objective.................................................................................................. 54
Definitions and Abbreviations ................................................................................... 64
References................................................................................................................. 74
1. Introduction to Corrosion .................................................................................. 74
1.1 General ......................................................................................................... 74
1.2 Mechanism.................................................................................................... 85
1.3 Types: Materials and Environment.............................................................. 107
2. Corrosion Rate Measurement and Calculations ............................................. 1612
2.1 Weight Loss Tests ..................................................................................... 1612
2.2 Electrochemical Methods .......................................................................... 1713
2.3 Prediction Models ..................................................................................... 1713
2.4 Assumptions ............................................................................................. 1814
3. Corrosion Protection and Control .................................................................. 2117
3.1 Passive Protection ..................................................................................... 2117
3.1.1 Design ............................................................................................. 2117
3.1.2 Material Selection and Corrosion Allowance (CA) .......................... 2319
3.1.3 External and internal (lining/cladding) coating ................................ 2723
3.2 Active Protection ...................................................................................... 2824
3.2.1 Inhibition (CI) .................................................................................. 2824
3.2.2 Cathodic Protection (CP) ................................................................. 3026
4. Corrosion Inspection and Monitoring ............................................................ 3426
4.1 Corrosion Monitoring (CM) ...................................................................... 3426

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4.2 Corrosion Inspection ................................................................................. 3526 Formatted ...
5. Approach ....................................................................................................... 3626 Formatted ...

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5.1 Typical Approach Diagram ....................................................................... 3626
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5.2 New Facility Design (Greenfield) ............................................................. 3726 Formatted ...
5.3 Existing Facility Modification (Brownfield) ............................................. 4126 Formatted ...
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6. Example Cases .............................................................................................. 4426
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7. Attachments .................................................................................................. 4726 Formatted ...
Foreword ..................................................................................................................... 4 Formatted ...
Document Objective.................................................................................................... 4 Formatted ...

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Definitions and Abbreviations ..................................................................................... 4
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References................................................................................................................... 4 Formatted ...
1. Introduction to Corrosion .................................................................................... 4 Formatted ...
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1.1 Background ..................................................................................................... 4
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1.2 Anodic and Cathodic Reactions ...................................................................... 4 Formatted ...
1.3 Corrosion Mechanism of Iron ......................................................................... 4 Formatted ...
1.4 Nernst Equation ..............................................................................................4 Formatted ...

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1.5 Types: Materials and Environment.................................................................. 4
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2. Corrosion Rate Measurement .............................................................................. 4 Formatted ...
1.6 Weight Loss Tests ...........................................................................................4 Formatted ...
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1.7 Electrochemical Methods ................................................................................ 4
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1.8 Prediction Models ...........................................................................................4 Formatted ...
1.9 Assumptions ................................................................................................... 4 Formatted ...
3. Corrosion Protection and Control ........................................................................ 4 Formatted ...

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3.1 Passive Protection ...........................................................................................4
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3.1.1 Material Selection and Corrosion Allowance (CA) ................................4 Formatted ...

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3.1.2 Coating .................................................................................................. 4 Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and
grammar
3.1.3 Cladding and Lining .............................................................................. 4 Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and
3.2 Active Protection ............................................................................................5 grammar
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3.2.1 Inhibition (CI) ........................................................................................5 grammar
3.2.2 Cathodic Protection (CP) ....................................................................... 5 Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and
grammar
4. Corrosion Inspection and Monitoring .................................................................. 5 Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and
grammar
4.1 Corrosion Monitoring (CM) ............................................................................ 5
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4.2 Corrosion Inspection ....................................................................................... 5 grammar
5. Approach ............................................................................................................. 5 Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and

grammar
5.1 New Facility Design (Greenfield) ................................................................... 5 Formatted ...
5.2 Existing Facility Modification (Brownfield) ................................................... 5 Formatted ...
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6. Example Projects ................................................................................................. 5
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7. Attachments ........................................................................................................ 5 Formatted ...
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Foreword
Corrosion is a phenomenon which exists everywhere from industry to home appliances.
Worldwide cost of corrosion is significant. According to the study conducted by USA
and initiated by NACE in 2002, estimated annual cost for only USA in 2002 was $276
billion. Therefore, it is necessary to consider possible corrosion threat assessment,
corrosion prevention and control methods during design and modification of any
process or equipment.
Document Objective
The purpose of this document is to provide overview requirements, recommendations
and guidance on the following corrosion engineering activities:
 Corrosion Rate Measurement and Calculations;
 Corrosion Protection and Control;
 Corrosion Inspection and Monitoring.
In order to make this guideline clearer, various approaches and case studies from
Company experience have been used as an example throughout the document.
However, this document should be referred to for information only and not as a
specification. Each project requiring any Corrosion Engineering activities is to be
approached individually taking into account its specificity.

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Definitions and Abbreviations and Definitions

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers Formatted Table
ASTM American Society for Testing and Material
CA Corrosion Allowance
CI Corrosion Inhibitor
CM Corrosion Monitoring
CP Cathodic Protection
CR Corrosion Rate
CRA Corrosion Resistance Alloys
CS Carbon Steel
CUI Corrosion Under Insulation
ER Electrical Resistance
HP High Pressure
ICCP Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
LP Low Pressure
MIC Microbial Induced Corrosion
MP Medium Pressure
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers
PIP Project Inspection Program
PMP Project Monitoring Plan
PVC-U Polyvinyl Chloride U-grade
SPU Solar Power Unit
SS Stainless Steel
TEG Thermo Electric Generator
TRU Transformer Rectifier Unit
WTP Water Treatment Plan
ГОСТ Государственный Стандарт

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References Formatted: Font: 16 pt

Formatted: Heading 1, Add space between paragraphs
1. ASME 31.1 Power Piping - 2016 of the same style, Line spacing: single, No bullets or
numbering
2. Autolab Application Note COR02 - 2011
3. BPAMACO Corrosion rate prediction modelling,1997;A J McMahon, DME Paisley Formatted: Font: 14 pt
4. Handbook of Corrosion Engineering by Pierre R. Roberge - 1999 Formatted: List Paragraph, Indent: Left: 0", Add space
between paragraphs of the same style, Line spacing:
5. NACE Corrosion Engineers Reference Book - 2002 single
6. Piping Handbook by ASME Fellow Mohinder L. Nayyar, P.E. - 2000 Formatted: Font: 14 pt
7. Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control - 2006
8. Projects
(1) Case Study for Renovation and modification at Baku Oil Refinery Plant
(2) Corrosion Study for Potable Water Treatment Plant
(3) Integrated Case Study for Offshore Oil Platform Development
(4) Steam to Power Project Material Selection Philosophy
1. Introduction to Corrosion
1.1 BackgroundGeneral
a. Corrosion is deterioration of material, usually a metal, by reaction with their internal
and/or external environments. In the context of this Design Guide, corrosion,
material deterioration, and material degradation have the same meaning.
b. Under certain conditions corrosion can be extremely rapid. The magnitude of
corrosion depends on sensitivity of particular material to a specific environment.
Cost of this material deterioration is significant, specially, for petroleum, chemical,
petrochemical, construction, manufacturing, pulp and paper and transportation
(railroad, automotive and aerospace) industries. Some important consequences of
corrosion encountered in various industries are summarized below:
 Plant shutdowns. Shutdown of process plants, power plants and refineries may
cause severe problems to industry and consumers.
 Loss of products, leaking containers, storage tanks, water and oil transportation
lines and fuel tanks cause significant loss of product and may generate severe

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accidents and hazards. It is well-known that at least 25% of water is lost by

leakage.
 Loss of efficiency. Insulation of heat exchanger tubings and pipelines by
corrosion products reduces heat transfer and piping capacity.
 Contamination. Corrosion products may contaminate chemicals,
pharmaceuticals dyes, packaged goods, etc. with dire consequences to the
consumers.
c. One or combination more of below methods could increase design life of system by
preventing or at least mitigating corrosion process throughout the plant:
 Proper design;
 Selection of appropriate materials;
 Use of inhibitors;
 Use of protective coatings;
 Adequate corrosion monitoring and inspection;
 Cathodic protection technique.
d. Corrosion protection and control enable the followings:
 To ensure health and safety;
 To protect equipment (Corrosion shortens design life);
 To prevent leakage (Corrosion decreases efficiency);
 To optimize economic considerations (Major annual corrosion losses to the tune
of £350 million in transport, £280 million in marine, £250 million in buildings
and construction and £180 million in oil and chemical industries, have been
reported in).
1.1 Formatted: Normal, Indent: Left: 0.5", No bullets or
numbering
1.2 Anodic and Cathodic ReactionsMechanism
a. The formation of corrosion cell comprising of the following elements is essential
for corrosion to take place:
 Anode;
 Cathode;

