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Abstract
In the design of natural ventilation systems, there is a wide range of possibilities with regard to the selection
of window type and the positioning of windows in the facade. Each window type has unique characteristics,
which affect air flow and thermal comfort conditions in the occupied zone. A combination of various
window types and façade locations in a room should be capable of improving thermal comfort and
minimising draught risk. This paper describes the results of laboratory investigations in a mock-up of an
office space with the purpose of investigating the impact of different opening strategies on thermal comfort
conditions in the occupied zone. The results show that different window opening strategies result in quite
different air flow and thermal comfort conditions. The conditions are a result of a multivariable impact, and
thus detailed descriptions of the flows involved are quite complex.
Key words: windows, natural ventilation, air distribution, air jet, thermal comfort
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P. Heiselberg, E. Bjørn, P. V. Nielsen
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Figure 1. The structure of the full-scale test room. The pressure drop (and hence air flow rate) across
the façade was determined by pressure
The “façade” mainly consists of a window system measurements using pressure taps mounted beside
divided into 16 separate sections with a total width the windows located 100cm below the ceiling.
of 4 m and a total height of 2.5 m. The bottom row Experiments were performed at different pressure
of four sections consists of manually controlled drops across the façade. Pressure differences as low
side-hung windows. These openings were not used as 0.1 Pa were used, and as high as 60 Pa (but only
in the present study. The top row of four sections for very small openings).
consists of bottom hung windows opening into the
office room, see Figure 2. The length of each Before these measurements were made, the leakage
window is 1.0 m and the height is 0.45 m. They are characteristics of the cold room were measured.
located 0.42m from the ceiling. The windows are This was necessary to correct the measured air flow
automatically controlled and can be opened either through the windows (i.e. by allowing for cold room
individually or all at the same time. leakage). The leakage from the cold room was found
to be 100m3/h at 50 Pa.
The window opening configuration was arranged in
three different ways; these being: Both isothermal and non-isothermal experiments
were performed. In the non-isothermal experiments,
• W1 – Operation of one of the ‘end’ or outmost the small (cold) room was continuously ventilated
‘corner’ windows (leaving the remaining by cold air at a flow rate of 1500 m3/h to keep the
windows closed); cold room temperature stable. As a large part of this
is recirculated air, the actual air flow rate through
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International Journal of Ventilation Volume 1 No 2
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the window was determined from the previously the occupied zone. For these measurements, 21
measured pressure characteristics of the window. anemometers were placed on a rack with a mutual
Differences in air temperature between the “cold distance of 0.5 m. The rack was moved about
room” the “office room” of 0 oC (isothermal), 7 oC, between measurements to obtain more measuring
10 oC and 14 oC were used. points, in order to “catch” the maximum velocities.
Smoke-tests of non-isothermal flow were conducted to 4.1 Air Flow Pattern in the “Office Room”
estimate the penetration length of the cold inlet jet. The
penetration length was defined as the length from the Smoke tests showed that, in the case of cross
window to the place where the jet leaves the ceiling ventilation with fresh air entering through the
and flows down into the occupied zone. Air velocities bottom-hung windows placed just below the ceiling,
in the warm room were measured with 24 channel there are basically 5 possible air flow patterns in the
Dantec 54N10 hot sphere anemometers, which were room, see Figure 3.
calibrated for the actual flow directions. Pressure
differences were measured with a micromanometer Air flow pattern (A) only occurs at very low
(Furness Controls Limited model FC0510). pressure drops (0.1 – 0.5 Pa) and low outside
temperature, where the flow is low-turbulent. This is
Velocity profiles were measured below the ceiling a so-called “creeping” flow. As turbulence is
with hot sphere anemometers in order to introduced with increasing pressure difference and
characterise the inlet flow through the window flow rate, a recirculation bubble is created below the
openings. In cases W1 and W2, velocity profiles window (air flow pattern (B)). This is very similar
were also measured at an angle from the windows in in nature to the flow described in Heiselberg et al.
