Nanomaterials
– the driving force
The growth in activity surrounding nanomaterials
continues unabated as more R&D funds are poured
into nanotechnology and companies look to exploit
the expanding range of novel properties that are
being discovered. Advances in existing production
techniques are improving the quality and yields,
providing a clear prospect of commercially viable
volume production. There is still a wide range of
processes being used, and it is clear those that will be
commercially successful will be those for which the
materials have been developed at the same time as
the application. Recent reports from a number of
working groups have highlighted the need for
increased examination of the health, environmental,
and ethical aspects of nanotechnology, and this is an
area that the industry will need to understand more
fully and take appropriate action on if the benefits of
nanomaterials are to be realized.
QinetiQ Nanomaterials Ltd,
Y25 Bldg, Cody Technology Park,
Ively Road, Farnborough, Hants GU14 0LX, UK
E-mail: mjpitkethly@QinetiQ.com
URL: www.nano.QinetiQ.com
20 December 2004
by Michael J. Pitkethly
The nanotechnology bandwagon continues to roll.
The number of individuals and groups active in this
field continues to grow as funding, especially for
government-supported work, continues to rise. It has
been estimated that $8.6 billion will be spent
worldwide on nanotechnology-related R&D in 2004,
of which just over half ($4.6 billion) is from
governmental bodies1. A consequence of this is the
accelerating number of publications and patents2
coming out each year (Fig. 1).
An added incentive to researchers developing applications,
especially budding entrepreneurs, is the talk of
nanotechnology companies going public and the high share
values associated with them, although this has taken a
tumble in recent months. The drive behind nearly all this
activity is the continued development of nanomaterials and
the constant stream of new properties and capabilities that
are being discovered. These innovations appear to make
possible an ever-increasing number of applications for which
nanomaterials can provide improved performance and the
promise of competitive advantage and value creation. In
many areas where the industries are mature, such as
automotives, commodity plastics, and power generation, the
slightest advantage over one’s competitors can mean the
difference between struggling to survive and a sustainable
existence. The use of nanomaterials in these industries and
others is increasingly being seen as one way of gaining this
advantage in the marketplace.
However, nanotechnology is not new and, although the
term was first coined in the 1960s, it can be argued that
ISSN:1369 7021 © Elsevier Ltd 2004

