TRANSFORMERS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY APPLICATIONS

Abstract

The future additions to the power generation capacity in the world will be predominantly solar
photovoltaic generation and wind power generation. The special operating and performance
requirements of these transformers call for different design and analysis techniques. This paper
covers these design requirements. The emerging scenario of the development of smart grid and
the application of these transformers to the smart grid also is briefly covered.

1. Introduction
The last few years have seen very rapid development of renewable energy, especially
distributed photovoltaic (DPV) and wind power. The PV and wind power generation does
not require water and these can be installed where land is not suitable for agriculture.
It is estimated that at least 40% of electricity generation by year 2040 would be from
renewable energy sources and this would give appreciable reduction of the present level
of CO2 emissions of about 10 billion tons / year. The transformer industry is rising to this
challenge and has developed special transformers for the DPV generation and wind
generation.
This paper focuses on the design challenges of these transformers. In future these
transformers will have to be designed and built to work as an integral part of the evolving
smart grid and this aspect also is briefly covered.
2. Transformers for Distributed Photovoltaic (DPV) generation
Electric power is generated by converting solar energy to direct current (DC) by using
photovoltaic (PV) cells. The DC generated is converted to alternating current (AC) by
inverters and the AC is connected to the power grid by a step up transformer.
The international standard applicable for the transformers for DPV generation is IEEE
C57.159 2016 “IEEE Guide on transformers for application in distributed photovoltaic
(DPV) power generation system”
At present there are limitations on the power rating and voltage level of the inverter
system and therefore one or more inverters are connected to an equal number of
secondaries of the step up transformers. Though the most common configuration is 2 to 3
secondaries, at present transformer with 6 secondaries are also manufactured.
Inverter manufacturers are now developing inverters with higher power and voltage
ratings and this would increase the transformer MVA ratings in future and reduce the
number of secondary windings required.
The following paragraphs give the design requirements of the transformers for the
inverter fed working.
Special design features required to meet the service conditions
A. Non symmetrical load and voltage

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 The inverter voltage and load current to the 3 phases of the transformer can be
unbalanced. If the transformer is fed by more than one inverter, there is a
possibility of one of the inverters getting inactive and this can create unbalanced
loading of the winding. The unbalanced voltage and current can create excessive
leakage flux, stray loss, and overheating of winding and tank.
Vertically stacked loosely coupled LV windings with equal number of split HV
windings is the preferred design to reduce the effect of unbalances. The
impedance characteristics will be defined based on the inverter system and
number of inverters connected to a transformer. A typical winding arrangement
with 2 secondaries is shown in fig. 1

LV HV
1
Core

LV HV
2

Shield

Figure 1 Winding Arrangement

Winding arrangements commonly used along with advantages and disadvantages
are shown in table. 1

Winding Advantages Disadvantages

Arrangement
Concentric LV1 –LV2 It is difficult to get
LV1 – HV – LV2 impedance in high LV1 –HV and LV2
–HV impedance
nearly equal
Concentric with LV1 –HV and LV2 – LV1 –LV2
vertically interleaved HV impedance are impedance is
LV (Type A) approximately equal relatively low
LV1 –LV2 - HV
Concentric with LV1 –HV and LV2 – - LV1 –LV2
vertically interleaved HV impedance are impedance is
(Type B) approximately equal relatively low
LV1 –LV2 – HV - More expensive

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 compared to (2)
Vertically stacked LV LV1 –HV and LV2 – - Less compact
winding HV impedance are design
almost equal - LV1-LV2
impedance high

B. Presence of direct current in winding

There is a possibility that a direct current can come to the inverter fed winding
which can increase the core magnetizing current and inrush current peak.
C. Wave shapes of inverter output
The wave shapes of 2 or more inverters connected to one transformer may not be
synchronized. This can cause change in wave shape and harmonics as well as
disturbances of the flux.
D. Fast rising pulsed waveform on LV winding
The inverter produces a pulsed output to ground and the pulse can reach a rate of
rise (dv/dt) level of 500 V / microsecond.
The low voltage winding insulation will have to be designed to withstand the
rapid rising voltage for the design life of the transformer. Fig 2 shows the typical
voltage waveform from the inverter. An electrostatic shield is provided between
the LV and HV winding to isolate the HV winding from the effect of the fast
rising voltage on the LV. The shield acts as an additional dv/dt filter and filters the
voltage gradient of the pulsed inverter output. It also reduces the transfer of the
transients from the high voltage winding to the low voltage winding.
Copper or aluminium can be used as shielding. Copper shields will produce less
eddy current loss when compared to aluminium shield.