order to characterise the inlet jets from the triangular (1995), where it is shown that the size of the
side openings. Measurements of the velocity in the recirculation zone is a function of the Archimedes
downward air flow under non-isothermal conditions Number. It is conceivable that an obstacle, for
were carried out with hot sphere anemometers at 1.8 instance the windowsill or a table, will disturb the
m above the floor, which was defined as the entry of flow and possibly create local discomfort. In the
Figure 2. Picture of bottom-hung window. Smoke visualisation of the inlet jet, shown for opening areas of
A = 0.029 m2 (top) and 0.235 m2 (bottom) for configuration W2. Principle for measurement of the geometrical
opening area.
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P. Heiselberg, E. Bjørn, P. V. Nielsen
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cases of air flow patterns (A) and (B), cold, fresh air E5
flows along the wall, hits the floor, and moves
A = 0,071 m2
horizontally across the room in a stratified,
A = 0,089 m2
displacement-like flow, see Nielsen (1994),
D
4 A = 0,179 m2
Heiselberg (1994) and Gan (2000). The A = 0,232 m2
characteristics of the stratified flow will determine A = 0,420 m2
thermal comfort and the risk of draught.
Stråletype [-]
C
3
2
B
A
1
0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07
At higher pressure differences (∆p > 4-6 Pa) and/or Figure 4. Type of air flow pattern versus Archimedes
higher outdoor temperatures (∆T < 5 K), the flow Number.
pattern from the window establishes itself as a free
jet (air flow pattern (C)), and flows into the room inlet velocity [m/s] and L is the total length of the
following a downward trajectory, see Koestel four windows.
(1955) and Etheridge and Sandberg (1996). With
further increases in air flow rate, the free jet attaches The air flow pattern depends on the Archimedes
to the ceiling due to the Coanda effect (air flow Number of the flow, but also on the geometrical
pattern (D)). The penetration depth is of interest, as area of the window opening (and possibly also other
is the maximum velocity at the entering point of the parameters). The air flow from a small opening
occupied zone. Again, this is a well-described drops into the occupied zone in situations with
phenomenon, see Nielsen et al (1987), but the smaller Archimedes Numbers than the air flow from
specific characteristics for these windows are not large openings. Probably the local geometrical
known. At high outside temperatures (∆T < 2K) conditions also have an impact, see Figure 2. This is
and/or high pressure differences and air flow rates because the air flow from the window is horizontal
(∆p > 20-30 pa) the jet attaches to the ceiling over and does not reach the ceiling for small opening
its entire length, follows the back wall, and enters areas, while for large opening areas the air flow is
the occupied zone along the floor (air flow pattern directed upwards and therefore more readily
(E)). Also in this case, it is of interest to know the attaches to the ceiling.
characteristics of the jet to predict thermal comfort
4.2 Air Flow Capacity - Discharge Coefficient, Cd
and draught risk.
Figure 4 shows the type of air flow pattern versus The air flow rate through a window opening can be
determined by:
Archimedes Number. The Archimedes Number is
defined by: Q = Ac vc (2)
β ⋅ g ⋅ h o ⋅ ∆To where Ac is the minimum cross section area of the
Ar = (1)
u0
2
flow through the opening [m2] and vc is the air
velocity of the flow through this area [m/s]. The two
where β is the thermal expansion coefficient [/K], g quantities can be related to known ones by:
is the gravitational acceleration [m/s2], ho =CdA/L is
the effective opening height of the window [m], ∆To Ac = Cc A (3)
is the temperature difference between inside and vc = Cv vtheo (4)
outside [oC], uo= Q/CdA =(2∆p/ρ)0.5 is the calculated
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International Journal of Ventilation Volume 1 No 2
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where Cc is a contraction coefficient, A the the wall. Figure 2 illustrates how the geometrical
geometrical opening area [m2], Cv is a velocity opening area is estimated.