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 Electrolyte;
 Metallic path.
b. The anode is the area where metal is lost. At the anode, the reactions which take
place are oxidation reactions. It represents the entry of metal ion into the solution,
by dissolution, hydration or by complex formation. It also includes precipitation of
metal ions at the metal surface. Rust formation on the steel is a common example:
𝐹𝑒 +2 + 2𝑂𝐻− = 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 (1.1)
Formatted: List Paragraph, Space Before: 12 pt, No

bullets or numbering
Figure 11 Rust formation in seawater
c. Cathodic reactions are reduction reactions which occur at the cathode. Electrons
released by the anodic reactions are consumed at the cathode surface. The most
common cathodic reactions in terms of electrons transfer are given below:
2𝐻+ + 2𝑒 − = 𝐻2 ↑ [𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛] (1.2)

𝑂2 + 4𝐻+ + 4𝑒 − = 2𝐻2 𝑂 [𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛] (1.3)
2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 + 4𝑒 − = 𝑂𝐻 − [𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠] (1.4)
𝐹𝑒 +3 + 𝑒 − = 𝐹𝑒 +2 [𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠] (1.5)
𝑀𝑒 +2 + 2𝑒 − = 𝑀𝑒 [𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛] (1.6)
−2
𝑆𝑂4 + 8𝐻+ + 8𝑒 − = 𝑆 − + 4𝐻2 𝑂 [𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑑. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒] (1.7)
d. Current Flow - Conventional current flows from negative terminal to positive one.
The current is carried by positively charged ions on the opposite direction to electron
flow.

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e. Electrolyte - It is the solution providing electrically conductive environment for

corrosion to occur.
f. Metallic Path - It is a metallic conductor connecting two electrodes in the cell.
g. The Nernst equation expresses the emf of a cell in terms of activities of products and
reactants taking place in the cell reaction. It can be applied to predict corrosion
direction. Consider a general cell reaction:
𝑀𝑒1 + 𝑀𝑒2+ = 𝑀𝑒2 + 𝑀𝑒1+ (1.8)

Respective Nernst equation:
𝑅𝑇 𝑎𝑀2 𝑎𝑀1+𝑛
𝐸 − 𝐸0 = 𝑙𝑛 [ ] (1.9)
𝑛𝐹 𝑎𝑀1 𝑎𝑀2+𝑛
1.2 Formatted: List Paragraph, No bullets or numbering
1.3 Corrosion Mechanism of Iron

1.4 Nernst Equation
1.3 Types: Materials and Environment
a. Uniform Corrosion
 It is the uniform thinning of a metal without any localized attack. Corrosion does
not penetrate very deep inside. The most familiar example is the rusting of steel
in air.
 The following lists favorable environments and factors affecting to magnitude of
the corrosion type:
o Atmosphere (dry; damp; wet; industrial) and atmospheric contaminants;
o Acids, brines;
o Process water containing H2S and hydrocarbons containing wet H2S;
o Air humidity and presence of pollutants.

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b. Galvanic corrosion
 It occurs when two metals with different electrochemical potentials or with
different tendencies to corrode are in metal-to-metal contact in a corrosive
electrolyte.
the corrosion type:
o Any environment with low resistivity (e.g. seawater);
Apply coatings with judgment. Use a third metal active to both the metals in
the couple. Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
o Area ratio;
Anode/Cathode ratio should be high since large anode/small cathode only
slightly accelerates galvanic corrosion comparing to the reverse ratio.
Select metals, close together, as far as possible, in the galvanic series or in
designing the components, use replaceable parts so that only the corroded
parts could be replaced instead of the whole assembly.
o Distance;
If two different metals are far away from each other, there would be no risk
of galvanic corrosion, because of very little current flow. This is possible in
designs, like oil rigs and other complex structures requiring a very large
variety of material. Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
Note that the greatest galvanic damage is likely to be encountered near the
junction of the two metals and the severity would be decreased with increased
length. Avoid joining materials by threaded joints.
o Geometry.
Any obstacle to polarization such as severe corners would accelerate
galvanic corrosion.
c. De-alloying
 The phenomenon of de-alloying by selective leaching can occur in various
materials. Dezincification is its special form which copper–zinc alloys
containing more than 15% zinc are susceptible to.

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the corrosion type:
o Each metal has different sensitivity to the same environment when it comes
to selective leaching.
Avoid environments where the solution becomes stagnant and deposits
accumulate on the metal surface.
Use copper alloys with copper content above 85%. Use brass alloys with tin,
arsenic or antimony addition.
d. Crevice corrosion
 This is a localized form of corrosion, caused by the deposition of dirt, dust, mud
and deposits on a metallic surface or by the existence of voids, gaps and cavities
between adjoining surfaces.
the corrosion type:
o The conventional steels, like SS 304 and SS 316, can be subject to crevice
corrosion in chloride containing environments, such as brackish water and
seawater. Water chemistry plays a very important role.
o Crevice type and geometry;
Crevice type means whether the crevice is between metal-to-metal, metal to
non-metal or a marine growth, like barnacles or other marine biofouling
organisms, on the metal surface. It is important to factor to determine control
technique.
The magnitude of crevice corrosion also depends on the depth of the crevice,
width of the gap, number of crevices and ratio of exterior to interior crevice.
Creviced area/crevice solution and creviced area/bold area should be large
as smaller ratio increases probability of crevice corrosion.
o Alloy composition, Oxygen and passive film characteristics;
It has been shown that Fe, Cr, Ni and Mo improve the resistance of steels to
crevice corrosion.
The onset of crevice corrosion is strongly linked with the nature of the passive
film on the metal surface. If the passive film is very stable, crevice corrosion

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is blocked. Oxygen is essential for the formation of passive film on the metal
surface.
o Bulk composition of media, bulk environment and mass transfer in and out of
crevice.
All chloride containing solutions are highly aggressive and contribute to
onset of crevice corrosion. Seawater and brackish water are high aggressive
to promote crevice corrosion of steels.
The process of bringing chloride ions increases the concentration of chloride
ions in the small crevice, hence, the aggressiveness of the electrolyte inside
the crevice is increased.
e. Pitting corrosion
 It is a form of localized corrosion of a metal surface where small areas corrode
preferentially leading to the formation of cavities or pits, and the bulk of the
surface remains unattacked.
the corrosion type:
o Generally, the most conducive environment for pitting is the marine
environment;
Ions, such as Cl−, Br−and I−, in appreciable concentrations tend to cause
pitting of steel. Thiosulfate ions also induce pitting of steels.
Stagnant water conditions is a favorable for pitting to occur.
Aluminum also pits in an environment that cause the pitting of steel.
With soft water, pitting in copper occurs in the hottest part of the system,
whereas with hard waters, pitting occurs in the coldest part of the system.
o Environmental contamination;
An environment contaminated by dust or salt particles would be more
conducive to pitting.
o Passive film characteristics.
The most important condition is that the metal must be in a passive state for
pitting to occur. Pitting initiates from the places where breaks in the films or

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other defects, such as a lack of homogeneity in the film on the metal surface
form.
f. Microbial Induced Corrosion (MIC)
 MIC is broadly defined as corrosion affected by the presence or activity (or both)
of microorganisms including bacteria, archaea, and fungi.
the corrosion type:
o It occurs when a specific combination of biological factors is present
simultaneously with other favorable conditions, such as specific water
chemistry, temperature, flow velocity, metallurgy, organic matters and
inorganic compounds.
g. Corrosion fatigue
 Corrosion fatigue is a process in which a metal fractures by fatigue prematurely
under conditions of simultaneous corrosion and repeated cyclic loading at lower
stress levels than would be otherwise required in the absence of a corrosive
environment. Metals and alloys will crack in the absence of corrosion if they are
subject to high cyclic stress for a number of cycles. The number of cycles for
failure decreases as the stress is increased.
the corrosion type:
o The corrosion fatigue resistance of high strength alloys is also affected by
relative humidity and condensation conditions in the environment.
High temperature accelerates the rate of fatigue crack propagation.
o Mechanical factors.
Mechanical factors including stress, number of cycles also accelerate crack
propagation.
h. Erosion–corrosion
 It occurs in environments that have the potential to be both erosive and corrosive.
Erosion and corrosion can be either independent, in which case the total wastage
is the wastage produced by each mechanism in isolation, or synergistic, in which