Figure 2. Voltage Waveform from the Inverter

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 In the context, it is noted that “sunny tripower” inverters manufactured by SMA
solar do not require electrostatic shielding between primary and secondary
windings of the transformer.
Accelerated aging test of prototype LV winding insulation can be carried out to
check the effect of the fast rising transients on the insulation life. The effect is
different for dry type transformer insulation and fluid filled transformer
insulation.
E. Losses and efficiency of the transformer
The DPV transformer is designed with comparatively low no load loss because
the transformer draws exciting power from the system when there is no generation
(ie. at night). The efficiency at a specified load cycle is optimized to get overall
economy of operation. If the power system is designed with a power storage
facility like battery system, the transformer will be operating under load
continuously and the efficiency level can be fixed on this basis.
F. Inrush current considerations
The LV winding of the DPV transformer is normally near the core and therefore
the air core reactance of this winding is low. The inrush current when LV is
switched on is comparatively high.
G. Thermal design
The transformer cooling system is designed to consider the effect of the following
 Ambient temperature variation at the site
 Load curve
 Effect of harmonics
 Effect of reactive load, if any
H. Short circuit considerations
The winding configurations and the location of short circuit on the transformers
affect the short circuit magnitude and distribution. The effect of the various short
circuit conditions of the transformer will have to be considered for the design
which include
 Short circuit on the HV of the transformer
 Short circuit on any one or more of the LV’s of the transformer
 Short circuit between any two LV’s of the transformer
I. High frequency switching transients
The HV side of the transformer is controlled by a circuit breaker and in almost all
cases vacuum circuit breakers (VCB’s) are used for the circuit interruption. The
pre-strikes and re-strikes of VCB’s together with the capacitance of cables and
inductance of the transformer generates fast rising transients
These transients can cause insulation failure and detailed analysis is required to
ensure adequate insulation design.

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 IEEE Std C57.142-2010 – “IEEE Guide to Describe the Occurrence and
Mitigation of Switching Transients Induced by Transformers, Switching Device,
and System Interaction” deals with this subject. Switching of an unloaded
transformer with VCB can cause chopping overvoltage, multiple re-ignitions over
voltage and over voltage due to virtual current chopping. Simulation study of
transformer model for different frequency intervals (up to 2 MHz) using electrical
parameters of cable used and transformer design data can be carried out to get the
calculated values of over voltages during VCB switching.
Some of methods adopted to protect the transformer from fast rising transients
include:
 Installation of surge arrester on the HV side of the transformer. However it
is not sufficiently effective to protect the transformer against very fast
transients.
 RC Snubbers on the HV side of the transformer against very fast rising
transients. Typical value of resister is 25  to 50  and capacitor is 0.15
µF to 0.35 µF.
 Insertion resisters on the ring main unit. This is an expensive solution as
RMU design needs modification. The protection method will have to be
designed and implemented in construction with RMU manufacturer.
J. Environmental and climatic requirements
K. Special installation / operation practices
 The inverters are connected to the star connected LV windings of the
transformer, and thus neutral is kept floating. The neutral shall not be
earthed / grounded. It is a safe design practice to keep the neutral isolated
inside the transformer.
 The electrostatic shields shall have single point earthing only.
Power generation from photovoltaic system does not produce carbon emission.
However if mineral oil is used for the DPV step up transformer, it is not
environmental friendly. The options used now are,
i. Biodegradable oil filled transformer where vegetable based oil is used.
ii. Dry type cast resin transformer where no insulation fluids are used
The design requirement of the both type of transformer to meet the environmental
and climatic requirements is mainly the following
For Biodegradable oil filled transformer
 The viscosity of biodegradable oil is high when compared to mineral oil
and therefore about 15 % more cooling surface is required to get the same
heat dissipation. [The viscosity of bio-degradable oil at 40 C is about 35
mm2 / sec against 12 mm2 / sec for mineral oil when measured as per ISO
3104]