material scientists and chemists have been working in
nanotechnology since their disciplines started. In fact,
nanoparticles were used over 2000 years ago in Roman
glass4, where clusters of Au nanoparticles were used to
generate vivid colors, and more widely in ceramics and glass
from the 10th century5.
The real move toward the use of nanoparticles did not
occur until the early 20th century with the production of
carbon black and, subsequently, fumed silica in the 1940s.
The discovery of C60 in 19856 and carbon nanotubes in 19917
gave a real stimulus to the development of nanomaterials
and made scientists ready to explore more avidly the use of
these materials. The advances in computing power and
materials modeling, coupled with significant advances in
characterization such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and
scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), and greater interest in
synthesis routes, have provided the additional factors that
have enabled nanomaterials to be designed for specific
purposes. It is this ability to design and characterize materials
at the nanoscale that distinguishes modern nanotechnology
from previous activities in materials science and chemistry.
What are nanoparticles?
Although nanotechnology is widely talked about, there is
little consensus about where the nano-domain begins. In fact,
in the recent report8 by the Royal Society and the Royal
Academy of Engineering in the UK, the definitions of
nanoscience and nanotechnology avoided the use of
dimensions at all:
• Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation
of materials at atomic, molecular, and macromolecular
scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a
larger scale.
• Nanotechnologies are the design, characterization,
production, and application of structures, devices, and
systems by controlling shape and size on the nano scale.
Nanomaterials cross the boundary between nanoscience and
nanotechnology and link the two areas together, so these
definitions are very appropriate. It is recognized that the size
range that provides the greatest potential and, hence, the
greatest interest is that below 100 nm; however, there are
still many applications for which larger particles can provide
properties of great interest. Therefore, for the purposes of
this article, I have arbitrarily taken nanoparticles to be
discrete particles that have a diameter of 250 nm or less.
MARKET REPORT
Fig.1 The growth in the number of patents and journal publications on nanotechnology3.
Trying to convey what this means in terms of scale has led
to some awe-inspiring statistics. For example, 2 g of 100 nm
diameter spherical Al nanoparticles contains sufficient
particles to give every human on the planet 300 000 particles
each, while nanosilicates have an interfacial area that is
equivalent to cramming a football field within a raindrop.
Furthermore, nanomaterials cover a hugely diverse range of
materials: polymers, metals, and ceramics.
Nanoparticles can come in a wide range of morphologies,
from spheres, through flakes and platelets, to dendritic
structures, tubes, and rods. Fig. 2 shows some examples of
nanomaterials. The sophistication of the production processes
for some materials has reached the level in the laboratory
where complex three-dimensional structures such as springs,
coils, and brushes have been made9 (Fig. 3).
Why are they interesting?
Just because materials can be made into very small particles
does not immediately mean that they have any practical use.
However, the fact that these materials can be made at this
scale gives them the potential to have some very interesting
properties (Table 1).
Materials at the nanoscale between 1 nm and 250 nm lie
between the quantum effects of atoms and molecules and
the bulk properties of materials. It is in this ‘no-man’s-land’
where many physical properties of materials are controlled by
phenomena that have their critical dimensions at the
nanoscale.
By being able to fabricate and control the structure of
nanoparticles, the scientist and engineer can influence the
resulting properties and, ultimately, design materials to give
desired properties. The electronic properties that can be
controlled at this scale are of great interest11. The range of
December 2004 21
 MARKET REPORT
(a)
(c)
Fig. 2 Micrographs of different example nanomaterials: nanopowders of (a) Co; (b) copper oxide; (c) ZnO; and (d) Ag.
applications where the physical size of the particle can
provide enhanced properties that are of benefit are extremely
wide. Some of the applications that utilize these
characteristics are discussed later in this article.
How are nanoparticles made?
Manufacturing nanoparticles can be achieved through a wide
variety of different routes: some have been around for many
years; others are far more recent. In essence, there are four
generic routes to make nanoparticles: wet chemical,
mechanical, form-in-place, and gas-phase synthesis. It is
worth exploring each of these basic routes, as the resultant
materials can have significantly different properties,
depending on the route chosen to fabricate them, and some
routes are more aligned with the fabrication of certain
classes of materials.
22 December 2004
(b)
(d)
Wet chemical processes
These include colloidal chemistry, hydrothermal methods,
sol-gels, and other precipitation processes. Essentially,
solutions of different ions are mixed in well-defined
quantities and under controlled conditions of heat,
temperature, and pressure to promote the formation of
insoluble compounds, which precipitate out of solution. These
precipitates are then collected through filtering and/or spray
drying to produce a dry powder.
The advantages of these wet chemical processes are that a
large variety of compounds can be fabricated, including
inorganics, organics, and also some metals, in essentially
cheap equipment and significant quantities. Another
important factor is the ability to control particle size closely
and to produce highly monodisperse materials. However,
there are limitations with the range of compounds possible,
 MAR
KET REPORT

Fig. 3 Nanostructures of ZnO synthesized under controlled conditions by thermal evaporation of solid powders9.

bound water molecules can be a problem, and, especially for An adjunct to these processes are those involving
sol-gel processing, the yields can be quite low. biological materials that provide a template into which
New processes that might overcome some of these inorganic materials can be grown. Since biological materials,
problems are being developed, such as high-throughput such as porphyrin13 and ferritins14, are highly reproducible,
microreactors12. For bulk production, large quantities of the resulting nanomaterials can be made to an extremely
starting materials may be required, which can be expensive. specific size with a high degree of accuracy. However, the
Having the nanoparticles well dispersed in a suspension, range of sizes may be limited by the availability and structure
however, is an advantage if further surface treatment is of suitable template materials. These are being used to
required to encapsulate or functionalize their surface. manufacture materials such as magnetic materials for use in
high-density storage devices.
Table 1 Characteristic lengths in solid-state science model10. Mechanical processes
Field Property Scale length These include grinding, milling, and mechanical alloying
Electronics Electronic wavelength 10-100 nm techniques. Provided that one can produce a coarse powder
Inelastic mean free path 1-100 nm as a feedstock, these processes utilize the age-old technique
Tunneling 1-10 nm
of physically pounding coarse powders into finer and finer
Magnetics Domain wall 10-100 nm
Spin-flip scattering length 1-100 nm ones, similar to flour mills. Today, the most common
Optics Quantum well 1-100 nm processes are either planetary or rotating ball mills. The
Evanescent wave decay length 10-100 nm
advantages of these techniques are that they are simple,
Metallic skin depth 10-100 nm
Superconductivity Cooper pair coherence length 0.1-100 nm require low-cost equipment and, provided that a coarse
Meisner penetration depth 1-100 nm feedstock powder can be made, the powder can be processed.
Mechanics Dislocation interaction 1-1000 nm However, there can be difficulties such as agglomeration of
Grain boundaries 1-10 nm
Crack tip radii 1-100 nm the powders, broad particle size distributions, contamination
Nucleation/growth defect 0.1-10 nm from the process equipment itself, and often difficulty in
Surface corrugation 1-10 nm
getting to the very fine particle sizes with viable yields. It is
Catalysis Surface topology 1-10 nm
commonly used for inorganics and metals, but not organic
Supramolecules Kuhn length 1-100 nm
Secondary structure 1-10 nm materials.
Tertiary structure 10-1000 nm Form-in-place processes
Immunology Molecular recognition 1-10 nm
These include lithography, vacuum deposition processes