coefficient depending on friction in the opening and
vtheo is the theoretically obtainable velocity when no The volumetric air flow rate is determined from the
friction is taken into consideration [m/s]. vtheo can be inlet supply rate and the pressure drop across the
determined by: façade, after correcting for exfiltration (i.e. leakage
from the cold room). The exfiltration was about 2-15%
2∆p of the volume flow rate through
through the window with the
vtheo = (5)
ρo highest values for small opening areas. The absolute
value of the discharge coefficient is therefore uncertain
where ∆p is the pressure difference across the especially at small opening angles.
opening [Pa] and ρο is the density of incoming air
[kg/m3]. Equation (2) can be rewritten as: Figure 5 shows the discharge coefficient as a function
of opening area for the three different window opening
2∆p
Q = Cd A (6) configurations. The results
results are for 5-7 different degrees
ρo of opening, and for two temperature differences (i. e.
0°C (isothermal) and 10°C). It can be seen that the
where Cd is the discharge coefficient defined as the
discharge coefficient is not a constant but is dependent
product of the contraction (Cc) and the velocity (Cv)
on window configuration, opening area and
coefficients. The discharge coefficient is a characteristic
temperature difference. For window configurations
parameter for a specific window and takes both the
W1 and W2, the value of the discharge coefficient
contraction and the friction loss in the window opening
decreases for increasing opening area. However the
into account. Andersen (1996) contains a more
value is rather constant and close to the value of Cd =
thorough discussion of inlet coefficients.
0.7, which is often used. For window configuration
W1-4, the value of the discharge coefficient varies
Based on measurements of the geometrical opening
much more and increases for increasing opening area
area, the volume flow rate through the opening and
approaching a value close to 1. The values for reverse
the pressure difference across the opening, the
flow for window configuration W1-4 show the same
discharge coefficient is calculated from
trend, but are lower, and approach the value of 0.8 for
Equation (6). The geometrical opening area is found
large opening areas. For this window type, the
for the narrowest passage of the flow, which is very
temperature difference has a minor influence.
difficult to estimate because of the complicated
geometry of the frames, see Figure 2. It is especially
The results show that, besides the opening area, the
difficult at small opening angles where the
local geometrical and air flow conditions have a
uncertainty is high, because leakages along all other
large impact. In window configurations W1 and W2
sides of the opening account for a relative large part
the air flows in at both the top and the sides of the
of the opening area. The windows are built into a
opening, see Figure 2. In window configuration
wall with a thickness of 0.4 m and in, some cases,
W1-4, the distance between the individual openings
the narrowest passage is not within the window
is only 20 mm, and most of the air flows in at the
opening itself, but between the window opening and
1,2 1,2
1,0 1,0
0,8 0,8
Cd [-]
0,6
Cd [-]
0,6
W1-4, inflow
W1
0,4 0,4
W1-4, inflow, 10C
W1, 10C
0,2 W1-4, outflow 0,2 W2
W2, 10C
0,0 0,0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
Areal [m2] Areal [m2]
Figure 5. Discharge coefficient Cd as a function of opening area and temperature difference for the three
different window configurations W1, W2, andW1-4
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95
P. Heiselberg, E. Bjørn, P. V. Nielsen
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top of the opening. Therefore, for the inflow of air assumed that the maximum velocity in the jet can be
in case W1-4, the opening forms a kind of funnel described by (Rajaratnam 1976):
resulting in high Cd values. For outflow, the air is
not guided through the opening and lower Cd values ux h0
are seen, as for W1 and W2. = Kp ⋅ (8)
u0 x + x0
4.3 Isothermal Air Flow from Bottom Hung Windows where ho =CdA/L is the effective opening height of
the window [m], Kp is a constant related to the
Under isothermal conditions, air flow pattern E was opening, L is the length of the opening.