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  Transformers using this fluid can be designed as per IEC 60076-14-2013
“Power transformers part 14 – Liquid immersed power transformers using
high temperature insulation materials” and can work at temperatures
above conventional limits, subject to customer acceptance
 Surface treatment and corrosion protection of all external parts like tank
and radiators will have to be as per ISO 12944, C4 for normal outdoor
environmental and C5-M for highly corrosive environment like sea coast,
off-shore applications etc.
For dry type cast resin transformer
 Class F (155 C) and class H (180 C) insulation are generally used. The
temperature rise limit will depend on the ambient temperature conditions
at the installation location
 The dry type transformer requires suitable ingress protection. IP23D and
IP31 are most commonly used classes of ingress protection. The
ventilation requirement and air flow requirement, if installed inside a room
will have to be calculated to ensure that the temperature rise of the
winding is within limits
 The cast resin transformer will have to meet the climatic, environmental
and fire withstand requirements (C2E2F1 or C2E3F1) as per IEC 60076-
11 “Power transformers part 11 – Dry Type Transformers”
 The design of the epoxy casting system shall meet the thermal expansion
and contraction of the winding material (copper / aluminium). This is done
by changing the filler loading to suit the temperature coefficient of
expansion of respective metals.
3. Transformers for Wind Turbine
Mankind was using wind energy in the past for various applications. The first wind mill
for electricity generation was installed in 1887, in Scottland for battery charging. By the
beginning of 1900’s there were several wind driven electric generators. Utility connected
wind turbines were installed in UK in 1951. There is a trend for using 66 kV for off-shore
which requires 66 kV for the transformer. However the development of wind turbines for
electric power generation has been progressing in the recent past to improve the
efficiency and reliability. The type of wind turbines used can be classified as below.
 Permanent magnet synchronous generations [These were early stage wind power
generators]
 Field excited synchronous generators
 Doubly fed induction generators
The most commonly used wind turbine generator today is the doubly fed induction
generator which provides variable voltage control and 100% control over slip. The power
from the wind turbine generator is stepped up by a transformer for feeding to the grid. By

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 virtue of its nature of application the design of the transformer will have to consider the
requirements explained in the following paragraphs;
The applicable standard is IEC 60076-16 “Power transformers - Part 16: Transformers for
wind turbine applications”. Most of the design considerations discussed under section 2
are applicable to transformers for wind turbines. This section therefore discusses the
requirements which are not covered in section 2.
A. Loading cycle of transformer
Due to the variation of wind speed, the load on the transformer varies frequently
which may include abrupt changes or even shut down. The sudden variations of
load several times can induce severe mechanical stress on the winding. In the case
of liquid filled transformers, this may create bubbling in oil.
B. Temperature correction for transformers installed inside the tower or nacelle
The airflow and ventilation of the transformer installed inside the tower or nacelle
will have to be evaluated. Suitable de-rating is necessary depending on the
requirement.
C. Level of vibration
The transformer installed inside the nacelle will experience vibrations of varying
magnitude and the effect on the transformer active part and components will have
to be calculated. Possibilities of resonance of some components like radiators
needs careful evaluation and structural design. Particular attention is required for
connections which can get loosened or broken.
D. Humidity, salinity etc
Exposure to humidity and salinity especially when the installation is near coastal
area or off shore can lead to severe corrosion and eventual failure of cast resin
transformers in ventilated enclosure. The core assemblies including clamping
structure will have to be protected by suitable epoxy coatings in the case. Exposed
line or tap terminals will have to be avoided. Also the enclosure needs C5M
surface treatment and painting process for oil filled transformers
4. Emerging trends in the development of transformers for renewable energy
The complexity of electrical grid is increasing rapidly due to the use of renewable energy
distributed generating systems, usage of large number of non linear loads, electric vehicle
(EV) charging and so on. Along with this, the need for making the grid versatile and
“intelligent” has prompted the development of “smart grid” concept. It is inevitable that
the grid will get phenomenal transformation sooner or later and this will require “Smart
Intelligent Transformers” in future. The transformers for renewable energy are no
exception and the next generation of transformers for renewable energy will have to
integrate with the demands of the smart grid. Following paragraphs give brief
information regarding the features of these transformers.
A. Demands of smart grid & customer
The smart grid demands several unique features and functionalities from the
transformer such as,