December 2004 23
 MARKET REPORT
such as physical vapor deposition (PVD) and chemical vapor
deposition (CVD), and spray coatings. These processes are
more geared to the production of nanostructured layers and
coatings, but can be used to fabricate nanoparticles by
scraping the deposits from the collector. However, they tend
to be quite inefficient and are generally not used for the
fabrication of dry powders, although some companies are
beginning to exploit these processes. A number of universities
and companies are developing variations on these processes,
such as the electrostatic spray assisted vapor deposition
process15.
Gas-phase synthesis
These include flame pyrolysis, electro-explosion, laser
ablation, high-temperature evaporation, and plasma synthesis
techniques.
Flame pyrolysis has been used for many years in the
fabrication of simple materials such as carbon black and
fumed silica, and is being used in the fabrication of many
more compounds. Laser ablation is capable of making almost
any nanomaterial, since it utilizes a mix of physical erosion
and evaporation. However, the production rates are
extremely slow and most suited to research uses. Both RF
and DC plasmas are being used successfully to make a wide
range of materials. The heat source is very clean and
controllable and the temperatures in the plasmas can reach
in excess of 9000°C, which means that even highly refractory
materials can be processed. However, this also means that
the technique is unsuitable for processing organic materials.
The production of fullerenes and carbon nanotubes is a
specific subset of gas-phase synthesis techniques. Many
variations have been explored and patented in the years since
they were discovered16. All the techniques essentially involve
the controlled growth of a nanotube on a catalyst particle
through the cracking of carbon-rich gases such as methane.
It is possible to make low-purity nanotubes using electric
discharge techniques, but this results in wide variations in
materials within a batch. Most techniques are increasingly
focused on the production of either single- or multi-walled
nanotubes, with significant efforts going into increasing the
purity and yields. There are currently no large-scale
production facilities in operation, but a number of companies
in the USA, Japan, and Europe are planning to install
significant production capacity.
As can be seen, there are a multitude of different methods
employed to manufacture nanoparticles and carbon
24 December 2004
nanotubes. All are being used, some commercially, and each
has its merits and drawbacks. However, it is clear that most
of the methods will be utilized in commercial production at
some stage since, although the materials are nominally the
same, the characteristics of the materials produced by each
process are not always equivalent and can have different
properties. The manufacturing routes that become
commercially successful, therefore, will predominantly be
those for which the materials have been developed at the
same time as the application.
Growth in commercial activity
Adding particulate materials to other matrix materials has
been a common technique for changing the properties of
materials since the human race first developed synthetic
materials. However, the additives first used were usually
larger than the nanoscale.
The first industrial production of nanomaterials occurred
early in the 20th century with the production of carbon black
and subsequently, in the 1940s, fumed silica. These materials
are still produced and used in vast quantities, and some well-
known companies such as Degussa and Cabot owe their
origins to these materials. However, it was not until the
latter half of the 20th century that the scientific
understanding of materials incorporating ultrafine
particulates really developed and it was realized that
significant improvements to material properties could be
achieved by using them.
During the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s there was a
gradual expansion as large multinational companies
established subsidiaries. The real burst in the
commercialization of nanoparticle production has occurred
over the last ten years or so. One of the main drivers for this
has been the extraordinary growth in the electronics and
optoelectonics industries. As the technologies have developed
and functionality has increased, the drive has been to
produce smaller and smaller products requiring smaller
components. This has meant that designers are demanding
more from the materials used to construct the devices, which
has led to a search for ways to produce major improvements
in performance and the move to nanoscale materials.
In all, there are over 1500 companies involved in
nanotechnology R&D worldwide1. It is not easy to extract
from the data which companies are nanomaterials focused
but, where the data17-23 is available, one can see this rapid
 MARKET REPORT

