October 2015

Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

2. Diode models
The p-n junction diode is a very important device that we are now in a position to understand. In your
previous electronics courses, you have just discussed modeling a p-n junction in thermal equilibrium, and the
simple models of diodes. In this chapter we are going to see circuit models of junction diodes. Equation (2.1)
describes the current-voltage relationship of an ideal p-n junction diode based on the models for the depletion
region and for current flow in the quasi-neutral regions. We now turn to the problem of developing models
for p-n diodes that can be used to analyze circuits incorporating them. We begin with large-signal models
and then develop small-signal linear models for p-n diodes.

 =   
 ⁄ − 1 2.1
2.1 Large-Signal Models
We call a diode with terminal characteristics described by Eq. (2.1) an ideal exponential diode.
Specifying the reverse saturation current IS of such a device specifies its terminal characteristics
completely. We will use the circuit symbol of Fig. 2.1a for an ideal exponential diode with its
current-voltage relationship shown in Fig. 2.1b.

In many situations we will want to use simplified approximations to the ideal exponential diode
representation of a p-n diode; in others we will want to use more complicated models that include
physical effects and terminal behavior not included in the ideal exponential model. In this section
we will look at a variety of large-signal models evolving from this ideal model, beginning with
simplified models and then moving to more complex models, including dynamic models.

2.1.1 Simplified diode models

In certain applications, even the use of a simple exponential expression like Eq. (2.1) is
inconvenient and unnecessarily precise, and it is desirable to use more approximate but also more
readily analyzed models. The simplest is perhaps the ideal diode, which is shown in Fig. 2.1c. The
current voltage relationship for 'this device is shown in Fig. 2.1d. Mathematically, this relationship
can be described by saying that
 = 0 when  ≤ 0 and  = 0 when
 ≥ 0.

The ideal diode model for a p-n junction diode ignores the fact that there is some voltage drop
across the diode terminals when the diode is forward-biased. In the typical operating range of most
silicon diodes, this drop ranges from 0.5 V to 0.7 V. We will tend to approximate it as 0.6 V in our
discussions. This forward “offset” voltage can be incorporated into our model by adding an ideal
voltage source to an ideal diode, as shown in Fig. 2.1e. We will call this a break-point diode. Its
current-voltage characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.1f.
The decision to use forward offset voltage when approximating the large signal behavior of a diode
must be based on the application at hand. Because the actual diode current increases exponentially
with the applied voltage, there is clearly no unambiguous turn-on voltage. At very low currents, a
given silicon diode might appear to turn on much below 0.6 V, say at 0.4 V, for example, whereas
at very high current levels the turn-on may appear to occur at 0.7 V or more. And if the diode is
fabricated from a semiconductor other than silicon, a quite different turn-on voltage may be found.
In general, the larger the bandgap of the semiconductor used, the larger the turn-on voltage.

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 1

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

An important feature of these simplified large-signal models for a diode are that they are piecewise
linear. They are thus relatively simple to use, which in many instances more than makes up for the
lack of precision.

Figure 2.1 Circuit symbols and current-voltage relationships for three relatively simple large-signal
p-n diode models: (a and b) the ideal exponential diode; (c and d) the ideal diode; (e and f) the
break-point diode.
2.1.2 Expanded diode models
In some situations, particularly in computer-aided modeling and analysis, the goal is not to use
simplified models appropriate for hand calculations, but rather to model as much of the detail of the
device performance as possible. We turn now to modeling diodes in this limit.

A typical p-n diode behaves like an ideal exponential diode over a part of its range but deviates at low
and high current levels. At low current levels the characteristic is still exponential but with a
dependence on  ⁄, where n is approximately 2. This behavior has led to the definition of a
generalized exponential diode model, which we say has the following current-voltage relationship:

 =   
 ⁄ − 1 (2.1’)

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 2

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

The factor n is called the ideality factor; along with  , it fully specifies any exponential diode. The
circuit model of an exponential diode is shown in Fig. 2.2a. Notice that the ideal exponential diode
is a special case of the exponential diode model for which n is 1.

The low-current behavior of a real p-n diode can be modeled as the parallel combination of two
exponential diodes, one with an ideality factor  = 1 and a certain value of saturation current  , and
the other with  = 2 and a somewhat higher saturation current  . This is illustrated in Fig. 2.2b.
The second diode (the one with  = 2) accounts for generation and recombination in the junction
depletion region. Because the depletion region width varies with the junction voltage, it is common,
especially in computer simulation programs such as SPICE, to make  vary in a similar fashion
$
with voltage, that is, as  ! − " #  where " # is the voltage drop across the junction and, for an
abrupt p-n junction, a is 0.5.