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case the total wastage is greater than the sum of the independent mechanisms of
erosion and corrosion.
the corrosion type:
o In solids containing flows, the synergy between the erosion and corrosion
rates (e.g., due to the removal of protective corrosion scales or inhibitor films)
can be such that the resultant damage is enhanced. The most damaging
situation occurs where any corrosion scale is only removed over a small area.
Wall loss is likely to appear in the form of pitting corrosion. Under these Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
conditions, the rate of wall loss in the location where the scale has been
removed is dictated by the ratio of the scale coated pipe wall to the area of
the bare pipe wall.
i. Sweet corrosion (CO2 induced)
 Corrosion occurs in the liquid phase and often at locations where CO2 condenses
from the vapor phase.
j. Sour corrosion (H2S induced)
 When H2S is present, Iron Sulphide (FeS) scales can form which may enhance
the CO2 corrosion rate at areas of scale breakdown.
Corrosion rate (pitting rate) is high for case not taking into account H2S
concentration rather than for considering case, since metal ions (Fe+2) are
reduced through the precipitation of FeS. This film makes difficult to detect
pitting.
k. Oxygen corrosion (O2 induced)
 Occurs in systems where oxygen is present, such as seawater systems and also
where O2 may be introduced unintentionally into a system.
l. Cavitation corrosion
 Cavitation is caused by the high energy collapse of vapor bubbles (or cavities) in
a liquid flow stream as a result of pressure recovery following pressure reduction
to a value below the vapor pressure of the liquid at the flowing temperature.
Cavitation corrosion is a form of localized corrosion combined with mechanical

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damage that occurs in a rapidly moving liquids and takes the form of areas or
patches of pitted or roughened surface.
the corrosion type:
 Amount of entrained air and temperature;
There is a critical temperature above which the intensity of attack is decreased.
 Presence of dust particles.
The dust particles act as nuclei for cavity formation.
o Corrosiveness of the media;
o Selection of materials.
Materials, like 18-8 steels and titanium, are resistant to cavitation damage.
1.5 t
2. Corrosion Rate Measurement and Calculations

2.1 Weight Loss Tests Formatted: Outline numbered + Level: 2 + Start at: 1
+ Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1",
The corrosion rate of a metal in a specific medium can be measured by exposing the Tab stops: 1.28", Left
sample to the test medium and measuring weight of the material as a function of time.
𝑚𝑚 𝑊
= 87.6 ∗ ( ) (2.1)
𝑦 𝐷𝐴𝑇
Where:
W = weight loss in milligrams;
D = metal density in g /cm3;
A = area of sample in cm2;
T = time of exposure of the metal sample in hours.
1.6 However, it is difficult to detect some corrosion processes (e.g. pitting) using
gravimetric methods as they occur with no significant mass change.

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2.2 Electrochemical Methods Formatted: Outline numbered + Level: 2 + Start at: 1

+ Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1",
To detect rate of corrosion which is in electrochemical nature Faraday’s law can be Tab stops: Not at 0.98"
applied. According to Faraday's law, there is a linear relationship between the metal
dissolution rate or corrosion rate and the corrosion current:
𝑀
𝑅𝑀 = ∗ 𝐶𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 (2.2)
𝑛ƿ
Where:
RM = corrosion rate;
M = atomic weight of the metal in g/mol;
n = charge number which indicates the number of electrons exchanged in the dissolution
reaction;
icorr = corrosion current in A/cm2;
ƿ = density in g/cm3;
C = constant which includes F and any other conversion factor for units, for instance,
0.129 when corrosion rate is in mpy, 3.27 when in mm/year and 0.00327 when units
are in mm3/y;
1.7 However, this method requires determination of corrosion current. It can be
calculated using Tafel Slope Analysis (Software - NOVA).
2.3 Prediction Models Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.75", Hanging: 0.33", Outline
numbered + Level: 2 + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left +
Carbon dioxide corrosion represents the greatest risk to the integrity of carbon steel Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1"
equipment in a production environment. There are currently many different CO2
corrosion models in use in the oil and gas industry to establish likely corrosion rates.
These models forms basis of CO2 corrosion simulation software. Most used one is
Cassandra 98 which is based on De Waard model and predicts corrosion rates in mm/y
based upon input of:
System pressure and Temperature;

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Scaling temperature;
Partial pressure of CO2 and H2S;
Hydraulic diameter of pipe;
Velocity.
Note that these models cannot be used for all process conditions and equipment types.
1.8 Formatted: Normal, No bullets or numbering
2.4 Assumptions Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.73", Outline numbered +

Level: 2 + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at:
To calculate corrosion rate is not always possible. In such cases, only after making 0.75" + Indent at: 1", Tab stops: 1.38", Left
reasonable assumptions available equations can be used.
a. Assumptions for Steam to Power Project (E738):
 Steam and pure condensate lines;
Steam is not corrosive when it is dry. It becomes potentially corrosive when water
drops form. However, as in such systems treated water, which is non-corrosive due
to lack of conductivity, is usually used. Note that LP steam and pure condensate has
higher possibility to be corrosive comparing to HP and MP steam services which
are superheated.
The presence of impurities such as Cl- and SO42- salts, high concentration of NaOH,
even low concentration of dissolved CO2 and O2 are account for chemical upsets
resulting in corrosion. NaOH is being used to maintain pH level of boiler feed water.
According to project specification, pH level of steam and logically, pure condensate
is 9.2 which is, according to ASME B31.1, not favorable condition for corrosion.
The concentration of CO2 and O2 assumed to be kept in the acceptable range by
proper chemical dosing (treatment).
Conductivity is assumed to be caused only by Cl- and SO42- ions. Using the plot
below conductivity data provided for steam quality and logically, pure condensate
converted to concentration of Cl- and SO42- ions.

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Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 14 pt,

The concentration of chlorides and sulfates are represented in the table 1: Italic, Font color: Blue
Table 1: Approximate Concentration of Chlorides and Sulfates in Steam and Pure Italic, Font color: Blue
Condensate Formatted: Centered
Steam Quality, umhos Concentration, ppb Formatted Table
Chloride Sulfate Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 14 pt,

Italic, Font color: Blue
0.22 18 24
Despite its higher concentration, corrosion caused by sulfate ions assumed to be Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 14 pt,
insignificant comparing to one by chloride ions which are aggressive. Therefore, rate
Formatted: Default, Centered
of the corrosion only caused by chloride has been calculated for all steam services and
pure condensate. Italic, Font color: Blue
𝐶𝑅 = 0.315 ∗ [𝐶𝑙 − ]𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.315 ∗ 0.018 ≈ 0.006 𝑚𝑚/𝑦 Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 14 pt,

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Where:
CR = corrosion rate in mm/y;
[Cl-] steam = concentration of Cl- in ppm.
 Polluted condensate, make-up, firefighting (aboveground) and waste water lines;
In this case, there were not medium corrosivity measurement, nor inspection data
as it is green field. Therefore, corrosion rate of the material, if chosen one is type of
low alloy steel, in the seawater has been calculated using the available equation
below and results were interpreted for polluted condensate, make-up, firefighting
(aboveground) and waste water.
𝑌 = 0.2297 − 0.0087[𝑀𝑛] + 0.0047[𝑃] + 0.0484[𝑆𝑖] + 0.002[𝐶𝑢]
− 0.0267[𝑀𝑜] − 0.1437[𝐴𝑙] − 0.1117[𝐶𝑟] + 0.0578[𝑉]
Where:
Y = corrosion rate in mm/y;
[X] = percentage of the element in composition.
In this case, ASTM A106 Gr B has been chosen for these water services. The
corrosion rate of ASTM A106 Gr B in seawater was 0.18 mm/y and it interpreted
for polluted condensate, make-up, firefighting (aboveground) and waste water
services as 0.12 mm/y since these services are not as corrosive as seawater.
 Instrument air;
Assumed that instrument air meets requirements and is dry that is non-corrosive.
However, corrosion resistant material has been selected to tolerate potential
process upset and possible moisture content which can result in corrosion.
b. General assumptions:
If corrosion rate measurement results are not available for brownfield, reasonable
assumptions should be made based on analysis, site visit, inspection and other kind
of report results.
When the system whose design life is less than 17 years is susceptible to pitting,
default pitting rate of 0.4 mm/year (16 mpy) is recommended, while this

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recommendation is 12 mpy for locations with CP. This rate represents the upper
80% confidence level of maximum pitting rates for long-term (up to 17 year)
duration.
1.9In Oil and Gas industry, molar or mass rate of water cut and dissolved gases in
the oil is usually provided. Assuming that these gases are ideal, their partial fugacity
can be taken equal to their partial pressures drawn from ideal gas laws. It enables
to calculate rate of the corrosion caused by these gases using empirical models.
3. Corrosion Protection and Control

