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56. General characteristics of the respiratory system. The main stages of breathing. Biomechanics of
inhalation and exhalation?
The respiratory system comprises of the nose, mouth, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.
The function of the respiratory system is to facilitate gaseous exchange to take place in the lungs
and tissue cells of the body.
Oxygen is required by cells in the body to allow various metabolic reactions to take place and to
produce energy and is therefore essential to life. The respiratory system may be defined as the
organs and tissues through which air is passed into and out of the body to allow the necessary
gaseous exchanges to take place.
The process of breathing (respiration) is divided into two distinct phasesinspiration (inhalation) and
expiration (exhalation).
1. During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward while the muscles between
the ribs contract and pull upward. This increases the size of the thoracic cavity and decreases
the pressure inside. As a result, air rushes in and fills the lungs.
2.
3. During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes, and the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases,
while the pressure within it increases. As a result, the lungs contract and air is forced out.
Inspiration
Active process
Requires muscular effort.
Mostly diaphragm at rest.
Intercostals used on exertion (accessory muscles).
Inspiratory effort causes:
↓ intrapleural pressure.
↓ alveolar pressure.
Pressure gradient from mouth to alveoli.
Gas flow down pressure gradient.
Accessory muscles of inspiration: Scalene, SCM, Trapezium, External intercostals
Expiration
Lung Volume:
Surface tension in lungs: The walls of alveoli are coated with a thin film of water & this creates a
potential problem. Water molecules, including those on the alveolar walls, are more attracted to each
other than to air, and this attraction creates a force called surface tension. This surface tension increases
as water molecules come closer together, which is what happens when we exhale & our alveoli become
smaller (like air leaving a balloon). Potentially, surface tension could cause alveoli to collapse and, in
addition, would make it more difficult to 're-expand' the alveoli (when you inhaled). Both of these would
represent serious problems: if alveoli collapsed they'd contain no air & no oxygen to diffuse into the
blood &, if 're-expansion' was more difficult, inhalation would be very, very difficult if not impossible.
Fortunately, our alveoli do not collapse & inhalation is relatively easy because the lungs produce a
substance called surfactant that reduces surface tension.
Second, the lungs are characterized by elastic tension, which is due to these factors:
Thirdly, “negative” pressure in the pleural cavity is maintained by the large absorption capacity of
pleural leaves.
58. External breathing. Indicators of respiratory and evaluation?
External respiration, which is the processes by which external air is drawn into the body in order to
supply the lungs with oxygen, and (used) air is expelled from the lungs in order to remove carbon
dioxide from to body. The processes of internal respiration concern the exchange of gases in the lungs
with those in the tissues
DEAD SPACE
Benefits do accrue to a seemingly wasteful design for ventilation that includes dead space.
OXYGEN SATURATION
NORMAL VALUES
Carbon Dioxide
CHLORIDE SHIFT
62. The physiological role of the respiratory tract, regulation of their lumen?
Goblet cells
Mucous cells
The epithelium is pseudostratified ciliated columnar- mucociliary escalator is a major barrier
against infection. Microorganisms hoping to infect the respiratory tract are caught in the sticky
mucus and moved up by the mucociliary escalator. Note how our purple invader has been
trapped in the mucus and is being pushed upward towards the throat.
RESPIRATORY REGULATION
Respiratory Drive
PATHWAY
As ↑ PCO2 → CO2 diffuses from cerebral blood vessels into CSF → carbonic acid (H2CO3) is
formed → dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO3 −) and protons (H+s) → these protons (H+s)
stimulate the central chemoreceptors→↑ ventilation.
o CO2 can diffuse from the blood vessels into CSF across the BBB because it is nonpolar.
↑RESPIRATORY DRIVE
Pulmonary Chemoreflex
65. The role of the central and peripheral chemoreceptor’s in regulating breathing?