observed in all experiments. For small opening
areas, the jets were initially horizontal, and attached The measurements for window configurations W1
to the ceiling due to the Coanda effect. For large and W2 showed the characteristic behaviour of a 3
openings, the air was directed towards the ceiling, dimensional wall jet. Velocity profiles of the wall
see Figure 2. jet were measured at eight different distances from
the inlet. The characteristic constants of the jet were
In window configurations W1 and W2, the flow determined graphically. The distance to the virtual
formed a three-dimensional wall jet along the origin (x0) and the Ka value are shown in Table 2
ceiling. It is assumed that the maximum velocity in and Figure 6, respectively. The measurements with
the jet can be described by (Rajaratnam 1976): all four windows opened, window configuration
W1-4, showed the characteristic behaviour of a 2
ux Ao dimensional wall jet, see Equation (8). Velocity
= Ka (7) profile measurements were carried out for different
uo x + xo
opening areas. In Table 2, the area of the opening
where ux is the maximum velocity at the distance x and the matching height are listed, as well as the
found distance to the virtual origin. The estimated
from the inlet [m/s], uo= Q/CdA =(2∆p/ρ)0.5 is the
Kp values from the measurements are shown in
calculated inlet velocity [m/s], Ao =CdA is the
Figure 6.
effective opening area of the window [m2], Ka is a
constant related to the opening, xo is a virtual origin
of the jet [m], ∆p is the pressure difference between 7,0
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International Journal of Ventilation Volume 1 No 2
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Figure 7. Predicted maximum velocities in the occupied zone for window configurations W1, W2 and W1-4
as a function of air flow rate and pressure difference
The maximum velocity in the occupied zone, urm, is and the room, much higher air flow rates can be
in the reverse flow close to the floor at a distance of provided by window configuration W1-4 without
2/3L from the window opening. urm can be estimated risking draught problems. Figure 8 shows a
as 70% of the reference velocity uL, which is the comparison between predicted and measured
velocity in an undisturbed wall jet of length L from maximum velocities in the occupied zone for
the window opening, see Hestad (1975). The window configuration W1-4 for three different
predicted maximum velocities in the occupied zone combinations of window opening and pressure
are shown in Figure 7 as a function of air flow rate difference. It shows a reasonable correspondence
for three different pressure differences. It is seen between the predictions by the developed semi-
that window configuration W1-4 results in the empirical model and measurements.
lowest air velocities and the highest level of thermal
comfort. If the room is occupied by 2-3 persons, the 4.4 Thermal Air Flow from Bottom Hung Windows
necessary air flow rate for providing acceptable
indoor air quality will be less than 0.05 m3/s. This Under non-isothermal conditions, the inlet flow from
can be achieved without draught problems with any a bottom hung window, configurations W1 and W2,
window configuration. can form a three-dimensional thermal wall jet along
the ceiling, air flow pattern (D) in Figure 3. The
penetration depth of the cold wall jet was measured
0,60 for different effective opening areas, a number of
different pressure differences and for three different
0,50 temperature differences. During each experiment, the
Predicted Velocity (m/s)
= K a K sa (9)
Ao ∆To Ao
Figure 8. Comparison of predicted and measured
maximum velocities in the occupied zone for window
where xs is the penetration depth [m], Ksa is a
configuration W1-4
constant related to the type of room and heat sources
In situations needing passive cooling, in which there and ∆To is the temperature difference between inside
are small temperature differences between outside and outside [oC].
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P. Heiselberg, E. Bjørn, P. V. Nielsen
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u02 W1 u 02 W2
∆T ⋅ Awin ∆T ⋅ A win
5,0 7,0
Awin = 0.029 m2 Awin = 0.029 m2
4,5 6,0
Awin = 0.092 m2 Awin = 0.077 m2
4,0
Awin = 0.173 m2 5,0 Awin = 0.119 m2
3,5
3,0 Awin = 0.172 m2
4,0
2,5 Awin = 0.235 m2
2,0 3,0
1,5 2,0
1,0
0,5 1,0
0,0 x + x0 0,0 x + x0
0 10 20 30 Awin 0 10 20 30 A win
u 02 ∆T A win
Figure 9. versus the relative penetration length for window configurations W1and W2.