3.1 Passive Protection
3.1.1 Design
The following are the areas which require attention to minimize corrosion:
a. Bimetallic contacts;
The joining of two metals and alloys close to each other in the galvanic series would not cause
bimetallic corrosion.
b. Faying surface and joints (threaded, riveted and screwed);
In joining of two surfaces, crevice formation and galvanic effects are two of major considerations.
The formation of crevices must be avoided by sealing, or otherwise shielding the crevice from the
environment. To minimize galvanic corrosion contact between the two metals must be insulated.
c. Metals in contact with moisture absorbent materials;
d. Inaccessibility;
e. Areas of condensation;
f. Features which reduce the paint thickness;
g. Welds;
h. Oil, grease and rust patches;
i. Fluid movements;
j. Closed sections and entrapment areas;
k. Mechanical factors;
l. Crevices, moisture and water traps.
Examples:

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Formatted: Normal, No bullets or numbering
Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue

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Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", No bullets or

numbering
3.1.2 Material Selection and Corrosion Allowance (CA)

a. Project Material Selection Philosophy should be developed.
b. The philosophy should consider the following factors:
 Design and operating process conditions (temperature and pressure);
Process conditions are one of the major factors influencing system corrosiveness and corrosion
protection technique selection process.
Steam to Power Project: State of the steam with design parameters reflected in the table below
checked using SF Pressure Drop program. According to the results, HP and MP steam were
in their superheated state making them non-corrosive, whereas LP steam was in the

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superheated state near to saturation point meaning that it has higher potential to be corrosive
comparing to HP and MP steam services.
Table 2: Design temperature and pressure for HP, MP and LP steam services
Service Name Design Temperature, 0C Design Pressure, bara Formatted: Centered
HP Steam 515 126 Formatted Table
MP Steam 320 21
Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue, English (United
MP Steam 200 8 States)
Integrated Case Study for Development of Oil Platform: Zn-Chromat inhibitive inorganic Formatted: Centered
coating was recommended for external protection of subsea equipment and piping system. Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue, English (United
However, areas where operating temperature was higher than 600C were disregarded due to States)
activation polarization factor which can increase corrosion of the protected material. Formatted: Centered
 Design life; Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue, English (United
 Evaluation of corrosivity of internal process fluid; States)
For more information refer to: Corrosion Rate Measurement and Calculations Formatted: Centered
 Evaluation of corrosivity of external environment; Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Italic, Font color: Blue, English
Steam to Power Project: The external environment was ambient air with 70% humidity which (United States)
is corrosive. However, according to project specifications and PIDs the minimum medium Formatted: List Paragraph, No bullets or numbering,
temperature was 500C enabling us to assume that all lines will mostly dry. Additionally, most Tab stops: Not at 1.67"
of lines and equipment were inside the building and heat tracing was recommended for the Formatted: Font: 12 pt, English (United States)
ones located outside in order to stabilize their temperature. Moreover, coating and insulation Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Underline, Font color: Blue,
was recommended where applicable to protect eternal corrosion. English (United States)
SUPSA New Water Treatment Plant Project: The external environment was water from well Formatted: English (United States)
in which sand and other solid particles and biofouling was expected. Therefore, well screen
for well and filters for pumps and treatment system were put forward as a means of external
corrosion protection. Additionally, insulation and coating were recommended where required.
Integrated Case Study for Development of Oil Platform: The external environment was
seawater for pipelines, while humid atmosphere for subsea equipment and piping system.
Comparing to other mentioned projects, in this case, corrosiveness of external environment is
much more significant. Therefore, in addition to coating and insulation, CP was also
recommended for pipelines (and inside of storage tanks) to protect them from external
corrosion. In order to achieve effective external protection of subsea equipment and piping
system,, inhibitive Zinc-Chromate inorganic coating that is more anodic metals than steel was
suggested except for areas where temperature is higher than 600C. Besides, insulation was
also recommended where applicable.
 Mechanical and corrosion resistance characteristics of a material;

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Steam to Power Project: ASTM A335 P91 was recommended for HP steam service lines.
Comparison with other materials applicable for the same service reflected that this material
has higher allowable stress and Cr-Mo content making it more stress, creep rupture and
oxidation resistant at the given temperature and pressure.
ASTM A106 Grade B was recommended for MP, LP, condensate and other water service lines.
Comparing to other applicable material for the same purposes, which is ASTM A53, A106
Grade B has higher heat resistance and lower risk of failure if exposed to regular high
temperature which is the case for steam power plant.
ASTM A312 Grade 316L was preferred for instrument air services due to its resistance to
external and internal corrosion.
SUPSA New Water Treatment Plant Project: PVC-U was recommended for underground
pipes and flowlines carrying potable water as it is non-corrosive, extremely light. Therefore,
easy to handle and transport. Furthermore, pipes made from PVC-U are strong and come in
long length that lower installation and transportation costs. However, being prone to physical
damage if exposed aboveground and become brittle if exposed to ultraviolet light, U-PVC
ought not to be used for AG pipes. Instead, ASTM A333 Grade 6 which belongs to low alloy
carbon steel group was advised for AG pipes.
 Availability of material in the appropriate products form;
Integrated Case Study for Conceptual Oil Platform Development: In material selection
process for process piping, 2 similar materials were evaluated: ASTM A333 Grade 6 and A106
Grade B. Decision was made based on their availability and/or applicability in the
appropriate product form. Although A106 Grade B contains such unspecified elements as Cr,
V making it more corrosion resistance than ASTM A333 Grade 6, it is not available for low
temperature applications. Therefore, for low temperature applications ASTM A333 Grade 6
has been recommended.
 Compliance with regulations, standards and project specifications;
Steam to Power Project: ASTM A106 Grade B was recommended for MP, LP, condensate and
other water service lines. However, for aboveground section of firefighting line, СТ20 which
is equivalent to ASMT A106 Grade B in ГОСТ was recommended in order to comply with
project specifications since existing one was in compliance with ГОСТ standard.
SUPSA New Water Treatment Plant Project: Despite being common practice, using CP for
internal protection of potable water storage tanks was not recommended.
Using CP in potable water storage tanks doesn’t meet regulations since corrosion products of
anode used in CP contaminate and change potable water quality making it threat for public
health.
 Project cost and schedule requirements.
c. The philosophy should cover the followings as a minimum:
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 Material selection approach;

 The worst case scenarios;
 Corrosion rate measurements, calculations and/or assumptions;
 CA recommendations;
CA is excess wall thickness provided to accommodate internal corrosion anticipated to occur
at a slow and regular rate. Since this material will be consumed over the design life, it cannot
be counted upon to serve any other purpose such as pressure integrity, structural strength, or
mechanical strength. Maximum allowed CA value is different for Onshore and Offshore. Other
alternatives should be sought for if CA exceeds 6 mm for Offshore and 10 mm for Onshore
applications. It is especially necessary for Offshore applications as weight savings and place
are 2 precious factors for offshore.
If CR is known:
𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝑅 ∗ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒
Depending on regulation, project and standard requirements, CA can interpreted based on
calculated corrosion rate, calculated specific formulas, taken from standards and/or best
practices and/or assumed.
Steam to Power Project: The worst case was assumed and corrosion rate has been calculated
for HP, MP, LP and pure condensate lines. According to the calculations, anticipated
corrosion rate for these lines is 0.3 mm over 50 years design life. (For more information refer
to: Corrosion Rate Measurement and Calculations). Additionally, final decision took into
account best practice and assumptions. According to literature based on best practices, CA
for carbon steel and low alloy steel, unless otherwise specified, shall be minimum 1.6 mm.
Moreover, CA for the same services in the existing plant is also 1.6 mm. Taking into account
best practices, data for existing plant HP and MP steam lines, the fact that HP and LP services
are non-corrosive, for these systems recommended CA is 1.6 mm which also satisfies CA
calculated based on corrosion rate that is less likely to occur.
However, recommended corrosion allowance for LP steam and pure condensate lines’
material to resist 50 years corrosion in this case is 3 mm due to the fact that they have higher
potential to be corrosive than HP and LP steam services.
SUPSA New Water Treatment Plant Project: In this case, it was significant to avoid any
corrosion product in the medium which was potable water. Therefore, CA was not considered
as a means of internal protection.
Integrated Case Study for Conceptual Oil Platform Development: Corrosion rate prediction
model implemented and anticipated corrosion rate for HP separators was higher than 10 mm
over 25 years design life. As weight savings and place are precious for Offshore, instead of
10 mm CA to CS, CRA material has been recommended for HP separators.