Figure 2.2 Circuit models for a p-n diode, including elements to model the effects not included in
the ideal exponential diode model: (a) general exponential diode; (b) two general exponential diodes
used in parallel to account for low-level space charge layer recombination; (c) elements included to
model high-level injection and series resistance; (d) reverse-breakdown and reverse-bias leakage
also included in the model.

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 3

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

The high-current behavior can be accounted for by adding a resistor of resistance % and a second
 = 2 diode with a much higher saturation current &' in series with this parallel combination of
diodes. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.2c.

To better model the reverse-bias behavior of a diode, several additional elements can be
incorporated into the model. The reverse breakdown of the diode can be modeled by shunting the
forward model with another exponential diode connected in opposite polarity relative to the other
diodes and in series with a voltage source equal in magnitude to the breakdown voltage. When this
is done, a current source  has to be included in parallel with this new exponential diode so that

will be zero when " is zero. This is shown in Fig. 2.2d. Finally, a resistor of resistance %( can be
added in parallel with the exponential diodes to allow for the possibility of parasitic current leakage
paths shunting the junction. This element is also included in Fig. 2.2d.

2.1.3 Dynamic models with charge stores

The large-signal diode models we have developed thus far do not include any information on charge
stores within the device. It is quite appropriate to ignore these charge stores when the terminal
voltage on the diode is changing slowly enough that the currents that result from charging and/or
discharging the charge stores are negligibly small. However, if the terminal voltages change more
rapidly (as occurs during a switching transient or for a high-frequency sinusoidal input signal, for
example), then the charging and discharging currents can be substantial and must be accounted for
in our modeling. This is traditionally done by adding charge storage elements (i.e., capacitors) to the
circuit model in the appropriate places. These capacitors are in general nonlinear; that is, the charge
stored on them is a nonlinear function of the voltage difference between their terminals.

In the case of a p-n junction diode, we have two charge stores: the depletion region charge store and
the diffusion charge store. The charge-voltage relationship for the depletion region charge store is
given, in the case of an abrupt doping profile, by
.
/ .01
( )" * = −+,2-) ! − "  * . (2.2)

/ 2.01 

The diffusion charge is described in the case of an abrupt 32 −  diode by

)51 671 * 9:
' )" * = . + ) ;
⁄ − 1* (2.3)
8 .01
A little thought will show you that these charge stores appear electrically in parallel, so they can be
represented by a single nonlinear capacitor. This nonlinear capacitor is in turn parallel with the
junction, which we represent by an exponential diode. The resulting circuit model is shown in Fig.
2.3a. Notice that the symbol we use for nonlinear capacitor is the usual symbol for a linear capacitor
with a diagonal arrow across it. The arrow implies that the capacitance of this capacitor, which we
define as <⁄<" , varies with the voltage across the capacitor.

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 4

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

Figure 2.3 Addition of large-signal, nonlinear charge stores: (a) to a large-signal exponential diode
model; (b) to an exponential diode model with series resistance (note that the charge store occurs in
parallel with the junction but in series with the diode bulk and the contacts, which together are the
source of % ).

The remarks we made in section 2.1.2 about expanding the complexity of our model can be
repeated here, and again our understanding of the device physics guides us in placing the additional
elements. A common example is accounting for series resistance % . Clearly % can play an
important role in any charging and discharging transients, and it is an obvious parasitic to want to
consider. A little thought shows us that % enters in series with the junction and the charge stores,
and thus should be added to the model as illustrated in Fig. 2.3b.

2.2 Static Small-Signal Linear Models

The large-signal models we developed in the preceding section are needed when analyzing circuit
situations in which the terminal voltage and currents can assume wide ranges of values. Another
common type of analysis in which we will be interested concerns small variations in the terminal
variables (i.e., the voltage and current) about some reference condition. In such cases it is often the
details of the nonlinear characteristic in the vicinity of the reference values that are of primary
interest. The reference condition values are termed the quiescent operating point or bias point
values, and if the variations about them are small enough the changes in current and voltage will be
linearly related.
To proceed, we first set up a notation convention to use in our discussion. We denote the total
variable with a lowercase letter and uppercase subscripts. Thus the total diode voltage is " , and
the total diode current is
 . We will denote the quiescent portion of these quantities with an
uppercase letter with uppercase subscripts. Thus, the quiescent diode voltage is  , and the
quiescent diode current is  . Any change from the quiescent value is denoted by a lowercase letter
with lowercase subscripts (i.e., "$! and
= ) for the present examples. Thus we can write
" =  + "$! (2.4)
and

 =  +
= (2.5)

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 5

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

We will in general have to determine  and  using our large-signal models for the
characteristics, but ideally, once they are known, we will be able to determine "$! and
= using
linear circuit analysis techniques. Often we will not need to know  and  with a high degree of
accuracy and our simple piecewise linear model, possibly that of Fig. 2.1e, will be perfectly
adequate. At the same time, we may want to know "$! and
= much more precisely, and having
linear models relating them will make it relatively easy to achieve the necessary precision.
Returning now to the device at hand (i-e., the p-n diode), we will first develop a small-signal linear
model based on our quasi-static exponential diode model. We will then extend our model for use
with high-frequency signals by adding linear capacitors that account for the diffusion and depletion
charge stores we identified earlier.