Table 2: Distance to the virtual origin, Xo, Ka and Kp value for window configurations W1, W2 and W1-4
versus opening area.
Configuration W1 Configuration W2 Configuration W1-4
Awin x0 Ka KaKsa Awin x0 Ka KaKsa Awin Ho x0 Kp Kp2 Ksp
[m2] [m] [m2] [m] [m2] [m] [m]
0.029 -0.18 2.2 6.9 0.029 1.68 4 4.5 0.071 0.009 0.95 2.0 13.4
0.065 1.03 3.3 0.077 2.84 4.8 7.5 0.087 0.014 4.56 3.3
0.092 1.56 4.7 11.3 0.119 1.28 3.6 8.1 0.089 0.019 3.75 3.7 31.8
0.129 1.99 6.1 0.172 0.74 3.5 10.1 0.179 0.038 5.32 4.0
0.173 1.63 5.8 16.6 0.235 0.79 3.7 10.9 0.232 0.054 2.30 3.3 26.2
0.316 0.071 3.15 4.5
0.420 0.110 4.02 5.0 75.2
Under non-isothermal conditions, the inlet flow influential than the forces of inertia. The smoke tests
from a bottom hung window, configuration W1-4, showed a highly unsteady flow with variations in
can form a two-dimensional thermal wall jet along the point of separation of up to 1 m during the 2
the ceiling. The penetration length can be described minutes observation period. In Figures 9 and 10, the
by the following equation, see Nielsen and Möller value of characteristic coefficients is the reciprocal
(1987): of the slope of the linear regression line that has
2 been added. For window configurations W1 and W2
xs + x0 2 u 02
3
there is a reasonable correlation, while it is more
= K sp ⋅ K p ⋅ (10)
unclear for configuration W1-4. It is seen that the
ho ∆T ⋅ ho coefficients, KaKsa and Kp2Ksp, depend on the
where Ksp is a coefficient dependent on room window configuration and the opening area. The
dimensions, locations of thermal loads etc. characteristic coefficients of the thermal wall jets for
window configurations W1, W2 and W1-4 are
The point of separation or the penetration length shown in Table 2.
occurs when the forces of buoyancy become more
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International Journal of Ventilation Volume 1 No 2
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2 2
u o2 u o2
3 3
W1-4 W1-4
∆T o h o ∆T o h o
50 5
Aw in = 0,071 m2 Aw in = 0,232 m2
45
Aw in = 0,089 m2 Aw in = 0,42 m2
40 4
35
30 3
25
20 2
15
10 1
5
0 x + xo 0
x + xo
0 200 400 600 ho 0 25 50 75 100 ho
Figure 10. (u02/∆Th0)2/3 versus the relative penetration length for window configuration W1-4
0,70 0,70
∆T o = 7 o C ∆T o = 14 o C
Predicted max. velocity (m/s)
0,60 ∆P = 2 ,0 Pa 0,60 ∆P = 4 ,9 P a
0,50 0,50
0,40 0,40
0,30 0,30
0,20 W1 0,20 W1
W2 W2
0,10 0,10
W1-4 W1-4
0,00 0,00
0,00 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50 0,00 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50
Air Flow Rate (m3/s) Air Flow Rate (m3/s)
Figure 11. Predicted maximum velocities in the occupied zone for window configurations W1, W2 and W1-4
as a function of air flow rate for two combinations of temperature and pressure difference.
The maximum velocity in the occupied zone, urm, pressure difference. It shows a reasonable
will occur when the wall jet separates from the correspondence between the predictions by the
ceiling and flows into the occupied zone. The developed semi-empirical model and measurements,
maximum velocity is calculated as the velocity in an despite the very unsteady air flow conditions.
undisturbed wall jet of the length of (L+(H-1.8m))
from the window opening. The predicted maximum 0,7
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P. Heiselberg, E. Bjørn, P. V. Nielsen
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