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3.1.1 Formatted: List Paragraph, Outline numbered + Level:

1 + Numbering Style: a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 +
3.1.3 External and internal (lining/cladding) cCoating Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0" + Indent at: 0.25",
Tab stops: Not at 1.67"
a. High resistivity coatings decreases corrosion rate by retarding the electron flux from the metal
surface. Coating system is divided into the following subcategories based on their chemistry:
 Inorganic coatings;
Effective protection can be achieved by applying such inhibitive metal pigments as Zn-Cr
system which is more anodic than steel. However, this type of coating is not applicable for
all conditions due to activation polarization factor. Therefore, before making the decision,
operating and design temperatures shall be checked whether they are in the allowable
range to avoid adverse effects of inorganic coatings.
 Organic coatings.
Such organic coatings as fusion bonded epoxy, chlorinated rubber and polyvinyl chloride
serve as a barrier to H2O, O2 and prevent cathodic reaction underneath the coating.
b. Coating failures include, but not limited to the followings:
 Chalking;
It results in formation of a powdery layer on a coating surface. To avoid this type of failure,
pigments with the least tendency for chalking should be chosen. If the failure has already
occurred, chalk deposits should be removed and a new layer to be applied.
 Wrinkling;
It is appearance of wrinkles on the coated surface. In order to prevent it, thin layer of slow
drying solvents should be applied. Mixtures of silicates can be used to control the drying
rate.
 Blistering;
This is adhesion-related failure. If it is localized, the coating should be removed and
repaired, while in case it has spread all over the surface the coating should be completely
changed. Prior to application, complete dryness and cleanness of coating substrate should
be ensured.
 Holiday;
This is the area left uncoated while the rest of the surface has been coated. A complete
holiday inspection of all coated surfaces should be performed once all coating on the
surface has dried, and all thickness corrections have been made. The found holidays
should be repaired except for those in bolt holes.
 Peeling;
 Flaking.

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c. Being internal coating types, lining and cladding are means of passive internal corrosion
protection. Lining is when interior surface of the metal is painted with organic coating system,
whereas in cladding CRA is used. Note that internal coating can be preferred to CA when
anticipated corrosion rate is high and application is not potential subject to abrasion or other
physical damage. Additionally, temperature-sensitivity of the coating material should be
considered.
SUPSA New Water Treatment Plant Project: In this project, replacement of existing potable
water storage tanks has been recommended. Application of CS+lining (food grade epoxy) had
been evaluated as more corrosion resistant alternative to CS+CA during storage tank material
selection process. However, this option was disregarded since implementation of CS+lining
(food grade epoxy) for potable water storage tanks requires strict compliance with BS6920
and Water Bylaws Advisory Council.
Integrated Case Study for Conceptual Platform Development: Lined CS was recommended
for water injection system vessel, seawater injection and lifting pipelines, considering high
corrosivity, low temperature, insignificant solid content and application of the medium.
d. General coating specification should be referred to for external coating of aboveground metal
equipment, piping and underground (and/or undersea) pipelines. Note that process conditions
has potential to influence coating effectiveness (in some cases inappropriate coating area or
type selection even can lead to corrosion initiation), and should be taken into account while
deciding on areas to be coated and selection of coating type.
3.1.2 Steam to Power Project: In Material Selection Philosophy for the project, external
coating and insulation have been mentioned as a means of external corrosion protection where
applicable. However, it has been noted that for more detail, project general coating
specification should be referred to.
3.1.3 Cladding and Lining
3.2 Active Protection

3.2.1 Inhibition (CI)
a. Internal corrosion can be controlled by injecting a corrosion inhibitor into the transported fluid.
b. Corrosion inhibition performance depends on:
 Adequate CI selection;
Corrosion inhibitors prevent corrosion by merging with metal surface or by reacting with
the corrosive agent. When CI merges with metal surface, it forms natural protective oxide
film and, therefore, the metal enters passive potential region. Carboxylic acids, their
anhydrides and quaternary ammonium salts are effective inhibitors in aqueous solution
through the formation of protective film.

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In order to remove corrosive agent inhibitors called scavengers are used. This method is
specially applied to remove O2. When salts of 𝑆𝑂32− are used as scavenger, removal process Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Italic, Font color: Blue,
follows the given steps: Subscript
𝑆𝑂32− + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂42− Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Italic, Font color: Blue
But this method can lead to MIC if bacterial activity is an issue. Therefore, while using Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Italic, Font color: Blue
this method for removing O2, presence of bacteria should be taken into account. Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Italic, Font color: Blue
Steam to Power Project: One of the reasons why HP,MP, LP steam and pure condensate
Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Italic, Font color: Blue
being regarded as non-corrosive is their lack of conductivity. As in such systems,
chemicals are used to treat the feed water for mitigating their corrosivity by controlling
their pH level and conductivity.
SUPSA New Water Treatment Plant Project: In this project, replacement of existing
potable water storage tanks has been recommended. Application of CS+CI had been
evaluated as more corrosion resistant alternative to CS+CA during storage tank material
selection process. However, this option was disregarded since application of corrosion
inhibitors and biocides are not effective where no flow. Additionally, they are able to
change potable water chemistry leading to adverse health issues.
 Inhibitor injection system design;
 Dosage control.
So as to ensure that inhibitor will disperse in corrosive fluid before it reaches carbon or
low alloy carbon steel. It is better CI is injected into the process stream at locations
adjacent to the corrosion monitoring, especially after bends where the flow is turbulent. Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Italic, Font color: Blue
This type of flow provides better mixing. However, except for CI injection points, high flow
rate should be avoided. Otherwise, any inhibitor film formed adhering to the surface will
be washed out.
c. Another factor, which should be considered, is availability of CI within production stream. CI
Availability can be calculated using the given formula:
∑ 𝑃𝑡
𝐴= ∗ 100%
∑ 𝐷𝑡
100% availability should be aimed.
Where:
Pt - Protected time;
Dt - Demand time.
d. Inhibitor efficiency is defined as:
𝐶𝑅𝐼
%𝐶𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1 −
𝐶𝑅𝑈

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Where:
CIeff - Corrosion inhibitor efficiency;
CRI - Inhibited corrosion rate;
3.2.1 CRU - Uninhibited corrosion rate.
3.2.2 Cathodic Protection (CP)
a. Cathodic protection provides current flow to a protected object and prevents it from external
corrosion by making it cathodic.
b. CP applicable for the following underground and undersea metallic structures:
 Oil and gas pipelines;
 Utility lines;
 Cables;
 Structural foundations
CP can also be considered for protection of oil drilling platforms, dockyards, jetties, ships,
submarines, condenser tubes in heat exchangers, bridges and decks, civil and military aircraft
and internal protection of water storage tanks, if they are not intended for potable water.
As well coated structures require approximately 70 times less current density than required
by uncoated ones, where applicable they ought to be coated before applying CP system.
c. The source of the supplied electron flux is an external anode which can be sacrificial (galvanic)
or impressed.
d. The sacrificial CP system should be applied for offshore environment where max required
design life is 40 years and for onshore environment with 5-10 years design life demand. One
of the following materials can be used as an sacrificial anode in galvanic CP system:
 Aluminium (Al);
It is mostly considered for aqueous and offshore environments where electrolyte does not
exceed 225 ohm-cm.
 Magnesium (Mg);
It is primarily considered for buried onshore and non-saline aqueous applications where
resistivity is 10-150 ohm-m.
 Zinc (Zn).
Maybe considered for both onshore and offshore applications where conditions will not
lead to activation polarization of Zn anodes.
Case Study for Conceptual Platform Development Project: Sacrificial anodes are
suggested for protecting offshore pipelines (especially pipe joint points and seawater level
parts of pipeline, and platform legs) and subsea equipment since seawater has lower

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resistivity than soil and galvanic anodes can serve up to 40 years under seawater
conditions. Moreover installation and maintenance of galvanic anodes are easier than for
an impressed current system.
In this case, Mg was disregarded as a CP material since seawater is not favorable
condition for this material. Zn and Al were further evaluated in order to decide on more
appropriate and cost-effective option. Anode number calculations have been carried out
as a part of CP designing.
Calculations:
CP system is designed based on oil export pipeline which is 120800m long and 16’’ in
diameter.
Table 3: Required oil export pipeline data

Oil Export Pipeline Formatted: Centered
Length, m 120800 Formatted Table
Diameter, m 0.406
Formatted: Centered
Table 4: Sacrificial anode capacities Formatted: Centered
Anode Material Environment Capacity in Ah/kg Formatted: Centered