which about 200 are nanoparticle producers. The split

Fig. 4 Growth in number of nanomaterials companies17–19.
growth charted in Fig. 4, which shows that the number of
companies doubled in the 1990s.
The vast majority of this growth has come through the
establishment of small start-up companies spun out of
universities, government laboratories, or set up by
entrepreneurs based on government-funded research.
Currently, it is estimated that over half of all nanomaterial
companies fall into this category. To a certain extent, this
phenomenon has been fueled by the growth in venture
capital as a source of funding1,24, particularly in the USA
where a significant proportion of these companies are
situated. However, the increasing number of Chinese
companies promoting themselves in the West indicates that
this is not a US/European phenomena. There are also
indications that some of the early entrants are finding it
tough to survive when the major commercialization of
products can be many years away, since there have been a
few company amalgamations in the last year25,26.
Although accurate data are difficult to obtain, there are
probably in excess of 320 companies producing
nanomaterials in various forms around the world today, of
between types of material is shown in Table 2.
However, not all these companies sell the nanomaterials
they make and many are geared up to generate and license
intellectual property around the use of these nanomaterials.
In addition to these companies, there are others making
nanomaterials for use in their own products. The strongest
indication that the market for nanomaterials is set to grow
significantly is the fact that many major industrial materials-
based companies are investing heavily in either their own
production capability or buying into existing companies27-29.
The market for nanoparticles
The question that arises is, what are the markets for
nanomaterials that have made this field so attractive and led
to the rapid growth in the number of companies?
To a certain extent the markets already exist. There are a
large number of applications where the possibilities of
re-engineering existing materials down to the nanoscale can
enable new performance and hence improved products.
Examples include cermet cutting tools, where smaller particle
sizes translate into improved performance and lifetime;
lapping and polishing compounds, where track dimensions on
chips are approaching 90 nm so the polishing media need to
be significantly less than this to keep defects small compared
to the track dimensions; and magnetic recording media,
where higher-density storage is driven by finer particle and
grain sizes with the trend towards terabyte storage
capacities. This type of evolutionary progression into
nanoscale materials will continue as the benefits are realized.
However, the growth in interest cannot be totally explained
by this evolutionary development and, as more research is

Table 2 The primary material product types and primary market focuses of nanomaterials companies17–19.

Type of product Number Primary market focus Percentage

Nanoparticles 160 Medical/pharmaceutical 30%
Nanotubes 55 Chemicals and advanced materials 29%
Nanoporous materials 22 Information and communication technology (ICT) 21%
Fullerenes 21 Energy 10%
Quantum dots 19 Automotive 5%
Nanostructured materials 16 Aerospace 2%
Nanofibers 9 Textiles 2%
Nanocapsules 8 Agriculture 1%
Nanowires 6
Dendrimers 5
Total 321

December 2004 25
 MARKET REPORT

Table 3 Estimated global production rates for various nanomaterials and devices, based on international chemical journals and reviews (2003-2004) and
market research (2001). Rates are intended for guidance only, as validated numbers are commercially confidential8.

Application Material/device Estimated production rates (tonnes/annum)

Present 2005-2010 2011-2020
Structural Ceramics, catalysts composites, coatings, 10 103 104-105
thin films, powders, metals
Skincare products Metal oxides (TiO2, ZnO, Fe2O3) 103 103 103 or less

Information and Single-walled nanotubes, nanoelectronics, optoelectronic 10 102 103 or more

communication technology materials (TiO2, ZnO, Fe2O3), organic light-emitting diodes
(ICT) (OLEDs)
Biotechnology Nanoencapsulates, targeted drug delivery, biocompatible less than 1 1 10
materials, quantum dots, composites, biosensors
Instruments, sensors, Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), nanoelectro- 10 102 102–103
characterization mechanical systems (NEMS), scanning probe microscopy
(SPM), dip-pen lithography, direct-write tools
Environmental Nanofiltration, membranes 10 102 103–104