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  Voltage sag compensation
The present distribution transformers / system cannot correct the voltage
levels and ensure constant voltage of the customer terminal. The
transformers of the future shall have this feature
 Harmonic isolation / filtering
Non linear loads produce harmonics and the transformer shall be capable
of maintaining clean output waveform
 DC output
In addition to the stable AC output, the future transformers will have to
give DC output for EV charging and other DC loads
 Reactive power compensation
 Advanced Distribution Automation (ADA)
 Outage compensation
The transformer shall draw power from the energy system and give outage
compensation
 Fault isolation
The transformer shall isolate the grid from a fault on the load side and also
isolate itself from the grid when a fault on the incoming side occurs
 Voltage balancing
 Protection from single phasing
 3 phase power from single phase supply
 Reduced weight and size
 Eliminate oil / fluids
B. Design features of smart transformer
The essential design features of the transformer for the future are given in this
section
In order to meet the requirements of the smart grid, the transformer will have to
be solid state using power electronics. The concept of “Solid State Transformer”
(SST) for power supply was first discussed by the US navy in 1980’s. There were
several patents on SST in the past. However pioneering work on SST for utility
application was initiated by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), USA,
termed as “Universal Intelligent Transformer”
The SST works on the same principle of the conventional transformers, but at a
high frequency to reduce the weight and size. The incoming voltage is converted
into high frequency AC by using power electronics converters and fed to the
primary of the high frequency (HF) transformer to obtain AC and / or DC output
voltage.
The basic structure of the above design is shown in Fig. 3.

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 Figure 3 Basic Structure of SST

Stage 1 – AC to DC conversion

The incoming high voltage AC from the grid is converted to high voltage DC.
This stage uses cascade connected IGBT’s. New development is to use SiC based
converters.

Stage 2 – Dual Active Bridge

In this stage HV DC is inverted first to HV AC at a comparatively high frequency

(5 kHz to 20 kHz typically). The AC is stepped down to LV AC at same
frequency and again converted to LV DC. From this stage a DC port is taken to
the customer loads.

Stage 3

The LV DC is inverted to LV AC for the end use. The entire system is

bidirectional.

The magnetic circuit of the transformer is low loss nano crystalline material,
amorphous steel material or ferrites which offer comparatively low losses at high
frequency. Conductor material is highly stranded copper wire to reduce eddy
current losses.

Fig 4 shows the basic elements of the future grid using SST for renewable power
integration and smart grid applications

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Figure 4. Schematic of Future Grid

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 C. Technical challenges for commercialization of the transformers for smart grid
There are several technical issues to be solved and product development work
required for the commercialization of the SST for renewable energy such as,
 Introduction of smart grid by the utilities, which is a slow process now due
to investment constraints and legacy issues.
 Commercial availability of high voltage (eg. 11 kV, 13.2 kV etc.) IGBT or
SiC components for converter inverter application. At present cascade
connection is employed to get the working voltage level.
 Protection of high voltage power electronic circuit from surges / impulses
and system faults
 Availability of low loss magnetic material for the high frequency
transformer core
 Overall system efficiency needs improvement.
The conventional transformer has high efficiency (more than 99%
typically) where as the overall efficiency of the SST is considerably low
 Special winding material is required for HF application. It is expected that
carbon nano tube may offer low weight and low loss solution in future.
5. Conclusion
Wind power and solar power will dominate the source of electric power in future. This
will reduce the CO2 emissions substantially. The transformers required for wind power
and solar DPV require special design features to meet the challenging operating
conditions. The industry today has developed different types of transformers for the
application. The future challenge involves the development of solid state intelligent
transformers equipped with the necessary features suitable for integrating these with the
emerging smart grid. The transformer industry has to undertake collaborative
development work for meeting the future challenges.
6. Acknowledgement
The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance by the technical team of Federal
Transformers Co. LLC for the preparation of this paper.

References

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