Al Seawater 1500 Formatted Table
Zn Seawater 750
Formatted: Centered
As is clear from the table, Al has higher output than other materials. Formatted: Centered
CP designing compromise of below steps:
1. In this stage anode exposed pipe surface area is calculated. Before starting estimation
anode type (we have chosen tapered ended bracelet) is determined and required
properties of Al and Zn were taken from different tables (NACE standard can be
referred to) and represented by one appropriate table given below:
Table 5: Sacrificial anode type properties in sea water (for 16’’ pipe diameter)
Tapered Length, m Weight, kg Driving Consumption Utilization
Anode Potential, V Rate in Factor for
Material Seawater (0- Bracelet
600C), kg/A*y Anode
Al 0.454 68.4 1.05 3.4 0.75
Zn 0.454 174.6 0.25 11.5

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𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 ∗ 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 0.58 𝑚2

2. Anode -electrolyte (seawater) resistance (Ra) is worked out. In order to carry out these
calculations, the table given in the external environmental analyze (material selection)
part was used. According to that figure at 200 C (average temp. for the Caspian Sea)
the resistivity (𝜌) of the Caspian seawater is 𝜌 = 53 𝑂ℎ𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑚 =0.53 𝑂ℎ𝑚 ∗ 𝑚.
0.53
𝑅𝑎 = 0.315 ∗ = 0.22Ω
√0.58
3. The anode output current for 2 different anode is calculated using the formula given
below:
Δ𝐸
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎
Where:
Ia - Anode output, A
Δ𝐸 - Driving potential, V
As a calculation result:
Since Δ𝐸 = 1.05 𝑉 and Δ𝐸 = 0.25 𝑉 (table 46), for Al and Zn anode different values
are found:
Al anode current output: 𝐼𝑎 = 4.77 𝐴
Zn anode current output: 𝐼𝑎 = 1.1 𝐴
4. In this stage, pipeline external surface area per unit length AL and final current per
unit length were calculated:
𝐴𝐿 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 ∗ 1𝑚 = 3.14 ∗ 0.406 ∗ 1 = 1.275𝑚2
′
𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ∗ 1.275 = 15 ∗ 1.275 = 19.125𝑚𝐴 = 0.019125𝐴
𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 - is minimum final current density for the cathodic protection of coated pipes and
taken from the table (NACE standard can be referred to).
5. Minimum required spacing between bracelet anodes and number of anodes was
calculated for different sacrificial anode types using below equations:

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𝐼𝑎
𝑆= ′
𝐼𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑆 - Spacing, m and is 𝑆 = 249 𝑚 for Al anodes and 𝑆 = 59 𝑚 for Zn anodes. Then

number of anodes was calculated:
𝐿𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑁𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 =
𝑆
Where 𝑁𝐴𝑙 = 485 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑍𝑛 = 2047 which means that it is not cost effective using Zn
sacrificial cathodic protection. Therefore, Al bracelet anode is recommended. Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
6. In this stage the estimations were carried out only for Al anode, since calculations
proved that it is more appropriate sacrificial anode material for the Caspian Sea
environment. As number of Al bracelets along the length of the pipe were calculated,
now it is needed to estimate required number of anodes throughout the platform life
(25 year).
First, minimum mean current density for the cathodic protection of coated pipes was
taken from the table (NACE standard can be referred to) and average current was
calculated:
𝐼𝑚 = 0.009 ∗ 1.275 ∗ 249 = 2.86𝐴
Then, life of one Al anode was calculated using consumption rate (𝐸 = 3.4 𝑘𝑔/(𝐴 ∗
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟)), weight (𝑀𝑎 = 68.4 𝑘𝑔) and utilization factor (U=0.75 (NACE standard can
be referred to)) of Al anode (values of these constants are taken from the table).
𝑀𝑎 ∗ 𝑈
𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = ≈ 5.5𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐼𝑚 ∗ 𝐸
It means for 25 year design life 4.5 times more Al anodes are needed than calculated
above and distance between them is:
𝐿𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 120800
𝑆25 = ′ ≈ ≈ 55𝑚
𝑁𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 4.5 ∗ 485
Additionally, since in practice several factors such as cathodic disbondment can affect
CP system. Therefore, one complete survey in every 5 year is suggested for checking
CP performance.

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Figure: Subsea pipeline protected by Al anode

e. Cathodic protection is provided by an adjustable external source where its negative terminal
connected to the metal structure to be protected, whereas positive terminal is connected to
anode in ICCP system. In an impressed current system, the current is generated by one or more
external power supplies. These power supplies The followings are three major types of power
supplies:
 Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU);
 Solar Power Unit (SPU);
 Thermo Electric Generator (TEG).
f. Impressed current CP systems can be used for a wider variety of voltage and current
requirements compared to sacrificial ones. Power supplies used in ICCP system are designed
to be installed in harsh, hazardous and extremely demanding environment with high level of
reliability. However, maintenance, power cost, difficulty in installation, possible interface and
power failures of impressed current CP systems should be taken into account prior to making
a decision.
3.2.2
4. Corrosion Inspection and Monitoring

4.1 Corrosion Monitoring (CM)
a. Project Monitoring Plan (PMP) shall be developed at an early project stage and
be reviewed at each phase.
b. Key objectives of PMP are:
 Monitor corrosion rate in order to measure fluid corrosiveness;

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 Monitor effectiveness of internal and external corrosion protection

techniques;
 Reflect risk of failure in terms of cost.
c. PMP should include, but not limited to specific corrosion types, monitoring
methods, parameters and requirements.
d. There are several CM techniques. It is preferred to select the technique
considering specific process conditions. Additionally, cost, complexity,
availability are some of the factors affecting validity of specific method.
Integrated Case Study for Conceptual Platform Development Project:
According to internal and external environment evaluation results, sand, MIC, Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
uniform corrosion (sweet, sour, galvanic) were main considerations for this
system. For such a system, the following techniques were recommended:
 Weight loss coupons;
 ER probes;
 Bio-probes (electrochemical);
 Residual analysis.
4.1 Weight loss coupons, ER probes should be made of the same material as
the equipment to be monitored. They provide representative indications of system
corrosion and inhibitor performance at the installed locations only. Therefore,
it is critical to select locations representing the worst case scenario. It is also
important to ensure that enough room is provided for replacement.
Consequently, it is recommended to install coupons in process trains and water
injection system. Although we do not have any information about sand
production, due to regional factor we suggest to install ER sand probes before
chock valves to monitor erosion rate. To get indication of bacterial activity and
effectiveness of biocides treatment, we recommend installing bio-probes in
downstream of the de-aerator vacuum towers and injection pumps.
4.2 Corrosion Inspection
a. Project Inspection Program shall be developed.
b. Key objectives of PIP are:

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 To correlate the continuous monitoring data collected over the last several
years;
 To evaluate the effectiveness of the Corrosion Management Program.
c. Inspection techniques include, but not limited to:
 Visual inspection;
Most of equipment like separators, heat exchangers, heaters are physically
inspected for corrosion threats during annual shutdowns. This method can only
be applied to detect surface breaking defects on ferritic materials.
 Ultrasonic;
Pigs using this system are recommended for both internal and external defects.
It measures wall thickness of metal and detects presence of cracks by changes in
response to ultrasonic signal.
 Eddy current.
It uses electromagnetic flux. Pigs using magnetic flux are recommended to detect
leakage. Eddy current is also suggested for inspecting coating integrity.
4.2
5. Approaches
5.1 Approaches to Corrosion Evaluation Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.48"
Corrosion has complex enough mechanism. For instance, certain environment can
increase one type of corrosion, while decreasing rate of another type or certain
corrosion barrier can mitigate only some types of corrosion only if specific
requirements are being met. There are enormous factors affecting the process in terms
of its mechanism, rate, protection techniques etc. Therefore, each project requires
individual approach. However, overall corrosion management process can be
summarized. The general approach flowchart attached represents this summary
(Appendix 1). Take into account that despite similarities, there are some distinct
varieties between greenfield and brownfield corrosion evaluation procedures due to
differences in primary input data and resource availability. N

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5.2 New Facility Design (Greenfield)

“Greenfield” project is a project that lacks any constraints imposed by prior work. As
it can be observed from “greenfield” project definition, such type of projects provides
opportunity for adopting design to assessment outcomes, in other words in frame of
“green field” project we carry out corrosion evaluation and calculations where
applicable and that is prove to designed system reliability. This kind of approach is
called proactive, as all risks shall be analyzed and avoided on project design stage (prior
to procurement and construction).
As soon as primary process data, BOD and PFD is available, corrosion study should be
commenced. Material selection philosophy representing the study results and corrosion
management recommendations will be taken account further in all other design,
procurement and construction works conducted by various departments.
Young engineers are offered to review provided primary equipment and line list,
process data, PFD, BOD, standard, legislation and project specificity requirements as a
first step of the study. Based on review outcomes, external and internal environment
should be evaluated and corrosion threat assessment be carried out. Evaluation and
assessment results should be taken into account during material selection along with
such factors as operations experience, cost, mechanical characteristics of materials,
corrosion resistant and availability in the required form. Once material has been
selected, additional corrosion barriers should be considered and their combination
should be verified in terms of experience, cost, availability, etc. If this combination is
ineffective due to any factor, material selection stage should be re-conducted until the
combination of selected material and other corrosion barriers satisfies all requirements.
Corrosion Monitoring Plan, Corrosion Inspection and Maintenance Program,
Performance evaluation and data management, Management and Corrosion Engineer
review are further steps of the flowchart and there are interconnection between various
phases of corrosion evaluation process.
Below example of “greenfield” project and application of proactive approach is
considered in order to improve case understanding.