directed towards investigating nanoscale materials, the
ability to make a step-change in performance is being found
all the time.
This is opening up totally new applications and the
possibility of making products that have been hypothesized
about for many years, such as targeted drug delivery, new
optoelectronic devices, and smaller, more efficient energy
devices. Carbon nanotubes are proving to have some unusual
properties16, such as being able to convert light into electric
current30, which could enable an enormous range of new
applications. This is prompting some companies to gear up to
produce significant quantities of these materials, of the order
of hundreds of tonnes per year31.
This wealth of potential applications has given rise to
some widely differing estimates of the overall size of the
nanotechnology market and of the subsidiary nanomaterials
market. Nanotechnology as a whole is estimated to have a
market of $11 trillion by 2010, with nanomaterials growing
from $490 million today to $900 million in 2005 and
$11 billion in 201019,32,33. However, the impact of
nanomaterials will extend way beyond the immediate value
of the materials themselves. One estimate has been made
that nanostructured materials and processes could have an
impact of over $340 billion by 201034.
Looking at the major markets for functional nanomaterials
today, the largest by volume are automotive catalysts,
chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP), magnetic recording
media, and sunscreens with 11 500 tonnes, 9 400 tonnes,
3 100 tonnes, and 1 500 tonnes, respectively17. However, the
value of the market is dependent on the materials used and
the actual use so, although catalysts have a much larger
volume than sunscreens, their values are very similar. The
extreme end of the spectrum is biodetection and labeling
materials, where a small amount goes a long way and,
although only a few kilos are sold, the price per kilo is many
orders of magnitude greater than, for example, CMP
materials.
There is a myriad of applications using nanoparticles either
on the market or under development. Table 4 identifies some
of the key applications.
Considerable effort is being put into developing advanced
defence applications for nanomaterials, which are unlikely to
reach deployment for quite a few years to come, but which
could have a large impact on commercial applications35-37.
The scope and number of applications38-43 for nanoparticles
continues to grow and companies are finding more and more
uses for these materials.
Health, environmental, and ethical
issues
Over the last couple of years, the potential impact of
introducing nanotechnologies and nanomaterials into the
market has received a greater profile. This has generated
much debate, both in the scientific world and the general
media.
The result of this increased interest has been the
establishment of a number of working groups to look into the
health, environmental, and ethical issues surrounding