2.2.1 Low-frequency models

To relate "$! and
= for a diode, we perform a Taylor's series expansion of
 about " =  .We
write

 )" * =
 ) * + ?@ )" −  * + ?8 )" −  *8 + A
BℎD ED<D FDGH (2.6a)

where ?@ is <
 ⁄<" evaluated at  and ?8 is )1⁄2* <8
 ⁄<"< 8

evaluated at  . The
quantity
 ) * is  , and using Eq. (2.4) and (2.5) we have )" −  * = "$! and )
 −  * =

= .Thus, Eq. (2.6a) can be written as

= = ?@ "$! + ?8 "$!8
+ A
BℎD ED<D FDGH (2.6b)

We are now in a position to put bounds on "$! for linear operation. we want to be able to neglect
the quadratic and higher-order terms, so we restrict |"$! | so that the quadratic term is no more than
some fraction f of the linear term. Thus we require that
8 |
|?8 "$! ≤ J|"$! | (2.7)
which thus means that
$
|"$! | ≤ J K (2.8)
$:
If the diode is an ideal exponential diode, then
 and " will be related through Eq. (2.1) and ?@
and ?8 are given by
L =M0 N
?@ = =;

=  P  
⁄ (2.9a)

 ;
 O


?8 = L
=: M0 @ :
Q =   
 ⁄
8 ) *: P
: (2.9b)
=;

;
 O


Thus we have
$K 
|"$! | ≤ J = 2J (2.8’)
$: 
Restricting "$! to this range, we have our desired linear relationship

= ≈ ?@ "$! (2.10)
The factor ?@ has the units of conductance. We usually use the symbol g = for this factor and call it
the incremental equivalent diode conductance about the quiescent operating point ) ,  *. In
general we have
g= = L 0 N
=M
(2.11)
=;




Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 6

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

This result tells us that incrementally any diode looks like a simple linear conductance g = , where
the magnitude of this conductance is simply the slope of the diode current-voltage characteristic
evaluated at the quiescent operating point. This conclusion is illustrated in Fig. 2.4;
In the special case of an ideal exponential diode, we have

g = =  P  
⁄ (2.12a)

If  is much greater than , then P  
 ⁄ is approximately  and thus we can also write g =

as
U
g= ≈ 0 (2.12b)

This is the expression that we will usually use to calculate g = .

Figure 2.4(a) Variation of the current and voltage of a p-n diode about a quiescent operation
point ) ,  *; (b) the corresponding static small-signal equivalent circuit.
2.2.2 Small-signal models for time-varying signals
Our exponential diode expression, Eq. (2.1), and the small-signal equivalent circuit that we derived
from it were developed assuming static conditions. This does not restrict us from having some
variation of our currents and voltages with time, but it does mean such variations must be “slow.”
Mathematically, “slow” means that all time derivatives are negligible; physically it means that the
carrier and current profiles must be able to respond essentially instantaneously, on the scale of the
time variation, to any voltage changes and that any currents supplying or removing charge as the
depletion and diffusion charge stores change are negligible. Strictly speaking, if we want to treat
rapidly varying situations, we should return to our original equations and include the terms
involving time derivatives, but this is a very difficult task. A more manageable and highly
successful approach has been to incorporate the charge storage elements that we know must exist in
the p-n diode (i.e., the depletion capacitance and diffusion capacitance) and use the resulting hybrid
(in a theoretical or modeling sense) model.
Adding the capacitive currents to the exponential diode current, we have
=;

= = g = "$! + )V=W + V=X * =[YZ (2.13)

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 7

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

A circuit representation of this relationship is illustrated in Fig. 2.5.

In Eq. (2.13) and Fig. 2.5, g = is given by Eq. (2.12), V=W by Eq. (2.14), and V=X by Eq.(2.15). All
are clearly functions of the quiescent operating point ) ,  *.
)51 671 * 9:
V=W ) * = 8 +  
 ⁄ 2.14
8 .01

\ .
^ .01
V=X ) * = +, 2.15
8)]Z 6
 * ).
^ 2.01 *

Figure 2.5 Small-signal equivalent circuit of a p-n diode, including the depletion and diffusion
capacitances.