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Example from Company Experience:

Steam to Power Project:
Project Background: The existing power plant, mainly consisting of two natural gas
fired high-pressure steam generators, two back pressure steam turbines and all
required ancillary equipment. The current steam and power demand of the complex
are, to some degree, met with steam at two pressure levels and electric power supplied
by the existing power generation plant. However, taking into account power and
electric requirements of the complex, use of steam surplus for further improvement of
the power plant operation thermal efficiency has been agreed on by SOCAR-UNIPER
LLC.
Design Basis: The new steam turbine generator building locates near the existing one
and controlled from the existing control room. The high and medium pressure surplus
(table) from the existing power generation plant are supplied to new steam turbine. The
low-pressure steam from new turbine is delivered to the existing deaerator system to be
used as a heating medium. In order to avoid any adverse effect on the surrounding
equipment and systems of the chemical complex, the exhaust steam is send to an air-
cooled condenser where it is being condensed. Then, the condensate is being
recirculated to the deaerator vessel. The step-up transformer via which the produced
electric power to be supplied into the national grid is planned to be installed in an
electrical switchyard roughly 1.2 km away from the power plant site.
The table below summarizes the project design basis.
Table 6: Summary of Project Design Basis

Steam Quality Boiler Feed Water Formatted: Font: Bold
Quality Formatted: Centered
pH Conductivity, µS Cation Chemical Dosing Formatted: Centered

Conductivity
9.2 10-12 0.22  Ammonia Formatted: Centered

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 Hydrazine
Average Ambient Air Parameters Formatted: Font: Bold
0 Formatted: Centered
Temperature, C Pressure, mbar Humidity, %
Formatted: Centered
20 1000 70 Formatted: Centered
Design Parameters Formatted: Font: Bold

Formatted: Centered
System No Fluid Pressure, bara Temperature, 0C
Formatted: Centered
Power Plant High Pressure Steam 126 525 Formatted: Centered
Medium Pressure Steam 21 320

Low Pressure Steam N/A N/A
High Pressure Steam 126 515 Formatted: Centered
New Steam Turbine Medium Pressure Steam 21 320

Plant
Low Pressure Steam 8 200
Steam Condensates 1.49 / 10 / 12 120
Inlet of ACC 1.49 120
Air Cooled Outlet of ACC 1.49 120 Formatted: Centered
Condenser (ACC)
Condensate 12 120
Downstream
Auxiliary Cooling Cooling Water Supply 11 80 Formatted: Centered
System
Cooling Water Return 11 80
Instrument Air Instrument Air 6.5 20 Formatted: Centered
System

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Design Life Formatted: Font: Bold

Formatted: Centered
50 years
Formatted: Centered
Formatted: Normal, No bullets or numbering
Outcomes of Project Corrosion Study: As a result of the study, Material selection Formatted: Font: Bold
philosophy covering CA recommendations, which is means of internal corrosion
protection, and material selection process has been developed. It is recommended to
protect the piping systems externally by means of insulation and/or protective coating
where applicable.
Material selection summary, which considers mechanical properties, chemical
composition, availability, best practices, economics and other factors mentioned in
relevant sections of this document, for new steam power plant piping systems is
summarized as following:
 ASTM A335 P91 is being recommended for HP steam service lines. Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
 ASTM A106 Grade B is recommended for MP, LP, condensate and other (feed, Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
cooling, waste and firefighting) water services.
 Ст20 which is equivalent to ASMT A106 Grade B in ГОСТ is recommended for
new aboveground firefighting piping system since the existing plant firefighting
aboveground pipe is in compliance with ГОСТ standard.
 HDPE is put forward for underground firefighting service since metallic buried Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
pipe requires electrical isolation as stated in ASME B31.1.
 Taking into account possible moisture content in case of process upset, stainless Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
steel type ASTM A312 Grade 316 L is recommended for the instrument air piping
system. Note that considering possible adverse effect of the outdoor environment, Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
316L grade is preferred over 304L. Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
CA recommendations summary for new steam power plant piping systems are
summarized as following:
 CA for carbon steel and low alloy steel, unless otherwise specified, shall be Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue
minimum 1.6 mm. Moreover, CA for the same services in the existing plant is Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

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also 1.6 mm. Taking into account best practices, data for existing plant HP and
MP steam lines, the fact that HP and LP services are non-corrosive, for these
systems recommended CA is 1.6 mm which also satisfies CA calculated based on
corrosion rate that is less likely to occur.
 According to results and minimum CA requirement for carbon and low alloy
steel, unless otherwise specified, shall be minimum 1.6 mm. Although 1.6 mm is
higher than calculated CA which is 0.3 mm, recommended corrosion allowance
for material to resist 50 years corrosion in this case is 3 mm due to the fact that
LP steam and pure condensate has higher potential to be corrosive than HP and
LP steam services.
 6 mm CA recommended for water services.
 0 mm CA recommended for instrument air services and underground firefighting
service
Materials for the various pieces of equipment should be advised by Vendors.
Conclusion: As it is obvious from the study outcomes, depending on external and
internal environment characteristics, suspected corrosion types, various materials
have been selected, different CAs and additional barriers have been recommended.
Moreover, case specific corrosion rate assessment methodologies have been
implemented in order to determine CA required for over 50 years design life.
Note that above example is from updated Material Selection Philosophy. The primary
one has been revised since pipes in tie-ins didn’t pass the simulated stress analysis
because of inappropriate CA recommendations.
5.1 This example illustrates that within the “greenfield” engineers are relatively free
in selection of ways to adjust design to outcomes.
5.3 Existing Facility Modification (Brownfield)
Brownfield engineering relates to engineering activities (e.g. design, commissioning)
that interface to or upgrade or modify an existing operation or plant. When performing
a brownfield engineering project it requires an approach that is different to greenfield
projects. In greenfield projects, where work is being completed on a new site, the plant

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is not currently operating and for the most part provides a blank canvas to work within.
In contrast to this, projects undertaken on a brownfield site need to work within existing
plants and their production requirements, at all times targeting to minimize disruption
to the operation.
In this case, we shall refer to existing documentation while carrying out any corrosion
related task in order to be able clearly recognize system constrains and plant history.
Potable Water Treatment Plant:
Project Background: Potable Water Treatment Plant has failed. Site visit records
(GE0071 Site report 26_Sept_16F) linked failure of the system to both material
corrosion of the system elements and its design that has not taken into account factors
affecting the process. The objective of the study was to investigate possible causes of
existing Water Treatment Plant failure and increase design life of new system by
deploying the most optimized way that is both economically and environmentally
friendly.
Study Basis: Below list shows non-conformities, may be causes or results of corrosion,
which found by Manufacturer’s representatives during the site visit:
 Existing WTP skid ZBM-80H47 and Arsenic package ZBN-80H48 are not in use;
 The package does not provide automatic backwash / cleaning of filters and
membranes;
 The water samples testing have shown excessively high level of arsenic (ppm);
 The presence of bacteria growth is visible and the clean water storage tanks show
significant pollution;
 Lift pumps are oversized;
 The existing 3 CS storage tanks should be inspected as they are in poor condition
and are not in use;
 Trace heating and insulation at the bore pumps are needed;
 The pipe work for the tanks at the camp, also the pump sets for distribution and the
fire water in the camp circle should be considered for replacement as they show
signs of corrosion;