26 December 2004

Table 4 A selection of current and future applications using nanoparticles.
Area Under development
Power/Energy Dye-sensitized solar cells using TiO2
H2 storage using metal hydrides
Improved anode and cathode materials
for fuel cells
Thermal control fluids using Cu
Healthcare/medical Nanocrystalline drugs for easier
absorption
Inhalable insulin
Nanospheres for inhaling drugs
currently injected using biocompatible Si
Bone growth promoters
Virus detection using quantum dots
Anticancer treatments
Magnetic particles for the repair of the
human body with prosthetics or
artificial replacement parts
Antioxidant drugs based on fullerenes
Engineering Improved thermal barrier coatings
Spark plugs using nanoscale metal and
ceramic powders
Nanoporous silica based on aerogels
for high-efficiency insulators
Controlled delivery of herbicides
and pesticides
Improved moisture barrier films for
packaging
Chemical sensors
Molecular sieves
Consumer goods
Environmental More sensitive sensors
Environmentally friendly antifouling
paints and coatings
Soil remediation using Fe
Electronics EMI shielding using conducting and
magnetic materials
Electrically conductive plastics
Light-emitting Si LED nanoparticles for
displays
Electronic circuits, nonvolatile random
access memory (NRAM) using Cu, Al
Display technologies including field-
emission devices using conducting
oxides and carbon nanotubes
Being introduced
Nanocrystalline Ni and metal
hydrides for batteries
Environmental catalysts, ceria in diesel
Molecular tagging using CdSe quantum
dots
Drug carriers for drugs with low
water solubility
Coatings for implants such as
hydroxyapatite
Marker particles for use in assays
Abrasion-resistant coatings using
alumina, Y-Zr2O3
Nanoclay reinforced polymer
composites
Lubricant/hydraulic additives: Cu MoS2
Pigments
Improved scratch-resistant coatings
Self-cleaning glass using TiO2
Propellants using Al
Anticounterfeit devices
Nano-starch-based adhesives for
cardboard packaging
Alumina fibers for water treatment
Photocatalyst water treatments using
TiO2
Pollution-destroying paints using TiO2
Ferrofluids using magnetic materials
Optoelectronics devices such as switches
using rare-earth-doped ceramics
Smaller multilayer capacitors (MLCs)
using Ni and Cu nanopowders
Conductive coatings and fabrics using
rare-earth-doped ceramics
Nanoscale magnetic particles for high-
density data storage
MARKET REPORT
Well established
Automotive catalysts
Ag-based antibacterial wound
dressings, ZnO fungicide
Au for biolabeling and detection
Magnetic resonance imaging contrast
agents using superparamagnetic Fe2O3
Sunscreens using ZnO and TiO2
Structural enhancement of
polymers and composites
Thermal spray coatings based
on TiO2, TiC-Co, etc.
Nanostructured Al alloys
incorporating nanoparticles
Inks: conducting, magnetic, etc.
using metal powders
Processing catalysts
Cutting tool bits: WC, TaC, TIC, Co
Automotive tires
Packaging using silicates
Glass coatings for antiglare,
antimisting mirrors using TiO2
White goods with easy-clean
coatings
Ski wax
Sports goods: tennis balls,
rackets using nanoclays
Water/stain-repellent textiles
Tiles coated using alumina and
other sanitary ware
Self-cleaning glass using
nanostructured coatings based on TiO2
Antireflection coatings
Chemical-mechanical planarization
alumina, ceria
Coatings and joining materials
for optical fibers based on Si
December 2004 27
 MARKET REPORT
nanotechnology44-46. Even the insurance industry has
examined the potential impact on its business47.
One of the major concerns of these studies is the potential
health and environmental risks associated with
nanomaterials. Currently there is little information available
concerning the risks, but there are data on nanoparticles
produced by combustion and smoking. It is also recognized
that there are already vast numbers of nanoparticles already
present in the air. As the Royal Society report8 observes,
“Small size alone is not the critical factor in the toxicity of
nanoparticles; the overall number and thus the total surface
area (essentially the dose) are also important.” This lack of
information requires correction, both while the quantities of
materials produced are small and to answer the question of
whether nanomaterials are different to other forms of the
same material purely through their small size. In addition to
recommending further research into the toxicological aspects
of nanomaterials, the report also recommends that chemicals
in the form of nanoparticles or nanotubes are treated as new
substances and assigned a new Chemical Abstract Service
(CAS) Registry number. This could have a major impact on
the development and adoption of new nanomaterials, so the
implications need to be considered seriously by the
nanomaterials industry.
The future for nanoparticles and the
companies that make them
The use of nanoparticles is set to escalate and the market has
the potential to increase dramatically over the next ten
years, as more uses for these materials are developed and
commercialized.
A major impact will be in the medical and pharmaceutical
markets as new treatments using nanoparticles obtain
licenses for use. But there are many other applications where
the time to market is considerably less than the
pharmaceutical market, particularly in consumer goods.
However, there are still many challenges for nanomaterials
companies to overcome before the potential is fully realized.
These include:
• How to produce materials in volume commercially at
viable prices – many current techniques cannot scale up
sufficiently to produce the cost reductions required to
target volume markets;
• How to supply the materials in a form suitable for
inclusion in manufacturing processes – understanding the
28 December 2004
surface chemistry and how particlescan be dispersed in a
wide variety of media will be key to the adoption of many
materials;
• Consistency and reliability in volume production –
tolerances on size and composition can be achieved
reliably for simple compounds such as binary oxides and
for more complex materials in small batch production, but
doing this for the complex materials in volume
manufacturing is not so easy;
• Characterization – it is possible to characterize materials
to a great extent. However, many of the techniques are
appropriate for the research lab but not for the production
environment. Rapid, bulk, and preferably on-line
techniques are required to monitor properties such as
particle size distribution;
• The need to focus in a very broad market – the ability to
pick out the applications that will come to market early
will determine the survival of many nanomaterials
companies in the short term as they start to build
revenues and try to survive while products are developed
and production capability is installed;
• How to add and retain value – this will be key to the
longer-term viability of companies as volumes increase
and pressure to reduce prices and hence margins increases.
The approach adopted by many is of securing intellectual
property to provide a longer-term income stream;
• Health, safety, and environment – the profile of
nanotechnology has increased in recent years with a focus
on the potential long-term effects of nanotechnology and,
more immediately, nanomaterials on people and the
environment8,44-51. As with any high-profile technology,
questions will be asked, but some nanomaterials have
been with us for many years without causing concern.
However, it is very important to the success of this
industry that any concerns are addressed. The key aspect
is: are there any detrimental effects over and above those
already identified purely from the fact that these materials
are in the nano form? It is also highly unlikely that
nanomaterials will be used without being incorporated
into some other media, such as a composite or liquid.
Research is underway into the effects of nanomaterials,
and it is difficult to draw any firm conclusions to date, but
there is evidence that there may be positive benefits from
these types of material both for humans and the
environment50,52.

Conclusion
Nanoparticles and nanomaterials continue to attract a great
deal of attention because of their potential impact on an
incredibly wide range of industries and markets.
Consequently, the technology is evolving rapidly and will
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