2.3 Simulation of diode characteristics

For simulation purposes of microelectronic devices and circuits PSPICE is going to be used.
Laboratory exercises will be done using PSPICE version 9.1. PSPICE V9.1 is a user friendly with a
simple graphical interface version of the well known analog circuit simulator SPICE “Simulation
program for Integrated Circuits Emphasis”. Other versions of SPICE include B2SPICE and
HSPICE which have been used for the same purpose as PSIPCE to mathematically simulate the
circuit’s behavior. The common part among all circuit simulation engines is the script used to
describe the circuit components and the connectivity. This script is known as the circuit NETLIST
that describes the topology of the circuit or a group of numbered nodes in a very simple, easy to
learn structure. In general, any SPICE version can evaluate the circuit behavior in DC, AC and
Transient mode but the main difference between HSPICE and PSPICE is the user friendly factor.
HSPICE requires the user to prepare and compile the NETLIST while the PSPICE input simply
drags and drops all circuit elements and the rest will be automatically generate.

The 5 static model parameters of diode are:

P - saturation current, BV - break down voltage, IBV - break down current,
n - emission coefficient, DP - resistance of neutral regions.
Numerical constant
_`M - minimum conductance (constant selected for numerical reasons, same for all elements).

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 8

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

The 5 dynamic model parameters of diode are:

a - transit time, V=b - zero-bias junction capacitance, b - built-in voltage, m - grading coefficient,
FC - fraction of built-in voltage used as a delimiter between nonlinear and linear sections of C-V
characteristic.

Example: Let’s analyze diode characteristics from a simple circuit. Create the circuit shown in
figure 2.6. Diode is present in the free eval library. Create a new simulation profile and choose DC
Sweep simulation type. Sweep the input voltage from -10V to 10V and observe the voltage across
diode.

Figure 2.6: Simple Diode Circuit

Voltage Characteristics of diode, as shown in figure 2.7, depicts that it does not conduct until
approximately 0.6-0.7V, at which point it starts conducting and voltage across it almost becomes
constant.

Figure 2.7: Voltage Drop across Diode

Let’s plot both voltage and current characteristics of diode in two sub-plots. From top menu, go to
PLOT → ADD PLOT TO WINDOW. This will add another trace window on the same plot. Put a
current probe on any component and it will show you how current is changing in the circuit as
shown in the following figure 2.8.

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 9

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

Figure 2.8: Diode Voltage and Current

Figure 2.8 shows that as long as diode was not conducting (off), there was no current in the circuit.
Once diode starts to conduct around 0.7V, current starts to increase in the circuit with the increase
of input voltage. Now, perform transient analysis of the circuit shown in Figure 2.6 with sinusoidal
AC source (VAMPL = 5, VOFF = 0, FREQ = 100, AC = )

Assignment:
1. Draw the limiter circuit shown in figure 2.9 in PSpice.

Figure 2.9 limiter circuit with pair of diodes

• Use VSIN for the source (VAMPL = 10, FREQ = 1k, everything else = 0).
• Perform a transient analysis in increments of 50us up to 5ms.
• Plot the input (point A) and output (point B) voltages. The input is the voltage source while the
output is taken across the diode pair, as shown.
• Change the amplitude of the sinusoidal input, Vin, to 0.1 volt. Repeat the transient analysis.

Adu, CET, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 10

By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)
 October 2015
Chapter 2 Microelectronic Devices & Circuits (ECEg4261) Class Notes

2. Draw the circuit in figure 2.10 in PSpice. The Zener diode is D1N750. It is in the "EVAL"
PSpice library.

Figure 2.10 Zener diode circuit

Run a simulation and create the i-v characteristic curve
• Perform a DC sweep analysis of voltage source V1 from -20 to +20 volts in increments of
0.1 volts.
• Select "Add Trace" to plot current through diode D1, I(D1).
• Change the x-axis of your plot as follows (same as with the regular diode):
o In the “Plot” menu, choose “Axis Settings”
o Then click on the X-axis Tab.
o Click on the "Axis Variable" button at the bottom.
o Enter voltage at point B as the new X axis variable. (Example: V(R1:2)) (Note
that the voltage at this point is the voltage across the diode.)
o After you get the plot, remove all voltage markers, so that only I(D1) is
displayed.
• The plot produced will show the i-v characteristic curve for diode D1. It should look like the
i-v curve for a Zener diode.

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By Hailay Berihu (M.Sc.)