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 Some discrepancies between existing WTP pipework installation and design

documentation (Exp: AG pipe section of lifting pump discharge line include U-PVC
section while as per P&ID they are completely CS);
 Leakage is observed at the location of connection between above and belowground
piping;
 Accumulation of water, which may indicate leakage, around the pipe entering
ground from PBE – 80T44B lift pump.
Outcomes of Project Corrosion Study: According to the site visit report, there is a high
content of sand and sediment in the water supplied to the WTP. It is related to the lift
pump size by observers. However, this and other notes from the notes may indicate well
life expiration. It is highly probable that when the plant was designed, the lift pumps
are sized based on the initial flowrate. Over time, the rate at which water was pumped
has decreased. As a result, pump started pulling sand in from surrounding aquifer.
Meanwhile, it is possible that the well screen has become degraded and corroded over
time allowing sand to get into the well. These corrosion products significantly
decreased water quality, while abrasive sand damaged the pump leading to leakage.
Moreover, problems in the treatment packing may indicate high level of biofouling
caused by growth of microorganisms that quickens as soon as the well performance
declines below an acceptable level. In addition to these major changes in well and pump
characteristics, water quality test results, past inspection reports and direct data has
confirmed that well design life has expired.
As a result of the study below recommendations are put forward taking into account
best engineering practices, regulations and existing plant documentations:
 New well is to be drilled;
 Existing lifting pumps should be replaced with new ones designed according to new
well characteristics;
 PVC-U lines for underground and ASTM333 Grade 6 for aboveground water lines;
 Replacing existing tanks with new ones made of SS316.
 Proper PMP and PIP for the plant corrosion management.

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5.2 Conclusion: As it is obvious, brownfield project also requires individual

approach. Being different from greenfield project, in this case we have enough material
to study and identify what does not work for the system and what can’t be considered
further.
6. Example ProjectsCases
6.1 Case 1: Potable Water Treatment Plant Failure Formatted: Heading 2, Indent: Left: 0.49", Hanging:
0.39", Outline numbered + Level: 2 + Numbering Style:
As stated in site visit reports, existing 3 CS potable water storage tanks, WTP skid 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at:
1.48" + Indent at: 1.73"
ZBM-80H47 and Arsenic package ZBN-80H48 have failed. Moreover, above and
belowground pipes, lifting and distribution pumps show signs of corrosion. The facts
indicating failure of above mentioned plant parts can be summarized as below:
 The package does not provide automatic backwash / cleaning of filters and
membranes;
 The water samples testing have shown excessively high level of arsenic
(ppm);
 The presence of bacteria growth is visible and the clean water storage tanks
show significant pollution;
 Leakage is observed at the location of connection between above and
belowground piping;
 Accumulation of water, which may indicate leakage, around the pipe entering
ground from PBE – 80T44B lift pump;
 Some discrepancies between existing WTP pipework installation and design
documentation (Exp: AG pipe section of lifting pump discharge line include
U-PVC section while as per P&ID they are completely CS).
Remarks: According to the site visit reports, there is a high content of sand and
sediment in the water supplied to the WTP. It is related to the lift pump size by
observers. However, this and other remarks from the notes may indicate well life
expiration. It is highly probable that when the plant was designed, the lift pumps are
sized based on the initial flowrate. Over time, the rate at which water was pumped has

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decreased. As a result, pump started pulling sand in from surrounding aquifer.

Meanwhile, it is possible that the well screen has become degraded and corroded over
time allowing sand to get into the well. These corrosion products significantly
decreased water quality, while abrasive sand damaged the pump leading to leakage.
Moreover, problems in the treatment packing may indicate high level of biofouling
caused by growth of microorganisms that quickens as soon as the well performance
declines below an acceptable level. In addition to these major changes in well and pump
characteristics, water quality test results, past inspection reports and direct data has
confirmed that well design life has expired.
Remedy: New potable water well whose performance and chemistry should be
overseen is to be drilled. Storage tanks, pipes, WTP filters, lifting and distribution
pumps are to be replaced. SS316 with 1mm CA is recommended for storage tanks.
ASTM A333 Grade 6 with 1.5 mm CA is recommended for aboveground pipes,
whereas PVC-U with no CA is suggested for belowground ones.
6.2 Case 2: Material Selection Failure Formatted: Heading 2, Indent: Left: 0.49", Hanging:
ASTM A335 P91 with 6 mm CA was recommended for new HP steam service lines 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at:
1.48" + Indent at: 1.73", Tab stops: 0.89", Left
whose design parameters were 5150C and 126 bara. The document had been approved
and sent to the client without being verified. During procurement stage, material stress
analysis simulation has been conducted. The pipes in the tie-in points of existing and
new steam plants didn't pass simulated stress analysis.
Remarks: Previously developed Material Selection Philosophy reflecting material
selection, recommended CA and calculated minimum wall thickness calculation results
was investigated. The first problem was that instead of design pressure operating one
was used in tm (minimum wall thickness) equation. Besides, calculated and
recommended CA values didn’t seem realistic. In the old philosophy it was assumed
that HP steam is as corrosive as seawater, while in fact HP steam is dry and lacks
conductivity to be corrosive.
Remedy: All streams and their process parameters in tie-ins was re-studied and both
CA and tm re-evaluated considering project specifications' and standard (ASME B31.1)

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requirements, my calculation results and best practices. During calculations the worst
case possible, which can initiate during shutdown when steam has potential to change
its phase to liquid, was taken into account. In this case, steam conductivity converted
to its corrosivity being 0.3 mm over 50 years design life. Considering all factors, ASTM
A335 P91 with 1.6 mm CA was recommended for HP steam lines. The new results
were implemented and all tie-ins passed simulated stress analysis.
6.3 Case 3: Corrosion Protection Failure Formatted: Heading 2, Indent: Left: 0.49", Hanging:
Water carrying underground CS pipes were found to be severely corroded after being 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at:
1.48" + Indent at: 1.73", Tab stops: 0.89", Left
in approximately 1 year in service.
Remarks: Both internal and external corrosion were observed. There was leakage
around the pipes. Signs of internal corrosion indicates high oxygen content of the water,
while external corrosion induced by environment which is in this case soil. Based on
photos, it can be said that the soil is highly corrosive and has low resistivity.
Remedy: Belowground pipes should be replaced by insulated ones made of PVC as the
water is not intended for drinking. Note that if water is potable, then underground pipes
also can be CS. However, in this case, underground part should be cathodically
protected. Soil resistivity shall be determined for appropriate CP design.

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6.
7. AttachmentsPPENDIX
Formatted: Normal
General Approach
Field Code Changed
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Document Title: Guidance on Corrosion Engineering

DOCUMENT TITLE: Guidance on Corrosion Engineering

R00 09/10/2018 Issued for Comments M.Y.

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CONTENTS Formatted: Font: Bold, Font color: Auto

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4.2 Corrosion Inspection ................................................................................. 3526 Formatted ...

5. Approach ....................................................................................................... 3626 Formatted ...

Document Objective.................................................................................................... 4 Formatted ...

1.4 Nernst Equation ..............................................................................................4 Formatted ...

3. Corrosion Protection and Control ........................................................................ 4 Formatted ...

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5. Approach ............................................................................................................. 5 Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and

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Definitions and Abbreviations and Definitions

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References Formatted: Font: 16 pt

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accidents and hazards. It is well-known that at least 25% of water is lost by

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Formatted: List Paragraph, Space Before: 12 pt, No

Figure 11 Rust formation in seawater

2𝐻+ + 2𝑒 − = 𝐻2 ↑ [𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛] (1.2)

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e. Electrolyte - It is the solution providing electrically conductive environment for

𝑀𝑒1 + 𝑀𝑒2+ = 𝑀𝑒2 + 𝑀𝑒1+ (1.8)

1.2 Formatted: List Paragraph, No bullets or numbering

1.3 Corrosion Mechanism of Iron

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 The following lists favorable environments and factors affecting to magnitude of

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2. Corrosion Rate Measurement and Calculations

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2.2 Electrochemical Methods Formatted: Outline numbered + Level: 2 + Start at: 1

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2.4 Assumptions Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.73", Outline numbered +

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Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 14 pt,

Steam Quality, umhos Concentration, ppb Formatted Table

Chloride Sulfate Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 14 pt,

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3. Corrosion Protection and Control

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Formatted: Normal, No bullets or numbering

Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Blue

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Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", No bullets or

3.1.2 Material Selection and Corrosion Allowance (CA)

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 Material selection approach;

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3.1.1 Formatted: List Paragraph, Outline numbered + Level:

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3.2 Active Protection

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